Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Jamaica face legal and social issues not experienced by heterosexual and gender-conforming people. Consensual sexual intercourse between same-sex partners is legally punishable by up to ten years of imprisonment in the country.[1][2][3]
LGBT rights in Jamaica | |
---|---|
![]() | |
Status | Illegal |
Penalty | Up to 10 years imprisonment with hard labour;[1] (not enforced, legalization proposed) |
Gender identity | None |
Discrimination protections | None |
Family rights | |
Recognition of relationships | None |
Restrictions | Same-sex marriage is constitutionally banned since 2011 (ban challenged in courts) |
Adoption | No |
Jamaica has long held strongly conservative views towards homosexuality, with recent polls stating that the majority of Jamaicans are against the acceptance of homosexuality. Most of the population is affiliated with Christianity and the Rastafari movement, which have both encouraged negative feelings towards homosexuality. Discrimination and violence against LGBT persons are very common and LGBT people in Jamaica often remain closeted to avoid discrimination or harassment. In 2006, Time magazine labelled Jamaica "the most homophobic place on Earth",[4] and in 2013 the majority of LGBT people in the country said they were subject to homophobic violence in public.[5][6]
The government of Jamaica said in 2012 that it "is committed to the equal and fair treatment of its citizens and affirms that any individual whose rights are alleged to have been infringed has a right to seek redress." The government also claimed that "there is no legal discrimination against persons on the grounds of their sexual orientation" though there is widespread homophobia and a sodomy law (The Offenses Against the Person Act of 1864) that is still in effect.[7]
Laws, policies, and the Jamaican constitution
editHistory of the criminalisation of LGBT individuals
editIslands in the Commonwealth Caribbean adopted British buggery laws; however these laws were not as strictly regulated in the Caribbean as they were in the United Kingdom up until the Victorian era. Prior to this era, recounts were made of the island's British occupants engaging in sodomy, which may correlate with the fact that the first colonists were mostly men. The slave communities in Jamaica and the rest of the British Caribbean were made up of men and women from West Africa, the men being more sought after by slave owners.[8]
In England, the Buggery Law of 1861 was liberalized in 1967. By this point, Jamaica had already gained its independence in 1962, and thus its buggery law adopted from the British constitution, remained intact and is still in force to this day.[8]
Laws against same-sex sexual activity: The Offences Against the Person Act (1864)
editJamaica's laws do not criminalise the status of being LGBT but instead outlaw associated conduct, including anal sex and any sex between men.[7][9]: page: 97 The Offences Against the Person Act (OAPA) provides as follows:
Section 76. Unnatural Offences. Whosoever shall be convicted of the abominable crime of buggery, committed either with mankind or with any animal, shall be liable to be imprisoned and kept to hard labour for a term not exceeding ten years.[10]
Section 77. Attempt. Whosoever shall attempt to commit the said abominable crime, or shall be guilty of any assault with intent to commit the same, or of any indecent assault upon any male person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding seven years, with or without hard labour.[10]
Section 79. Outrages on decency. Any male person who, in public or private, commits, or is a party to the commission of, or procures or attempts to procure the commission by any male person of, any act of gross indecency with another male person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and being convicted thereof shall be liable at the discretion of the court to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour.[10]
"Gross indecency" is not defined by the OAPA but has been interpreted as "referring to any kind of physical intimacy",[11] including merely holding hands.[7]
According to Human Rights Watch, regardless of how often persons are convicted of buggery or gross indecency, "the arrests themselves send a message." The Jamaican press publishes the names of men arrested for those crimes, "shaming them and putting them at risk of physical injury."[12] The gross indecency law in Section 79 made LGBT persons "vulnerable to extortion from neighbours who threatened to report them to the police as part of blackmailing schemes."[5]
Section 80. Other matters. Any constable may take into custody, without a warrant, any person whom he shall find lying or loitering in any highway, yard, or other place during the night, that is to say the interval between 7 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day, and whom he shall have good cause to suspect of having committed, or being about to commit any felony in this Act mentioned, and shall take such person, as soon as reasonably may be, before a Justice, to be dealt with according to law.[10]
Police have great discretion in detaining individuals under Section 80. This and other laws are used by police to detain LGBT men who are engaged in sodomy or other sexual acts or forms of intimacy with another man, or who are abusing animals.[10]
Decriminalisation efforts
editThe European Parliament in 2005 passed a resolution calling on Jamaica to repeal its "antiquated and discriminatory sodomy laws and to actively combat widespread homophobia".[13]
Following Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson's pledge that "no one should be discriminated against because of their sexual orientation", and that the government will seek a review of the buggery law (which did not happen), LGBT rights campaigner Maurice Tomlinson filed a case against Jamaica at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in February 2012. He had fled the country because of death threats after news about his marriage to his partner Tom Decker in Canada reached the local media.[14]
In February 2013, AIDS-Free World filed a legal complaint with the Jamaica Supreme Court on behalf of Javed Jaghai, who said his landlord kicked him out of his home because of his sexual orientation. In June 2013, the court began hearing the case.[15] In August 2014, he was forced to withdraw his lawsuit, citing death threats and concerns for his personal safety and that of his family.[16][17][18][19][20]
In November 2015, LGBT activist Tomlinson filed another lawsuit with the Jamaican Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality of Jamaica's laws criminalizing consensual sex between men, saying that the colonial-era statute violates several provisions of the Jamaican constitution, including the right to privacy. He also argues the sodomy law violates “the right to protection from inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment.” The legal challenge is being supported by the Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network and AIDS-Free World.[21][22][23][24][25] In February 2016, the court held a first hearing of the constitutional challenge.[26] The Public Defender (PD) Arlene Harrison Henry applied to be joined as interested parties. It was adjourned to 26 April 2016 when the applications by the various parties were heard.[27] In July 2016, the court blocked Henry from participating in the suit, and as a result, she sought leave to appeal the denial of participation to the court of appeal.[28] The Supreme Court suspended the hearing of the case pending the decision of the Appeal Court. After a two-year delay, the Court of Appeal upheld the Supreme Court ruling barring Henry from joining Tomlinson in the lawsuit, leaving him alone in the case.[29][30][31] A preliminary hearing was held attempting to block Tomlinson from making a Charter of Rights argument. The judge determined in 2022 that the issues could not be separated. There is no date set for the main hearing.
In 2012, a gay man named Gareth Henry and a lesbian woman, Simone Edwards, filed complaints at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. The two members of Jamaica's LGBT community have put themselves forward as petitioners in the case. Both claim they fled Jamaica because of those laws. Gareth Henry sought asylum in Canada in 2008 after enduring repeated attacks by homophobic gangs and police brutality, and said he was forced to flee Jamaica in fear of his life. Simone Edwards fled Jamaica and was granted asylum in the Netherlands in 2008 after two men in a homophobic gang fired shots at her house. They also tried to kill her two brothers, one of whom is gay. Six years later, in July 2018, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights announced it would review whether it could make a case to challenge Jamaica's anti-buggery laws. The IACHR in its report setting out the decision, acknowledged the victims' concerns about "violence and discrimination against LGBT people and the impact of buggery laws,” and noted that, “if proved, the alleged facts relating to threats to life, personal integrity, interference with private and family life, obstacles to the right of residence and movement, unequal treatment, lack of access to justice and judicial protection, and interference in access to health care, could establish possible violations of (…) the American Convention [on Human Rights]”. The Government of Jamaica has objected to the admissibility of the Petition and defended its anti-gay laws.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38] The case remains pending, as of 2023.
In December 2018, a Jamaican parliamentary committee recommended holding a national referendum on repealing the country's anti-sodomy law. The recommendation was criticised by LGBT activists, who felt a referendum was not needed and that people should "stay out of gays' bedrooms".[39][40]
Efforts to increase criminal penalties
editIn 2009, Ernest Smith, a Labour Party member of Parliament, stated during a parliamentary debate that "homosexual activities seem to have taken over" Jamaica, described homosexuals as "abusive" and "violent", and called for a stricter law outlawing homosexual conduct between men that would impose sentences of up to life in prison.[41]
Absence of laws protecting LGBT people from discrimination
editThe Civil Service Staff Orders of 2004 (which have the force of law) protect Jamaican civil servants from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation.[42]
According to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Jamaica has "no law which prevents discrimination against an individual on the basis of his or her or their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. There is no legislation addressing hate crimes in Jamaica."[9]: page: 97
Jamaican Charter Of Rights
editIn 2011, a national Bill of Rights was formally added to the Jamaican Constitution (Chapter 3). While it does guarantee all citizens numerous civil and political rights, it pointedly stipulates that the charter does not invalidate laws dealing with sexual offenses, pornography, or "the traditional definition of marriage".[43]
Recognition of same-sex relationships
editIn 2011, the Parliament passed The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (Constitutional Amendment) Act, 2011 which explicitly banned same-sex marriage and any other kind of union to be recognized in Jamaica.[43]
In 2019, both Prime Minister Andrew Holness of the Jamaica Labour Party and the Leader of the Opposition Peter Phillips of the People's National Party announced their opposition to the legalisation of same-sex marriage.[44]
In July 2019, after previously speaking out and filing several lawsuits against Jamaica's homophobic laws, Maurice Tomlinson petitioned the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), requesting that it rule that Section 18 (2) of the Constitution of Jamaica, which does not recognise same-sex marriages, contravenes various articles of the American Convention on Human Rights ratified by Jamaica. He argues that because the Jamaican constitution does not recognise same-sex marriage, he and his husband Tom Decker are unable to enjoy the benefits and protections afforded to them. Tomlinson wants to return to Jamaica with his Canadian husband in order to work and look after his ageing parents who are in rapidly declining health. The petition also says that by virtue of this constitutional ban against non-heterosexual unions, there is neither an adequate nor effective domestic remedy available to him and/or his same-sex husband under Jamaican law. It also outlined several instances in which persons believed to be members of the LGBT community had been killed. He is asking the IACHR to require Jamaica to fulfil its human-rights obligations under the convention and to recommend that the government repeal Section 18 (2) of the Constitution of Jamaica in order to comply with the country's obligations under the convention. Further, he wants the IACHR to recommend that the government allow the naturalisation of same-sex spouses of Jamaican citizens on the same conditions as heterosexual spouses of Jamaican citizens. He also wants the Jamaican government to condemn and monitor serious human-rights violations, including discrimination and hate speech, as well as incitement to violence and hatred. A letter dated July 18, 2019, has subsequently been sent to Ambassador Audrey Marks, permanent representative of Jamaica to the Organisation of American States, requesting a government response to the petition in three months.[45][46]
Jamaican political parties
editNeither one of the two major political parties in Jamaica has expressed any official support for legal rights for its LGBT citizens. However, at a televised debate in late December 2011 between opposition leader (and former prime minister) Portia Simpson-Miller of the People's National Party (PNP) and then-Prime Minister Andrew Holness, Simpson-Miller said she would consider appointing anyone she felt was most qualified for her cabinet, regardless of sexual orientation,[47] and added that she wanted to see conscience votes allowed by the major parties on LGBT rights issues in parliament.[48] Although Simpson-Miller was criticised by some social conservatives for her stance, it did not affect the PNP's sweeping election victory days later.[49]
During the 2001 elections, the Jamaican Labour Party adopted "Chi Chi Man" by T.O.K., controversial for its lyrics which promote the murder of gays, as its theme song. In April 2006, then-opposition leader and future prime minister Bruce Golding vowed that "homosexuals would find no solace in any cabinet formed by him".[50] Two years later, when asked if LGBT people could be in the cabinet, he said, "Sure they can be in the cabinet - but not mine."[51]
The conservative National Democratic Movement opposes LGBT rights on religious grounds, alongside the more leftist economic parties such as the People's National Party and the New Nation Coalition.[52]
LGBT rights movement in Jamaica
editOrganisations
editJ-FLAG
editJ-FLAG, the Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays, was founded in December 1998, and operates underground and anonymously.[7] It is the first LGBT human rights organisation in Jamaican history, and its primary efforts include legal reform and advocacy, public education, crisis intervention, and support programs.[53]
Quality of Citizenship Jamaica
editQuality of Citizenship Jamaica (QCJ), founded by Jalna Broderick and Angeline Jackson in 2013, was an organisation that works toward creating safe spaces to empower the LGBT community.[54] Its primary goal was to improve the lives of lesbian and bisexual women as well as transgender individuals, and part of the organisation's vision was to enhance the healthcare opportunities for LGBT women and youth, specifically regarding mental health and HIV/AIDS awareness.[55] In his visit to the University of the West Indies in Kingston, United States president Barack Obama stated about Jackson,
Instead of remaining silent, she chose to speak out and started her own organisation to advocate for women like her, and get them treatment and get them justice, and push back against stereotypes, and give them some sense of their own power.[54]
QCJ ended operations in 2018.[citation needed]
Important people
editBrian Williamson
editOne of the best-known Jamaican gay rights activities and co-founder of J-FLAG. He was one of the first publicly out gay figures in Jamaica, while the rest of J-FLAG was still operating as an underground organization.
In June 2004, he was brutally murdered. He was set to have an interview with a researcher from Human Rights Watch the same day. The researcher witnessed a crowd outside his home celebrating the murder and chanting slurs.[56]
Maurice Tomlinson
editMaurice Tomlinson is a Jamaican lawyer, law professor, and gay rights activist currently living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.[57] In 2011, the Jamaica Observer, a local newspaper published an article with a photograph of him with his Canadian husband during their wedding ceremony.[58][59] After the article was published, Tomlinson began receiving death threats and moved to Toronto.[59] On 27 November 2015, he filed a Jamaican Supreme Court case challenging the nation's sodomy law. He stated in the court filings, "the laws of Jamaica that criminalise consensual sexual intimacy between men essentially render me an un-apprehended criminal."[58] He says that the 1864 law was worsened when the requirement of the convicted to carry offender identification was added in 2011, punishable by an additional twelve months in prison and a one million dollar fine.[59] He argues that the law as a whole encourages violence,[58] and in a blogpost for Human Rights First in January, 2016, he stated the following:
I filed a constitutional challenge against Jamaica’s sodomy law, citing the law’s violation of the protections outlined in Jamaica’s Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. These include the rights to liberty and freedom of the person, freedom of expression, privacy and family life, and freedom from inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment, among others.[60]
Since then, Tomlison has continued to speak out against homophobia in Jamaica.[61][62]
Dr. J. Carolyn Gomes
editCarolyn Gomes is currently the executive director of the Caribbean Vulnerable Communities Coalition (CVC), which works with Caribbean populations who are particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS and have social and financial barriers barring them from treatment and aid.[63] Prior to assuming this role in January 2014, Gomes served as executive director of Jamaicans for Justice (JFJ), which she founded in Kingston in 1999 in order to fill the gap needed in Jamaica for a citizens' rights action group that works towards eradicating corruption in the judicial system and the public sphere as well as imbalances in the socio-economic system.[63] She resigned from JFJ in 2013 after nationwide pushback on the sexual education leaflets the organisation produced for adolescents, due to their mentioning of anal sex.[64] She speaks out on LGBT issues as they relate to her organisation and in part due to the fact that her sister is a homosexual woman.[65]
Nicolette Bryan
editNicolette Bryan is a lesbian Jamaican woman who is a co-founder of Women's Empowerment for Change (WE-Change) Archived 22 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine and has been serving as the executive director since November 2017, upon her return from the United Kingdom as a Chevening Scholar.[citation needed] She is one of the more notable young women's rights activists in the country and can be credited with being an instrumental in the abortion reform movement currently ongoing in Jamaica.[citation needed]
International opinion
editThe Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in 2012 said that "discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression is widespread throughout Jamaica, and ... discrimination against those in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and intersex ... communities is entrenched in Jamaican State institutions. Those who are not heterosexual or cisgender face political and legal stigmatisation, police violence, an inability to access the justice system, as well as intimidation, violence, and pressure in their homes and communities."[9]: page: 95
Human Rights Watch said in 2012 that because of homophobia, "human rights defenders advocating the rights of LGBT people are not safe in Jamaica".[66]
United Nations
editA Universal Periodic Review (UPR) of Jamaica was completed in 2011 under the auspices of the United Nations Human Rights Council.[67] In its report,
Jamaica stressed that, although consensual sex between adult males remained proscribed by law, there was no legal discrimination against persons on the grounds of their sexual orientation. Jamaica pointed out that Jamaican law did not criminalise lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender orientation, nor did the Government condone discrimination or violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons. It added that there had been no credible cases of arbitrary detention and/or harassment of such persons by the police, nor was there any such official policy. Likewise, there was no evidence of any mob-related killing of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender persons. Jamaica stressed that the issue of male homosexuality was one of great sensitivity in Jamaican society, in which cultural norms, values, religious and moral standards underlay a rejection of male homosexual behaviour by a large majority of Jamaicans; and that the Government was committed to ensuring that all citizens were protected from violence.[68]: page: 6, ¶ 31–32
During the UPR working group meeting, Australia encouraged Jamaica to repeal its laws against same-sex activities and condemn homophobic statements made by public figures.[68]: page: 8, ¶ 50 The Netherlands expressed concern about harassment of LGBT persons and stated that legislation criminalising consensual same-sex activities might contribute to the problem.[68]: page: 8, ¶ 52 The United States "remained concerned about continuing discrimination, violence and exploitation, especially against the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community."[68]: pages: 8–9, ¶ 53
Slovenia stated that the abuse and harassment of LGBT persons by law enforcement officials were "highly worrisome".[68]: page: 9, ¶ 54 The United Kingdom encouraged Jamaica to promote tolerance and end discrimination against LGBT persons.[68]: page: 9, ¶ 56 Sweden expressed concern about the criminalisation of consensual sex between men and inquired about whether there were initiatives to decriminalise it.[68]: page: 10, ¶ 66
Jamaica refused to support the recommendations made about LGBT rights.[68]: page: 22, ¶¶ 101.18-.25, 102 "In response to questions regarding sexual orientation, Jamaica ... noted that sexual orientation was not criminalised, only a specific act. Jamaica stated that it was aware of existing concerns and observed that this was a sensitive issue." In addition, "Jamaica explained that the government has raised public awareness" about sexual orientation and discrimination and "will continue to do so, but that this needed resources."[68]: pages: 9, 12, ¶¶ 58, 84
Living conditions
editAnti-LGBT violence
editHuman rights non-governmental organisations and governmental entities have agreed that violence against LGBT people, primarily by private citizens, was widespread in 2012.[5] The Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG) in 2012 "continued to report serious human rights abuses, including assault with deadly weapons, 'corrective rape' of women accused of being lesbians, arbitrary detention, mob attacks, stabbings, harassment of gay and lesbian patients by hospital and prison staff, and targeted shootings of such persons."[5]
According to the Bureau of Democracy for Human Rights and Labor at the U.S. Department of State, "Police often did not investigate such incidents. During 2012, J-FLAG received 68 reports of sexually motivated harassment or abuse, which included 53 cases of attempted or actual assault, including at least two killings, and 15 reports of displacements. J-FLAG data showed that young people, ages 18 to 29, continued to bear the brunt of violence based on sexual orientation."[5] In Jamaican prisons, there were numerous reports in 2012 of violence against gay inmates, perpetrated by wardens and other inmates, but few inmates sought recourse through the prison system.[5]
Amnesty International has "received many reports of vigilante action against gay people by members of the community, and of ill-treatment or torture by the police. Gay men and lesbian women have been beaten, cut, burned, raped and shot on account of their sexuality. ... We are concerned that these reports are just the tip of the iceberg. Many gay men and women in Jamaica are too afraid to go to the authorities and seek help."[70] This violence has prompted many gay persons to emigrate[5] and hundreds of LGBT Jamaicans to seek asylum in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.[71]
Violence against HIV positive people is commonplace, but legal repercussions for the aggressor are rare. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS representatives for Jamaica have described the blind-eye towards homophobic violence as "legalised discrimination" and have claimed that the violence has driven the HIV epidemic further underground, making access to treatment and outreach more difficult.[72]
In January 2018, Jamaica banned Steven Anderson, from the Faithful Word Baptist Church in Tempe, Arizona, a Holocaust-denying anti-gay pastor, after an outcry from activists on the island. The pastor said he was about to board a flight to Kingston when he was informed he would not be allowed into Jamaica.[73][74]
In January 2019, Director of Tourism Donovan White said that gay tourists are welcome, and that Jamaicans harboured no open hostility towards gay visitors during a press conference at the Caribbean Travel Marketplace in Montego Bay.[75][61]
In September 2019, Mayor Omar Davis of Montego Bay, and Councillor Charles Sinclair (both elected officials) blocked the use of the local cultural center by the local LGBT group in a bid to protect the "sacredness" of the building. The government's actions forced the cancellation of the pride events; no other venues would rent their premises to the LGBT group, following the actions of Davis and Sinclair. Other venues cancelled their reservations made by the LGBT group owing to fear of a backlash. Furthermore, the police advised that because of the mayor and councillor's actions, and the homophobic hysteria that had been whipped up, they could not provide any kind of protection to LGBT Jamaicans. These circumstances forced the cancellation of the scheduled Pride events that were to be held in October 2019.[61][62]
Media
editIn 2012, in what was called "an unprecedented constitutional legal challenge "a case was filed by LGBT activist Maurice Tomlinson in the Supreme Court of Jamaica against Jamaican television stations for refusing to air a 30-second advertisement “Love and Respect.” The ad, which promotes recognition of the humanity of LGBT people, was rejected by Television Jamaica (TVJ), Public Broadcasting Corporation (PBCJ) and CVM Television (CVM TV).[76] in May 2013, the lawsuit was heard.[77][78] In November 2013, the case Maurice Tomlinson v TVJ, CVM and PBCJ the Constitutional Court ruled against Tomlinson.[79][80][81] The case was appealed.[82] in February 2016, the Jamaican Court of Appeal heard the appeal, after it was originally scheduled in July 2015. The TV station Public Broadcasting Corporation (PBCJ) was not included in the appeal, and CVM withdrew from the case saying that they would accept any decision from the court.[83][84] The court reserved its judgement,[85] and the decision is pending.[86][87]
Particular incidents
editIn June 2004, founding member and the public face of the Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG), and Jamaica's leading gay-rights activist, Brian Williamson, was stabbed to death in his home. Police ruled that the murder was the result of a robbery, but J-FLAG believes his murder was a hate crime.[88] Human Rights Watch (HRW) researcher Rebecca Schleifer had a meeting with Williamson that day, and arrived at his home not long after his body had been discovered:
She found a small crowd singing and dancing. One man called out, "Battyman he get killed." Others were celebrating, laughing and shouting "Let's get them one at a time", "That's what you get for sin". Others sang "Boom bye bye", a line from a well-known dancehall song by Jamaican star Buju Banton about shooting and burning gay men. "It was like a parade", says Schleifer. "They were basically partying."[50]
HRW also reported that police helped a suspect evade identification, and consistently refused to consider the possibility of a homophobic motive for the killing, with the senior officer responsible for the investigation claiming "most of the violence against homosexuals is internal. We never have cases of gay men being beaten up [by heterosexuals]."[89]
A friend of Williamson's, Lenford "Steve" Harvey, who worked in Targeted Interventions at Jamaica AIDS Support for Life, was shot to death on the eve of World AIDS Day the following year. Gunmen reportedly burst into his home and demanded money, demanding to know: "Are you battymen?" "I think his silence, his refusal to answer that question sealed it," said Yvonne McCalla Sobers, the head of Families Against State Terrorism. "Then they opened his laptop and saw a photograph of him with his partner in some kind of embrace that showed they were together. So they took him out and killed him."[50] Six people were charged with the killing. Their trial began, and was then postponed, in 2007. It was resumed in 2012; in 2014, one of the accused was set free.[5][90]
In April 2006, students at the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies rioted as police attempted to protect a man who had been chased across the campus because another student had claimed the man had propositioned him in a bathroom. The mob demanded that the man be turned over to them. It only dispersed when riot police were called in and an officer fired a shot in the air.[91]
In November 2012, two campus security guards beat a reportedly gay university student when he sought refuge from a mob of fellow students who were chasing him. The security company fired the two guards,[92] and their action was condemned by the University of Technology, as well as the security company.[93] The university established a working group to develop a sensitisation and education program to deal with intolerance and bullying, and to recommend corrective measures.[5]
In July, a mob in St. James stabbed to death a gender-nonconforming 16-year-old, Dwayne Jones.[94] The murder attracted international attention and outrage, especially in North America, resulting in condemnation of the killing by human rights groups.[95][96][97][98] Police investigated the murder, however, no one has been arrested or charged, and the crime is still considered unsolved, as of 2022.[99][100]
In August 2013, Dean Moriah, a gay businessman in Montego Bay, was stabbed to death in his home. His house was then set on fire and his car was stolen in the same incident.[101] Following the murder, an investigation was launched to determine whether Moriah had been targeted due to his sexuality and both local and international gay rights activists argued that the murder was a homophobic hate crime. In 2014, a nineteen-year-old man was formally charged with the murder.[102][103]
Also in August 2013, two men who were perceived by angry residents to be gay were forced to take refuge in a police station after a minor car accident.[104]
In August 2017, Dexter Pottinger, a Jamaican gay activist, fashion designer, and face of Jamaica Pride 2016 and 2017, was robbed and found murdered with 25 knife stab wounds at his home in St. Andrew.[105] In April 2019, in what has been described as a gay panic defense case, Romario Brown, who was initially charged with the murder of Pottinger, pleaded guilty to the lesser offence of manslaughter after his caution statement revealed that his actions were caused by provocation by the deceased.[106][107] In May 2019, he was sentenced to 12 years for manslaughter. Pottinger's relatives said that the sentence was too short. His sister, Tashan Adams, said that the family was not satisfied and questioned the claims of the murderer.[108][109][110][111]
Public attitudes toward LGBT people
editA poll in 2001 showed that 96 percent of Jamaicans were opposed to any move that would seek to legalise homosexual relations.[112][113]
Results from the "National Survey of Attitudes and Perceptions of Jamaicans Towards Same Sex Relationships" were published in 2011. Based on a random survey in late 2010 of 1,007 Jamaicans, aged 18–84, 85.2 percent were opposed to legalising homosexuality among consenting adults. In addition, 82.2 percent said that male homosexuality was immoral, 75.2 percent believed that female homosexuality was immoral, and 75.3 percent believed that bisexual relationships were immoral.[114]
In 2008, a poll of 1,008 Jamaicans was conducted that read, "Whether or not you agree with their lifestyle, do you think homosexuals are entitled to the same basic rights and privileges as other people in Jamaica?" 26 percent said "yes", 70 percent said "no", and 4 percent did not know.[115]
In 2012, a poll revealed that about a third of the population—over 900,000 Jamaicans—believe the government is not doing enough to protect LGBT people from violence and discrimination.[116]
A 2016 poll from J-Flag shows that 88 percent of those polled disapprove of homosexuality.[117]
Gender
editHomophobia based on masculine idealization
editJamaica has a heavily male-dominated social structure.[118] Consequently, heterosexual relations are praised as signs of male virility in the lyrics of popular songs, particularly in Jamaican dancehall.[7] Homosexual intercourse in this context is seen as a potential affront to the male "ideal".[119] Popular music similarly reproduces and enforces heteronormativity and aggressive homophobia in Jamaican culture. The chorus of Jamaican dancehall hit "Boom Bye Bye" by Buju Banton repeats: "Boom bye bye Inna batty bwoy head, Rude boy no promote no nasty man Dem haffi ded". The song, commonly played in Jamaica for over ten years after it released, explicitly calls for the murder of men who have sex with men.[120] This trope is rather common in dancehall music and reflects the "remarkably ubiquitous" homophobia in Jamaica.[121] Aggressive homophobic attitudes in Jamaica are mostly attributable to the norms of hypermasculinity, which is roughly equivalent to the machismo found in Central and South America.[122]
Homophobia in Jamaica is bolstered by the contemporary association of homosexuality with colonization, and by extension, of homophobia with anti-colonialism. Scholar Wayne Marshall describes that, in Jamaica, acts of homosexuality are believed to be "decadent products of the West" and "are thus to be resisted alongside other forms of colonization, cultural or political." This sentiment is easily demonstrated in the Jamaican dancehall hit "Dem Bow" by Shabba Ranks, in which homosexuality is violently condemned alongside a call for the "freedom for Black people."[121]
Jamaican male sexual identity has long been defined in opposition to homosexuality.[72] According to Dr. Kingsley Ragashanti Stewart, a professor of anthropology at the University of the West Indies, "A lot of Jamaican men, if you call them a homosexual, ... will immediately get violent. It's the worst insult you could give to a Jamaican man."[72] Dr. Stewart believes that homophobia influences almost every aspect of life and shapes the everyday language of ghetto youth. "It's like if you say, 'Come back here,' they will say, 'No, no, no don't say 'come back'.' You have to say 'come forward,' because come back is implying that you're 'coming in the back,' which is how gay men have sex."[72]
Attitudes about lesbians
editJamaica Gleaner columnist Morris Cargill, who supported the "nurture" view with respect to environment and sexual orientation, opinionated in 1999:
There seems to be a certain logic in female homosexuality. For if it is true, broadly speaking, we acquire our first sexual proclivities in infancy, girl children who are petted and fondled by their mothers, nurses and female relatives acquire what might be said to be a "normal" sexual affection for their own sex. But this is not true of male children, so it seems to me that there is a very fundamental difference between male and female homosexuality.[123]
Amnesty International, however, has received reports of violence against lesbians, including rape and other forms of sexual violence. Lesbians reportedly have been attacked on the grounds of "mannish" physical appearance or other visible "signs" of sexuality. Some reports of abduction and rape come from inner-city communities, where local non-governmental organisations have expressed concerns about high incidences of violence against women.[124]
Although lesbian civil ceremonies have taken place, Jamaica does not recognise any legal basis for partnerships between women.[125][126] In 2012, American couple Jamaican-born Nicole Y. Dennis-Benn and Emma Benn held the first lesbian wedding in Jamaica, although their marriage was not legally recognised in Jamaica, they were by law, legally married in New York State (which legalised same-sex marriage in 2012) where they reside. The couple had their celebration ceremony in Jamaica after being lawfully married in the United States.[125]
Transgender individuals
editWhat makes the lives of transgender individuals in Jamaica different from those in other countries is the fact that Jamaican society has an exceptionally low tolerance for LGBTQ individuals, especially male-to-female transgender women, according to a case study done by the University of West Indies’ Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social Economic Studies.[127] The stigmas placed upon these individuals influence their perception of the world, and upon internalising these stigmas, the treatment process becomes more difficult.[127] The viewpoint arises that doctors will stigmatise patients or treat them badly because of the unconventionality of the treatment being carried out.[127] Ultimately, low tolerance leads patients to obtain less treatment overall.[127]
Religion
editHomophobia based on religion
editMany Jamaicans identify as devoutly Christian and claim that their anti-gay stance is based on religious grounds.[128]
In June 2013, Jamaican church pastors rallied nearly 1,500 people in Kingston to support the country's buggery laws. Pastor Leslie Buckland of the Church of Christ argued that LGBT activists were trying to "take over the world" with their challenge of the laws. Buckland said that if the laws were repealed, activists would "go back to the court to make it a criminal offense to speak against the homosexual lifestyle."[129]
In February 2006, a coalition of church leaders and members of the Lawyers' Christian Fellowship declared their opposition to the privacy provisions of a proposed Charter of Rights that would form the basis of an amended Jamaican Constitution. Chief among the concerns was that homosexuality could be made legal, although Justice Minister A. J. Nicholson and the leader of the opposition, Bruce Golding, denied this and opposed decriminalising buggery.[130]
Cecil Gutzmore at the University of the West Indies has written that religious fundamentalists believe that the Bible variously declares homosexuality to be an "abomination", a "vile affection", "unseemly", "not natural", or a "form of ungodliness".
Those who commit this great sin are thus unequivocally construed ... as legitimate subjects to be punished by terminal violence, a fate not only dealt out directly by God Himself but, presumably, also by those regarding themselves as His faithful servants and the possible agents of His will. These persons feel a kind of righteous justification for ... acting violently on God's behalf against perceived homosexuals and homosexuality. ... In Jamaica metaphorical stones enthusiastically and destructively cast take the form of homophobic song lyrics, passionate sermons, and parliamentary and party conference speeches that voice a refusal to liberalize anti-homosexuality laws.[131]
Local LGBT-rights group J-FLAG acknowledges that anti-LGBT sentiment is influenced by certain passages from the Bible, but counters that,
the appropriation by legislatures of the Christian condemnation of homosexuals is a purely arbitrary process, guided largely by individual biases and collective prejudices. In the case of adultery, of which much more mention is made in Biblical text, Jamaica has no law pertaining to its condemnation or prosecution. The same applies to the act of fornication.[119]
Attitudes of Rastafari from Jamaica
editThere are some homophobic attitudes in the Rastafari movement, according to an anonymous, well-educated Rasta elder in 2007:
The real reason why the average "Jah D" in Jamaica has this extreme, rational aversion to male homosexuality is not ... because of "fear of the other", it is not because of Biblical injunction; it is not because of its supposed "un-Africanness" nor the fact that Jamaica is nominally a "Christian country". It is simply that he cannot condone the abandonment of the clean "nip and tuck" of normal heterosexual relations for the unhygienic foray amid waste matter, unfriendly bacteria and toxic germs.[132]
Senior Rastafari Ras Iyah V opposes the repeal of Jamaica's buggery laws. "I would have to stand with those who oppose homosexuality because that is not our way. From a moral and traditional African point of view, homosexuality is not acceptable."[133]
Some Rastafari from Jamaica, however, have supported gay rights. British-born writer Benjamin Zephaniah said in 2005, "[I]t hurts when I see that [Jamaica] ... is now associated with the persecution of people because of their sexual orientation. I believe it is my duty to call upon all the progressive people of Jamaica ... to take a stand against homophobia."[134] Mista Mahaj P, a Jamaican-born Rastafari based in the United States, released in 2011 reggae's first pro-gay album entitled Tolerance.[135] King B-Fine, a Rastafari Reggae artist born in Jamaica, openly supports gay rights. He clarified this after some controversy about his song "Jah Nah Dead".[citation needed]
Pop culture
editPortrayal of LGBT people in popular Jamaican music
editJamaica's popular culture has a strong tradition of music, including reggae and dancehall. As a consequence, performers are high profile, both influencing popular opinion and reflecting it. The United States Department of State said that in 2012 "through the songs and the behavior of some musicians, the country's dancehall culture helped perpetuate homophobia."[5] In its 2011 review of Jamaica for compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed regret over "virulent lyrics by musicians and entertainers that incite violence against homosexuals" and recommended that Jamaica investigate, prosecute, and sanction persons who do so.[136]
Artists such as Buju Banton,[137][138] Bounty Killer,[138] Beenie Man,[139][140] Mavado,[141] Sizzla,[142] Elephant Man,[138][143] Capleton,[144] T.O.K.,[145] Vybz Kartel and Shabba Ranks[146] have during their careers written or performed, or both, songs that advocate attacking or killing gays and lesbians.[147]
Buju Banton, according to Time Magazine, "is an avowed homophobe whose [1992] song Boom Bye-Bye decrees that gays 'haffi dead' ('have to die')."[138] The song also "boasts of shooting gays with Uzis and burning their skin with acid 'like an old tire wheel'."[138] Buju Banton's manager, Donovan Germain, has insisted that "Buju's lyrics are part of a metaphorical tradition. They're not a literal call to kill gay men."[138]
One of Beenie Man's songs contains the lyrics: "I'm a dreaming of a new Jamaica, come to execute all the gays."[148] Bounty Killer has urged his listeners to burn "Mister Fagoty" and make him "wince in agony."[138] Elephant Man said in one of his songs, "When you hear a lesbian getting raped / It's not our fault ... Two women in bed / That's two Sodomites who should be dead."[138] Lyrics from Sizzla's songs include: "Shot battybwoy, my big gun boom." (Shoot queers, my big gun goes boom.)[149]
Some Rastafari have advocated for violence and discrimination against LGBT people.[150] When singing about gay males, those advocates have used terms like "MAUMA MAN (Maama Man), FASSY HOLE (or simply FASSY), MR. BURN, PUSSYHOLE, FAGGOT, FISHMAN, FUNNY MAN, BUJU MAN, FREAKY MAN, POOP MAN, BUGGER MAN and the most commonly used, BATTY MAN (butt man) and CHI CHI MAN (chi chi, in Jamaica, is the slang for vermin)."[150]
When singing about gay women, they have used terms like "SODOMITE, CHI CHI GAL or simply LESBIAN."[150] The Bobo Ashanti, including dancehall singers Sizzla, Capleton, and Anthony B, condemn everything in conflict with their beliefs: "Fire pon politicians, Fire pon Vatican, Fire pon chi chi man..."[150] Some singers have defended themselves by saying that it is "a 'spiritual fire.'"[150]
An international campaign against homophobia by reggae singers was headed by OutRage!, the UK-based gay activism group,[151] and the UK-based Stop Murder Music Coalition.[152] An agreement to stop anti-gay lyrics during live performances and not to produce any new anti-gay material or re-release offending songs was reached in February 2005 between dancehall record labels and organisations opposed to anti-gay murder lyrics.[152]
According to a 2005 published report, the Canadian High Commission in Jamaica was also requiring performers who wished to tour in Canada to sign an Entertainer Declaration that stated that they had read and fully understood excerpts from the Criminal Code, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and the Canadian Human Rights Act and would not "engage in or advocate hatred against persons because of their ... sexual orientation."[153] Calls for a boycott of Jamaica and its music in Canada had provoked a debate over censorship and free expression in both Jamaica and Canada.[154]
In August 2013, Queen Ifrica made anti-gay comments at the Grand Gala independence celebrations in Kingston,[155] which were promptly criticised and labelled as inappropriate by the government's Ministry of Youth and Culture.[156] The promoters of Rastafest in Toronto, held later the same month, then dropped her from the concert lineup after various persons and groups protested her inclusion.[157]
A 2010 random survey of Jamaican adults showed that among those who most listened to reggae music, 65.0 percent expressed repulsion (the most negative emotion among the Riddle scale's eight possibilities) about persons in same-sex relationships. The percentages for dancehall music were 62.8 percent, 47.5 percent for rhythm and blues, 45.4 percent for those with no music preference, 42.9 percent for old hits and gospel, 35.3 percent for rock/alternative, and 30.8 percent for hip hop/rap.[114]
In 2019, dancehall artist Shenseea released the music video for her song “Blessed” (featuring Tyga).[158] In one of the video's opening scenes, Shenseea is undressed in bed next to another woman.[158] In an article for The Face, author Summer Eldemire describes how the video can be viewed as resistance to homophobia in dancehall music, especially given the backlash Shenseea has received for performing at Jamaican pride events and for sharing intimate photos of her and another woman on Instagram.[159]
In 2022, during Pride Month, Jamaican Canadian singer Mark Clennon released a music video for his song "Kingston", which featured a romantic storyline between Clennon and male model Jean-Julien Hazoumi.[160] The music video, filmed in Kingston and co-directed by Clennon and Canadian filmmaker M. H. Murray, became the first music video shot in Jamaica to feature an on-screen romance between two men.[161][162][163]
Portrayal of LGBT people in literature
editLGBT individuals are represented in the work of Jamaican authors such as Claude McKay, who left Jamaica in 1912 to pursue his writing career in Harlem. McKay is among the first Jamaican fiction authors to write about homosexuality; however, he refrained from being open about his own sexuality. In his novels Home to Harlem and Banjo, he creates "homosocial" worlds in which men engage sexually exclusively with other men. McKay is more widely known and accepted among the black community as a powerful figure in the Harlem Renaissance than as a pivotal figure in the queer community.[164]
LGBT Pride events in Jamaica
editIn 2015, Jamaica held its first LGBT Pride celebrations, known as PRIDEJA, a week-long event used to highlight the island's efforts to tackle discrimination and hate against the LGBT community. However, there was no parade, as it would have been risky for the marchers, according to J-FLAG.[165] The Mayor of Kingston, Angela Brown-Burke, attended and spoke at the event, voicing her support by saying: "I come from the point of view that I, as mayor, have a responsibility to all the individuals of Kingston. There are individuals who are minorities who have been struggling in terms of their identity and finding their own space. It is important for us to provide safe spaces for them." Then Minister of Justice Mark Golding issued a statement in support of the gay Pride celebration, saying "I support the right of all Jamaicans, including members of the LGBT community, to express their opinions through any lawful means. As the LGBT community embarks on a week of activities to build awareness of the rights and needs of their members, I urge all Jamaicans to respect their right to do so in peace."[166][167] Hollywood actor Elliot Page also attended the event.[168] At the 2018 event, the cocktail reception was jointly hosted by the Charge d’ Affaires of the US Embassy, Eric Khant; British High Commissioner to Jamaica, Asif Ahmad and Canadian High Commissioner to Jamaica, Laurie Peters. It has been yearly celebrated ever since.
In October 2015, another pride event, Montego Bay Pride, was held for the first time, and has been yearly celebrated ever since. Growing from about 150 participants in 2015, it expanded to over 300 persons in 2016, to over 850 in 2017, and to over 900 in 2018. The 2017 pride saw Jamaica's first ever LGBT film festival, with four nights of documentaries highlighting the work for LGBT human rights in Canada, the United States, Uganda, and India. The 2018 pride saw a walk for acceptance and equality despite fear of attacks. Venues of pride events are not disclosed for security reasons.[169][170][171][172][173]
Health and wellness
editMental health
editIn a study by the International Journal of Sexual Health in 2007, in which LGBT individuals were selected from groups for sexual minority support, human rights, and HIV/AIDS care and prevention, 13% of individuals interviewed were diagnosed with depression, and 11% met the criteria for substance abuse. 76% of the participants reported that they were victims of abusive experiences up to twelve months prior to the interview, of whom 19% reported physical violence.[174] There are several human rights and sexual minority support groups and HIV/AIDS programs already existing in Jamaica that provide social support, information services, counselling, legal representation, and education, but many argue that these programs lack organisation and do not have enough mental health counsellors.[174]
HIV/AIDS
editEstablished and underlying determinants
editAccording to a study conducted in 2015, adverse life events and low literacy have an effect on the prevalence of HIV among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Jamaica. Through the survey method, the researchers in this experiment found that these two factors are underlying determinants of the infection, and HIV was found most prevalent in MSM who were sex workers and had been raped. These men had lower self-esteem, which often leads to a reduction in ability to practice safe sex. Risk factors of HIV that have already been classified as established determinants such as receptive anal intercourse and casual sex partners tended to be more common among those MSM who had dealt with the issues formerly stated. Other underlying determinants of HIV include employment as sex workers, which made up 41.1% of those surveyed, and identifying as transgender, as did 52.9% of the survey participants. Overall, 31.4% of the MSM surveyed were HIV positive.[175]
Prevention efforts
editThere are many efforts to combat HIV/AIDS in Jamaica and the broader Caribbean today. In 2001, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Heads of Government declared AIDS as a regional priority of the Caribbean, and the Pan Caribbean AIDS Partnership (PANCAP) was formed in order to initiate the region's response to HIV.[176]
In Jamaica itself, there is a National Human Immunodeficiency Virus program based in the Jamaican Ministry of Health designed to slow the epidemic and decrease its impact. It has been a national plan in Jamaica to respond to HIV since 1988 when the National AIDS Committee was established to lead the island's multi-sectoral response to HIV/AIDS. To prevent the epidemic, information, education, and communication campaigns have been formed to promote condom use, control sexually transmitted infections (STI), and form workplace programs, HIV testing, and counselling.[177]
There have also been efforts to minimize the stigma and discrimination surrounding issues relating to HIV and AIDS in Jamaica. In 2001, antiretroviral therapy was introduced in order to prevent vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child. In 2004, a public access treatment program was introduced, and in 2005 parliament unanimously adopted a national HIV/AIDS policy. The 2007-2012 National Strategic Plan included in it Jamaica's efforts toward aims to achieve access to HIV prevention worldwide.[177]
Homophobia and HIV/AIDS in Jamaica
editAn estimated 1.8 percent of the age 18–49 population of Jamaica was HIV positive in 2011.[178] The rate for men who have sex with men was 32.8 percent.[179] The highest rates of infection were in the most urbanised parishes and in tourist areas.[179] The HIV epidemic has been closely tied to poverty and developmental and socio-cultural issues, including slow economic growth, high levels of unemployment, early sexual debut, the culture of multiple partnerships, and the informal drug and commercial sex sectors.[179]
In 2004, Human Rights Watch issued a report on the status of LGBT people in Jamaica. The report documented widespread homophobia and argued that the high level of intolerance was harming public efforts to combat violence and the AIDS-HIV pandemic.[12]
The way Jamaicans associate HIV with homosexual anal sex has been partly shaped by the international media coverage at the beginning of the epidemic. Dr. Robert Carr, widely recognised as one of the world's leading researchers on cultural forces and the unfolding of the HIV pandemic, said:
AIDS was seen as a disease of gay, White, North American men. And people were really afraid of it. There were no treatments available in the Caribbean at the time, so AIDS really was a death sentence. You had people with Kaposi's sarcoma, people with violent diarrhoea, who were just wasting away and then dying in really horrible and traumatic ways. To call what was going on here "stigma and discrimination" was really an understatement. In the ghettos[,] they were putting tires around people who had AIDS and lighting the tires on fire. They were killing gay people because they thought AIDS was contagious. It was a very extreme environment, and really horrible things were happening.[72]
Stigma has been associated with HIV in Jamaica since the beginning of the epidemic, partly because of its association with male homosexuality.[122] Jamaican men, in particular, are so concerned about being associated with homosexuality that they are hesitant to seek HIV treatment and prevention services.[72] Poor men living with HIV are assumed to have participated in same-sex sexual acts, and poor men who participate in those acts are assumed to be HIV positive.[122] Some people in Jamaica become suicidal when they first receive their HIV diagnosis, rooted in the fear of isolation and discrimination that will result from others finding out and not from the potential of death associated with it.[122] HIV is a reportable disease, resulting in a visit by a contact investigator who asks for the names of sexual partners.[122]
The spread of HIV also encourages a cycle of blame and violence, which marginalises and encourages violence against a gay lifestyle. This cycle takes on further meaning under Jamaican law, which criminalises all anal sex and often turns a blind eye to violence against homosexuals.[72] Few are willing to take up the language of human rights against what is happening to homosexuals and HIV positive individuals because they are considered responsible for the spread of HIV.[180]
A study conducted by AIDS researchers found that half of surveyed university students in Jamaica felt sympathetic towards heterosexual men and non-sex workers who were HIV positive, but did not feel the same for homosexual men and female sex workers.[180] Essentially this study showed that less blame is attached to people who became positive through "less controllable" acts such as voluntary heterosexual intercourse or drug use. Many Jamaicans felt that sex workers and homosexuals are not to be pitied for contracting HIV because they were acting in a way that knowingly put themselves at higher risk.[180]
The secretive nature of gay culture in Jamaica makes outreach nearly impossible. Fear of being identified as gay has forced many men into early marriages in the hopes of avoiding future accusations. Miriam Maluwa, the UNAIDS country representative for Jamaica, said, "[Gay men] marry fairly rapidly, they have children fairly rapidly to regularise themselves, and that is really a ticking bomb".[72] Gay men forced into heterosexual marriage are thus likely to have extramarital affairs, putting their wives at high risk for infection too.[citation needed]
Summary table
editSame-sex sexual activity legal | Up to ten year in prison with hard labor and fines. (not enforced, legalization proposed) |
Equal age of consent | |
Anti-discrimination laws in employment | |
Anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services | |
Anti-discrimination laws in all other areas (incl. indirect discrimination, hate speech) | |
Same-sex marriages | (Constitutional ban since 2011, ban challenged in courts) |
Recognition of same-sex couples | |
Step-child adoption by same-sex couples | |
Joint adoption by same-sex couples | |
Gays and lesbians allowed to serve openly in the military | |
Right to change legal gender | |
Access to IVF for lesbians | |
Commercial surrogacy for gay male couples | |
MSMs allowed to donate blood |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b "Jamaica’s Prime Minister says he’d be open to a gay person serving in his government", PinkNews, 20 April 2018.
- ^ "41-year-old Gay Man Was Murdered and Burnt By Unknown Assailants In Jamaica". Archived from the original on 11 November 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica's Gays: Protection from Homophobes Urgently Needed". Amnesty International, compiled by GayToday.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ Padgett, Tim (12 April 2006). "The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?". Time. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. Retrieved 26 April 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "2012 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Jamaica" (PDF). Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State. pp. 20–22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
- ^ Tom Faber, "Welcome to Jamaica – no longer 'the most homophobic place on Earth'", The Guardian, 6 December 2018.
- ^ a b c d e Andrew Reding (December 2003). "Sexual Orientation and Human Rights in the Americas" (PDF). World Policy Reports. Project for Global Democracy and Human Rights, World Policy Institute. p. 79. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
- ^ a b Gaskins Jr, Joseph (2013). "Buggery'and the Commonwealth Caribbean: a comparative examination of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago" (PDF). Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in the Commonwealth: Struggles for Decriminalisation and Change. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
- ^ a b c "Chapter VII: Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Jamaica, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Organization of American States, 2012" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ a b c d e "Offenses Against the Person Act" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
- ^ "Jamaica: Support The Inclusion Of Sexual Orientation As A Protected Category In The Jamaican Constitution", International Gay & Lesbian Human Rights Commission, 4 May 2000.
- ^ a b "Hated to Death". Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ "European Union: Parliament Calls on Jamaica to End Violence and Homophobia - Human Rights Watch". June 2005. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ Boseley, Sarah (10 February 2012). "Jamaican gay rights activists hopeful of repealing anti-homosexuality law". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ "Supreme Court begins hearing buggery law challenge". jamaica-gleaner.com. 25 June 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Lavers, Michael K. (2 September 2014), "Gay Jamaican man drops lawsuit against anti-sodomy law", Washington Blade.
- ^ "Jamaican gives up fight to repeal Jamaica's sodomy law". Antillean Media Group. 29 August 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Case Against Jamaican Anti-Sodomy Law Withdrawn". Human Rights First. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Jamaican Who Challenged Buggery Law Bullied Out of Supreme Court". www.advocate.com. 30 August 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ Stewart, Colin (29 August 2014). "Jamaican activist ends challenge to anti-sodomy law". Erasing 76 Crimes. Archived from the original on 11 November 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Constitutional challenge to Jamaica’s anti-sodomy law: Questions & Answers", Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 9 December 2015.
- ^ "Jamaican Gay Activist Launches Constitutional Challenge", Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 9 December 2015.
- ^ Lavers, Michael K. (9 December 2015). "Lawsuit challenges Jamaica sodomy law". Washington Blade. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Jamaican activist sues to overturn 'buggery law'". Erasing 76 Crimes. 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ Feder, J. Lester (8 December 2015). "This Man Is Challenging Jamaica's Ban On Homosexuality". BuzzFeed News. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Challenge to Jamaican anti-sodomy law gets under way". Erasing 76 Crimes. 24 February 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "My lonely day as an outcast in a crowded Jamaican court". Erasing 76 Crimes. 29 April 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Jamaican Supreme Court stacks the deck against LGBT rights". Erasing 76 Crimes. 11 July 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Public defender blocked from joining anti-buggery law court challenge". Loop Jamaica. 10 November 2018. Archived from the original on 30 July 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Public Defender blocked from joining court challenge to anti-buggery laws". The Gleaner. 9 November 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Courts skew the case against Jamaican anti-sodomy law", Erasing 76 Crimes, 9 November 2018.
- ^ Lang, Nico (19 October 2018). "Jamaica Could Be Next Country to Overturn Laws Banning Gay Sex". INTO. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights to Hear Case Against Jamaica's Anti-Buggery Law". Caribbean360. 16 October 2018. Archived from the original on 30 July 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Inter-American human rights body to examine Jamaica's 'homophobic' laws", Jamaica Observer, 16 October 2018.
- ^ "IACHR to hear case challenging Jamaica's anti-buggery laws" Archived 30 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Jamaica Observer, 17 October 2018.
- ^ "One step closer to justice: Inter-American human rights body to examine Jamaica’s homophobic laws", Human Dignity Trust, 15 October 2018.
- ^ CMC (16 October 2018), "IACHR to hear case challenging Jamaica’s anti-buggery laws", NationNews.
- ^ Power, Shannon (15 October 2018), "Jamaica's anti-buggery laws may be facing their biggest legal challenge yet" Archived 25 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine, GayStarNews.
- ^ "Jamaican vote on sodomy law? Get out of gays' bedrooms!". Erasing 76 Crimes. 19 December 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ Tomlinson, Maurice (15 December 2018). "Get out of gays' bedrooms". The Gleaner. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Jamaica: Condemn Homophobic Remarks - Human Rights Watch". 19 February 2009. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ Tomlinson, Maurice (4 January 2013), "Jamaica might get anti-discrimination law", Erasing 76 Crimes.
- ^ a b "The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (Constitutional Amendment) Act, 2011" (PDF). japarliament.gov.jm. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
- ^ "Jamaica Observer Limited". Jamaica Observer. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
- ^ "Gay marriage fight - Activist mounts challenge to Jamaican Constitution at IACHR". jamaica-gleaner.com. 26 July 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ "Activist petitions for right to same-sex marriage in Jamaica". Erasing 76 Crimes. 27 July 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ "Jamaica activist criticizes anti-gay rhetoric by gov't candidates in leadup to tight elections". GlobalGayz.com. Associated Press. 27 December 2011. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ Collin Stewart (7 June 2013). "Jamaica: Vote coming soon on repeal of anti-gay law". Erasing 76 Crimes. Archived from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ Dennis Dames, "Jamaica: Dealing with the gay rights issue", Zimbio, 13 January 2012.
- ^ a b c Younge, Gary (26 April 2006). "Troubled island". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 December 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ ""Golding talks about policing, gays on BBC", Jamaica Gleaner, 21 May 2008". Archived from the original on 5 February 2012.
- ^ "New Nation Coalition party launched". RJR News. 4 August 2010. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011.
- ^ "About". jflag.org. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ a b "LGBT Voices for Equality: Jamaica". Human Rights First. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ "Quality of Citizenship Jamaica". qcjm.org. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ Jamaica: Hated to Death: I. Summary (hrw.org) https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/jamaica1104/3.htm
- ^ a b "Maurice Tomlinson". Pulitzer Center. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ a b c "This Man Is Challenging Jamaica's Ban On Homosexuality". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on 20 July 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ a b c "Toronto lawyer challenges Jamaica's anti-homosexuality law". www.cbc.ca. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ "Jamaica is failing its LGBT youth". Human Rights First. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ a b c "'Gay tourists welcome' - JTB head says perception about Jamaica being hostile is wrong". 4 February 2019. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ a b Silvera, Janet (4 February 2019). "'Gay tourists welcome' to Jamaica; official says perception country is hostile is wrong". St. Lucia News Online. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ a b "UNAIDS Reference Group on HIV and Human Rights | Dr J. Carolyn Gomes". www.hivhumanrights.org. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ "As Jamaica Reviews Its Homosexuality Ban, a Top Newspaper Is Waging an Anti-Gay Campaign". VICE News. 18 November 2014. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ We Are Jamaicans (25 March 2013). "We Are Jamaicans - Carolyn Gomes". YouTube. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
- ^ "Jamaica: Combat Homophobia - Human Rights Watch". 18 July 2012. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ "Outcome of the Universal Periodic Review: Jamaica" (PDF). United Nations Human Rights Council, 16th Session, A/HRC/16/DEC/112. 17 March 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review - Jamaica". United Nations Human Rights Council, 16th Session, A/HRC/16/14date= 4 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ Nelson, Leah. "Jamaica's Anti-Gay 'Murder Music' Carries Violent Message". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica's Gays: Protection from Homophobes Urgently Needed". Amnesty International, compiled by GayToday.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ "Gay Jamaican wins U.S. asylum". Qnotes Online. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Fink, Micah (September 2009). "How AIDS Became a Caribbean Crisis". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ Chappell, Kate (29 January 2018). "Jamaica bans anti-gay Arizona pastor from visiting country". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "US 'death to gays' pastor banned from going to Jamaica". PinkNews. 30 January 2018. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "'Gay tourists welcome' to Jamaica; official says perception country is hostile is wrong". 4 February 2019. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "Jamaican TV stations due in court for nixing LGBT ad", Erasing 76 Crimes, 16 May 2013.
- ^ "Jamaican lawsuit seeks OK for gay respect TV ad", Erasing 76 Crimes, 28 May 2013.
- ^ "Jamaican TV: Why we reject LGBT tolerance ad", Erasing 76 Crimes, 30 May 2013.
- ^ Henry, Paul (15 November 2013), "Court throws out gay suit against local TV stations" Archived 30 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Jamaica Observer.
- ^ Gayle, Barbara (16 November 2013), "Court Throws Out Gay Rights Activist's Case Against TV Stations", Jamaica Gleaner.
- ^ "Jamaica: 'Church, TV can dictate how gays are viewed'", Erasing 76 Crimes, 18 November 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica today: Challenging homophobic TV stations", Erasing 76 Crimes, 20 July 2015.
- ^ "Love and Respect: Q&A On Jamaican TV Ad Court Case", Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 20 July 2015
- ^ "OK to block TV tolerance ad? Jamaican court will decide", Erasing 76 Crimes, 2 February 2016.
- ^ "Court reserves judgement in legal case involving gay rights activist", RJR News, 17 February 2016.
- ^ "Maurice Tomlinson". The Ubuntu Biography Project. 9 April 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ "Submission to Court of Appeal of Jamaica in M. Tomlinson v. Television Jamaica Ltd. and CVM Television Ltd". Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. 18 September 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ "Jamaican gay activist murdered". BBC News. 10 June 2004. Archived from the original on 20 July 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Roth, Kenneth; Schleifer, Rebecca; Long, Scott (30 November 2004). "Letter Urging Jamaican Government to Protect Rights Defenders and Address Violence and Abuse Based on Sexual Orientation and HIV Status". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 20 June 2006.
- ^ "Accused in 'Steve' Harvey murder set free". The Gleaner. 15 July 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
- ^ Wildes, Andrew (5 April 2006). "Alleged homosexual attacked at UWI". The Gleaner. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ "UTech guards fired!". Jamaica Observer. 3 November 2012. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
- ^ "UTech, Marksman condemn beating of alleged gay student". The Gleaner. 2 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
- ^ Sieczkowski, Cavan (25 July 2013). "Dwayne Jones, 'Cross-Dressing' Jamaican Teen, Allegedly 'Chopped And Stabbed' To Death By Mob". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ "Police: Arrest soon in cross-dresser's death". The Jamaica Observer. 14 August 2013. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica: Cross-Dressing Teenager Murdered". Human Rights Watch. 1 August 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
- ^ McFadden, David. "In Jamaica, transgender teen murdered by mob". USA TODAY. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
- ^ "Transgender teen killed by mob in Jamaica". CBC News. 11 August 2013.
- ^ Davis, Nick (10 August 2015). "Jamaica's first public gay pride event a symbol of change: 'It felt liberating'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
- ^ Roberts, Scott (19 May 2014). "Lawyer: Jamaican Prime Minister has betrayed gay voters by refusing to lift buggery law". PinkNews. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
- ^ "41-year-old Gay Man Was Murdered and Burnt By Unknown Assailants In Jamaica". Minority-Insight. 27 August 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013.
- ^ "WATCH: Jamaican Gay Man Murdered, House Burned". 6 September 2013.
- ^ "Dean Moriah murder case for September 18". 2 August 2014.
- ^ "Video: 2 Men Trapped By Mob In Jamaica For 'Appearing' Gay". GLAAD. 29 August 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013.
- ^ Mitchell, Damion (31 August 2017). "UPDATE: 'There Was Blood Everywhere'... Police Say Slain Dexter Pottinger Found Face Down". The Gleaner. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
- ^ "Jamaica: Gay panic defense in killing of Pride icon". Erasing 76 Crimes. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ Mundle, Tanesha (11 April 2019). "Tattoo artist to be sentenced in murder of Dexter Pottinger". Jamaica Observer. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ "Dexter Pottinger's killer sentenced to 12 years imprisonment". The Gleaner. 24 May 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ "Dexter Pottinger's killer to serve 12 years in prison for the crime". Loop. 25 May 2019. Archived from the original on 31 July 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ "Dexter Pottinger's Killer To Spend 12 Years In Prison". RJR News. 24 May 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Wilson, Nickoy (25 May 2019). "Pottinger's loved ones dissatisfied with killer's 12-year sentence". The Gleaner. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Younge, Gary (26 June 2004). "Chilling Call to Murder as Music Attacks Gays". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ "DW (Homosexual Men – Persecution – Sufficiency of Protection) Jamaica, CG [2005] UKAIT 00168, Asylum and Immigration Tribunal" (PDF). Refworld. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 August 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ a b "National Survey of Attitudes and Perceptions of Jamaicans Towards Same Sex Relationships" (PDF). AIDS-Free World. 30 June 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2015.
- ^ "Jamaicans Reject Basic Rights for Homosexuals". Angus Reid Global Monitor. 26 June 2008. Archived from the original on 27 February 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
- ^ Stewart, Colin (10 January 2013). "Top 10 LGBT achievements in 2012 in Jamaica". Erasing 76 Crimes. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Freedom in the World 2018 - Jamaica". Refworld. 27 August 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ Beverley Carlson, "Social Assessment: Reform of Secondary Education in Jamaica" Archived 12 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, prepared for the World Bank Project Appraisal Document on the Reform of Secondary Education (Rose II), January 2002.
- ^ a b J-FLAG, "Parliamentary Submission: The Jamaica Forum for Lesbians All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG) with regard To 'An Act to Amend the Constitution of Jamaica to Provide for a Charter of Rights and for Connected Matters'," 2001. Submission online Archived 21 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 June 2006.
- ^ Ellis, Nadia (July 2011). "Out and Bad: Toward a Queer Performance Hermeneutic in Jamaican Dancehall". Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism. 15 (2): 7–23. doi:10.1215/07990537-1334212. S2CID 144742875. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
- ^ a b Marshall, Wayne (2008). "Dem Bow, Dembow, Dembo: Translation and Transnation in Reggaetón". Song and Popular Culture. 53: 131–151. JSTOR 20685604.
- ^ a b c d e Ruth C. White and Robert Carr (July–August 2005). "Homosexuality and HIV/AIDS stigma in Jamaica" (PDF). Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (4): 347–359. doi:10.1080/13691050500100799. PMID 16864208. S2CID 17417236. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
- ^ Cargill, Morris (21 January 1999). "Heigh-ho for 1999!". Jamaica Gleaner. Archived from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 2 March 2006.
- ^ Czyzselska, Jane. "No Woman No Cry: Lesbians in Jamaica". GayTimes. Archived from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ a b Dennis-Benn, Nicole Y. (7 June 2012). "In Her Own Words: Couple Makes History at First Lesbian Wedding in Jamaica". Ebony. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ "Lesbians legally wed". Jamaica Gleaner. 4 June 2012. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- ^ a b c d James, Caryl, and D. L. Haye. "Challenges and treatment of a transsexual in Jamaica." Social & Economic Studies ☁
- ^ Wockner, Rex, "Bishops denounce gay sex," International News #400, 24 December 2001
- ^ Stoyan Zaimov (24 June 2013). "Jamaican Pastors Rally in Support of Anti-Sodomy Law; Fear Homosexuality Acceptance". CP Latin America. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
- ^ RadioJamaica.com, Wed 15 February 2006. "Homosexuality won't be legalised, says Justice Minister". Archived 20 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Cecil Gutzmore (2004). "Casting the First Stone! Policing of Homosexuality in Jamaican Popular Culture". Interventions. 6 (1): 118–134. doi:10.1080/1369801042000185697. S2CID 145315595. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ Mark Wignall (22 April 2007). "Rasta view on fish". Islandmix. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ "Senior Rastafarian Says No To Repealing Buggery Law". The Gleaner. 8 June 2013. Archived from the original on 11 June 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica: Benjamin Zephaniah calls on Jamaicans everywhere to stand up against homophobia". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ "Reggae Singer Backs Gay Rights". Young Voices. 15 August 2011. Archived from the original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
- ^ "Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Jamaica, United Nations Human Rights Committee, CCPR/C/JAM/CO/3, paragraph 8, pages 2-3, 17 November 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ "Jamaica's Anti-Gay 'Murder Music' Carries Violent Message". Intelligence Report. Winter 2010. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Tim Padgett (12 April 2006). "The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?". Time. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. Retrieved 26 April 2006.
- ^ Dan Avery (1 August 2012). "Dancehall Homophobe Beenie Man Calls Gays Child Molesters In Advocate 'Apology'". Queerty. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ Kelefa Sanneh (6 September 2004). "Critic's Notebook, Dancehall's Vicious Side: Antigay Attitudes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ^ Denyse Renne (25 July 2011). "No immigration clearance for Mavado". Trinidad Express Newspapers. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ "Reggae artist Sizzla's swedish concert cancelled over anti-gay lyrics". Yardflex.com. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ Saira Peesker (23 September 2009). "Elephant Man asked to avoid homophobic lyrics in coming Toronto show". CP24. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ "Protests over hate lyrics lead to another reggae concert cancellation". The Advocate. 2 October 2004. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ Peter Tatchell (14 October 2002). "Why can blacks bash gays?". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ Baz Dreisinger (18 September 2004). "Activists take on culture's anti-gay lyrics". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ "The World". Channel 4. 1992. Archived from the original on 16 January 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
- ^ "Growing up gay in Jamaica". BBC News. 15 September 2004. Archived from the original on 22 August 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ "'Kill Gays' Singer to Play Birmingham". UK Gay News. 31 August 2004. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ a b c d e "Murder Inna Dancehall". Archived from the original on 1 April 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ Petridis, Alexis (9 December 2004). "Pride and prejudice". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ a b "Deal to ban 'homophobic' reggae". BBC News. 8 February 2005. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
- ^ Moyo, Sigcino (23 June 2005). "Crashing Pride's party: Will gay-bashing reggae acts set to play Pride weekend clean up their act?". NOW.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Canada: Silencing Jamaican musicians fuels censorship debate". Freemuse. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "Anger Over Reggae Singer's Anti-Gay Rant". Mamba. 12 August 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ "Culture Minister Regrets Queen Ifrica's Gala Gay Comments". The Gleaner. 9 August 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ "Headlining artist's Rastafest performance cancelled after homophobia complaints". Metro. 23 August 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ a b Shenseea - Blessed (feat. Tyga) (Official Music Video), retrieved 16 December 2023
- ^ "Jamaica's brave LGBTQ+ scene is nudging dancehall in a new direction". The Face. 13 August 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
- ^ Mark Clennon - Kingston (Official Music Video), retrieved 22 June 2022
- ^ "Mark Clennon Shares New "Kingston" Video, the First Shot in Jamaica to Feature an Onscreen Romance Between Two Men | Exclaim!". exclaim.ca. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- ^ "Toronto's Mark Clennon Drops "Kingston" With First Music Video Shot in Jamaica to Show Romance Between Two Men". Complex. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- ^ "Jamaican R&B artiste challenges homo stereotypes with 'Kingston' | Loop Jamaica". Loop News. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ Cann, Victoria E. "AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HOW LESBIAN WOMEN AND GAY MEN ARE PORTRAYED IN JAMAICA'S PRIMARY NEWSPAPER-THE GLEANER, DANCEHALL MUSIC, AND IN THE WORKS OF AUTHORS KWAME DAWES, KEI MILLER, AND STACEYANN CHIN." PhD diss., Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida, 2011.
- ^ "Jamaica's first LGBT Pride celebrations signal turning tides". Antillean.org. 7 August 2015. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
- ^ Stewart, Colin (4 August 2015), "Jamaica’s first Pride gets boost from government officials" Archived 18 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Erasing 76 Crimes.
- ^ "Gay Pride participants rub shoulders with Kingston Mayor, express hope for change". Loop Jamaica. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015.
- ^ Hudson, David (3 August 2015), "Ellen Page attends Pride Jamaica flash mob in Kingston" Archived 28 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Gay Star News.
- ^ "Deliriously happy after Jamaica’s first Montego Bay Pride", Erasing 76 Crimes, 27 October 2015.
- ^ "How was Montego Bay Pride a success? Let me count the ways", Erasing 76 Crimes, 21 October 2016.
- ^ "Thriving Montego Bay Pride boosts LGBT+ acceptance", Erasing 76 Crimes, 23 October 2017.
- ^ Barrett, Alicia (18 October 2018), "LGBT march with pride inspite of fear", Jamaica Gleaner.
- ^ "Montego Bay Pride is now 1,000 people strong", Erasing 76 Crimes, 22 October 2018.
- ^ a b Yohann, White; Barnaby, Loraine; Swaby, Antoneal; Sandfort, Theo (2010). "Mental Health Needs of Sexual Minorities in Jamaica". International Journal of Sexual Health. 22 (2): 91–102. doi:10.1080/19317611003648195. PMC 2967765. PMID 21052478.
- ^ Figueroa; Peter, J.; Jones Cooper, Carol; Edwards, Jessie K.; Byfield, Lovette; Eastman, Shashauna; Hobbs, Marcia M.; Weir, Sharon S. (2015). "Understanding the High Prevalence of HIV and Other Sexually Transmitted Infections among Socio-Economically Vulnerable Men Who Have Sex with Men in Jamaica". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): 1–12. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1017686F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117686. PMC 4319820. PMID 25659122.
- ^ Figueroa, JP (2008). "The HIV Epidemic in the Caribbean: Meeting the challenges of achieving universal access to prevention, treatment and care". West Indian Med J. 57 (3): 195–203. PMID 19583117.
- ^ a b Figueroa, JP; Duncan, J; Byfield, L; Harvey, K; Gebre, Y; et al. (2008). "A comprehensive approach to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Jamaica: a review of the past 20 years". West Indian Med J. 57 (6): 562–576. PMID 19580238.
- ^ "Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49)". Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
- ^ a b c "2014 Progress reports submitted by countries" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ a b c Norman, Lisa R.; Carr, Robert; Jiménez, Julio (September–October 2006). "Sexual stigma and sympathy: attitudes toward persons living with HIV in Jamaica" (PDF). Culture, Health & Sexuality. 8 (5): 423–33. doi:10.1080/13691050600855748. PMID 16923646. S2CID 21217770. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2013.
Further reading
edit- Brysk, Alison (2002). Globalization and Human Rights. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520232389.
- Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801487767.
Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice.
- Farmer, Paul (2005). Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24326-2.
External links
edit- "Unchecked Homophobic Violence in Jamaica". Human Right Watch. 21 October 2014. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021.