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{{refimprove|date=July 2022}}▼
{{Short description|Form of graphical projection where the projection lines converge to one or more points}}
{{Redirect|Perspective projection|a more mathematical treatment|Perspective transform}}
▲{{refimprove|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
[[File:Staircase perspective.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Staircase in
{{External media | width= 210px
| headerimage= [[File:Última Cena - Da Vinci 5.jpg|210px]]
| video1=[
| video2=[http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works.html How One-Point Linear Perspective Works], [[Smarthistory]]<ref name="smarth B">{{cite web | title=How One-Point Linear Perspective Works | publisher=[[Smarthistory]] at [[Khan Academy]] | url=http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works.html | access-date=12 May 2013 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713003623/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works.html | archive-date=13 July 2013 }}</ref>
| video3=[http://www.artbabble.org/video/ngadc/empire-eye-magic-illusion-trinity-masaccio-part-2 Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2], [[National Gallery of Art]]<ref name="smarth C">{{cite web| title=Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2| publisher=[[National Gallery of Art]] at [[ArtBabble]]| url=http://www.artbabble.org/video/ngadc/empire-eye-magic-illusion-trinity-masaccio-part-2| access-date=12 May 2013| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501114331/http://www.artbabble.org/video/ngadc/empire-eye-magic-illusion-trinity-masaccio-part-2| archive-date=1 May 2013}}</ref>
Linear or point-projection '''perspective''' (
The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject to ''foreshortening'', meaning that an object's dimensions along the line of sight appear shorter than its dimensions across the line of sight. All objects will recede to points in the distance, usually along the horizon line, but also above and below the horizon line depending on the view used.▼
[[Italian Renaissance]] painters and architects including [[Masaccio]], [[Paolo Uccello]], [[Piero della Francesca]] and [[Luca Pacioli]] studied linear perspective, wrote treatises on it, and incorporated it into their artworks.▼
▲The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject to
▲[[Italian Renaissance]] painters and architects including [[Filippo Brunelleschi]], [[Leon Battista Alberti]], [[Masaccio]], [[Paolo Uccello]], [[Piero della Francesca]] and [[Luca Pacioli]] studied linear perspective, wrote treatises on it, and incorporated it into their artworks.
==Overview==
[[File:Perspectiva-2.svg|thumb|Rays of light travel from the object, through the picture plane, and to the viewer's eye. This is the basis for graphical perspective.]]
Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (
===
<gallery
File:Perspective-1point.svg
File:LOMEX,Rendering of streetscape.tiff
File:Finnish national road 4 Vierumäki.jpg
File:Railroad-Tracks-Perspective.jpg
</gallery>
[[File:Perspective1.jpg|thumb|A cube drawing using two-point perspective]]
===
<gallery
File:EquitableTrustBuildingBiltmoreNYC1921.jpg
File:Harrington's hardware shop Broadstairs Kent England - inspiration for the 'Four Candles' Two Ronnies sketch 02.jpg
File:Big Dam Film Festival Logo.jpg
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[[File:Perspective-3point.svg|thumb|upright|A cube in three-point perspective]]
<gallery widths="180px" heights="120px"> File:South tower of the Notre Dame.jpg
File:Canary wharf looking up.jpg
File:The Whitaker, Rawtenstall, formerly Rossendale Museum, Lancashire, England 2008.jpg
</gallery>
===
{{Main|Curvilinear perspective}}
Additionally, a central vanishing point can be used (just as with one-point perspective) to indicate frontal (foreshortened) depth.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Beginner's Guide to Perspective Drawing |url=https://www.thecuriouslycreative.com/topics/beginners-guide-drawing/perspective-drawing/ |website=The Curiously Creative |access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref>
<gallery
File:cmglee Judge Business School rear.jpg
File:Boston, Boylston Street.jpg
File:194 - Buenos Aires - Casa Rosada - Janvier 2010.jpg
File:Regensburg Uferpanorama 08 2006.jpg
</gallery>
==History==
<gallery mode="packed" widths=200 heights=200>
[[File:Roman fresco from Boscoreale, 43-30 BCE, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|The background buildings in this first-century BC fresco from the [[Villa of P. Fannius Synistor]] show the primitive use of vanishing points.<ref name=FoundInAntiquity>{{Cite web|last=Hurt|first=Carla|date=2013-08-09|title=Romans paint better perspective than Renaissance artists|url=https://foundinantiquity.com/2013/08/09/pompeiian-fresco-painters-used-perspective-better-than-renaissance-artists/|access-date=2020-10-04|website=Found in Antiquity|language=en}}</ref>]]▼
Paintings from the Chauvet cave (museum replica).jpg|[[Chauvet cave]], spatially effective grading of a group of animals through overlap ({{circa|31.000 BC}})
Ägyptischer Maler um 1500 v. Chr. 001.jpg|[[Fresco]] from an Egyptian grave, {{circa|1500 BC}}
▲
</gallery>
===Early history===
▲[[File:Song Dynasty Hydraulic Mill for Grain.JPG|thumb|A [[Song dynasty]] watercolor painting of a mill in an [[oblique projection]], 12th century]]
▲[[File:Lorenzetti Ambrogio annunciation- 1344..jpg|thumb|upright=.9|The floor tiles in [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti|Lorenzetti]]'s ''Annunciation'' (1344) strongly anticipate modern perspective.]]
The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized many objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer, and did not use foreshortening. The most important figures are often shown as the highest in a [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]], also from [[hieratic]] motives, leading to the so-called "vertical perspective", common in the [[art of Ancient Egypt]], where a group of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure or figures; simple overlapping was also employed to relate distance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calvert |first1=Amy |title=Egyptian Art (article)|journal=[[Khan Academy]] |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/ancient-mediterranean-ap/ancient-egypt-ap/a/egyptian-art|access-date=14 May 2020}}</ref> Additionally, oblique foreshortening of round elements like shields and wheels is evident in [[Ancient Greek]] [[red-figure pottery]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Regoli |first1=Gigetta Dalli |last2=Gioseffi |first2=Decio |last3=Mellini |first3=Gian Lorenzo |last4=Salvini |first4=Roberto |title=Vatican Museums: Rome |url=https://archive.org/details/vaticanmuseumsro00dall |url-access=registration |date=1968 |publisher=Newsweek |location=Italy |page=[https://archive.org/details/vaticanmuseumsro00dall/page/22 22]}}</ref>
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Chinese artists made use of [[oblique projection]] from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique; Dubery and [[John Willats|Willats]] (1983) speculate that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, which acquired it from Ancient Rome,<ref name=Cucker269/> while others credit it as an indigenous invention of [[Ancient China]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Seeing History: Is perspective learned or natural? |url=https://eclecticlight.co/2018/01/10/seeing-history-is-perspective-learned-or-natural/ |website=Eclectic Light |date=10 January 2018 |quote=Over the same period, the development of sophisticated and highly-detailed visual art in Asia arrived at a slightly different solution, now known as the oblique projection. Whereas Roman and subsequent European visual art effectively had multiple and incoherent vanishing points, Asian art usually lacked any vanishing point, but aligned recession in parallel. An important factor here is the use of long scrolls, which even now make fully coherent perspective projection unsuitable.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Martijn de Geus |title=China Projections |url=https://www.archdaily.com/912723/china-projections |website=Arch Daily |date=9 March 2019 |access-date=8 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Krikke |first1=Jan |title=Why the world relies on a Chinese "perspective" |url=https://medium.com/@jankrikkeChina/why-the-world-relies-on-a-chinese-perspective-cf3122caf67f |website=Medium.com |date=2 January 2018 |quote=About 2000 years ago, the Chinese developed ''dengjiao toushi'' (等角透視), a graphic tool probably invented by Chinese architects. It came to be known in the West as axonometry. Axonometry was crucial in the development of the Chinese hand scroll painting, an art form that art historian George Rowley referred to as "the supreme creation of Chinese genius". Classic hand scroll paintings were up to ten meters in length. They are viewed by unrolling them from right to left in equal segments of about 50 cm. The painting takes the viewer through a visual story in space and time.}}</ref> Oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the [[Ukiyo-e]] paintings of [[Torii Kiyonaga]] (1752–1815).<ref name=Cucker269/>{{efn|In the 18th century, Chinese artists began to combine oblique perspective with regular diminution of size of people and objects with distance; no particular vantage point is chosen, but a convincing effect is achieved.<ref name=Cucker269>{{cite book |last1=Cucker |first1=Felipe |author1-link=Felipe Cucker|title=Manifold Mirrors: The Crossing Paths of the Arts and Mathematics |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-72876-8 |pages=269–278 | quote=Dubery and Willats (1983:33) write that 'Oblique projection seems to have arrived in China from Rome by way of India round about the first or second century AD.'}} Figure 10.9 [Wen-Chi returns home, anon, China, 12th century] shows an archetype of the classical use of oblique perspective in Chinese painting.</ref>}}
By the later periods of antiquity, artists, especially those in less popular traditions, were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at hand for increased realism, but whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the [[House of the Vettii|ruins of Pompeii]] show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wings.buffalo.edu/AandL/Maecenas/italy_except_rome_and_sicily/pompeii/ac880907.html|title=Pompeii. House of the Vettii. Fauces and Priapus|publisher=[[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|SUNY Buffalo]]|access-date=27 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224161931/http://wings.buffalo.edu/AandL/Maecenas/italy_except_rome_and_sicily/pompeii/ac880907.html|archive-date=24 December 2007}}</ref> It has been claimed that comprehensive systems of perspective were evolved in antiquity, but most scholars do not accept this. Hardly any of the many works where such a system would have been used have survived. A passage in [[Philostratus III|Philostratus]] suggests that classical artists and theorists thought in terms of "circles" at equal distance from the viewer, like a classical semi-circular theatre seen from the stage.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Panofsky | first=Erwin | title=Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art | publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell | location=Stockholm | year=1960 | isbn=0-06-430026-9 | page=[https://archive.org/details/renaissancerenas00erwi/page/122 122, note 1] | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/renaissancerenas00erwi/page/122 }}</ref> The roof beams in rooms in the [[Vergilius Vaticanus|Vatican Virgil]], from about 400
Medieval artists in Europe, like those in the Islamic world and China, were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, but even more than classical art were perfectly ready to override it for other reasons. Buildings were often shown obliquely according to a particular convention. The use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a basis in a systematic theory. [[Byzantine art]] was also aware of these principles, but also used the [[reverse perspective]] convention for the setting of principal figures. [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]] painted a floor with convergent lines in his ''[[Presentation at the Temple (Ambrogio Lorenzetti)|Presentation at the Temple]]'' (1342), though the rest of the painting lacks perspective elements.<ref>Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, ''Illuminating Luke: The infancy narrative in Italian Renaissance painting'', p. 132</ref>
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Detail of [[Masolino da Panicale]]'s ''St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha'' ({{Circa|1423|lk=no}}), the earliest extant artwork known to use a consistent vanishing point<ref>{{Cite web|title=Perspective: The Rise of Renaissance Perspective|url=http://www.webexhibits.org/sciartperspective/raphaelperspective1.html|access-date=2020-10-15|website=WebExhibits}}</ref>]]
It is generally accepted that [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] conducted [[Filippo Brunelleschi#Linear perspective|a series of experiments]] between 1415 and 1420, which included making drawings of various [[Florence|Florentine]] buildings in correct perspective.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gärtner|first=Peter |title=Brunelleschi|year=1998 |location=Cologne |publisher=
This scenario is indicative, but faces several problems, that are still debated.
First of all, nothing can be said for certain about the correctness of his perspective construction of the
Second, no other perspective painting or drawing by Brunelleschi is known. (In fact, Brunelleschi was not known to have painted at all.)
Third, in the account written by Antonio Manetti in his ''Vita di
Fourth, the conditions listed by
[[File:
Soon after Brunelleschi's demonstrations, nearly every interested artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings and sculpture,<ref>"...and these works (of perspective by Brunelleschi) were the means of arousing the minds of the other craftsmen, who afterwards devoted themselves to this with great zeal."<br>Vasari's ''[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects|Lives of the Artists]]'',
▲[[File:Loreto Fresko.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Melozzo da Forlì]]'s use of upward foreshortening in his frescoes]]
▲Soon after Brunelleschi's demonstrations, nearly every artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings and sculpture,<ref>"...and these works (of perspective by Brunelleschi) were the means of arousing the minds of the other craftsmen, who afterwards devoted themselves to this with great zeal."<br>Vasari's ''Lives of the Artists'' Chapter on Brunelleschi</ref> notably [[Donatello]], [[Masaccio]], [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], [[Masolino da Panicale]], [[Paolo Uccello]], and [[Filippo Lippi]]. Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of creating a composition. Visual art could now depict a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. Early examples include Masolino's ''St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha'' ({{Circa|1423|lk=no}}), Donatello's ''[[The Feast of Herod (Donatello)|The Feast of Herod]]'' ({{Circa|1427|lk=no}}), as well as Ghiberti's ''[[:File:Firenze, Porta del Pradiso, detail.jpg|Jacob and Esau]]'' and other panels from the [[Florence Baptistery#Lorenzo Ghiberti|east doors of the Florence Baptistery]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007|title=The Gates of Paradise: Lorenzo Ghiberti's Renaissance Masterpiece|url=https://archive.artic.edu/ghiberti/themes.html|access-date=2020-09-20|website=[[Art Institute of Chicago]]}}</ref> Masaccio (d. 1428) achieved an illusionistic effect by placing the vanishing point at the viewer's eye level in his ''[[Holy Trinity (Masaccio)|Holy Trinity]]'' ({{circa|1427|lk=no}}),<ref>Vasari, ''The Lives of the Artists'', "Masaccio".</ref> and in ''[[The Tribute Money (Masaccio)|The Tribute Money]]'', it is placed behind the face of Jesus.<ref>{{cite book | first = Laurie | last = Adams | title = Italian Renaissance Art | publisher = Westview Press | location = Oxford | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0813349022 | page=98}}</ref>{{efn|Near the end of the 15th century, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] placed the vanishing point in his ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|Last Supper]]'' behind Christ's [[Turning the other cheek|other cheek]].<ref>White, Susan D. (2006). ''Draw Like Da Vinci''. London: Cassell Illustrated, p. 132. {{ISBN|9781844034444}}.</ref>}} In the late 15th century, [[Melozzo da Forlì]] first applied the technique of foreshortening (in Rome, [[Loreto (AN)|Loreto]], [[Forlì]] and others).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harness|first=Brenda|title=Melozzo da Forli: Master of Foreshortening|url=http://www.finearttouch.com/Melozzo_da_Forli_Master_of_Foreshortening.html|access-date=2020-10-15|website=Fine Art Touch}}</ref>
This overall story is based on qualitative judgments, and would need to be faced against the material evaluations that have been conducted on Renaissance perspective paintings.
Apart from the paintings of [[Piero della Francesca]], which are a model of the genre, the majority of 15th century works show serious errors in their geometric construction. This is true of Masaccio's ''Trinity'' fresco<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Field
As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician [[Toscanelli]]),<ref>
[[File:Entrega de las llaves a San Pedro (Perugino).jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|[[Pietro Perugino]]'s use of perspective in ''[[Delivery of the Keys (Perugino)|Delivery of the Keys]]'' (1482), a fresco at the [[Sistine Chapel]]]]
Piero della Francesca elaborated on ''De pictura'' in his ''[[De Prospectiva pingendi]]'' in the 1470s, making many references to Euclid.<ref>{{cite book|last=Livio|first=Mario|author-link=Mario Livio|title=The Golden Ratio|publisher=[[Random House|Broadway Books]]|location=New York|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUARfgWRH14C&pg=PA126|isbn=0-7679-0816-3|page=126}}</ref> Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective. Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane. Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's. Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the [[Platonic solids]] as they would appear in perspective. [[Luca Pacioli]]'s 1509 ''[[Divina proportione]]'' (''Divine Proportion''), illustrated by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], summarizes the use of perspective in painting, including much of Della Francesca's treatise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Pacioli.html|title=Luca Pacioli|publisher=[[University of St Andrews]]|author1=O'Connor, J. J.|author2=Robertson, E. F.|date=July 1999|access-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922124003/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Pacioli.html |archive-date=22 September 2015}}</ref> Leonardo applied one-point perspective as well as [[shallow focus]] to some of his works.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blouinartinfo.com/news/story/750715/the-male-mona-lisa-art-historian-martin-kemp-on-leonardo-da|title=The Male "Mona Lisa"?: Art Historian Martin Kemp on Leonardo da Vinci's Mysterious "Salvator Mundi"|publisher=Blouin Artinfo|first=Andrew M. |last=Goldstein | date=17 November 2011}}</ref>
Two-point perspective was demonstrated as early as 1525 by [[Albrecht Dürer]], who studied perspective by reading Piero and Pacioli's works, in his ''Unterweisung der
==Limitations==
{{
[[File:William Hogarth - Absurd perspectives.png|thumb|''[[Satire on False Perspective]]'' by [[William Hogarth]], 1753]]
[[File:Die gefrorene Stadt.jpg|thumb|Example of a painting that combines various perspectives: ''The Frozen City'' (Museum of Art Aarau, Switzerland) by [[Matthias A. K. Zimmermann]]]]
Perspective images are
== See also ==
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* {{Cite book | last=Hyman | first=Isabelle, comp | title=Brunelleschi in Perspective | publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] | location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey | year=1974}}
* {{Cite book | last=Kemp | first=Martin | title=The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat | publisher=[[Yale University Press]] | year=1992}}
* {{Cite book |
* {{cite journal |last1=Raynaud |first1=Dominique |title=Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion? |journal=Nuncius |date=2003 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=331–344 |doi=10.1163/182539103X00684 |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00005538 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Raynaud | first = Dominique | year = 2014 | title = Optics and the Rise of Perspective. A Study in Network Knowledge Diffusion | location = Oxford | publisher = Bardwell Press}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8 |title=Studies on Binocular Vision |series=Archimedes |year=2016 |volume=47 |isbn=978-3-319-42720-1 |s2cid=151589160 |first1=Dominique |last1=Raynaud |bibcode=2016sbvo.book.....R }}
* {{Cite book | last=Vasari | first=Giorgio | author-link=Giorgio Vasari | title=The Lives of the Artists | year=1568 | location=Florence, Italy | url=https://archive.org/details/LivesOfTheArtists}}
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{{Commons category|Perspective drawings}}
{{Commons|Evolution of Perspective}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080622055904/http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=477&bodyId=598 Teaching Perspective in Art and Mathematics through Leonardo da Vinci's Work] at [[Mathematical Association of America]]
* [http://www.owen-artresearch.uk/custom/rwpainting/cover/index.html Metaphysical Perspective in Ancient Roman-Wall Painting]
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