The avocado, alligator pear or avocado pear (Persea americana) is an evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated in Mesoamerica more than 5,000 years ago. It was prized for its large and unusually oily fruit.[3] The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico and Guatemala.[4][5][6] Avocado trees have a native growth range from Mexico to Costa Rica.[7] Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as an alligator pear or avocado pear, is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed.[8] Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped by polyploidy events and that commercial varieties have an hybrid origin.[9] Avocado trees are partly self-pollinating, and are often propagated through grafting to maintain consistent fruit output.[10] Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical and Mediterranean climates of many countries.[4] Mexico is the world's leading producer of avocados as of 2020, supplying nearly 30% of the global harvest in that year.[11]
Avocado | |
---|---|
Avocado fruit and foliage, Réunion island | |
![]() | |
Halved and whole Hass avocados grown in Colombia | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Magnoliids |
Order: | Laurales |
Family: | Lauraceae |
Genus: | Persea |
Species: | P. americana
|
Binomial name | |
Persea americana | |
Synonyms[2] | |
synonymy
|
The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on the cultivar, avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and extremely high fat content of avocado flesh are useful to a variety of cuisines and are often eaten to enrich vegetarian diets.[12]
In major production regions like Chile, Mexico and California the water demands of avocado farms place strain on local resources.[13] Avocado production is also implicated in other externalities, including deforestation and human rights concerns associated with the partial control of their production in Mexico by organized crime.[14][15][16][17] Global warming is expected to result in significant changes to the suitable growing zones for avocados, and place additional pressures on the locales in which they are produced due to heat waves and drought.[18][19]
Description
Persea americana is a tree that grows to 9–20 m (30–66 ft) with a trunk diameter between 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft). The leaves are 8–25 cm (3–10 in) long and alternately arranged.[20][21]
Flower
Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous 5–10 mm (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) wide. They have no petals but instead two whorls of three pale-green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.[20][4]
Fruit
The avocado fruit is a climacteric,[22] single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed,[8][23] rather than a drupe.[24] The pear-shaped fruit is usually 7–20 cm (3–8 in) long, weighs between 100 and 1,000 g (3+1⁄2 and 35+1⁄2 oz), and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 cm (2–2+1⁄2 in) long.[4]
The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp because of selective breeding by humans.[25]
Taxonomy
Persea americana is regarded as an evolutionary anachronism, having likely coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna in South America, notably giant ground sloths and the gomphothere genus of the elephant lineage.[26][27][28][29] Following extinction of these original seed dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species.[27][30]
In 1982, evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen concluded that the avocado is an example of an "evolutionary anachronism", a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground sloths or gomphotheres).[26][31] Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved with Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout.[30] No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.[32][33]
The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso (c. 1470 – 1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo.[34][35] The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias in 1526.[36] The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term,[36] in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants.
Etymology
The word avocado comes from the Spanish aguacate, which derives from the Nahuatl (Mexican) word āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ],[37] which goes back to the proto-Aztecan *pa:wa.[38] In Molina's Nahuatl dictionary "auacatl" is given also as the translation for compañón "testicle",[39] and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".[40][41][42]
The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as avogato pear, later avocado pear (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to alligator pear.[43][44][4]
Regional names
In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain[45] it is known by the Mexican Spanish name aguacate, while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use a Quechua-derived word, palta.[46] In Portuguese, it is abacate. The Nahuatl āhuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives.[47]
In the United Kingdom the term avocado pear, applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.[48]
Originating as a diminutive in Australian English, a clipped form, avo, has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom.[49]
It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India[50] and Hong Kong.[51]
Cultivation
History
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the Tehuacan Valley[52] in the state of Puebla, Mexico.[53] There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl) landraces.[36][54] The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,[36] achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.[54] The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled[a] in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex.[54]
The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.[55] The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.[52][54] Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.[52] There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.[52]
The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.[53] A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan.[56]
The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.[54] In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.[54]
The name avocado has been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such as avogato attested even earlier.[57][58][59] The avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear until 1915, when the California Avocado Association popularized the term avocado.[54]
Requirements
As a subtropical species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.[original research?] When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the 'Hass' cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C.[original research?] Several cold-hardy varieties[specify][which?] are planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as −6.5 °C (20 °F) with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.[original research?] However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to −1.6 °C (29 °F) [60]
According to information published by the Water Footprint Network, it takes an average of approximately 70 litres (18 US gallons; 15 imperial gallons) of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado (283 L/kg [33.9 US gal/lb; 28.2 imp gal/lb]). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about 320 L (85 US gal; 70 imp gal) of applied water are needed to grow one avocado (1,280 L/kg [153 US gal/lb; 128 imp gal/lb]).[61]
Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause water shortages in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of Michoacán.[13][62] Avocados may also cause environmental and socioeconomic impacts in major production areas, illegal deforestation, and water disputes.[13][62] Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.[62]
Harvest and postharvest
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[63] Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.
Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 °C (37.9 to 42.1 °F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[64] The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.[65] In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.
Breeding
The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
- A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
- B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'[66][67]
Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[68] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[69]
Propagation and rootstocks
Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.[70] The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.[71]
Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.[72][73]
As a houseplant
The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.[74]
Pests and diseases
Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.[75] The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,[76] and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.[77]
Cultivation by location
Cultivation in Mexico
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.[78] In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 188,723 hectares (466,340 acres), and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017.[11] The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.[79] It is such a problem that the phrase blood guacamole has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.[80]
Cultivation in California
Avocados were introduced to California from Nicaragua in the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from the Central American country were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel.[81][82][83] The avocado has since become a successful cash crop. About 24,000 hectares (59,000 acres) – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California.[80]
Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.[84] Fallbrook, California, claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico[85]), and both it and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.
The California Avocado Commission and the California Avocado Society are the two major grower organizations and Calavo Growers is a major distributor.
Cultivation in Peru
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.[86] Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.[87] The country's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.
'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.
Cultivation in Chile
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. New York magazine reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's groundwater and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves."[80] 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.[88][89]
Cultivars
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2022) |
A cultivars
- 'Choquette':
Avocado 'Choquette' grafted - 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100–200 g or 3+1⁄2–7 oz), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to −1 °C (30 °F).[91]
- 'Hass':
Two 'Hass' avocados - 'Lula': A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
- 'Maluma': A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
- 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to −1 °C (30 °F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.[citation needed]
- 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to −1 °C (30 °F). Tree size is about 5 by 4 m (16+1⁄2 by 13 ft).[citation needed]
B cultivars
- 'Fuerte': Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from Atlixco, Mexico in 1911,[94] Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.[95]
- 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in Tamborine Mountain, Queensland, Australia, in the 1950s, a portmanteau of Sharpe and Wilson.[96] Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe OBE was later awarded a CMG in 1972 for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.[97]
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.[98]
Stoneless avocado
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[99] Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.[100] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[101]
Production
Avocado production – 2020 | |
---|---|
Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
Mexico | 2.39 |
Colombia | 0.88 |
Dominican Republic | 0.68 |
Peru | 0.66 |
Indonesia | 0.61 |
Kenya | 0.32 |
World | 8.06 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[11] |
In 2020, world production of avocados was 8.1 million tonnes, led by Mexico with 30% (2.4 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, and Indonesia, together producing 35% of the world total.[11] Despite market effects of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, volume production of avocados in Mexico increased by 40% over 2019 levels.[102]
In 2018, the US Department of Agriculture estimated that 231,028 hectares (570,880 acres) in total were under cultivation for avocado production in Mexico, a 6% increase over the previous year, and that 2 million tonnes would be exported.[103] The Mexican state of Michoacán is the world leader in avocado production, accounting for 80% of all Mexican output.[103][104] Most Mexican growers produce the Hass variety due to its longer shelf life for shipping and high demand among consumers.[103]
Market
Seventy-six percent of Mexico's avocado exports go to the United States,[105] with the free trade agreement between the US, Canada and Mexico in July 2020 facilitating avocado shipments within the North American free trade zone.[104] The Mexican domestic market was expanding during 2020.[104] Mexican avocado exports are challenged by growth of production by Peru and the Dominican Republic to supply the US and European markets.[104][102]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexican avocado farmers restricted harvesting as the overall demand and supply chain slowed due to labor and shipping restrictions.[104][102] Later in 2020, demand in the United States and within Mexico increased at a time when American retail prices continued to rise.[102][105] During 2020 in the United States, month-to-month volume sales of avocados were similar to those of tomatoes at about 250 million pounds (110 million kg) per month.[105] A report issued in mid-2020 forecast that the worldwide market, which was US$13.7 billion in 2018, would recover after the end of the pandemic and rise to US$21.6 billion by 2026.[104]
Toxicity
Allergies
Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,[106] is related to latex allergy[107] and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.[108]
Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,[109] rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses[110] can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.[111]
Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death.[112] The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.
The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.[113]
Uses
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 670 kJ (160 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8.53 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 0.66 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 6.7 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
14.66 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Saturated | 2.13 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Monounsaturated | 9.80 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Polyunsaturated | 1.82 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 73.23 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Fluoride | 7 µg | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Beta-sitosterol | 76 mg | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[114] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[115] |
Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9% carbohydrates, and 2% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, avocado supplies 670 kilojoules (160 kilocalories), and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins (such as 28% DV in pantothenic acid) and vitamin K (20% DV), with moderate contents (10–19% DV) of vitamin C, vitamin E, and potassium. Avocados also contain phytosterols and carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin.[116]
Fat composition
Avocados have diverse fats.[117] For a typical one:
- About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (table).[117]
- Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid.[117]
- The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.[117]
- Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1% ω-3, 14% ω-6, 71% ω-9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% saturated fat (palmitic acid).[117]
Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.[4]
Research
In 2022, a prospective cohort study following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by 16–22%.[118] The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.[118]
Culinary
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high smoke point, avocado oil is expensive compared to common salad and cooking oils, and is mostly used for salads or dips.
A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning, quickly turning brown after exposure to air.[119] To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.
The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.[4] It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.
Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[120]
It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as guacamole,[4] as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient in avocado soup. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers and tortas and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi).
-
Sliced avocado
-
A guacamole mix (right) used as a dip for tortilla chips (left)
-
Avocado in milk and sugar, a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory
-
Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
-
Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines
-
A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.
International
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to pozole. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado.[citation needed]
Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.[121]
In the Philippines (where avocados were introduced from Mexico since before the 1700s),[121] Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts.[122] In Brazil, the Philippines[123] Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and flavored with a touch of orange flower water.
In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Ghana, they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and kitul treacle (a liquid jaggery made from the sap of the inflorescence of jaggery palms), is a common dessert.[124] In Haiti, they are often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.
In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'.[48] Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.[125] In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.
Leaves
In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americana var. drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of anise.[126] They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.[127]
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.
References
- ^ Wegier, A., Lorea Hernández, F., Contreras, A., Tobón, W. & Mastretta-Yanes, A. 2017. Persea americana (errata version published in 2018). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T96986556A129765464. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T96986556A96986588.en. Downloaded on 01 May 2021.
- ^ "Persea americana Mill". World Flora Online. The World Flora Online Consortium. 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
- ^ "Avocado History". Avocados From Mexico. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Morton JF (1987). Avocado; In: Fruits of Warm Climates. Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. pp. 91–102. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2.
- ^ "What's in a name?". University of California. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
- ^ Chen, H; Morrell, PL; Ashworth, V; de la Cruz, M; Clegg, MT (2008). "Tracing the Geographic Origins of Major Avocado Cultivars". Journal of Heredity. 100 (1): 56–65. doi:10.1093/jhered/esn068. PMID 18779226.
- ^ "Persea Americana Avocado".
- ^ a b Storey, W. B. (1973). "What kind of fruit is the avocado?". California Avocado Society 1973–74 Yearbook. 57: 70–71.
- ^ Rendón-Anaya, Martha; Ibarra-Laclette, Enrique; Méndez-Bravo, Alfonso; Lan, Tianying; Zheng, Chunfang; Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo; Perez-Torres, Claudia Anahí; Chacón-López, Alejandra; Hernandez-Guzmán, Gustavo; Chang, Tien-Hao; Farr, Kimberly M.; Barbazuk, W. Brad; Chamala, Srikar; Mutwil, Marek; Shivhare, Devendra (20 August 2019). "The avocado genome informs deep angiosperm phylogeny, highlights introgressive hybridization, and reveals pathogen-influenced gene space adaptation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (34): 17081–17089. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11617081R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1822129116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6708331. PMID 31387975.
- ^ "Growing avocados: flowering, pollination and fruit set". Government of Western Australia: Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development.
- ^ a b c d "Crops/World regions/Production quantity (pick lists) of avocados for 2020". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistical Division (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
- ^ Dreher, Mark L.; Davenport, Adrienne J. (1 January 2013). "Hass Avocado Composition and Potential Health Effects". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 53 (7): 738–750. doi:10.1080/10408398.2011.556759. ISSN 1040-8398. PMC 3664913. PMID 23638933.
- ^ a b c Sommaruga, Ruben; Eldridge, Honor May (13 December 2020). "Avocado production: Water footprint and socioeconomic implications". EuroChoices. 20 (2): 48–53. doi:10.1111/1746-692x.12289. ISSN 1478-0917. S2CID 230594487.
- ^ "The Shocking Environmental Effects of Avocado Farming". Vox Nature. 17 May 2019. Archived from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ "Avocado consumption: environmental and social considerations". MSU Extension. 24 August 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ Khan, Nadeem; Kakabadse, Nada Korac-; Skouloudis, Antonis (17 November 2021). "Socio-ecological resilience and environmental sustainability: case of avocado from Mexico". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 28 (8): 744–758. Bibcode:2021IJSDW..28..744K. doi:10.1080/13504509.2021.1902419. ISSN 1350-4509. S2CID 233607375.
- ^ Bravo-Espinosa, M., Mendoza, M.E., Carlo ́n Allende, T., Medina, L., S ́aenz-Reyes, J.T., Pa ́ez, R., 2014. Effects of converting forest to avocado orchards on topsoil properties in the trans-Mexican volcanic system, Mexico. Land Degrad. Dev. 25 (5), 452–467. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2163.
- ^ "What climate change means for the future of coffee, cashews, and avocados". National Geographic Environment. 26 January 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ Grüter, Roman; Trachsel, Tim; Laube, Patrick; Jaisli, Isabel (26 January 2022). "Expected global suitability of coffee, cashew and avocado due to climate change". PLOS ONE. 17 (1): e0261976. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1761976G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261976. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8791496. PMID 35081123.
- ^ a b Dilip Nandwani (2014). Sustainable Horticultural Systems: Issues, Technology and Innovation. Springer. pp. 176–. ISBN 978-3-319-06904-3.
- ^ "Avocado General Information". www.extento.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
- ^ Elhadi M. Yahia (2011). Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Açai to Citrus. Elsevier Science. pp. 125–. ISBN 978-0-85709-276-2.
- ^ A. W. Whiley; B. Schaffer; B. N. Wolstenholme (2002). The Avocado: Botany, Production, and Uses. CABI. p. 30. ISBN 978-0851999784.
- ^ Frederick B. Essig (2015). Plant Life: A Brief History. Oxford University Press. pp. 162–. ISBN 978-0-19-026658-5.
- ^ Chittaranjan Kole (2011). Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 172–. ISBN 978-3-642-20447-0.
- ^ a b Janzen, D. H.; Martin, P. S. (1982). "Neotropical Anachronisms: The Fruits the Gomphotheres Ate" (PDF). Science. 215 (4528). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 19–27. Bibcode:1982Sci...215...19J. doi:10.1126/science.215.4528.19. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17790450. S2CID 19296719.
- ^ a b Barlow, Connie (2001). The Ghosts of Evolution: Nonsensical Fruit, Missing Partners, and Other Ecological Anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00551-2.
- ^ Smith, K. Annabelle. "Why the Avocado Should Have Gone the Way of the Dodo". Smithsonian Magazine. The Smithsonian. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ^ Glover, Amy (April 2024). "Yes, Really ― Avocados Should Be Extinct". HuffPost UK.
- ^ a b Berdugo-Cely, Jhon A; et al. (2023). "Pleistocene-dated genomic divergence of avocado trees supports cryptic diversity in the Colombian germplasm". Tree Genetics & Genomes. 19 (42). doi:10.1007/s11295-023-01616-8.
- ^ Cook, Robert E. "Attractions of the flesh." Natural History New York, 91, no. 1 (1982): 20–24.
- ^ Cited in Barlow; Connie C. (2000). The ghosts of evolution: nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00551-2.
- ^ Nigel-Wolstenholme, B.; Whiley, A.W. (1999). "Ecophysiology of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) tree as a basis for pre-harvest management". Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura. 5: 77–88. doi:10.5154/r.rchsh.1999.06.043. S2CID 4545726.
- ^ a b "Avocado History". IndexFresh.com. Bloomington, CA: Index Fresh Avocado. 2007. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ a b c Stradley, Linda (2004). "All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado". What'sCookingAmerica.net. Newberg, OR: self-published. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
- ^ a b c d Ayala Silva, Tomas; Ledesma, Noris (2014). "Avocado History, Biodiversity and Production". Sustainable Horticultural Systems. Sustainable Development and Biodiversity. Vol. 2. pp. 157–205. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_8. ISBN 978-3-319-06903-6.
- ^ Nahuatl Dictionary/Diccionario del náhuatl Archived 3 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Whp.uoregon.edu. Retrieved on 25 July 2013.
- ^ Dakin, Karen (1982). La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl (in Spanish). México D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas. p. 210. ISBN 978-968-5802-92-5. OCLC 10216962.
- ^ Molina Alonso de, Julius Platzmann (1880). Vocabulario De La Lengua Méxicana. Edición facsimilaria (in Spanish). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. OCLC 11400907.
- ^ Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2021). "Avocado og testikelsovs:et internet meme og en aztekisk etymologi (Avocados and testicle sauce: an internet meme and an aztec etymology" (PDF). Mål og Mæle. 42 (3): 9–12.
- ^ Brooke, Binkowski (9 February 2016). "Does the Word 'Guacamole' Mean 'Testicle Sauce'?". Snopes.
- ^ Magnus Pharao Hansen (10 February 2016). "No Snopes.com, the word guacamole does not come from the Nahuatl word for "ground testicles or avocados"". Nahuatl Studies (Blog).
- ^ "8 Words from Nahuatl, the Language of the Aztecs". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"
- ^ "aguacate". Diccionario de la lengua española. Real Academia Española.
- ^ "palta". Diccionario de la lengua española. Real Academia Española.
- ^ "guacamole". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ a b "Twiggy squares up to Sainsbury's in the avocado wars". The Scotsman. 23 May 2009. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ^ "From the Aztecs to avo, the scoop on 'avocado' and 'guacamole'". South China Morning Post. 31 July 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
- ^ "Avocado holds promise for Wayanad farmers". The Hindu. 16 April 2010. Archived from the original on 21 April 2010.
- ^ Conversation, The (14 May 2017). "What is China's role in the global avocado shortage?". Hong Kong Free Press. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
- ^ a b c d Landon, Amanda J. (2009). "Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica". Nebraska Anthropologist. 47.
- ^ a b Galindo-Tovar, María Elena; Arzate-Fernández, Amaury M.; Ogata-Aguilar, Nisao & Landero-Torres, Ivonne (2007). "The avocado (Persea americana, Lauraceae) crop in Mesoamerica: 10,000 years of history" (PDF). Harvard Papers in Botany. 12 (2): 325–334, [325]. doi:10.3100/1043-4534(2007)12[325:TAPALC]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 41761865. S2CID 9998040. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g Schaffer, B (2013). The avocado: botany, production and uses. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-701-0.[page needed]
- ^ Dillehay, Tom D; Goodbred, Steve; Pino, Mario; Vásquez Sánchez, Víctor F; Tham, Teresa Rosales; Adovasio, James; Collins, Michael B; Netherly, Patricia J; Hastorf, Christine A; Chiou, Katherine L; Piperno, Dolores; Rey, Isabel; Velchoff, Nancy (2017). "Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru". Science Advances. 3 (5): e1602778. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2778D. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602778. PMC 5443642. PMID 28560337.
- ^ Barry, PC (7 April 2001). "Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History". Canku Ota. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ "s.v. avocado". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1885.
- ^ Higgins, J.E.; Hunn, C.J.; Holt, V.S. (April 1911). "The Avocado in Hawaii". Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin (24).
- ^ Popenoe, F.W. (February 1911). "The Avocado in Southern California". Pomona Journal of Economic Botany. 1 (1): 3–24.
- ^ Hessong, Athena. How Much Coldness Can Avocado Trees Take?. SF Gate. Retrieved on Dec. 4, 2022
- ^ "How much water does it take to grow an avocado?". Danwatch.dk. 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
- ^ a b c "How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question)". CBC. 25 January 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados
- ^ Whiley, A (1 September 2000). "Avocado Production in Australia". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ "Ethylene gas and produce". Mindfully.org. 1 June 1976. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ^ Steve Chawkins (3 June 2013). "Gil Henry dies at 88; revolutionized avocado industry; Henry pioneered the use of a 'ripening room' at his family's Escondido farm. The method, now an industry standard, allows markets to sell fruit that is ready to eat or close to it". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
- ^ "Agriculture Handbook". University of California. 2007. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ Crane, JH; Balerdi CF; Maguire I (1 August 2007). "Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ Blumenfeld, Amos; Gazit, Shmuel. "Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit" (PDF). Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ Stewart, W.S.; Smoyer, K.M.; Puffer, R.E. "Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados" (PDF). California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook. 33: 113–116. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ Boning, Charles (2006). Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. p. 33.
- ^ Hughes, Megan Avocado tree wait times smashed thanks to world-first rootstock trial ABC News, 7 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.
- ^ Nichols, Jennifer Avocadoes of the future look secure thanks to Queensland student Chris O'Brien's cryogenics work ABC News, 10 September 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ "Avocado Houseplant » Top Tips for Lush Indoor Foliage". 11 November 2017.
- ^ Ohr, H. D.; Coffer, M. D.; McMillan, R. T. (8 April 2003). "Diseases of Avocado (Persea americana Miller)". The American Phytopathological Society. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- ^ "Protopulvinaria pyriformis (pyriform scale)". CABI. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ Peña, Jorge E.; Sharp, Jennifer L.; Wysoki, M. (2002). Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies, and Control. CABI. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-85199-976-0.
- ^ "2001–2013 World avocado production, 2000–2011 World Avocado Exports, 2002–2013 French avocado imports". Novagrim.com. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
- ^ "Templarios ganan 2,000 mdp al año extorsionando a aguacateros en Michoacán" [Templars earn 2,000 pesos a year extorting avocado in Michoacan] (in Spanish). Aristegui Noticias. 29 October 2013. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
- ^ a b c Sternbergh, Adam, "Avocados Are Toast", New York magazine, April 20 – May 3, 2015
- ^ "Early History of the Avocado in California".
- ^ "The Avocado".
- ^ "World avocado production prospects in California" (PDF).
- ^ "California State Foods Named By Gavin Newsom". Huffington Post, San Francisco. 25 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ "::Uruapan:: Uruapan, Michoacan, México". Uruapaninteractivo.com. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
- ^ "Peru: Record avocado production saturated the markets in 2014". freshplaza.com. 23 October 2014.
- ^ "Peru jumps to No.2 avocado exporter to the U.S." Produce Blue Book. 10 January 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
- ^ Gonzalez, Sergio. "Avocado Annual 2018" (PDF).
- ^ "Avocados". Fruits From Chile.
- ^ Crane, Jonathan H.; Balerdi, Carlos F.; Maguire, Ian (2018). "Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape". edis.ifas.ufl.edu. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
- ^ Sidnam, Bill (26 April 1992). "Gwen Avocado Produces More in Less Space". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "The Hass Mother Tree: 1926–2002". Avocado.org. Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission. 2008. pp. 'About Avocados: History' section. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
- ^ "Avocado Tree's Demise Is the Pits for Growers; Fitting farewell sought for 'mother'". Los Angeles Times, 7 September 2003.
- ^ POPENOE, WILSON. "California Avocado Society 1925-26 Yearbook: THE PARENT FUERTE TREE AT ATLIXCO, MEXICO" (PDF). Retrieved 1 March 2023.
- ^ "FUERTE AVOCADO". Cook's Info. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
- ^ "Talking avocados" (PDF). Avocados Australia. Australian Avocado Growers' Federation. June 1990. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
- ^ "Research plants stolen". Hamersley News. Vol. X, no. 17. Western Australia. 8 September 1977. p. 2. Retrieved 16 January 2022 – via National Library of Australia.
- ^ Overholser, E. L. (1924–1925). "Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados" (PDF). California Avocado Association Annual Report. 10. San Diego, California: California Avocado Association: 32–40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
- ^ The holy grail of avocados – stoneless – hits shops for a limited time only The Sunday Independent, 10 December 2017.
- ^ Blumenfeld, Amos; Gazit, Shmuel. "Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit" (PDF). Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ Stewart, W.S.; Smoyer, K.M.; Puffer, R.E. "Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados" (PDF). California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook. 33: 113–116. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ a b c d Greg Johnson (29 June 2020). "Avocado market stabilizes after lockdowns". Blue Book Services – Produce. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ a b c "Mexico; Avocado Annual" (PDF). US Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. 27 November 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f "International avocado market expected to recover in Covid-19 aftermath". Fresh Fruit Portal. 29 July 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
- ^ a b c Raul Lopez (18 December 2020). "The numbers behind avocados' record 2020". Blue Book Services – Produce. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ Brehler R, Theissen U, Mohr C, Luger T (April 1997). ""Latex-fruit syndrome": frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies". Allergy. 52 (4): 404–410. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x. PMID 9188921. S2CID 27995880.
- ^ "Latex allergy". Better Health Channel. Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ^ "Avocado – allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies – University of Manchester)". Inflammation-repair.manchester.ac.uk. 18 October 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ^ Appleman, D. (1944). "Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Avocado Leaves" (PDF). Retrieved 9 October 2012.
- ^ "Notes on poisoning: avocado". Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility. 30 June 2006. Archived from the original on 14 January 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2007.
- ^ "Avocado". ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center.
- ^ Oelrichs, Peter B; Ng, Jack C; Seawright, Alan A; Ward, Annemarie; Schäffeler, Lothar; MacLeod, John K (1995). "Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium". Natural Toxins. 3 (5): 344–349. doi:10.1002/nt.2620030504. PMID 8581318.
- ^ "Livestock – Poisoning Plants of California, Publication 8398" (PDF). Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. November 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
- ^ Dreher ML, Davenport AJ (2013). "Hass avocado composition and potential health effects". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 53 (7): 738–750. doi:10.1080/10408398.2011.556759. PMC 3664913. PMID 23638933.
- ^ a b c d e "Avocados, raw, all commercial varieties, per 100 grams". NutritionData.com. 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- ^ a b Pacheco, Lorena S.; Li, Yanping; Rimm, Eric B.; Manson, JoAnn E.; Sun, Qi; Rexrode, Kathryn; Hu, Frank B.; Guasch-Ferré, Marta (5 April 2022). "Avocado Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults". Journal of the American Heart Association. 11 (7): e024014. doi:10.1161/jaha.121.024014. ISSN 2047-9980. PMC 9075418. PMID 35352568.
- ^ Jules Janick, ed. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts. Oxfordshire, England: CABI. p. 440. ISBN 978-0-85199-638-7.
- ^ Bates, Robert P (1970). "Heat-Induced Off-Flavor in Avocado Flesh". Journal of Food Science. 35 (4): 478–482. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb00962.x.
- ^ a b Malasig, Jeline (22 May 2018). "Is this the best way to eat avocado westerners aren't aware of?". Interaksyon. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
- ^ "Around the world culinary tour with avocados – AvoSeedo". 20 October 2015.
- ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2 June 2010). "Eat this! The 'Hass' avocado, black and green and creamy". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- ^ Lim T. K. (2012). Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 3, Fruits. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 82. ISBN 978-94-007-2534-8.
- ^ Saner, Emine (2 November 2015). "Ripe and ready: how 'evil geniuses' got us hooked on avocados". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
- ^ Thomas E. Weil (1969). "Area Handbook for Chile (Area handbook series)". Pamphlet. 550 (77). United States: U.S. Government Printing Office (Digitized: 16 August 2007): 104. ISSN 0892-8541. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020.
- ^ Diana Kennedy (2010). Oaxaca Al Gusto: An Infinite Gastronomy. University of Texas Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-292-72266-8.
Further reading
- Bruce Shaffer; B. Nigel Wolstenhome; Anthony W. Whiley, eds. (2012). The Avocado: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI. ISBN 9781845937010.
External links
- Definitive illustrated list of avocado varieties Archived 9 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- California Avocado Commission
- Avocados beyond Persea americana Archived 7 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine, California Rare Fruit Growers