Wikipedia

International broadcasting: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→‎Origins: Adding more info on Happy Station
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
 
(31 intermediate revisions by 7 users not shown)
Line 1:
{{Short description|Radio communications between countries}}
'''International broadcasting''', in a limited extent, began during [[World War I]], when German and British stations broadcast press communiqués using [[Morse code]]. With the severing of Germany's undersea cables, the wireless telegraph station in [[Nauen]] was the country's sole means of long-distance communication.▼
 
'''International broadcasting''' consists of radio and television transmissions that purposefully cross international boundaries, often with then intent of allowing expatriates to remain in touch with their countries of origin as well as educate, inform, and influence residents of foreign countries. Content can range from overt [[propaganda]] and [[counterpropaganda]] to cultural content to news reports that reflect the point of view and concerns of the originating country or that seek to provide alternative information to that otherwise available as well as promote tourism and trade. In the first half of the twentieth century, international broadcasting was used by colonial empires as a means of connecting
The US Navy Radio Service radio station in New Brunswick, Canada, transmitted the '[[Fourteen Points]]' by wireless to Nauen in 1917.<ref>Wood 2000: 56</ref> In turn, Nauen station broadcast the news of the abdication of [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] on November 10, 1918.<ref>U.S. Government Printing Office. ''International Law Documents: Neutrality, Conduct and Conclusion of Hostilities''. 1919, p. 55</ref>
colonies with the [[metropole]] (for example the BBC Empire Service as well as France's [[:fr:Le Poste colonial|Poste Colonial]] and the Dutch overseas radio services, [[PCJJ]] and PHOHI). When operated by governments or entities close to a government, international broadcasting can be a form of [[soft power]]. Less frequently, international broadcasting has been undertaken for commercial purposes by private broadcasters.
 
▲'''International broadcasting''', in a limited extent, began during [[World War I]], when German and British stations broadcast press communiqués using [[Morse code]]. With the severing of Germany's undersea cables, the wireless telegraph station in [[Nauen]] was the country's sole means of long-distance communication. The US Navy Radio Service radio station in New Brunswick, Canada, transmitted the '[[Fourteen Points]]' by wireless to Nauen in 1917.<ref>Wood 2000: 56</ref> In turn, Nauen station broadcast the news of the abdication of [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] on November 10, 1918.<ref>U.S. Government Printing Office. ''International Law Documents: Neutrality, Conduct and Conclusion of Hostilities''. 1919, p. 55</ref>
 
== History ==
Line 10 ⟶ 12:
[[Guglielmo Marconi]] pioneered the use of [[short wave]] radio for long-distance transmissions in the early 1920s. Using a system of parabolic reflector antennae, Marconi's assistant, [[Charles Samuel Franklin]], rigged up a large antenna at [[Poldhu|Poldhu Wireless Station]], [[Cornwall]], running on 25&nbsp;kW of power. In June and July 1923, wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters from Poldhu to Marconi's yacht ''Elettra'' in the [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]].<ref name="Bray">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3h7R36Y0yFUC|title=Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet|author=John Bray|year=2002|publisher=IET|pages=73–75|isbn=9780852962183}}</ref> High speed shortwave telegraphy circuits were then installed from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada as the main element of the [[Imperial Wireless Chain]] from 1926.<ref name="Bray"/>
 
The Dutch began conducting experiments in the shortwave frequencies in 1925 from [[Eindhoven]]. The radio station [[PCJJ]] began the first international broadcasting on March 11, 1927, with programmes in Dutch for colonies in the [[Dutch West Indies]] and [[Dutch East Indies]] and in German, Spanish and English for the rest of the world. The popular ''[[Happy Station Show|Happy Station]]'' show was inaugurated in 1928 and became the world's longest-running shortwave programme, continuing until 1995 after, transferring to [[Radio Netherlands]] after World War II.<ref>[http://www.bureauafrique.nl/autresdepartements/africa/Radionetherlandsturns60/aboutrnw_history ''History of Radio Netherlands''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228214010/http://www.bureauafrique.nl/autresdepartements/africa/Radionetherlandsturns60/aboutrnw_history |date=2009-02-28 }}</ref>
 
In 1927, Marconi also turned his attention toward long distance broadcasting on shortwave. His first such broadcasts took place to commemorate [[Armistice Day]] in the same year. He continued running a regular international broadcast that was picked up around the world, with programming from the [[2LO]] station, then run by the [[BBC]]. The success of this operation caught the BBC's attention who rented out a shortwave transmitting station in [[Chelmsford]], with the callsign G5SW, to Marconi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ontheshortwaves.com/Wavescan/wavescan090920.html|title=Daventry Calling - 2: Station G5SW Chelmsford }}</ref> The [[BBC Empire Service]] was finally inaugurated on December 19, 1932, with transmissions aimed towards Australia and New Zealand.<ref>BBC World Service. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/history/timeline.shtml ''World Service timeline''].</ref>
 
=== Expansion ===
Other notable early international broadcasters included [[Vatican Radio]] (February 12, 1931), [[Voice of Russia|Radio Moscow]], the official service of the Soviet Union (renamed the [[Voice of Russia]], following the collapse of the Soviet Union). Clarence W. Jones started transmitting on Christmas Day, 1931 from Christian missionary radio station [[HCJB]] in [[Quito]], [[Ecuador]]. Broadcasting in South Asia was launched in 1925 in [[Ceylon]] -– [[Radio Ceylon]], now the [[Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]] is the oldest in the region.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-17049, Joseph Goebbels spricht.jpg|thumb|left|200px213x213px|[[Joseph Goebbels]] headed [[Nazi Germany]]'s [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] in [[Nazi Germany]]. International broadcasting was an important element in [[Nazi propaganda]].]]
Shortwave broadcasting from [[Nauen]] in Germany to the US, Central and South America, and the Far East began in 1926. A second station, [[Zeesen short-wave transmitter (1931)|Zeesen]], was added in 1931.<ref>Wood 2000: 49</ref> In January 1932, the German [[Reichspost]] assumed control of the Nauen station and added to its shortwave and longwave capacity.<ref>Wood 2000:57</ref> Once [[Adolf Hitler]] assumed power in 1933, shortwave, under the ''Auslandsrundfunk'' (Foreign Radio Section), was regarded as a vital element of [[Nazi propaganda]].
 
Line 27 ⟶ 29:
 
=== World War II ===
During the [[Second World War]], Russian, German, British, and Italian international broadcasting services expanded. In 1938 the British [[BBC World Service|BBC]] launched international services in [[BBC German Service|German]], French and Italian. In 1942, the United States initiated its international broadcasting service, the [[Voice of America]]. In the Pacific theater, General [[Douglas MacArthur]] used shortwave radio to keep in touch with the citizens of the Japanese-occupied Philippine Islands.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
Several announcers who became well known in their countries included [[British Union of Fascists]] member [[William Joyce]], who was one of the two "[[Lord Haw-Haw]]"s; Frenchmen [[Paul Ferdonnet]] and [[André Olbrecht]], called "the traitors of [Radio] Stuttgart"; and Americans [[Frederick William Kaltenbach]], "Lord Hee-Haw", and [[Mildred Gillars]], one of the two announcers called "[[Axis Sally]]". Listeners to German programs often tuned in for curiosity's sake—at one time, German radio had half a million listeners in the U.S.--but most of them soon lost interest. Japan had "[[Tokyo Rose]]", who broadcast Japanese propaganda in English, along with American music to help ensure listeners.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
During World War II, Vatican Radio's news broadcasts were banned in Germany. During the war, the radio service operated in four languages.<ref name="Levillain 2002: 1600"/>
 
The British launched [[Radio SEAC]] from Colombo, [[Ceylon]] (Sri Lanka) during World War II. The station broadcast radio programs to the allied armed forces across the region from their headquarters in Ceylon.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
Following the war and German partition, each Germany developed its own international broadcasting station: [[Deutsche Welle]], using studios in [[Cologne]], West Germany, and [[Radio Berlin International]] (RBI) in East Germany. RBI's broadcasts ceased shortly before the reunification of Germany on October 3, 1990, and Deutsche Welle took over its transmitters and frequencies.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
=== Cold War era ===
The Cold War led to increased international broadcasting (and [[radio jamming|jamming]]), as Communist and non-Communist states attempted to influence each other's domestic population. Some of the most prominent Western broadcasters were the [[Voice of America]], the [[BBC World Service]], and the [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]. The Soviet Union's most prominent service was [[Radio Moscow]] and China used [[Radio Peking]] (then [[Radio Beijing]], now [[China Radio International]]). In addition to the U.S.-Soviet cold war, the Chinese-Russian border dispute led to an increase of the numbers of transmitters aimed at the two nations, and the development of new techniques such as playing tapes backwards for reel-to-reel recorders.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
West Germany resumed regular shortwave broadcasts using [[Deutsche Welle]] on May 3, 1953. Its [[Jülich radio transmitter|Julich transmitter site]] began operation in 1956, with eleven 100-kW [[Telefunken]] transmitters. The [[Wertachtal transmitter site|Wertachtal site]] was authorized in 1972 and began with four 500-kW transmitters. By 1989, there were 15 transmitters, four of which relayed the Voice of America.<ref>Wood 2000: 51</ref> Meanwhile, in East Germany, the [[Nauen Transmitter Station|Nauen site]] began transmitting Radio DDR, later Radio Berlin International, on October 15, 1959.<ref>Wood 2000: 58</ref>
 
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Antenna system used Radio-Liberty 02.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagrams showing coverage of the [[Radio Liberty]] transmission site at [[Playa de Pals|Playa de Pals, Spain]] {{FFDC|Antenna system used Radio-Liberty 02.jpg|9 May 26|date=March 2012}}]] -->
In addition to these states, international broadcast services grew in Europe and the [[Middle East]]. Under the presidency of [[Gamal Nasser]], [[Egypt]]ian transmitters covered the Arab world; Israel's service, [[Kol Yisrael]], served both to present the Israeli point of view to the world and to serve the [[Jewish diaspora]], particularly behind the [[Iron Curtain]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
[[Radio RSA]], as part of the South African Broadcasting Corporation, was established in 1966 to promote the image of South Africa internationally and reduce criticism of apartheid.<ref>Horwitz 2001: 287</ref> It continued in 1992, when the post-apartheid government renamed it [[Channel Africa]].
 
Ironically, the isolationist [[Albania]] under [[Enver Hoxha]], virtually a [[hermit kingdom]], became one of the most prolific international broadcasters during the latter decades of the Cold War, with [[Radio Tirana]] one of the top five broadcasters in terms of hours of programming produced.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
'''Estimated total programme hours per week of some external broadcasters'''<ref>[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/BBC_YEAR_Book_Page_Key.htm BBC Handbook]</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="width:90%"
! Country !! Political<br />Alignment !! Broadcaster(s) !! 1950 !! 1955 !! 1960 !! 1965 !! 1970 !! 1975 !! 1980 !! 1985 !! 1990
|-
| {{ALB}} || [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] || [[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar#Radio|Radio Tirana]] || 26 || 47 || 63 || 154 || 487 || 490 || 560 || 581 || 451
Line 117 ⟶ 119:
 
=== Today ===
At the end of the [[Cold War]], many international broadcasters cut back on hours and foreign languages broadcast, or reemphasized other language services. For example, in 1984, Radio Canada International broadcast in English, French, German, Spanish, Czech/Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian. In 2005, RCI broadcast in English, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, and Spanish. There is a bigger trend towards TV (e.g. BBC World News, NHK World, CCTV-9) and news websites.{{Citation Someneeded|date=July services,2024}} such as Swiss Radio International, left shortwave altogether and exist in Internet form, [[Swissinfo]]. In addition, new standards, such as [[Digital Radio Mondiale]], are being introduced, as well as sending programs over the Web to be played back later, as "[[podcast]]s".
 
Some services, such as Swiss Radio International, left shortwave altogether and exist in Internet form, [[Swissinfo]]. Radio Canada International ceased shortwave broadcasting in 2012 becoming a purely online service producing podcasts and maintaining a website in several languages.<ref>{{cite news|title=Radio Canada International goes off-air, moving online-only after 67 years of shortwave service|url=http://j-source.ca/article/radio-canada-international-goes-air-moving-online-only-after-67-years-shortwave-service|access-date=June 6, 2013|newspaper=J-Source|date=June 25, 2012|archive-date=July 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701143352/http://www.j-source.ca/article/radio-canada-international-goes-air-moving-online-only-after-67-years-shortwave-service|url-status=dead}}</ref> Radio Netherlands ceased broadcasting in 2012 and was transformed into [[RNW Media]], an [[NGO]] that trains youth in developing countries to use [[digital media]] for social change.<ref>https://www.rnw.media/ {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref> Radio Moscow's successor, [[Voice of Russia]], was disbanded in 2014 and replaced by [[Sputnik (news agency)|Sputnik]], a multimedia news platform, which does not broadcast on shortwave.<ref name=uk.SputnikNews>{{cite news|url=http://uk.SputnikNews.com/voiceofrussia/news/2014_11_10/Voice-of-Russia-becomes-Sputnik-8149/|title=The Voice of Russia becomes Sputnik|website=uk.SputnikNews.com|access-date=18 November 2014|publisher=The Voice of Russia|date=10 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129050431/http://uk.sputniknews.com/voiceofrussia/news/2014_11_10/Voice-of-Russia-becomes-Sputnik-8149/|archive-date=29 November 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Other shortwave broadcasters have [[List of shortwave radio broadcasters|ceased operations entirely]] since the 1990s.<ref name="WRTH">{{cite web |title=World Radio TV Handbook |url=https://www.wrth.com/ |website=wrth.com |publisher=WRTH Publications Ltd. Radio Data Center GmbH |access-date=19 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="SWI">{{cite web |title=Short Wave Info |url=https://www.short-wave.info/ |website=short-wave.info |access-date=19 October 2023}}</ref>
International broadcasting using the traditional audio-only method will not cease any time soon due to its cost efficiencies. However, international broadcasting via television is considered more strategically important at least since the early 2000s.▼
 
In addition, new standards, such as [[Digital Radio Mondiale]], are being introduced, as well as sending programs over the Web to be played back later, as "[[podcast]]s".{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
The [[BBC World Service]] was the first broadcaster to consider setting up a satellite television news and information channel as far back as 1976, but ceded being the first to [[CNN]] (that had primary access to [[Canada]] soon after launch). The defunct BBC World Service [[Antigua]] Relay Station was built in 1976, but its setup costs were not known to have been part of the BBCWS decision processes at the time.▼
 
▲International broadcasting using the traditional audio-only method will not cease any time soon due to its cost efficiencies. However, international broadcasting via television is considered more strategically important at least since the early 2000s.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
In the early 1990s, many international (as well as domestic) 24-hour news and information channels launched as part of the post-[[Cold War]] prosperity bubble. There was another burst of global news channels launching in the late 2000s as part the developing world trying to catch up with the developed world in this area.▼
 
▲The [[BBC World Service]] was the first broadcaster to consider setting up a satellite television news and information channel as far back as 1976, but ceded being the first to [[CNN]] (that had primary access to [[Canada]] soon after launch). The defunct BBC World Service [[Antigua]] Relay Station was built in 1976, but its setup costs were not known to have been part of the BBCWS decision processes at the time.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
▲In the early 1990s, many international (as well as domestic) 24-hour news and information channels launched as part of the post-[[Cold War]] prosperity bubble. There was another burst of global news channels launching in the late 2000s as part the developing world trying to catch up with the developed world in this area.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
== Reasons for international broadcasting ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}
Broadcasters in one country have several reasons to reach out to an audience in other countries. Commercial broadcasters may simply see a business opportunity to sell advertising or subscriptions to a broader audience. This is more efficient than broadcasting to a single country, because domestic entertainment programs and information gathered by domestic news staff can be cheaply repackaged for non-domestic audiences.
 
Line 142 ⟶ 149:
=== Notable networks ===
{{main|List of world news channels}}
* [[TV1 (Malaysian TV network)|TV1]] (Malaysian Malays and Malaysian English)
* [[Berita RTM]] (Malaysian Malays and Malaysian English)
* [[:ms:RTM Asean|RTM ASEAN]] (Malaysian English)
* [[CNN International]] (English)
* [[BBC WorldNews (TV Channel)|BBC News]] ([[BBC Arabic Television|Arabic]], English, [[BBC Persian Television|Persian]])
* [[BBC World Service]] (Arabic, Azeri, Bengali, Burmese, Cantonese, English, French for Africa, Hausa, Hindi, Indonesian, Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Kyrgyz, Nepali, Pashto, Persian, Portuguese for Brazil, Russian, Sinhala, Somali, Spanish for Latin America, Swahili, Tamil, Turkish, Ukrainian, Urdu, Uzbek, Vietnamese)
* [[DD News]] (Hindi, English, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malawi, Urdu, Bangla, Marathi, Malayalam, Thai, Baloch, Arabic, Fiji Hindi, Bhojpuri, Assami, Nagapure)
Line 150 ⟶ 160:
* [[France 24]] (French, English, Arabic, Spanish)
* [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] ([[Al Jazeera English|English]], Arabic)
* [[telesur (TV channel)|Telesur]] (Spanish, Portuguese, English)
* [[Deutsche Welle]] (German, English, FrenchSpanish, Hindi, Tamil, Russian, Arabic, HindiPersian, SpanishDari, andPashto, 27Urdu, otherAlbanian, Amharic, Bengali, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Mandarin Chinese, French, Greek, Hausa, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Turkish, Macedonian, Portuguese, Romanian, Serbian, languagesUkrainian)
* [[Brazil Communication Company|EBC]] (Portuguese, English, Spanish)
* [[TRT World]] (English, [[TRT Arabi|Arabic]], [[TRT Türk|Turkish]])
* [[Voice of Turkey]] (English, Arabic, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Bulgarian, Chinese, Dari, French, TurkishGeorgian, andGerman, 22Hausa, otherItalian, Japanese, Kazakh, Malay, Pashto, Kurdish, Russian, Spanish, Swahili, Turkmen, Turkish, Urdu, Uyghur, languagesUzbek)
* [[Press Trust of India]] (Hindi and 98 other languages)
* [[Press TV]] (English, French)
Line 160 ⟶ 170:
* [[CNA (TV network)|CNA]] (English)
* [[Zee News]] (Hindi)
* [[RT (TV network)|RT]] (Russian, English, French, German, Arabic, Spanish)
* [[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee Entertainment]] (Hindi, Thai, English, Tamil, Telghu, and 126 other local languages)
* [[Voice of Indonesia]] (English, French, Spanish, German, Indonesian, Japanese, Arabic, Chinese, Dutch)
* [[ABC Australia (Asia-Pacific Television)|ABC Australia]] (English)
* [[RNZ International]] (English, French, Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, Cook Islands Maori, Solomon Islands Pidgin<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/pacificlangaugesnews|title=News in Pacific Languages|access-date=2021-04-17|publisher=RNZ}}</ref>)
* [[i24NEWS]] (English, French, Spanish, Arabic)
* [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] (Tamil)
* [[NHK World-Japan]] (English, Japanese and 16 other languages)
* [[China Global Television Network|CGTN]] ([[CGTN (TV channel)|English]], [[CGTN French|French]], [[CGTN Spanish|Spanish]], [[CGTN Russian|Russian]], [[CGTN Arabic|Arabic]])
* [[China Radio International]] (Albanian, Arabic, Armenian, Belarusian, Bengali, Bulgarian, Burmese, Croatian, Cambodian, Czech, Dutch, English, Esperanto, Estonian, Filipino, French, Gernan, Greek, Hausa, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Laotian, Malaysian, Nepali, Persian, Polish, Portugaese, Pashto, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Sinhala, Spanish, Swahili, Swedish, Tamil, Turkish, Ukrainian, Urdu, Vietnamese, Hakka, Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka, Wenzhouese, Uyghur, Kazakh, Mongolian, Korean)
* [[ArirangTVArirang TV|Arirang]] (English, Korean, Chinese, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Vietnamese, Indonesian)
* [[WION (TV channel)|WION]] (English)
* [[The Filipino Channel]] (English, Filipino)
* [[GMA Pinoy TV]] (English, Filipino)
* [[Kapatid Channel]] (English, Filipino)
* [[Radiodifusión Argentina al Exterior|RAE]] (Spanish, German, French, English, Italian, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, and formerly Arabic)
* [[SVT1]] (Swedish)
* [[SVT2]] (Swedish)
 
== Means to reach an audience ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}
Because of this many broadcasters are discovering they can reach a wider audience through other methods (particularly the internet and satellite television) and are cutting back on (or even entirely dropping) shortwave.
 
Line 203 ⟶ 216:
Transmitter output power has increased since 1920. Higher transmitter powers do guarantee better reception in the target area. Higher transmitter power in most cases counteracts the lesser effects of [[radio jamming|jamming]].
* 1950s : 100&nbsp;kW
* 1960s : 200&nbsp;kW, early 1960s (2 x× 100&nbsp;kW 'twinned')
* 1970s : 300&nbsp;kW, but many 250&nbsp;kW transmitters sold
* 1980s : 500&nbsp;kW sometimes transmitters were "doubled up" to produce 1000&nbsp;kW output
Line 211 ⟶ 224:
 
=== Digital audio broadcasting ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}{{see also|Digital Radio Mondiale|Internet radio}}
 
Some international broadcasters have become available via [[digital audio broadcasting]] (DAB) in Europe in the 1990s, and in a similar limited way in the Americas via in-band FM ([[IBOC]]) DAB systems in the US in the 2000s. This is a popular method to reach listeners in cars that would otherwise not be accessible during that part of the day. However, in terms of the global international broadcasting audience the DAB listener base is very small—one can assume that it is less than 2% of the listener base globally.{{says who|date=September 2020}}
Line 227 ⟶ 240:
International broadcasters known to maintain their own streaming video sites (not authoritative):
 
* [[TV1 (Malaysian TV network)|TV1]]
* [[:ms:RTM Asean|RTM ASEAN]]
* [[ABC Australia (Southeast Asian TV channel)|ABC Australia]]
* [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]]
Line 247 ⟶ 262:
 
== Listeners ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}
An international broadcaster may have the technical means of reaching a foreign audience, but unless the foreign audience has a reason to listen, the effectiveness of the broadcaster is in question.
 
Line 263 ⟶ 279:
In North Korea, all receivers are sold with fixed frequencies, tuned to [[List of radio stations in North Korea|local stations]].
 
The most common method of preventing reception is [[radio jamming|jamming]], or broadcasting a signal on the same frequencies as the international broadcaster. Germany jammed the BBC European service during the Second World War. Russian and Eastern European jammers were aimed against [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Radio Free Europe]], other Western broadcasters, and against Chinese broadcasters during the nadir of Sino-Soviet relations. In 2002, the Cuban government jammed the [[Voice of America]]'s [[Radio y Televisión Martí|Radio Martí]] program and the Chinese government jammed [[Radio Free Asia]], [[Voice of America]], [[Radio Taiwan International]] as well broadcasts made by adherents of [[Falun Gong]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
North Korea restricts most people to a single fixed frequency mediumwave receiver; those who met political requirements and whose work absolutely required familiarity with events abroad were allowed shortwave receivers.<ref>Martin 2006: 495</ref> Another method of reaching people with government radio programming, but not foreign programming, is the use of radio broadcasting by direct broadcasting to loudspeakers.<ref>Goetz, Philip W. ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1991 edition, {{ISBN|0-85229-400-X}}, p 315</ref>
David Jackson, director of the Voice of America, noted "The North Korean government doesn't jam us, but they try to keep people from listening through intimidation or worse. But people figure out ways to listen despite the odds. They're very resourceful."<ref>Jackson, David. "The Future of Radio II". ''World Radio TV Handbook'', 2007 edition. 2007, Billboard Books. {{ISBN|0-8230-5997-9}}. p 38.</ref>
 
Yet another method of preventing reception involves moving a domestic station to the frequency used by the international broadcaster. During the Batista government of Cuba, and during the Castro years, Cuban medium-wave stations broadcast on the frequencies of popular South Florida stations. In October 2002, Iraq changed frequencies of two stations to block the Voice of America's [[Radio Sawa]] program.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
 
Jamming can be defeated by using very efficient transmitting antennas, carefully choosing the transmitted frequency, changing transmitted frequency often, using [[Single-sideband modulation|single sideband]], and properly aiming the receiving antenna.▼
 
▲Jamming can be defeated by using very efficient transmitting antennas, carefully choosing the transmitted frequency, changing transmitted frequency often, using [[Single-sideband modulation|single sideband]], and properly aiming the receiving antenna.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
For a list of international broadcasters, see [[List of international broadcasters]].▼
 
== See also ==
▲For a list of international broadcasters, see* [[List of international broadcasters]].
* [[List of shortwave radio broadcasters]]
* [[Shortwave]]
Line 290 ⟶ 305:
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* Graef 2005<br />Graef, Robert. ''Bicycling to Amersfoort: A World War II Memoir''. 2005, iUniverse. {{ISBN|0-595-34621-9}}
* Horwitz 2001<br />Horwitz, Robert Britt. ''Communication and Democratic Reform in South Africa''. 2001, Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-79166-9}}.
* Hughes and Mann 2002<br />Hughes, Matthew, and Chris Mann. ''Inside Hitler's Germany: Life Under the Third Reich''. 2002, Brassey's. {{ISBN|1-57488-503-0}}
* Levillain 2002<br />Levillain, Philippe. ''The Papacy: An Encyclopedia''. Translated by John O'Malley. Routledge, 2002. {{ISBN|0-415-92228-3}}
* Martin 2006<br />Martin, Bradley K. ''Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty''. 2006, Macmillan. {{ISBN|0-312-32221-6}}
* Wood 2000<br />Wood, James. ''History of International Broadcasting''. 2000, IET. {{ISBN|0-85296-920-1}}
{{refend}}
 
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_broadcasting"