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'''Economic sanctions''' are [[Commerce|commercial]] and [[Finance|financial]] penalties applied by states or institutions against states, groups, or individuals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2021 |title=The United States of Sanctions |language=en-US |work=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2021-08-24/united-states-sanctions |issn=0015-7120}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Citation |last1=Biersteker |first1=Thomas J. |title=The effectiveness of United Nations targeted sanctions |date=2016 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/targeted-sanctions/effectiveness-of-united-nations-targeted-sanctions/553973997BF1A56B75D00FD4893ECD58 |work=Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action |pages=220–247 |editor-last=Tourinho |editor-first=Marcos |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-13421-8 |last2=Tourinho |first2=Marcos |last3=Eckert |first3=Sue E. |editor2-last=Eckert |editor2-first=Sue E. |editor3-last=Biersteker |editor3-first=Thomas J.}}</ref> Economic sanctions are a form of [[Coercion (international relations)|coercion]] that attempts to get an actor to change its behavior through disruption in economic exchange. Sanctions can be intended to [[Compellence|compel]] (an attempt to change an actor's behavior) or [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] (an attempt to stop an actor from certain actions).<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2003 |title=The Hidden Hand of Economic Coercion |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3594840 |journal=International Organization |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=643–659 |doi=10.1017/S0020818303573052 |jstor=3594840 |s2cid=154827129 |issn=0020-8183}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Pape |first=Robert A. |date=1997 |title=Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539368 |journal=International Security |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=90–136 |doi=10.2307/2539368 |jstor=2539368 |issn=0162-2889}}</ref><ref name="scholar.harvard.edu">Haidar, J.I., 2017."[https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/haidar/files/haidar-sanctionsandexportdeflection-finaldraft.pdf Sanctions and Exports Deflection: Evidence from Iran]," Economic Policy (Oxford University Press), April 2017, Vol. 32(90), pp. 319–355.</ref>
Sanctions can target an entire country or they can be more narrowly targeted at individuals or groups; this latter form of sanctions are sometimes called "smart sanctions".<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2011 |title=Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practice |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016144 |journal=International Studies Review |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=96–108 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2486.2010.01001.x |jstor=23016144 |issn=1521-9488}}</ref> Prominent forms of economic sanctions include [[trade barriers]], [[Asset freezing|asset freezes]], [[
The efficacy of sanctions in achieving intended goals is a subject of debate.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2024 |title=Global Economic Sanctions |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-032240 |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-032240 |issn=1094-2939}}</ref> Scholars have also considered the policy externalities of sanctions.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farrell |first1=Henry |last2=Newman |first2=Abraham L. |date=2019 |title=Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion |journal=International Security |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=42–79 |doi=10.1162/isec_a_00351 |issn=0162-2889 |s2cid=198952367 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The humanitarian consequences of country-wide sanctions have been a subject of controversy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |date=2022 |title=How not to sanction |url=https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/98/5/1533/6686647 |journal=International Affairs |language=en |volume=98 |issue=5 |pages=1533–1552 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiac065 |issn=0020-5850 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209133546/https://humanrightscommission.house.gov/sites/humanrightscommission.house.gov/files/documents/How%20not%20to%20sanction%20Daniel%20Drezner.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-09}}</ref> As a consequence, since the mid-1990s, [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) sanctions have tended to target individuals and entities, in contrast to the country-wide sanctions of earlier decades.<ref name="Giumelli 2015" />
== History of sanctions ==
One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo occurred during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] of 1803–1815. Aiming to cripple the [[United Kingdom]] economically, Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] in 1806 promulgated the [[Continental System]]—which forbade [[European nations]] from trading with the UK. In practice the French Empire could not completely enforce the embargo, which proved as harmful (if not more so) to the continental nations involved as to the British.<ref>{{cite web |title=Continental System Napoleon British Embargo Napoleon's 1812 |url=http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Continental:policy.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710165750/http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Continental%3Apolicy.htm |archive-date=2011-07-10}}</ref> By the time of the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907]], diplomats and legal scholars regularly discussed using coordinated economic pressure to enforce international law. This idea was also included in reform proposals by Latin American and Chinese international lawyers in the years leading up to [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Ryan Martinez|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6KIEAAAQBAJ|title=Recentering the World: China and Transformation of International Law|date=2022|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-49896-8|language=en}}</ref>
=== World War I and the Interwar period ===
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Economic sanctions can be used for achieving domestic and international purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whang |first1=Taehee |date=2011-09-01 |title=Playing to the Home Crowd? Symbolic Use of Economic Sanctions in the United States |url=https://academic.oup.com/isq/article/55/3/787/1834344 |journal=International Studies Quarterly |publisher=Ingentaconnect.com |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=787–801 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00668.x |access-date=2015-03-30}}</ref>
Foreign [[aid]] suspensions are typically considered as a type of economic sanctions. Previously mentioned work by Hufbauer, Schott, Elliot, and Oegg is a prominent example.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hufbauer, Schott, Elliott, and Oegg |title=Economic Sanctions Reconsidered |date=2007 |publisher=Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE) |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-88132-408-2 |edition=3rd |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> [[Claas Mertens]] finds that "suspending aid is more effective than adopting economic sanctions because (1) aid suspensions are economically beneficial for the adopting state, while sanctions are costly, (2) aid suspensions directly affect the targeted government’s budget, (3) market forces undermine sanctions but not aid suspensions, and (4) aid suspensions are less likely to spark adverse behavioral reactions. [...] The findings suggest that economic sanctions are less effective than previously thought and that large donor states have a higher chance of achieving political goals through economic coercion."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mertens |first=Claas |date=28 March 2024 |title=Carrots as Sticks: How Effective Are Foreign Aid Suspensions and Economic Sanctions? |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqae016 |journal=International Studies Quarterly |volume=68 |issue=2}}</ref>
===Criticism===
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=== Smart Sanctions ===
One of the most popular suggestions to combat the humanitarian issues that arise from sanctions is the concept of “smart sanctions”, and a lot of research has been done on this concept also known as targeted sanctions.
Though there has been enthusiasm about the concept, as of 2016, the Targeted Sanctions Consortium (TSC) found that targeted sanctions only result in policy goals being met 22% of the time.<ref>
Smart Sanctions have also not been totally successful in avoiding civilian harm or unintended consequences.<ref name=":13" /> For example, arms embargoes can impact the self-defense efforts of those under attack, aviation bans can affect a nation's transportation sector and the jobs of civilians associated with them, and financial sanctions targeting individuals raise due process issues.
==Implications for businesses==
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====US Embargo Act of 1807====
{{Main|Embargo Act of 1807}}
The United States [[Embargo of 1807]] involved a series of laws passed by the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] (1806–1808) during the second term of President [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=2986 | title = The Embargo of 1807 | author = University of Houston | publisher = digitalhistory.uh.edu | year = 2013 | author-link = University of Houston }}</ref> [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[First French Empire|France]] were engaged in the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]; the US wanted to remain [[Neutral country|neutral]] and to trade with both sides, but both countries objected to American trade with the other.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.gcc.edu/dept/econ/ASSC/Papers2005/Embargo1807_Snyder.pdf | title= The Embargo of 1807
====US embargo of Cuba====
{{Main|United States embargo against Cuba}}
The United States embargo against Cuba began on March 14, 1958, during the overthrow of dictator [[Fulgencio Batista]] by [[Fidel Castro]] during the [[Cuban Revolution]]. At first, the embargo applied only to arms sales; however, it later expanded to include other imports, eventually extending to almost all trade on February 7, 1962.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/proclamations/03447.html | title = Proclamation 3447
==== Other countries ====
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==== Russia sanctions on Ukraine ====
{{Main|Russian sanctions against Ukraine}}
[[Viktor Yushchenko]], the third president of Ukraine who was elected in 2003, lobbied during his term to gain admission to NATO and the [[Ukraine–European Union relations|EU]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Newnham|first=Randall|date=July 2013|title=Pipeline Politics: Russian Energy Sanctions and the 2010 Ukrainian Elections|journal=[[Journal of Eurasian Studies]]|volume=4|issue=2|pages=115–122|doi=10.1016/j.euras.2013.03.001|doi-access=free}}</ref> Soon after Yushchenko entered office, Russia demanded [[Kyiv]] pay the same rate that it charged [[Western Europe]]an states. This quadrupled Ukraine's energy bill overnight.<ref name=":2" /> Russia subsequently cut off the supply of [[Natural gas in Russia|natural gas]] in 2006, causing significant harm to the [[Economy of Ukraine|Ukrainian]] and [[Economy of Russia|Russian economies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldpress.org/Europe/3307.cfm|title=Russia-Ukraine 'Gas War' Damages Both Economies
==== Russian sanctions on Georgia ====
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===United Nations sanctions===
The United Nations issues sanctions by consent of the [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) and/or [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] in response to major international events, receiving authority to do so under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]].<ref name="UN Sanctions">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53850#.WfNxURNSyRt|title=
Most UNSC sanctions since the mid-1990s have targeted individuals and entities rather than entire governments, a change from the comprehensive trade sanctions of earlier decades. For example, the UNSC maintains lists of individuals indicted for crimes or linked to international terrorism, which raises novel legal questions regarding [[due process]]. According to a dataset covering the years 1991 to 2013, 95% of UNSC sanction regimes included "sectoral bans" on aviation and/or the import (or export) of arms or raw materials, 75% included "individual/group" sanctions such as [[Asset freezing|asset freezes]] or restrictions on travel, and just 10% targeted national finances or included measures against [[central bank]]s, [[sovereign wealth fund]]s, or foreign investment. The most frequently used UNSC sanction documented in the dataset is an embargo against imported weapons, which applied in 87% of all cases and was directed against non-state actors more often than against governments. Targeted sanctions regimes may contain hundreds of names, a handful, or none at all.<ref name="Giumelli 2015">{{cite journal|last=Giumelli|first=Francesco|title=Understanding United Nations targeted sanctions: an empirical analysis|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=91|issue=6|date=November 2015|pages=1351–1368|doi=10.1111/1468-2346.12448|url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/f97592f6-c863-44ac-b416-822e339f296e}}</ref>
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==== Sanctions on Libya ====
On February 26, 2011, the UNSC issued an arms embargo against the Libya through [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|Security Council Resolution 1970]] in response to humanitarian abuses occurring in the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|First Libyan Civil War]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/embargoes/un_arms_embargoes/libya/libya_2011|title=UN Arms embargo on Libya |website=www.sipri.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-06}}</ref> The embargo was later extended to mid-2018. Under the embargo, Libya has suffered severe inflation because of increased dependence on the private sector to import goods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/internationalgovernance/shared/PSIG_images/Sanctions/Templates/Libya%2520I%2520Template.doc|title=Evaluating the Impacts and Effectiveness of Targeted Sanctions|website=graduateinstitute.ch|access-date=2017-12-07}}{{dead link|date=February 2024|bot=medic}}</ref> The sanctions caused large cuts to health and education, which caused social conditions to decrease. Even though the sanctions were in response to human rights, their effects were limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Effects%20of%20Targeted%20Sanctions.docx|title=
=== Sanction on the Central African Republic ===
In 2013 the UN decreed an arms embargo against the CAR. The arms embargo was established in the context of an intercommunity conflict between the Séléka rebels, with a Muslim majority, and the predominantly Christian militias. to fight back. Raised UN Security Council lifts arms embargo on CAR on August 1, 2024.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/07/1152656|title=Security Council lifts arms embargo on Central African Republic forces |website=www.news.un.org|language=en|access-date=2024-08-01}}</ref>
====Sanctions on apartheid South Africa====
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===Other multilateral sanctions===
The United States, [[Great Britain|Britain]], the [[Republic of China (1912-49)|Republic of China]] and the [[Netherlands]] imposed [[sanctions against Japan]] in 1940–1941 in response to its [[expansionism]]. Deprived of access to vital oil, iron-ore and steel supplies, Japan started planning for military action to [[Dutch East Indies campaign|seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies]], which required a preemptive [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], triggering the American entry into the [[Pacific War]].<ref>
{{cite web|url= http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20001206155000/http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|url-status= dead|archive-date= 6 December 2000|title= Pearl Harbor Raid, 7 December 1941|date= 3 December 2000|publisher= Department of the Navy
In 1973–1974, [[OAPEC]] instigated the [[1973 oil crisis]] through its [[oil embargo]] against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]]. The results included a sharp rise in [[Price of oil|oil prices]] and in [[OPEC]] revenues, an emergency period of [[energy rationing]], a [[1973–75 recession|global economic recession]], large-scale [[Energy conservation|conservation]] efforts, and long-lasting shifts toward [[natural gas]], [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]] and other [[alternative energy]] sources.<ref>{{cite book | first= Leonardo | last= Maugeri | title= The Age of Oil | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JWmx5uKA6gIC | date= 2006 | publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group | pages= 112–116 |isbn= 9780275990084 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.history.com/topics/energy-crisis | title= Energy Crisis (1970s) | publisher= [[The History Channel]] | date= 2010}}</ref> Israel continued to receive Western support, however.
In 2010, the [[European Union]] made the decision to [[Sanctions against Iran|sanction]] [[Iran]] due to their involvement in their [[Nuclear program of Iran|nuclear program]].<ref name="loc.gov">{{Cite web |title=European Union: Renewed Sanctions Against Iran |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2010-08-09/european-union-renewed-sanctions-against-iran/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
==Current sanctions==
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===By targeted activity===
* In response to cyber-attacks on April 1, 2015, President Obama issued an Executive Order establishing the first-ever economic sanctions. The Executive Order was intended to impact individuals and entities ("designees") responsible for cyber-attacks that threaten the national security, foreign policy, economic health, or financial stability of the US. Specifically, the Executive Order authorized the Treasury Department to freeze designees— assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwc.com/en_US/us/financial-services/regulatory-services/publications/assets/sanctions-cyber-crime.pdf|title=Sanctions: U.S. action on cyber crime|website=pwc|publisher=PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice, April, 2015}}</ref> The European Union implemented their first targeted financial sanctions regarding cyber activity in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Natalie|date=2020-10-01|title=Countering Malicious Cyber Activity: Targeted Financial Sanctions|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3770816|journal=|language=en|volume=|pages=|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3770816 |ssrn=3770816|s2cid=236785768 |via=}}</ref>
* In response to intelligence analysis alleging Russian hacking and interference with the 2016 US elections, President Obama expanded presidential authority to sanction in response to cyber activity that threatens democratic elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=
===Bilateral trade disputes===
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* Japan ([[ABCD line]]) by the US, UK, China and the Netherlands in 1940 to discourage [[Japanese militarism|militarism]]
* Libya by the UN in 2011 due to mass killings of Libyan protesters/rebels. Ended in 2012 after the [[Death of Muammar Gaddafi|overthrow and execution of Gaddafi]]
*India by the UK due to nuclear exports restriction<ref name="UKnuclear">
*Macedonia total trade embargo by Greece (1994–1995)
*Mali total embargo by [[ECOWAS]] in 2012 to force the junta to return power to the civilian government and re-install the National constitution<ref>{{cite news |author=Lydia Polgreen |date=April 2, 2012 |title=Mali Coup Leaders Suffer Sanctions and Loss of Timbuktu |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/world/africa/rebels-take-timbuktu-in-mali.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201182715/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/world/africa/rebels-take-timbuktu-in-mali.html |archive-date= Feb 1, 2024 }}</ref><ref>Callimachi, Rukmini (3 April 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404171138/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/post-coup-mali-hit-with-sanctions-by-african-neighbours/article2390504/ "Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours"]. ''The Globe and Mail''. Retrieved 4 May 2012.</ref>
*[[United States embargo against Nicaragua|Nicaraguan embargo]] by the US
*[[North Vietnam]] (and then unified [[Vietnam]]) trade embargo by the US (1964–1994)<ref>{{cite news |last=Cockburn |first=Patrick |date=February 4, 1994 |title=US finally ends Vietnam embargo |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240224192311/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html |archive-date= Feb 24, 2024 }}</ref>
*Pakistan by the UK in 2002 on nuclear export restrictions<ref name="UKnuclear" />
* [[2006–2007 economic sanctions against the Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian National Authority sanctions]] by Israel, US and other countries (2006–2007)
* [[2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis|Qatar]] by [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], and [[Egypt]] due to Qatar's alleged support for terrorist organizations (2017–2021)<ref>{{Cite web |title=International: United Nations Welcomes Loosening of Sanctions in Gulf Region |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2021-02-17/international-united-nations-welcomes-loosening-of-sanctions-in-gulf-region/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Library of Congress
* [[International sanctions during apartheid|South African sanctions]] by the international community during [[Apartheid]] (see also [[disinvestment from South Africa]])
*Serbia by Kosovo's unilaterally declared government in 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sofiaecho.com/2011/07/21/1127258_kosovo-imposes-embargo-on-serbia|title=Kosovo imposes embargo on Serbia|date=21 July 2011|work=The Sofia Echo|access-date=2 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191608/http://sofiaecho.com/2011/07/21/1127258_kosovo-imposes-embargo-on-serbia |archive-date= Mar 4, 2016 }}</ref>
*[[Sanctions against Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian sanctions]] by the UN in response to the [[Bosnian War]] (1992–2001)<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Mandala de Elegua
*[[Embargo Act of 1807]]
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* Kaempfer, William H. ''International economic sanctions: a public choice perspective'' (1992) [https://archive.org/details/internationaleco0000kaem online]
* Köchler, Hans. ''The United Nations sanctions policy & international law'' (1995) [https://archive.org/details/unitednationssan0000koch online]
* [[Paul Krugman|Krugman, Paul]], "The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of [[Henry Farrell (political scientist)|Henry Farrell]] and [[Abraham L. Newman|Abraham Newman]], ''Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy'', Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.), ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 103, no. 1 (January/February 2024), pp.
* Mulder, Nicholas. ''The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War'' (2022) [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Weapon-Rise-Sanctions-Modern/dp/0300259360/ excerpt] also see [https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economic-weapon-book-review-the-limits-of-sanctions-from-abyssinia-to-ukraine-11643302954?mod=djembooks online review]
* Nossal, Kim Richard. "International sanctions as international punishment." ''International Organization'' 43.2 (1989): 301–322.
* Royal Institute of International Affairs. ''International Sanctions'' (1935).
*{{cite book|last=Selden|first=Zachary|title=Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-275-96387-3}}
* Stevenson, Tom, "First Recourse for Rebels" (review of Nicholas Mulder, ''The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War'', Yale, 2022, {{ISBN|978 0 300 25936 0}}, 434 pp.), ''[[London Review of Books]]'', vol. 44, no. 6 (24 March 2022), pp.
==External links==
* [https://bscn.nl/en/sanctions-risk-list-countries Business and Sanctions Consulting Network: List of Countries]
* [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0014292120301914 The Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB)]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Sanctions Database - GSDB|url=https://www.globalsanctionsdatabase.com/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=
*[https://sanctions.web.unc.edu/ Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions (TIES) Dataset]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morgan|first1=T. Clifton|last2=Bapat|first2=Navin A.|last3=Kobayashi|first3=Yoshiharu|date=2021-12-10|title=The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions data project: a retrospective|url=https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781839102714/9781839102714.00009.xml|journal=Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions|pages=44–61|language=en-US|doi=10.4337/9781839102721.00009|isbn=9781839102721|s2cid=245374708}}</ref>
*[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00223433221087080 The International Sanctions Termination (IST) dataset]
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[[Category:Non-tariff barriers to trade]]
[[Category:Embargoes]]
<references />
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
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