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A '''boycott''' is an act of [[nonviolent resistance|nonviolent]], voluntary abstention from a product, person, organization, or country as an expression of protest. It is usually for [[Morality|moral]], [[society|social]], [[politics|political]], or [[Environmentalism|environmental]] reasons. The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some [[economic loss]] on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, usually to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior.
The word is named after Captain [[Charles Boycott]], agent of an absentee landlord in Ireland, against whom the tactic was successfully employed after a suggestion by Irish nationalist leader [[Charles Stewart Parnell]] and his [[Irish Land League]] in 1880.
Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of [[consumer activism]], sometimes called [[moral purchasing]]. When a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a [[Economic sanctions|sanction]].
==Etymology==
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The word ''boycott'' entered the English language during the [[Ireland|Irish]] "[[Land War]]" and derives from Captain [[Charles Boycott]], the land agent of an absentee landlord, [[John Crichton, 3rd Earl Erne|Lord Erne]], who lived in [[County Mayo]], [[Ireland]]. Captain Boycott was the target of social ostracism organized by the [[Irish Land League]] in 1880. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents. In September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty-five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land. [[Charles Stewart Parnell]], the Irish leader, proposed that when dealing with tenants who take farms where another tenant was evicted, rather than resorting to violence, everyone in the locality should shun them. While Parnell's speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, as well as in his house. Local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marlow|first=Joyce|title=Captain Boycott and the Irish|year=1973|publisher=[[André Deutsch]]|isbn=978-0-233-96430-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wW4uAAAAMAAJ&q=Captain+Boycott|pages=133–142}}</ref>
The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest his crops in his charge.<ref>Marlow, pp 157–173.</ref> After the harvest, the "boycott" was successfully continued and soon the new word was everywhere. The ''[[New-York Tribune]]'' reporter, [[James Redpath]], first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, [[George Moore (novelist)|George Moore]], reported: 'Like a comet the verb 'boycott' appeared.'<ref>Stanford, Jane, That Irishman: the Life and Times of John O'Connor Power, pp. 95–97.</ref> It was used by ''[[The Times]]'' in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book ''The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland'' by [[Michael Davitt]], the term was promoted by Fr. John O'Malley of County Mayo to "signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott". ''The Times'' first reported on November 20, 1880: "The people of New Pallas have resolved to 'boycott' them and refused to supply them with food or drink." The ''Daily News'' wrote on December 13, 1880: "Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being 'Boycotted'." By January of the following year, the word was being used figuratively: "Dame Nature arose.... She 'Boycotted' London from Kew to Mile End."<ref>''The Spectator,'' January 22, 1881.</ref>
===Girlcott===
'''Girlcott''', a [[pun]] on "boycott", is a boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American [[Lacey O'Neal]] during the [[1968 Summer Olympics]] in the context of [[1968 Olympics Black Power salute|protests]] by male [[African American]] athletes. The term was later used by retired [[tennis]] player [[Billie Jean King]] in 1999 in reference to [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]], while discussing [[equal pay for equal work|equal pay]] for women players.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/29/sports/on-tennis-a-potential-girl-cott-imperils-grand-slams.html
==Notable boycotts==
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[[File:LiebenthalRechtsanwalt2.jpg|thumb|[[Nameplate]] of Dr. Werner Liebenthal, [[Notary]] & [[Advocate]]. The plate was hung outside his office on Martin Luther Str, [[Schöneberg]], [[Berlin]]. In 1933, following the [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] the plate was painted black by the Nazis, who boycotted Jewish owned offices.]]
Although the term itself was not coined until 1880, the practice dates back to at least the 1790s, when supporters of the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|British abolitionists]] led and supported the [[free produce movement]].<ref>William Fox, ''An Address to the People of Great Britain, on the Utility of Refraining from the Use of West India Sugar and Rum''. 1791</ref> Other instances include:
* the Iranian [[Tobacco Protest|Tobacco Boycott]] in 1891<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iranian resistance to Tobacco Concession, 1891–1892 {{!}} Global Nonviolent Action Database |url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/iranian-resistance-tobacco-concession-1891-1892 |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu}}</ref>
* [[Civil rights movement]] boycotts to protest [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]] (e.g., [[Montgomery bus boycott|Montgomery]] & [[Tallahassee bus boycott|Tallahassee Bus Boycotts]])
* the [[United Farm Workers of America|United Farm Workers]] union [[Delano grape strike|grape]] and [[Salad Bowl strike|lettuce]] boycotts
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* the worldwide [[Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions]] (BDS) campaign led by Palestinian civil society against the State of Israel.
*The global [[fossil fuel divestment]] movement, described by [[Desmond Tutu]] as an "apartheid-style boycott to save the planet",<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/apr/10/divest-fossil-fuels-climate-change-keystone-xl|title=We need an apartheid-style boycott to save the planet|last=Tutu|first=Desmond|date=2014-04-10|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-06-05|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and considered to be the biggest boycott-style campaign in history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/08/fossil-fuel-divestment-a-brief-history|title=Fossil fuel divestment: a brief history|last=Vaughan|first=Adam|date=2014-10-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-06-05|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
*Redundant boycotts along more than one century against Catalan products by [[Spanish nationalism]]. Over the years, political/economic claims and [[Self-governance|self-government]] milestones, sometimes misrepresented as a secessionist revolt, have often been met with a call for a commercial boycott against Catalonia.<ref name=":77">{{Cite web |last=Bosch Cuenca |first=Pere |title=L'amenaça permanent dels boicots |url=https://www.elpuntavui.cat/article/59-especials/806126-lamenaca-permanent-dels-boicots.html |access-date=December 22, 2014 |website=El Punt Avui}}</ref> This is the case of the creation of the Unió regionalista, the creation of [[Catalan Solidarity (1906)|Solidaritat catalana]], the [[¡Cu-Cut! incident|''¡Cu-Cut!'' incident]],<ref>La Correspondencia militar. «De política. El españolismo ''y'' el catalanismo». 4/12/1905, n.º 8.508. Pàg. 3</ref> the [[Tragic Week (Spain)|Tragic Week]] (which is advertised as separatist so that it does not spread to other Spanish towns),<ref name=":76">Fernández-Cordero Azorín, Concepción. [https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/54511/1/Anales-Historia-Contemporanea_02_08.pdf La crisis de 1917. Actitud de la prensa española ante la adjudicación a D. Juan de la Cierva de la cartera de Guerra]. ''Anales de la Universidad de Alicante: Historia contemporánea''. DC Heath & Compañia, 1983. p. 183-224.</ref><ref name=":39">{{Cite book |last=Farrés |first=Andreu |title=Roses de foc de Barcelona |publisher=Edicions 62 |isbn=9788429780925 |language=catalan}}</ref><ref name=":77" /> creation of the [[Commonwealth of Catalonia]] in 1914,<ref>Marimon, Sílvia «El primer intent d'estructura d'estat». ''[[Diari Ara]]'', 18-12-2013</ref> the participation of Catalan volunteers in the [[World War I|First World War]] and claim of the [[Wilson Doctrine|Wilson doctrine]] for Catalonia,<ref>Giovanni E. Cattini. Joaquim de Camps I Arboix. Un intel·lectual en temps convulsos. Fundació Josep Irla. Barcelona. 2015., p.27</ref> the creation and campaign of the [[Regionalist League of Catalonia]], in 1918,<ref>Smith, Angel. La Agonía del liberalismo español. La Lliga Regionalista, la derecha catalana y el nacimiento de la dictadura de Primo de Rivera (1916–1923), 2014, 141–170</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Casals |first=Xavier |date=2019-07-14 |title=Un segle de llaços, ultres i 'indepes' (1919–2019) |url=https://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/opinio/20190714/article-xavier-casals-un-segle-de-llacos-ultres-i-indepes-1919-2019-catalunya-independentisme-7551819 |access-date=July 14, 2019 |website=El Periódico}}</ref> autonomy through the [[Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1932|Statute of Núria]],<ref>Casassas Ymbert, Jordi. El catalanismo durante la Segunda República (1931–1939). ''Bulletin d’Histoire Contemporaine de l’Espagne'', 2017, 51: 119–133</ref> the [[Events of 6 October]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fernández |first=David |title=Ai las |url=https://directa.cat/ai-las/ |access-date=January 30, 2020 |website=La Directa|date=30 January 2020 }}</ref> or, more recently, the [[Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006|Statute of Miravet]].<ref>Juliana, Enric. España en el diván. RBA Libros, 2014. [[Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/9788490562277|ISBN 9788490562277]]</ref><ref>Klaus-Jürgen Nagel, amb una aportació de Marició Janué i Miret . Catalunya explicada als alemanys. Les claus per entendre una nació sense estat de l'Europa actual. Cossetània Edicions, 2007. [[Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/9788497912945|ISBN 9788497912945]]</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=John Tagliabue |date=13 March 2006 |work=The New York Times |title=A War of Words Over Catalonia Sets Off a War of Wine |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/13/international/europe/13spain.html?_r=0}}<!-- auto-translated from Catalon by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> More recently there have been other boycotts related to the expansion of [[Catalan independence movement|Catalan sovereignty]].<ref>{{cite web |access-date=29 September 2015 |date=7 December 2013 |title=¿Tiene sentido el boicot a los productos catalanes? |url=http://www.elconfidencialdigital.com/te_lo_aclaro/sentido-boicot-productos-catalanes_0_2175982382.html |work=El Confidencial Digital}}<!-- auto-translated from Catalon by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
During the [[1973 oil crisis]], the [[Arab world|Arab countries]] enacted a [[crude oil]] [[Oil embargo|embargo]] against the West. Other examples include the [[1980 Summer Olympics boycott|US-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow]], the [[1984 Summer Olympics boycott|Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles]], and the movement that advocated "[[disinvestment]]" in [[South Africa]] during the 1980s in opposition to that country's [[apartheid]] regime. The first Olympic boycott was in the [[1956 Summer Olympics]] with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons. Iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel,
Academic boycotts have been organized against countries—for example, the mid- and late 20th-century [[academic boycotts of South Africa]] in protest of [[apartheid]] practices and the [[academic boycotts of Israel]] in the early 2000s.
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[[File:BP Oil Flood Protest Boycott Wheres Cheney.JPG|thumb|Protesters advocating boycott of [[BP]] due to the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]]]]Boycotts are now much easier to successfully initiate due to the [[Internet]]. Examples include the [[homosexuality|gay and lesbian]] boycott of advertisers of the ''[[Dr. Laura]]'' [[talk show]], gun owners' similar boycott of advertisers of [[Rosie O'Donnell]]'s talk show and (later) magazine, and gun owners' boycott of [[Smith & Wesson]] following that company's March 2000 settlement with the [[Clinton administration]]. They may be initiated very easily using either websites (the ''Dr. Laura'' boycott), newsgroups (the Rosie O'Donnell boycotts), or even mailing lists. Internet-initiated boycotts "snowball" very quickly compared to other forms of organization.
''Viral Labeling'' is a new boycott method using the new digital technology proposed by the Multitude Project and applied for the first time against [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney]] around Christmas time in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=Effective boycott campaigns – Multitude Project|work=Outreach|url=http://sites.google.com/site/multitude2008/Home/organize-efficient-boycott-campaigns|access-date=December 26, 2009}}</ref>
Some boycotts center on particular businesses, such as recent{{when|date=October 2017}} protests regarding [[Costco]], [[Walmart]], [[Ford Motor Company]], or the diverse products of [[Altria Group#Food .26 Beverage|Philip Morris]]. Another form of boycott identifies a number of different companies involved in a particular issue, such as the Sudan Divestment campaign, the "Boycott Bush" campaign. The Boycott Bush website was set up by [[Ethical Consumer]] after U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] failed to ratify the [[Kyoto Protocol]] – the website identified Bush's corporate funders and the brands and products they produce. Historically boycotts have also targeted individual businesses. During the early decades of the twentieth century hotels in Australia were regularly targeted over the cost of alcohol, accommodation and food, as well as mistreatment of employees.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McIntyre |first=Iain |date=2022-05-02 |title=Beer Strikes: A History of Hotel Boycotts in Australia, 1900-1920 |url=https://commonslibrary.org/beer-strikes-a-history-of-hotel-boycotts-in-australia-1900-1920/ |access-date=2022-11-10 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> ▼
▲Some boycotts center on particular businesses, such as recent{{when|date=October 2017}} protests regarding [[Costco]], [[Walmart]], [[Ford Motor Company]], or the diverse products of [[Altria Group#Food .26 Beverage|Philip Morris]]. Another form of boycott identifies a number of different companies involved in a particular issue, such as the Sudan Divestment campaign, the "Boycott Bush" campaign. The Boycott Bush website was set up by [[Ethical Consumer]] after U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] failed to ratify the [[Kyoto Protocol]] – the website identified Bush's corporate funders and the brands and products they produce.
As a response to consumer boycotts of large-scale and multinational businesses, some companies have marketed brands that do not bear the company's name on the packaging or in advertising. Activists such as Ethical Consumer produce information that reveals which companies own which brands and products so consumers can practice boycotts or moral purchasing more effectively. Another organization, [[Buycott.com]], provides an Internet-based smart-phone application that scans [[Universal Product Code]]s and displays corporate relationships to the user.<ref name=Forbes>{{cite web |last=O'Conner |first=Claire |title=New App Lets You Boycott Koch Brothers, Monsanto And More By Scanning Your Shopping Cart |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/clareoconnor/2013/05/14/new-app-lets-you-boycott-koch-brothers-monsanto-and-more-by-scanning-your-shopping-cart/ |work=Forbes |date=May 14, 2013 |access-date=September 3, 2016 |quote=Burner figured the average supermarket shopper had no idea that buying Brawny paper towels, Angel Soft toilet paper or Dixie cups meant contributing cash to Koch Industries through its subsidiary Georgia-Pacific. }}</ref>
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Boycotts are generally legal in developed countries. Occasionally, some restrictions may apply; for instance, in the United States, it may be unlawful for a union to engage in "[[secondary boycott]]s" (to request that its members boycott companies that supply items to an organization already under a boycott, in the United States);<ref>National Labor Relations Act, § 8(e), 29 U.S.C.A. § 158(e).</ref><ref>''Local 917, Intern. Broth. of Teamsters v. N.L.R.B.'', 577 F.3d 70, 75 (C.A.2, 2009).</ref> however, the union is free to use its right to speak freely to inform its members of the fact that suppliers of a company are breaking a boycott; its members then may take whatever action they deem appropriate, in consideration of that fact.
=== United Kingdom ===
When the boycott first emerged in Ireland, it presented a serious dilemma for Gladstone's government. The individual actions that constituted a boycott were recognized by legislators as essential to a free society. However, overall a boycott amounted to a harsh, extrajudicial punishment. The [[Prevention of Crime (Ireland) Act 1882]] made it illegal to use "intimidation" to instigate or enforce a boycott, but not to participate in one.{{sfn|Laird |2005|p=34}}
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In the United States, the antiboycott provisions of the [[Export Administration Regulations]] (EAR) apply to all "U.S. persons", defined to include individuals and companies located in the United States and their foreign affiliates. The antiboycott provisions are intended to prevent United States citizens and companies being used as instrumentalities of a foreign government's foreign policy. The EAR forbids participation in or material support of boycotts initiated by foreign governments, for example, the [[Arab League]] boycott of [[Israel]]. These persons are subject to the law when their activities relate to the sale, purchase, or transfer of goods or services (including the sale of information) within the United States or between the United States and a foreign country. This covers exports and imports, financing, forwarding and shipping, and certain other transactions that may take place wholly offshore.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security|work=Office of Antiboycott Compliance|url=http://www.bis.doc.gov/AntiboycottCompliance/oacrequirements.html#whatscovered|access-date=March 20, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060319092529/http://www.bis.doc.gov/AntiboycottCompliance/oacrequirements.html#whatscovered <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = March 19, 2006}}</ref>
However, the EAR only applies to {{em|foreign government initiated}} boycotts: a domestic boycott campaign arising within the United States that has the same object as the foreign-government-initiated boycott appears to be lawful, assuming that it is an independent effort not connected with the foreign government's boycott.
Other legal impediments to certain boycotts remain. One set are [[refusal to deal]] laws, which prohibit concerted efforts to eliminate competition by refusal to buy from or to sell to a party.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/concerted-refusal-to-deal.html |title=Business Dictionary |access-date=2009-02-20 |archive-date=2009-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203211829/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/concerted-refusal-to-deal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Alternatives ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}
A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct an outstanding single wrong. When extended for a long period of time, or as part of an overall program of awareness-raising or reforms to laws or regimes, a boycott is part of [[moral purchasing]], and some prefer those economic or political terms.
Another form of consumer boycotting is substitution for an equivalent product; for example, [[Mecca Cola]] and [[Qibla Cola]] have been marketed as substitutes for [[Coca-Cola]] among [[Muslim]] populations.
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{{Further|List of Olympic Games boycotts}}
The [[1936 Summer Olympics]] in Berlin were held after the Nazis rose to power three years prior. Despite advocacy from numerous officials and activists, no country boycotted the games, although the United States was close to it. In the 1970s and 1980s South Africa became the target of a sports boycott.<ref>Douglas Booth "Hitting apartheid for six? The politics of the South African sports boycott." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 38.3 (2003):
After the [[Afghan–Soviet War|Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan]] in 1979, the United States led a 66-nation [[1980 Summer Olympics boycott|boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics]] much to Soviet chagrin. The USSR then organized an [[Eastern Bloc]] [[1984 Summer Olympics boycott|boycott]] of the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in Los Angeles, which allowed the Americans to win far more medals than expected.<ref>Joseph Eaton, . "Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic boycott: American sports diplomacy in East Asian perspective." ''Diplomatic History'' 40.5 (2016):
In at least one case, a boycott has been documented due to on-field results of a game; the residents of [[New Orleans]] boycotted television broadcasts of [[Super Bowl LIII]] after a controversial officiating call led to the hometown [[New Orleans Saints]] losing the [[NFC Championship Game]] and being denied a trip to the Super Bowl. Viewership of the game dropped in the city by half compared to [[Super Bowl LII]], contributing to a noticeable drop in the overall national ratings, but the boycott failed to achieve any meaningful remedy for the Saints or their fans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nola.com/saints/2019/02/super-bowl-ratings-plummet-as-who-dats-strike-back.html|title=Super Bowl ratings plummet as Who Dats strike back|first=Mike|last=Scott|work=New Orleans Times-Picayune|date=February 4, 2019|access-date=February 4, 2019}}</ref>
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Nations have from time to time used "diplomatic boycotts" to isolate other governments. Following the May Coup of 1903, Great Britain led the major powers in a [[May Coup (Serbia)#International outrage and boycott|diplomatic boycott against Serbia]], which was a refusal to recognize the post-coup government of Serbia altogether by withdrawing ambassadors and other diplomatic officials from the country;<ref>David McKenzie, "European powers: the diplomatic boycott against Serbia, 1903–1906" in David McKenzie, ''Serbs and Russians'' (East European Monographs, 1996) pp 324–341. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SHtpAAAAMAAJ&q=Britain+Serbia,+1903+"diplomatic+boycott+" online]</ref> it ended three years later in 1906, when Great Britain renewed diplomatic relations through a decree signed by King [[Edward VII]].<ref name="Markovic">{{cite web |url=http://www.nin.co.rs/2003-05/29/29150.html |title=Kriza u odnosima Kraljevine Srbije i Velike Britanije |author=Slobodan G. Marković |publisher= NIN |access-date=20 July 2010}}</ref>
A diplomatic boycott is when diplomatic participation is withheld from an event such as the Olympics but athletic participation is not limited.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hamilton |first1=Tom |title=What, exactly, is a 'diplomatic boycott' of the Beijing Olympics? |url=https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/32831100/what-exactly-diplomatic-boycott-beijing-olympics |website=espn.com |date=10 December 2021 |publisher=ESPN |access-date=30 January 2022}}</ref> In 2021, a number of [[Western world|Western nations]], led by the United States, Britain and Canada, protested the [[2022 Winter Olympics|2022 Beijing Winter Olympics]] through a diplomatic boycott, citing China's policies concerning the [[
== See also ==
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==References==
* Friedman, M. ''Consumer Boycotts: Effecting Change through the Marketplace and the Media.'' London: Routledge, 1999.
*{{cite book |last1=Laird |first1=Heather |title=Subversive Law in Ireland,
* Hoffmann, S., Müller, S. Consumer Boycotts Due to Factory Relocation. ''Journal of Business Research,'' 2009, 62 (2), 239–247.
* Hoffmann, S. Anti-Consumption as a Means of Saving Jobs.
* [[Lawrence B. Glickman|Glickman, Lawrence B.]] ''Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America.''
* Klein, J. G., Smith, N. C., John, A. Why we Boycott: Consumer Motivations for Boycott Participation. ''Journal of Marketing,'' 2004, 68 (3), 92–109.
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