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[[File:Venus of Brassempouy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Venus of Brassempouy]], about 25,000 BP]]
[[File:CroixCelteReliquaireIvoireMorse.jpg|thumb|upright|11th-century [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] ivory cross reliquary of [[walrus]] ivory]]
'''Ivory carving''' is the carving of [[ivory]], that is to say animal tooth or [[tusk]], generally by using sharp cutting tools, either mechanically or manually. Objects carved in ivory are often called "ivories".
Humans have ornamentally carved ivory since [[prehistoric]] times, though until the 19th-century opening-up of the interior of Africa, it was usually a rare and expensive material used for small luxury products. Very fine detail can be achieved, and as the material, unlike precious metals, has no bullion value and usually cannot easily be recycled, the survival rate for ivory pieces is much higher than for those in other materials. Ivory carving has a special importance to the [[medieval art]] of Europe because of this, and in particular for [[Byzantine art]] as so little [[monumental sculpture]] was produced or has survived.<ref>Williamson, 5-6</ref>
As the elephant and other ivory-producing species have become [[endangered species|endangered]], largely because of hunting for ivory, [[CITES]] and national legislation in most countries have reduced the modern production of carved ivory.
==The material==
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The [[Khufu Statuette]] may come from the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]] ([[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], c. 2613 to 2494 BC), when its subject lived, or it may have been carved much later, in the [[Twenty-Sixth Dynasty]] (664 BC–525 BC). The [[MacGregor plaque]] is more securely dated to around 2985 BC, and may have decorated a royal sandal.
Thin ivory plaques were widely used throughout the ancient world as inlays to decorate palace furniture, musical instruments, gaming boards and other luxurious objects. The [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] (1330s BC) contains many such ivory elements, the largest perhaps his carved headrest. The [[Nimrud ivories]] are a large group of such objects recovered from a furniture storeroom at the Assyrian capital. They date to around the 9th to 6th centuries BC, and have a number of different origins from around the [[Assyrian Empire]], with the [[Levant]] the most common. The so-called [[Pratt Ivories]] are another smaller group of furniture attachments from the early second
Ivory was used in the [[Palace of Darius in Susa]] in the [[Achaemenid Empire]], according to an inscription by [[Darius I]]. The raw material was brought from [[Nubia]] in Africa and South Asia ([[Hindush|Sind]] and [[Arachosia]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm#dsf|title=Old Persian Texts|first=Joseph H.|last=Peterson|website=www.avesta.org|access-date=26 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011020847/http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm#dsf|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref>
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[[File:Casket ivory Louvre UCAD4417.jpg|thumb|right|Casket, ivory and silver, Muslim Spain, 966]]
Ivory is a very suitable material for the intricate geometrical patterns of [[Islamic art]], and has been much used for boxes, inlays in wood and other purposes.
From 750 to 1258 A.D.,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdC90uc8PfQC&pg=PA9|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience|first=Tahir|last=Abbas|date=1 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781136959608|access-date=26 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref> the Islamic world was more prosperous than the West and had more direct access to the ivory trades of both India and Africa, so Islamic use of the material is noticeably more generous than European, with many fairly large caskets, round boxes that use a full section of tusk (left), and other pieces.
[[Openwork]], where a panel of ivory is cut right through for parts of the design is very common, as it is in Islamic woodwork. Like many aspects of Islamic ivory this reflects the Byzantine traditions Islam inherited. [[Islamic aniconism]] was often less strictly enforced in small decorative works, and many Islamic ivories have delightful figures of animals, and human figures, especially hunters.<ref name="Shatzmiller1993">{{cite book |last=Shatzmiller |first=Maya |title=Labour in the Medieval Islamic World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bzo0Skd1kcYC&pg=PA229 |date=1993 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-09896-8 |pages=229–230}}</ref><ref>Jones, Dalu & Michell, George (eds); ''The Arts of Islam'', Arts Council of Great Britain, 1976, {{ISBN|0-7287-0081-6}}. pp. 147–150, and exhibits following</ref>
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[[File:Zamora_pyxis,_AH_353_(967),_National_Archeological_Museum,_Madrid_(29325584126).jpg|thumb|[[Pyxis of Zamora]], 967]]
Objects produced in courtly settings were made for elite political and religious figures, often proclaiming the endurance of the caliphate at that time.<ref>Department of Islamic Art. “The Art of the Umayyad Period in Spain (711–1031).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sumay/hd_sumay.htm (October 2001)</ref> [[Pyxis of al-Mughira]] depicts these themes, utilizing symbolic imagery of lions, hunting, and abundant vegetal ornaments. This [[pyxis]] is heavily detailed and completely covered in decoration. Like the bands of text along the top of the container, the imagery is meant to be perceived from right to left, containing various scenes that complete a unified display.<ref name=":0" /> The use of symbolism was successful in these works because instead of celebrating one specific caliph, the figures and animals are reminiscent of the prevalence of Islam as a whole.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meisami, Julie Scott, 1937-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/889252264|title=Medieval Persian court poetry|date=14 July 2014|isbn=978-1-4008-5878-1|location=Princeton, New Jersey|oclc=889252264}}</ref>
[[Lion]]s were a common symbol of success, power, and monarchy. Additionally, vegetal and floral imagery displayed abundance, and in the context of many ivory carvings, fertility and femininity.<ref name=":0" /> Women of the court were often the recipients of these ivory containers, for weddings or ceremonies. The containers were used to hold jewelry or perfumes, thus embodying an intimate environment for the container, the owner, and the contents. The delicate character of the ivory was utilized to create a relationship between the object and the woman it was created for. Many containers also included poetic phrases that activated the object, calling attention to its visual characteristics. In the [[Pyxis of Zamora]], the inscription reads, "The sight I offer is of the fairest, the firm breast of a delicate maiden. Beauty has invested me with splendid raiment that makes a display of jewels. I am a receptacle for musk, camphor, and ambergris."<ref name=":0" />
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Travancore was considered one of the prime centres of ivory carving in India. Most distinguished specimens of ivory carving from Travancore are the thrones designed for the royal family. In 1851 a throne and a footstool carved under the patronage of [[Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma]] was presented for Great London Exhibition in 1851. Both the articles were heavily carved and embedded with precious gemstones. Design of the chair incorporated Indian and European motives along with Conch-shell emblem of Travancore. Presently, the throne is displayed at Garter Throne Room, [[Windsor Castle]], Berkshire, United Kingdom.
[[Murshidabad]] in the state of [[West Bengal]], India was a famed centre for ivory carving. A set of ivory table and chairs, displayed at [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria Memorial]], [[Kolkata]] is an exquisite example of carving done by Murshidabad carvers. This is a five legged arm chair, where three legs culminate into a tiger's claw while the remaining two culminate into an open mouthed tiger's head. The table as well as chair have a perforated floral motif (jaali work) with traces of gold plating. This table and chair were presented to the museum by [[Maharaja of Darbhanga]]. The carvers of Murshidabad called the solid end of the elephant tusk as ''Nakshidant'', the middle portion as ''Khondidant'' and the thick hollow end as ''Galhardant''.<ref>A Pageant of Indian Culture at page 122. Author - Ashoke Kumar Bhattacharya.</ref> They preferred using the solid end of the elephant tusk for their work.
[[Sri Lankan ivories]] were also a noted tradition.
=== Objects ===
Ivory carving in India can be categorised in both non-decorative and decorative objects. The unadorned objects are specifically from earlier
Another prominent typology discovered is of grooming objects and the most common examples in this category are combs and hairpins. Typical example of ivory combs from the earlier period is from [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]]
Apart from the small objects, ivory carvings was also used in furniture, containers, building elements and carved boats mounted on display stands.<ref name=":1" /> One of the exquisite example of ivory carved chair can be seen in Salar Jung Museum, this chair was gifted to [[Tipu Sultan]] by King Louis XVI and later acquired by Salar Jung III in 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=salar jung museum |url=https://salarjungmuseum.in/Ivory-Carvings.html |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=salarjungmuseum.in}}</ref> Significant examples of use of ivory in building elements can be seen in the Darshani Door at [[Golden Temple|Sri Harmandir Sahib]] at Amritsar<ref>{{Cite web |title=GOLDEN TEMPLE AT AMRITSAR, PUNJAB. - ProQuest |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/b653f497d51bc53a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2533 |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.proquest.com |language=en}}</ref> and the entrance door at the [[Gumbaz, Srirangapatna|Mausoleum of Tipu Sultan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gumbaz - The Burial Chamber of Tipu Sultan, the Tiger of Mysore - Baiju Joseph |url=https://www.baijujoseph.com/India/Karnataka/Tipu-Sultan-Memorial/Gumbaz-Tipu-Sultans-Tomb/i-FqLzcmK |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.baijujoseph.com |language=en}}</ref>
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==East Asia==
[[File:Chinese ivory puzzle ball, 19th cenntury, british museum.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chinese puzzle ball]] with openwork and a series of twelve smaller balls, ivory, 19th century]]
Ivory was not a prestigious material in the rather strict hierarchy of [[Chinese art]], where [[jade]] has always been far more highly regarded, and [[rhinoceros horn]], which is not ivory, had a special auspicious position.<ref>Rawson, 179-182</ref> But ivory, as well as bone, has been used for various items since early times, when China still had its [[Chinese elephant|own species of elephant]] — demand for ivory seems to have played a large part in their extinction, which came before 100 BC. From the [[Ming
In the [[Qing
[[File:Khalili Collection Japanese Meiji Art MISC066C.jpg|thumb|''Basket of Flowers''. circa 1900, [[Meiji (era)|Meiji period]]. [[Khalili Collection of Japanese Art]].]]
In [[Japan]], ivory carving became popular around the [[Edo period]] in the 17th century. [[Kimono]] worn by people at that time had no pockets, and they carried small things by hanging containers called ''sagemono'' and ''[[inro]]'' from ''[[Obi (sash)|obi]]''. The ''[[kiseru]]'', a [[smoking pipe]] carried in a container, and the ''[[netsuke]]'', a toggle on a container, were often decorated with fine ivory carvings of animals and legendary creatures.<ref name = "murata88">Masayuki Murata. (2017) ''Introduction to Meiji Crafts'' pp. 88–89. Me no Me. {{ISBN|978-4907211110}}</ref>
With the start of modernization of Japan by the [[Meiji Restoration]] in the mid-1800s, the [[samurai]] class was abolished, and Japanese clothes began to be westernized, and many craftsmen lost their demand. Craftsmen who made [[Japanese swords]] and [[Japanese armour|armor]] from metal and [[Japanese lacquerware|lacquer]], and those who made ''netsuke'' and ''kiseru'' from ivory needed new demand. The new Meiji government promoted the exhibition and export of arts and crafts to the [[World's fair]]<!-- Which one? --> in order to give works to craftsmen and earn foreign currency, and the [[Imperial House of Japan|Imperial family]] cooperated to promote arts and crafts by purchasing excellent works. Japanese ivory carvings were praised overseas for their exquisite workmanship, and in Japan, [[:ja:石川光明|Ishikawa Komei]] and [[:ja:旭玉山|Asahi Gyokuzan]] gained a particularly high reputation, and their masterpieces presented to the Imperial Family are housed in the [[Museum of the Imperial Collections]].<ref name = "murata88"/>
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Ivory from Africa was widely sought after outside the continent by the 14th century due in part to the poorer quality of Asian ivory.<ref name=":9">Sheriff, A. (2002). ''Slaves, Spices, & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African commercial empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873''. J. Currey.</ref> While [[Asian elephant|Asian]] ivory is brittle, more difficult to polish, and tends to yellow with exposure to air, African ivory often comes in larger pieces, a more sought after cream colour, and is easier to carve. Ivory from Africa came from one of two types of elephant in Africa; the more desirable bush elephant with larger and heavier tusks or the forest elephant with smaller and straighter tusks.<ref name=":11">Wilson, D., & Ayerst, P. W. (1976). ''White Gold: The Story Of African Ivory''. Taplinger Pub. Co.</ref>
Ivory tusks as well as ivory objects such as carved [[
[[Kongo ivories]] were one West African type, and the [[art of Benin]] produced many large pieces, some for use in the court of the [[Kingdom of Benin]], including [[Benin ivory mask|ivory mask]]s that may be portraits, and objects in a quasi-European taste for export via the Portuguese. Examples include a set of [[Saltcellar with Portuguese Figures|saltcellars with Portuguese Figures]]. The simpler [[Sapi-Portuguese Ivory Spoon]] came from further along the coast.
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===Notes===
{{notelist}}
===Citations===
{{reflist|28em}}
===Sources===
* "OB": Harold Osborne, Antonia Boström. "Ivories" in ''The Oxford Companion to Western Art'', ed. Hugh Brigstocke. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed 5 October 2010 [http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t118.e1302]
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