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{{Short description|
{{
▲{{See|Demographics of Chicago}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Black Chicagoans
|
| image_caption = 2017 Chicago data represents the African American population by Census Tract
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
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The '''history of African Americans in Chicago''' or '''Black Chicagoans''' dates back to [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]]'s trading activities in the 1780s. Du Sable, the city's founder, was Haitian of African and French descent.<ref name="manning">{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/27.html|title=African Americans|website=Encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org|access-date= September 23, 2017}}</ref> [[Fugitive slaves]] and [[Free negro|freedmen]] established the city's first black community in the 1840s. By the late 19th century, the first black person had been elected to office.
The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migrations]] from 1910 to 1960 brought hundreds of thousands of
According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], African Americans accounted for 29% of the city's population, or approximately 800,000 people as of the 2020 census. The metro area had nearly 1.6 million African Americans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore Census Data |url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=Chicago+city,+Illinois&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P1 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=data.census.gov}}</ref>
The black population in Chicago has been shrinking. Many black Chicagoans have moved to the suburbs or Southern cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Birmingham, Memphis, San Antonio and Jackson.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blackdemographics.com/cities-2/chicago-black-population/amp/|title=Chicago Black Population|website=blackdemographics.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite
Chicago also has a foreign-born black population. Many of the African immigrants in Chicago are from [[Ethiopia]] and [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://immigrantconnect.medill.northwestern.edu/blog/2019/06/15/how-is-chicago-a-welcoming-city-for-african-immigrants/ | title=How is Chicago a welcoming city for African immigrants? | Immigrant Connect }}</ref>
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===Beginnings===
{{further|Slavery in Illinois}}
Jean Baptiste Point du Sable was a Haitian of French and African descent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jean Baptiste |url=https://interactive.wttw.com/dusable-to-obama/jean-baptiste-dusable |website=interactive.wttw.com}}</ref>
[[File:Portrait of Mary Richardson Jones 1865.jpg|thumb|[[Mary Jane Richardson Jones|Mary Richardson Jones]], a prominent member of Chicago's black community, in 1865]]
Although du Sable's settlement was established in the 1780s, African Americans would only become established as a community in the 1840s, with the population reaching 1,000 by 1860. Much of this population consisted of escaped slaves from the Upper South. Following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, African Americans flowed from the Deep South into Chicago, raising the population from approximately 4,000 in 1870 to 15,000 in 1890.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reed |first=Christopher Robert |date=2015 |title=The Early African American Settlement of Chicago, 1833-1870 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jillistathistsoc.108.3-4.0211 |journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society |volume=108 |issue=3–4 |pages=211–265 |doi=10.5406/jillistathistsoc.108.3-4.0211 |jstor=10.5406/jillistathistsoc.108.3-4.0211 |issn=1522-1067}}</ref>
In 1853, [[John A. Logan]] helped pass a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the state. However, in 1865, the state repealed its "[[Black Codes (United States)|Black Laws]]" and became the first to ratify the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]], partly due to the efforts of [[John Jones (abolitionist)|John]] and [[Mary Jane Richardson Jones|Mary Jones]], a prominent and wealthy activist couple.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Jessie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyw_DwAAQBAJ&dq=A.+%22John+Jones.%22+In+American+National+Biography%2C&pg=PA449|title=Encyclopedia of African American Business: Updated and Revised Edition, 2nd Edition [2 volumes]|date=2017-11-27|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-5028-8|language=en}}</ref>
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{{Main|Great Migration (African American)}}
Chicago was the "Promised Land" to [[black Southerners]]. 500,000 African Americans moved to Chicago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Migration |url=https://interactive.wttw.com/dusable-to-obama/the-great-migration |website=interactive.wttw.com}}</ref>
[[File:Chicagoracialhistory.png|thumb|300px|The black population in Chicago significantly increased in the early to mid-1900s, due to the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South. While African Americans made up less than two percent of the city's population in 1910, by 1960 the city was nearly 25 percent black.]]
As the 20th century began, southern states succeeded in passing new constitutions and laws that [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchised]] most blacks and many poor whites.
Industry buildup for World War I pulled thousands of workers to the North, as did the rapid expansion of [[railroads]], and the [[meatpacking]] and [[steel]] industries. Between 1915 and 1960, hundreds of thousands of black southerners migrated to Chicago to escape violence and segregation, and to seek [[economic freedom]]. They went from being a mostly rural population to one that was mostly urban. "The migration of African Americans from the rural south to the urban north became a mass movement."<ref name="spear">Allen H. Spear, ''Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto (1890–1920)''.</ref> The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] radically transformed Chicago, both politically and culturally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frommers.com/destinations/print-narrative.cfm?destID=6&catID=0006020044|title=Frommer's|website=Frommers.com|access-date= September 23, 2017}}</ref>
From 1910 to 1940, most African Americans who migrated north were from rural areas. They had been chiefly sharecroppers and laborers, although some were landowners pushed out by the boll weevil disaster. After years of underfunding of public education for blacks in the South, they tended to be poorly educated, with relatively low skills to apply to urban jobs.
The masses of new migrants arriving in the cities captured public attention. At one point in the 1940s, 3,000 African Americans were arriving every week in Chicago—stepping off the trains from the South and making their ways to neighborhoods they had learned about from friends and the ''[[Chicago Defender]]''.<ref>Nicholas Lemann, ''The Great Migration''.</ref>
With Chicago's industries steadily expanding, opportunities opened up for new migrants, including Southerners, to find work. The railroad and meatpacking industries recruited black workers. Chicago's African-American newspaper, the ''Chicago Defender'', made the city well known to southerners.
▲The masses of new migrants arriving in the cities captured public attention. At one point in the 1940s, 3,000 African Americans were arriving every week in Chicago—stepping off the trains from the South and making their ways to neighborhoods they had learned about from friends and the ''[[Chicago Defender]]''.<ref>Nicholas Lemann, ''The Great Migration''.</ref> The Great Migration was charted and evaluated. Urban white northerners started to get worried, as their neighborhoods rapidly changed. At the same time, recent and older ethnic immigrants competed for jobs and housing with the new arrivals, especially on the South Side, where the steel and meatpacking industries had the most numerous working-class jobs.
▲With Chicago's industries steadily expanding, opportunities opened up for new migrants, including Southerners, to find work. The railroad and meatpacking industries recruited black workers. Chicago's African-American newspaper, the ''Chicago Defender'', made the city well known to southerners. It sent bundles of papers south on the [[Illinois Central]] trains, and African-American [[Pullman Porters]] would drop them off in Black towns. "Chicago was the most accessible northern city for African Americans in Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas."<ref name="spear"/> They took the trains north. "Then between 1916 and 1919, 50,000 blacks came to crowd into the burgeoning black belt, to make new demands upon the institutional structure of the South Side."<ref name="spear"/>
====1919 race riot====
The [[Chicago race riot of 1919]] was a violent [[mass racial violence in the United States|racial conflict]] started by white Americans against black Americans that began on the [[South Side, Chicago|South Side]] on July 27 and ended on August 3, 1919.<ref name=Lee>{{cite news |first=William |last=Lee |date=July 19, 2019 |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/history/ct-1919-chicago-riots-100th-anniversary-20190719-k4dexppvd5c6bkqbfwhgxfiacy-story.html |title='Ready to Explode': How a Black Boy's Drifting Raft Triggered a Deadly Week of Riots 100 Years Ago in Chicago |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=July 21, 2019}}</ref> During the riot, 38 people died (23 black and 15 white).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1032.html |title=Race Riots |author=Essig, Steven |encyclopedia=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago |year=2005 |publisher=Chicago Historical Society}}</ref><ref>William M. Tuttle, ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919''. (1970).</ref> Over the week, injuries attributed to the episodic confrontations stood at 537, with two thirds of the injured being black and one third white, and approximately 1,000 to 2,000, most of whom were black, lost their homes.<ref name=CTEB>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/editorials/ct-editorial-race-riots-chicago-1919-20190719-mchp4rs7dvbilaf6m27i2kuzxy-story.html |title=Editorial: Chicago's race riots of 1919 and the epilogue that resonates today |date=June 19, 2019 |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=2019-07-21 |others=The Editorial Board}}</ref> Due to its sustained violence and widespread economic impact, it is considered the worst of the scores of riots and civil disturbances across the nation during the [[Red Summer (1919)|"Red Summer" of 1919]], so named because of the racial and labor violence and fatalities.<ref name="CRRo19">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9023985/Chicago-Race-Riot-of-1919 |access-date=August 24, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |year=2007 |title=Chicago Race Riot of 1919}}</ref>
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===Segregation===
[[File:Chicagoblackbelt.jpg|thumb|300px|Chicago's Black Belt, April 1941]]
The increasingly large black population in Chicago (40,000 in 1910, and 278,000 in 1940<ref name="manning"/>) faced some of the same discrimination as they had in the South.<ref>
Though other techniques to maintain [[housing segregation]] had been used, such as [[redlining]] and exclusive zoning to single-family housing, by 1927 the political leaders of Chicago began to adopt racially restrictive [[Covenant (law)|covenants]].<ref name="jimcrow"/> The Chicago Real Estate Board promoted a racially restrictive covenant to [[YMCA]]s, churches, [[women's clubs]], [[parent teacher association]]s, [[Kiwanis]] clubs, chambers of commerce and property owners' associations.<ref name="jimcrow"/> At one point, as much as 80% of the city's area was included under restrictive covenants.<ref name="jimcrow"/>
The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in ''[[Shelley v. Kraemer]]'' ruled in 1948 that racially restrictive covenants were unconstitutional, but this did not quickly solve blacks' problems with finding adequate housing.<ref name="jimcrow"/>
In a succession common to most cities, many middle and upper-class whites were the first to move out of the city to new housing, aided by new commuter rail lines and the construction of new highway systems.
==Social and economic conditions==
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The Black Belt of Chicago was the chain of neighborhoods on the [[Neighborhoods of Chicago#South side|South Side]] of [[Chicago]] where three-quarters of the city's African-American population lived by the mid-20th century.<ref name="manning"/> In the early 1940s whites within residential blocks formed "restrictive covenants" that served as legal contracts restricting individual owners from renting or selling to black people. The contracts limited the housing available to black tenants, leading to the accumulation of black residents within The Black Belt, one of the few neighborhoods open to black tenants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chipublib.org/housing/|title=Housing and Race in Chicago|website=Chipublib.org|access-date= September 23, 2017}}</ref> The Black Belt was an area that stretched 30 blocks along [[State Street (Chicago)|State Street]] on the South Side and was rarely more than seven blocks wide.<ref name="manning"/> With such a large population within this confined area, overcrowding often led to numerous families living in old and dilapidated buildings. The South Side's "black belt" also contained zones related to economic status. The poorest residents lived in the northernmost, oldest section of the black belt, while the elite resided in the southernmost section.<ref name="chicagoD">[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/afam011.html "Chicago: Destination for the Great Migration"], ''The African-American Mosaic'', [[Library of Congress]].</ref> In the mid-20th century, as African Americans across the United States struggled against the economic confines created by segregation, black residents within the Black Belt sought to create more economic opportunity in their community through the encouragement of local black businesses and entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/afam011.html|title=Chicago: Destination for the Great Migration - The African-American Mosaic Exhibition - Exhibitions (Library of Congress)|first=Chicago|last=Defender|date= July 23, 2010|website=Loc.gov|access-date= September 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name="manning"/> During this time, Chicago was the capital of Black America. Many African Americans who moved to the Black Belt area of Chicago were from the Southeastern region of the United States.
Immigration to Chicago was another pressure of overcrowding, as primarily lower-class newcomers from rural Europe also sought cheap housing and working class jobs.
Crime in [[African-American neighborhood]]s was a low priority to the police. Associated with problems of poverty and southern culture, rates of violence and homicide were high. Some women resorted to prostitution to survive. Both low life and middle-class strivers were concentrated in a small area.<ref name="manning"/>
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Between 1916 and 1920, almost 50,000 Black Southerners moved to Chicago,<ref name="spear"/> which profoundly shaped the city's development. Growth increased even more rapidly after 1940. In particular, the new citizens caused the growth of local churches, businesses and community organizations. A new musical culture arose, fed by all the traditions along the Mississippi River. The population continued to increase with new migrants, with the most arriving after 1940.
The black arts community in Chicago was especially vibrant. Early [[Vaudeville]] performers and entrepreneurs like the [[Griffin Sisters]] created and managed venues for Black performers in the 1910s. The Pekin Theater, built in 1905, was called "The Cradle of Negro Drama in the United States."
The literary creation of Black Chicago residents from 1925 to 1950 was also prolific, and the city's [[Chicago Black Renaissance|Black Renaissance]] rivaled that of the [[Harlem Renaissance]]. Prominent writers included [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Willard Motley]], [[William Attaway]], [[Frank Marshall Davis]], [[St. Clair Drake]], [[Horace R. Cayton, Jr.]], and [[Margaret Walker]]. Chicago was home to writer and poet [[Gwendolyn Brooks]], known for her portrayals of Black working-class life in crowded tenements of [[Douglas, Chicago#Bronzeville|Bronzeville]]. These writers expressed the changes and conflicts blacks found in urban life and the struggles of creating new worlds. In Chicago, black writers turned away from the folk traditions embraced by [[Harlem Renaissance]] writers, instead adopting a grittier style of "literary naturalism" to depict life in the urban ghetto. The classic ''[[Black Metropolis]]'', written by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr., exemplified the style of the Chicago writers. Today it remains the most detailed portrayal of Black Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s.
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With a growing base and strong leadership in machine politics, Blacks began to win elective office in local and state government. The first blacks had been elected to office in Chicago in the late 19th century, decades before the Great Migrations.<ref name="manning"/> Chicago elected the first post-Reconstruction African-American member of Congress. He was Republican [[Oscar Stanton De Priest]], in [[Illinois's 1st congressional district]] (1929-1935). The district has continuously elected African-Americans to the office ever since. The Chicago area has elected 18 [[List of African-American United States Representatives|African Americans to the House of Representatives]], more than any state. [[William L. Dawson (politician)|William L. Dawson]] represented the Black Belt in Congress from 1943 to his death in office in 1970. He started as a Republican but switched to the Democrats like most of his constituents in the late 1930s. In 1949, he became the first African American to chair a congressional committee.<ref>Christopher Manning, ''William L. Dawson and the Limits of Black Electoral Leadership'' (2009).</ref>
Chicago is home to three of eight [[List of African-American United States senators|African-American United States senators]] who have served since [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], who are all Democrats: [[Carol Moseley Braun]] (1993–1999), [[Barack Obama]] (2005–2008), and [[Roland Burris]] (2009–2010).
Barack Obama moved from the Senate to the White House in 2008.<ref>Ted McClelland, ''Young Mr. Obama : Chicago and the making of a Black president'' (2010) [https://archive.org/details/youngmrobamachic0000mccl online]</ref>
===Electing a Black mayor in 1983===
{{main|1983 Chicago mayoral election}}
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In the early 20th century many prominent African Americans were Chicago residents, including Republican and later Democratic congressman [[William L. Dawson (politician)|William L. Dawson]] (America's most powerful black politician<ref name="manning"/>) and boxing champion [[Joe Louis]]. America's most widely read black newspaper,<ref name="manning"/> the ''[[Chicago Defender]]'', was published there and circulated in the South as well.
After long efforts, in the late 1930s, workers organized across racial lines to form the United Meatpacking Workers of America. By then, the majority of workers in Chicago's plants were black, but they succeeded in creating an interracial organizing committee. It succeeded in organizing unions both in Chicago and [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], Nebraska, the city with the second largest meatpacking industry. This union belonged to the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] (CIO), which was more progressive than the [[American Federation of Labor]]. They succeeded in lifting segregation of job positions. For a time, workers achieved living wages and other benefits, leading to blue collar middle-class life for decades. Some blacks were also able to move up the ranks to supervisory and management positions. The CIO also succeeded in organizing Chicago's steel industry.<ref>Paul Street, Paul. "The 'Best Union Members': Class, Race, Culture, and Black Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." ''Journal of American Ethnic History'' (2000): 18-49.
== Recent decline ==
A
==Crime==
{{See also|Crime in Chicago}}
Black people in Chicago are more likely to be victims of homicide.<ref>{{Cite web |last=contributor |first=Glenn Minnis {{!}} The Center Square |date=2023-10-18 |title=Chicago's homicide rate up; Black residents are 77% of victims |url=https://www.thecentersquare.com/illinois/article_cc9cc410-6dcd-11ee-a61a-c74105f97e0c.html |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=The Center Square |language=en}}</ref>
==Foreign-born blacks==
Foreign born blacks makeup 4% of Chicago's black population.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Monica |date=2015-04-09 |title=Chapter 1: Statistical Portrait of the U.S. Black Immigrant Population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2015/04/09/chapter-1-statistical-portrait-of-the-u-s-black-immigrant-population/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Ethiopians===
Around 4,500 Ethiopians lived in Chicago in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopians |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/436.html#:~:text=Ethiopians&text=Chicago's%20Ethiopian%20community%20took%20root,Evanston
===Nigerians===
Nigerian people constitute the city's largest African community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigerians |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/891.html |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org}}</ref>
==Notable people==
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* [[Noname (rapper)|Noname]]
* [[Dantrell Davis]]
* [[Donell Jones]]
* [[Carl Thomas (singer)|Carl Thomas]]
{{div col end}}
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* Anderson, Alan B., and George W. Pickering. ''Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of Civil Rights Movements in Chicago'' (U of Georgia Press, 1986).
* Balto, Simon. ''Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power'' (UNC Press Books, 2019).
* Best, Wallace. [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/140.html "Black Belt,"] in ''[[Encyclopedia of Chicago]]'', 2007; p.
▲* Best, Wallace. [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/140.html "Black Belt,"] in ''[[Encyclopedia of Chicago]]'', 2007; p. 140.
* Best, Wallace D. ''[[Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952]]''. (Princeton University Press, 2007: {{ISBN|978-0-6911-3375-1}}, 2013). [https://press.princeton.edu/titles/7979.html Info page].
* Blair, Cynthia M. ''I've got to make my livin': Black women's sex work in turn-of-the-century Chicago'' (U of Chicago Press, 2018); early 1900s
* Bowly, Devereaux, Jr. ''The Poorhouse: Subsidized Housing in Chicago, 1895–1976'' (Southern Illinois UP, 1978).
* Branch, Taylor. ''Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1964–1965'' (1998). includes Martin Luther King'r ole in Chicago
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* Coit, Jonathan S., "'Our Changed Attitude': Armed Defense and the New Negro in the 1919 Chicago Race Riot", ''Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era'' 11 (April 2012), 225–56.
* {{cite journal|last=Danns|first=Dionne|url=https://www.swarthmore.edu/sites/default/files/assets/documents/black-studies-program/Dionne_Danns-Chicago_High_School.pdf|title=Chicago High School Students' Movement For Quality Public Education, 1966-1971|journal=[[Journal of African American History]]|pages=138–150}}
* Danns, Dionne. "Policy implications for school desegregation and school choice in Chicago." '' Urban Review'' 50 (2018): 584-603.
* Dolinar, Brian (ed.), [https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/48dsx5yf9780252037696.html ''The Negro in Illinois. The WPA Papers''], University of Chicago Press, cloth: 2013, {{ISBN|978-0-252-03769-6}}; paper, {{ISBN|978-0-252-08093-7}}: 2015. Produced by a special division of the Illinois Writers' Project, part of the [[Federal Writers' Project]], one of President Roosevelt's [[Works Progress Administration]] programs of the 1930s, with black writers living in Chicago during the 1930s, including [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Margaret Walker]], [[Katherine Dunham]], [[Fenton Johnson]], [[Frank Yerby]], and [[Richard Durham]].
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* Helgeson, Jeffrey. [http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo17888735.html ''Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago's Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington.''] Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014, {{ISBN|978-0-2261-3069-9}}.
* Hirsch, Arnold Richard. ''[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/M/bo3627598.html Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960]''. (U of Chicago Press, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-2263-4244-3}})
* Hutchison, Ray. "Where is the Chicago Ghetto?." in ''The Ghetto'' (Routledge, 2018) pp.
* Kenney, William Howland. [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/chicago-jazz-9780195092608?cc=au&lang=en& ''Chicago jazz: A cultural history, 1904-1930''] (Oxford University Press, 1993)
* Kimble Jr., Lionel. ''A New Deal for Bronzeville: Housing, Employment, and Civil Rights in Black Chicago, 1935–1955'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 2015, {{ISBN|978-0-8093-3426-1}}). xiv, 200 pp.
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* Lemann, Nicholas. ''The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How It Changed America'' (1991).
* Logan, John R., Weiwei Zhang, and Miao David Chunyu. "Emergent ghettos: black neighborhoods in New York and Chicago, 1880–1940." ''American Journal of Sociology'' 120.4 (2015): 1055-1094. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4597788/ online]
* McClelland, Ted. ''Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the making of a Black president'' (2010) [https://archive.org/details/youngmrobamachic0000mccl online]
* McGreevy, John T. ''Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the TwentiethCentury Urban North'' (University of Chicago Press, 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Parish-Boundaries-Twentieth-Century-Historical-1996-05-15/dp/B01JXP6LTQ/ excerpt]
* Manning, Christopher. [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/27.html "African Americans,"] in ''Encyclopedia of Chicago.'' (2007); p.
* Naqvi, S. Kaazim. ''Chicago Muslims and the Transformation of American Islam: Immigrants, African Americans, and the Building of the American Ummah'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
* Philpott, Thomas Lee. ''The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880–1930'' (Oxford UP, 1978).
* Pickering, George W. ''Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago'' (U of Georgia Press, 1986).
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* [[Rivlin, Gary]]. ''Fire on the prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the politics of race'' (Holt, 1992, {{ISBN|0-8050-2698-3}})
* Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. ''Black public history in Chicago: Civil rights activism from World War II into the Cold War'' (U of Illinois Press, 2018).
* Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. "Margaret T.G. Burroughs and Black Public History in Cold War Chicago". ''[[The Black Scholar]]'', (2011), Vol. 41(3), pp.
* Schlabach, Elizabeth Schroeder. ''Dream Books and Gamblers: Black Women's Work in Chicago's Policy Game'' (U of Illinois Press, 2022).
* Smith, Preston H. ''Racial democracy and the Black metropolis: Housing policy in postwar Chicago'' (U of Minnesota Press, 2012).
* Smith, Preston H. "The Chicago School of Human Ecology and the Ideology of Black Civic Elites." in ''Renewing Black Intellectual History'' (Routledge, 2015) pp.
* Spaulding, Norman W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=GkHvAAAAMAAJ ''History of Black oriented radio in Chicago, 1929-1963''] (PhD disst. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1981.
* Spear, Allan H. [http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/B/bo3634456.html ''Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920''] (University of Chicago Press, 1967, {{ISBN|978-0-2267-6857-1}}). widely cited scholqrship
* Spinney, Robert G. ''City of big shoulders: A history of Chicago'' (Cornell University Press, 2020), broad scholarly survey
* Street, Paul. "The 'Best Union Members': Class, Race, Culture, and Black Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." ''Journal of American Ethnic History'' (2000): 18-49. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27502643 online]
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==External links==
{{
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511233708/http://www.cityofchicago.org/Landmarks/Tours/AfricanAmerican.html African-American History Tour for the City of Chicago]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/53black/53black.htm ''Chicago's Black Metropolis: Understanding History Through a Historic Place''], a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP5JdsrqwZEC&q=african+americans+in+chicago African Americans in Chicago]
*{{cite web |
*[https://greatcities.uic.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Black-Population-Loss-in-Chicago.pdf Black population loss in Chicago] greatcities.uic.edu
*{{cite web | last=Reed | first=Christopher | title=African Americans in Chicago | website=oxfordbibliographies.com| date=21 February 2022 | url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780190280024/obo-9780190280024-0103.xml | access-date=9 December 2023}}
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