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The '''yellow-throated frog''',<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" /> '''Trinidadian stream frog''',<ref name=Downie2005>{{Cite journal | last1 = Downie | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Robinson | first2 = E. | last3 = Linklater‐McLennan | first3 = R. J. | last4 = Somerville | first4 = E. | last5 = Kamenos | first5 = N. | year = 2005 | title = Are there costs to extended larval transport in the Trinidadian stream frog, ''Mannophryne trinitatis'' (Dendrobatidae)? | journal = Journal of Natural History | volume = 39 | pages = 2023–2034 | doi = 10.1080/00222930400026985}}</ref> or '''Trinidad poison frog'''<ref name=frost/> ('''''Mannophryne trinitatis or Colostethus trinitatus)''''') is a species of [[frog]] in the family [[Aromobatidae]] that is endemic to the island of [[Trinidad]] in the [[Republic of Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref name=frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Aromobatidae/Aromobatinae/Mannophryne/Mannophryne-trinitatis |title=''Mannophryne trinitatis'' (Garman, 1888) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2014 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=23 August 2014}}</ref> ''Mannophryne venezuelensis'' from the [[Paria Peninsula]] in Venezuela were formerly included in this species.<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" />
The '''yellow-throated frog''',<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" /> '''Trinidadian stream frog''',<ref name=Downie2005>{{Cite journal | last1 = Downie | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Robinson | first2 = E. | last3 = Linklater‐McLennan | first3 = R. J. | last4 = Somerville | first4 = E. | last5 = Kamenos | first5 = N. | year = 2005 | title = Are there costs to extended larval transport in the Trinidadian stream frog, ''Mannophryne trinitatis'' (Dendrobatidae)? | journal = Journal of Natural History | volume = 39 | issue = 22 | pages = 2023–2034 | doi = 10.1080/00222930400026985| s2cid = 85309099 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/5215254 }}</ref> or '''Trinidad poison frog'''<ref name=frost/> ('''''Mannophryne trinitatis)''''' is a diurnal species of [[frog]] in the family [[Aromobatidae]] that is endemic to the island of [[Trinidad]] in the [[Republic of Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref name=frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Aromobatidae/Aromobatinae/Mannophryne/Mannophryne-trinitatis |title=''Mannophryne trinitatis'' (Garman, 1888) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2014 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=23 August 2014}}</ref> Trinidad poison frogs can be found in rocky streams in moist [[Montane ecosystems|montane]] forests. The species has cryptic coloration and is sexually dimorphic. ''Mannophryne venezuelensis'' from the [[Paria Peninsula]] in [[Venezuela]] were also formerly included in this species.<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" /> Currently this species is listed as of "Least Concern" on IUCN, but there is a general lack of understanding of its distribution. The frog experiences habitat loss. Both sexes are territorial and provide parental care together.


==Description==
==Description==
Adult Trinidad poison frogs are a relatively small and diurnal species. They normally display a cryptic coloration of a brown dorsal surface and dark or mottled flanks. Additionally, they engage in throat display and toe tip jumping and produce distinct advertisement calls with different note frequencies depending on the species.<ref name=":3" /> [[Sexual dimorphism]] also occurs in the Trinidad poison frog. Adult males have grey throats and average 25 mm in snout-vent length while females have bright yellow throats and average 28 mm. Adult males can also change their skin color from pale brown to jet black when they engage in mate calling to attract females.<ref name=":2" /> Tadpoles in contrast start around 14 mm to 16 mm in length and later grow to around 37 mm under metamorphosis.<ref name="Downie2005" />
Adult Trinidad poison frogs are a relatively small and diurnal species. Their dorsal surface is brown and dark and their flanks are mottled. The Trinidad poison frog is sexually dimorphic. Adult males have grey throats and average 25&nbsp;mm in [[Snout–vent length|snout-vent length]]. Females have bright yellow throats and average 28&nbsp;mm. Adult males can also change their skin color from pale brown to jet black when they engage in mate-calling to attract females.<ref name="Downie">Downie, J. R., & Cormack, S. R. L. A. J. R. (2001). Selection of tadpole deposition sites by male Trinidadian stream frogs, Mannophryne trinitatis (Dendrobatidae) an example of antipredator behaviour. Herpetological Journal, 11(3), 91–100.</ref> [[Tadpole]]s, in contrast, start around 14&nbsp;mm to 16&nbsp;mm in length and later grow to around 37&nbsp;mm after metamorphosing.<ref name="Downie2005" />


The Mannophyryne trinitatis contains a well defined and solid pigmented collar and a solid brown dorsum. It has well defined pale dorsolateral stripes and dark pigmentation around the external margin of its soles and palms. It also has a well defined pale inguinal stripe, bandlike concentrations of melanophores along the anterior arms, and dark pigmentation on the metatarsal and subarticular tubercles of its toes. Additionally, the frog produces two frequency modulated notes with paired pulses in its advertisement calls.<ref name=":3" />
The Trinidad poison frog has a well-defined and solid pigmented collar and a solid brown dorsum. It has well defined pale dorsolateral stripes and dark pigmentation around the external margin of its soles and palms. It also has a well-defined pale inguinal stripe, bandlike concentrations of melanophores along the anterior arms, and dark pigmentation on the metatarsal and subarticular tubercles of its toes.<ref name="Manzanilla" />


==Habitat and distribution==
In contrast, the Mannophryne venezuelensis has a poorly defined and scarcely pigmented collar and a well contrasted reticulated color pattern on its dorsum. It has poorly defined pale dorsolateral stripes and a uniform pale brown pigmentation on its soles and palms. It also has a diffused pale inguinal stripe, nearly no markings on its anterior arms, and poor pigmentation on the metatarsal and subarticular tubercles of its toes. Additionally, the frog produces only one frequency modulated note in its advertisement calls. In comparison to other species, the Mannophryne venezuelensis has reduced foot webbing and a much smaller body size with adult males and females measuring up to 20 mm and 23 mm respectively in snout-vent length.<ref name=":3" />
⚫
The Trinidad poison frog is only found in the [[Paria Peninsula]] of Northern [[Venezuela]] and the Northern and Central Ranges of [[Trinidad]], West Indies.<ref name="Jowers">Jowers, M., & Downie, J. (2004). Distribution of the frog Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in Trinidad, West Indies. Living World, 2004.</ref> The frog can live anywhere ranging from sea level to extremely high elevations and prefers to reside around rocky streams in valleys, mountain slopes, or undisturbed moist [[Montane ecosystems#Montane forests|montane forests]].<ref name="Sta.uwi.edu">{{cite web |title=Mannophryne trinitatis (Trinidad Stream Frog) |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Mannophryne_trinitatis%20-%20Trinidad%20Stream%20Frog.pdf |access-date=9 April 2022 |website=Sta.uwi.edu }}</ref> The streams are typically narrow and shallow with slow, clear running waters and contain deeper pools where frogs can deposit and develop their [[tadpole]]s. Frogs will sometimes transport their tadpoles from these streams to live in other pools such as [[phytotelma]]ta if a large number of predators exist nearby.<ref name="Jowers" />

==Distribution and habitat==
⚫
The Trinidad poison frog is only found in both the Paria Peninsula of Northern Venezuela and the Northern and Central Ranges of Trinidad, West Indies.<ref name=":0">Jowers, M., & Downie, J. (2004). Distribution of the frog Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in Trinidad, West Indies. Living World, 2004.</ref> Endemic to both regions, the frog can live anywhere ranging from sea level to extremely high elevations and prefers to reside around rocky streams in valleys, mountain slopes, or undisturbed moist [[Montane ecosystems#Montane%20forests|montane forests]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Mannophryne trinitatis (Trinidad Stream Frog) |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Mannophryne_trinitatis%20-%20Trinidad%20Stream%20Frog.pdf |access-date=9 April 2022 |website=Sta.uwi.edu |format=PDF}}</ref> The streams are typically narrow and shallow with slow, clear running waters and contain deeper pools where frogs can deposit and develop their tadpoles. However, frogs will sometimes transport their tadpoles from these streams to live in other pools such as [[Phytotelma|phytotelmata]] if a large number of predators exist nearby.<ref name=":0" />


== Conservation ==
== Conservation ==
The Trinidad poison frog is currently listed on the IUCN Red List as of “least concern” and is not present on the CITES Endangered Species List.<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" /> However, a significant number of frogs have suffered regional [[habitat loss]] and degradation through pollution, deforestation, and frequent [[shifting cultivation]] from local shift agriculture techniques. Additionally, unknown distributions of the frog’s biodiversity may be disappearing before they can be detected and described due to slow population genetic analyses on taxonomic diversity. In one study from Venezuela, proposed direct conservation measures include forest preservation and strict regulations on agrochemical products used on coffee and cocoa plantations near streams.<ref name=":3">Manzanilla, J., Jowers, M., Marca, E., & García-París, M. (2007). Taxonomic reassessment of Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) with a description of a new species from Venezuela. The Herpetological Journal, 17, 31–42.</ref>
The Trinidad poison frog is currently listed on the [[IUCN Red List]] as “least concern”, and is not present on the CITES Endangered Species List.<ref name="iucn status 16 November 2021" /> However, a significant number of frogs have suffered regional [[habitat loss]] and degradation through pollution, deforestation, and [[shifting cultivation]]. Additionally, populations of the frog may be disappearing before they can be recorded due to a lack of population genetics analyses. One study from [[Venezuela]], proposed direct conservation measures include forest preservation and strict regulations on agrochemical products used on coffee and cocoa plantations near streams.<ref name="Manzanilla">Manzanilla, J., Jowers, M., Marca, E., & García-París, M. (2007). Taxonomic reassessment of Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) with a description of a new species from Venezuela. The Herpetological Journal, 17, 31–42.</ref>

== Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny ==
One study from Venezuela finds that there are at least 12 recognized species of the genus Mannophryne. Examples include the ''M. trinitatis, M. venezuelensis, M. lamarcai, M, collaris'', and ''M. riveroi''. The ''M. venezuelensis'' is the most recently recognized frog species and has a distinct physical appearance with an unpigmented and undefined collar. The ''M. venezuelensis'' also has a much smaller body size and reduced foot webbing to distinguish itself from other frog species.<ref name=":3" />

Under a chromosome banding analysis, the ''M. trinitatis'' displays different karyotypes and chromosome morphologies from other frog species such as those from the genus ''Colostethus''. However, further study and interpretation is required in order to refine and determine if such differences can be applied to the taxonomy.<ref>Kaiser, H., Steinlein, C., Feichtinger, W., & Schmid, M. (2003). Chromosome Banding of Six Dendrobatid Frogs (Colostethus, mannophryne). Herpetologica, 59(2), 203–218.</ref>


== Home range and territoriality ==
== Home range and territoriality ==
Trinidad poison frogs engage in two types of territorial defense. The first involves nonreproductive regions where frogs will defend resource access to food, water, and shelter. The second involves large reproductive regions where frogs will defend against conspecific calling rivals during the breeding season.<ref name=":4">Pröhl, H. (2005). Territorial Behavior in Dendrobatid Frogs. Journal of Herpetology, 39(3), 354–365.</ref> Adult females engage in territorial defense more often than males.<ref name=":5">Cummins, C. P., & Swan, M. J. S. (1995). Variation in Reproductive Characteristics of the Stream Frog Colostethus trinitatis on the Island of Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11(4), 603–618.</ref>
Trinidad poison frogs engage in two types of territorial defense. The first involves nonreproductive regions where frogs will defend resource access to food, water, and shelter. The second involves large reproductive regions where frogs will defend against conspecific calling rivals during the breeding season.<ref name="Pröhl">Pröhl, H. (2005). Territorial Behavior in Dendrobatid Frogs. Journal of Herpetology, 39(3), 354–365.</ref> Adult females engage in territorial defense more often than males.<ref name="Cummins">Cummins, C. P., & Swan, M. J. S. (1995). Variation in Reproductive Characteristics of the Stream Frog Colostethus trinitatis on the Island of Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11(4), 603–618.</ref>


Adult female Trinidad poison frogs display territorial defense against other frogs through aggressive behaviors such as visual threat displays, wrestling, and chasing.<ref>Durant, P., & Dole, J. W. (1975). Aggressive Behavior in Colostethus (=Prostherapis) collaris (Anura: Dendrobatidae). Herpetologica, 31(1), 23–26.</ref> During threat displays, females will reveal their bright yellow throats against intruders.<ref>Greener, M. S., Hutton, E., Pollock, C. J., Wilson, A., Lam, C. Y., Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Jowers, M. J., & Downie, J. R. (2020). Sexual dichromatism in the neotropical genus Mannophryne (Anura: Aromobatidae). PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0223080. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223080</nowiki></ref>
Adult female Trinidad poison frogs display territorial defense against other frogs through aggressive behaviors such as visual threat displays, wrestling, and chasing.<ref>Durant, P., & Dole, J. W. (1975). Aggressive Behavior in Colostethus (=Prostherapis) collaris (Anura: Dendrobatidae). Herpetologica, 31(1), 23–26.</ref> During threat displays, females will reveal their bright yellow throats against intruders.<ref>Greener, M. S., Hutton, E., Pollock, C. J., Wilson, A., Lam, C. Y., Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Jowers, M. J., & Downie, J. R. (2020). Sexual dichromatism in the neotropical genus Mannophryne (Anura: Aromobatidae). PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0223080. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0223080}}</ref>


Adult males in contrast defend their territories against both predators and other male intruders by producing advertisement calls at their calling sites. Such defense is intended to deter competitors and attract females as potential mates.<ref name=":4" />
Adult males, in contrast, defend their territories against both predators and other male intruders by producing advertisement calls at their calling sites. Such defense is intended to deter competitors and attract females as potential mates.<ref name="Pröhl" />


== Diet ==
== Diet ==
Adult Trinidad poison frogs often feed on [[Arthropod|arthropods]] and small insects such as ''[[Drosophila]]'' and [[Callosobruchus chinensis|''Callosobruchus chinensis'']].<ref name=":1" /> In contrast, tadpoles are usually herbivorous and feed on algae and leaf litter. Frogs and tadpoles also consume bat guano and invertebrate infauna as food.<ref>Cummins, C. P., & Swan, M. J. S. (1995). Variation in Reproductive Characteristics of the Stream Frog Colostethus trinitatis on the Island of Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11(4), 603–618.</ref>
Adult Trinidad poison frogs often feed on [[arthropod]]s and small insects such as ''[[Drosophila]]'' (''[[Drosophila hydei|D. hydei]]'' and ''[[Drosophila melanogaster|D. melanogaster]]'') and ''[[Callosobruchus chinensis]]''.<ref name="Sta.uwi.edu" /> In contrast, tadpoles are usually [[Herbivore|herbivorous]] and feed on algae and leaf litter. Frogs and tadpoles also consume bat [[guano]] and invertebrate infauna as food.<ref name="Cummins"/>

⚫
==Reproduction and mating ==
⚫
Reproductive characteristics, such as intraovarian clutch size and tadpole size, for Trinidad poison frogs differ according to the frog’s biogeography. In Trinidad, clutch size ranged from 6 in to 13 in from the Northern Range and 12 in to 26 in from the Tamana cave of the Central Range hills.<ref name=":5" />






Males court females from a distance using their vocalizations and colour (changing from pale brown to black when calling). If the female is receptive, she leaves the territory and approaches the calling male. The pair then moves to oviposition sites (e.g., a rock crevice or leaves). Clutch size is about 2–12 eggs measuring {{convert|3.5|mm|abbr=on}} in diameter.


⚫
== Reproduction and mating ==
The males tend the eggs until they hatch after about 21 days, and then carries the [[tadpole]]s to pools with slow flow rates, sometimes wet leaf litter when suitable pools are not available. Males generally avoid pools with the predators ''[[Anablepsoides hartii]]'' or ''[[Macrobrachium carcinus]]'' and may carry the tadpoles for long distance in order to find a suitable pool. It takes about 56 days for the tadpoles to reach metamorphosis. While males may carry the tadpoles for up to four days, this seems not incur significant costs in terms of reduced feeding, fat loss, or locomotion (jump length and number).<ref name="Downie2005" />
⚫
Reproductive characteristics such as intraovarian clutch size and tadpole size for Trinidad poison frogs differ according to the frog's biogeography. In [[Trinidad]], clutch size ranged from 6 in to 13 in from the Northern Range and 12 in to 26 in from the Tamana cave of the Central Range hills.<ref name="Cummins" />


Adult males court females from a distance by producing advertisement calls. Additionally, they engage in throat display and toe tip jumping. As they vocalize, their skin color changes from pale brown to jet black. When a nearby female receives a male's call signal or notices its skin coloration, the female will leave its territory and approach the calling male to engage in [[amplexus]]. The pair then moves to oviposition sites such as rock crevices or wet leaves near streams.<ref name="Downie" />
== Mating ==


== Parental care ==
== Parental care ==
Adult female Trinidad poison frogs lay their eggs near streams following increased humidity from rainfall.<ref name="Praderio">Praderio, M. J., & Robinson, M. D. (1990). Reproduction in the Toad Colostethus trinitatus (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in a Northern Venezuela Seasonal Environment. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 6(3), 333–341.</ref>


Adult males then guard and tend to the eggs until they hatch after about 21 days. When predation risk is high, males will transport their tadpoles on their backs for long distances between 3 and 4 days and selectively deposit them into predator free pools. Such tadpole transportation does not incur significant costs on adult males in terms of reduced feeding. Males are unable to breed with females while transporting tadpoles.<ref name="Downie2005" /><ref name="Downie" />
== Social behavior ==


== Enemies ==
== Enemies ==
The Trinidad poison frog and its tadpoles are commonly preyed upon by the killifish ''Rivulus hartii'' and shrimps of the genus ''Macrobrachium''. To combat predation, male adult frogs will transport tadpoles away from streams on their backs and selectively deposit them into predator free pools to further grow their offspring.<ref name=":2">Downie, J. R., & Cormack, S. R. L. A. J. R. (2001). Selection of tadpole deposition sites by male Trinidadian stream frogs, Mannophryne trinitatis (Dendrobatidae) an example of antipredator behaviour. Herpetological Journal, 11(3), 91–100.</ref> The frog species also suffers from various intestinal parasites, or helminths, such as cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans.<ref>Kaiser, H. (2002). Intestinal helminths of seven frog species from Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Journal of Science, 38(1-2), 147-150.</ref>
The Trinidad poison frog and its tadpoles are commonly preyed on by a killifish species (''[[Anablepsoides hartii]])'' and shrimp of the genus ''[[Macrobrachium]]''. The frog species also suffers from various intestinal parasites, or helminths, such as [[Cestoda|cestodes]], [[nematode]]s, and [[acanthocephala]]ns.<ref name="Kaiser">Kaiser, H. (2002). Intestinal helminths of seven frog species from Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Journal of Science, 38(1-2), 147-150.</ref>


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 02:19, 11 June 2023

Mannophryne trinitatis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Aromobatidae
Genus: Mannophryne
Species:
M. trinitatis
Binomial name
Mannophryne trinitatis
(Garman, 1888)
Synonyms

Phyllobates trinitatis Garman, 1888 "1887"
Colostethus trinitatus (Garman, 1888)

The yellow-throated frog,[1] Trinidadian stream frog,[2] or Trinidad poison frog[3] (Mannophryne trinitatis) is a diurnal species of frog in the family Aromobatidae that is endemic to the island of Trinidad in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.[3] Trinidad poison frogs can be found in rocky streams in moist montane forests. The species has cryptic coloration and is sexually dimorphic. Mannophryne venezuelensis from the Paria Peninsula in Venezuela were also formerly included in this species.[1] Currently this species is listed as of "Least Concern" on IUCN, but there is a general lack of understanding of its distribution. The frog experiences habitat loss. Both sexes are territorial and provide parental care together.

Description

[edit]

Adult Trinidad poison frogs are a relatively small and diurnal species. Their dorsal surface is brown and dark and their flanks are mottled. The Trinidad poison frog is sexually dimorphic. Adult males have grey throats and average 25 mm in snout-vent length. Females have bright yellow throats and average 28 mm. Adult males can also change their skin color from pale brown to jet black when they engage in mate-calling to attract females.[4] Tadpoles, in contrast, start around 14 mm to 16 mm in length and later grow to around 37 mm after metamorphosing.[2]

The Trinidad poison frog has a well-defined and solid pigmented collar and a solid brown dorsum. It has well defined pale dorsolateral stripes and dark pigmentation around the external margin of its soles and palms. It also has a well-defined pale inguinal stripe, bandlike concentrations of melanophores along the anterior arms, and dark pigmentation on the metatarsal and subarticular tubercles of its toes.[5]

Habitat and distribution

[edit]

The Trinidad poison frog is only found in the Paria Peninsula of Northern Venezuela and the Northern and Central Ranges of Trinidad, West Indies.[6] The frog can live anywhere ranging from sea level to extremely high elevations and prefers to reside around rocky streams in valleys, mountain slopes, or undisturbed moist montane forests.[7] The streams are typically narrow and shallow with slow, clear running waters and contain deeper pools where frogs can deposit and develop their tadpoles. Frogs will sometimes transport their tadpoles from these streams to live in other pools such as phytotelmata if a large number of predators exist nearby.[6]

Conservation

[edit]

The Trinidad poison frog is currently listed on the IUCN Red List as “least concern”, and is not present on the CITES Endangered Species List.[1] However, a significant number of frogs have suffered regional habitat loss and degradation through pollution, deforestation, and shifting cultivation. Additionally, populations of the frog may be disappearing before they can be recorded due to a lack of population genetics analyses. One study from Venezuela, proposed direct conservation measures include forest preservation and strict regulations on agrochemical products used on coffee and cocoa plantations near streams.[5]

Home range and territoriality

[edit]

Trinidad poison frogs engage in two types of territorial defense. The first involves nonreproductive regions where frogs will defend resource access to food, water, and shelter. The second involves large reproductive regions where frogs will defend against conspecific calling rivals during the breeding season.[8] Adult females engage in territorial defense more often than males.[9]

Adult female Trinidad poison frogs display territorial defense against other frogs through aggressive behaviors such as visual threat displays, wrestling, and chasing.[10] During threat displays, females will reveal their bright yellow throats against intruders.[11]

Adult males, in contrast, defend their territories against both predators and other male intruders by producing advertisement calls at their calling sites. Such defense is intended to deter competitors and attract females as potential mates.[8]

Diet

[edit]

Adult Trinidad poison frogs often feed on arthropods and small insects such as Drosophila (D. hydei and D. melanogaster) and Callosobruchus chinensis.[7] In contrast, tadpoles are usually herbivorous and feed on algae and leaf litter. Frogs and tadpoles also consume bat guano and invertebrate infauna as food.[9]

Reproduction and mating

[edit]

Reproductive characteristics such as intraovarian clutch size and tadpole size for Trinidad poison frogs differ according to the frog's biogeography. In Trinidad, clutch size ranged from 6 in to 13 in from the Northern Range and 12 in to 26 in from the Tamana cave of the Central Range hills.[9]

Adult males court females from a distance by producing advertisement calls. Additionally, they engage in throat display and toe tip jumping. As they vocalize, their skin color changes from pale brown to jet black. When a nearby female receives a male's call signal or notices its skin coloration, the female will leave its territory and approach the calling male to engage in amplexus. The pair then moves to oviposition sites such as rock crevices or wet leaves near streams.[4]

Parental care

[edit]

Adult female Trinidad poison frogs lay their eggs near streams following increased humidity from rainfall.[12]

Adult males then guard and tend to the eggs until they hatch after about 21 days. When predation risk is high, males will transport their tadpoles on their backs for long distances between 3 and 4 days and selectively deposit them into predator free pools. Such tadpole transportation does not incur significant costs on adult males in terms of reduced feeding. Males are unable to breed with females while transporting tadpoles.[2][4]

Enemies

[edit]

The Trinidad poison frog and its tadpoles are commonly preyed on by a killifish species (Anablepsoides hartii) and shrimp of the genus Macrobrachium. The frog species also suffers from various intestinal parasites, or helminths, such as cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans.[13]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Mannophryne trinitatis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T55251A79080374. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T55251A79080374.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c Downie, J. R.; Robinson, E.; Linklater‐McLennan, R. J.; Somerville, E.; Kamenos, N. (2005). "Are there costs to extended larval transport in the Trinidadian stream frog, Mannophryne trinitatis (Dendrobatidae)?". Journal of Natural History. 39 (22): 2023–2034. doi:10.1080/00222930400026985. S2CID 85309099.
  3. ^ a b Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Mannophryne trinitatis (Garman, 1888)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
  4. ^ a b c Downie, J. R., & Cormack, S. R. L. A. J. R. (2001). Selection of tadpole deposition sites by male Trinidadian stream frogs, Mannophryne trinitatis (Dendrobatidae) an example of antipredator behaviour. Herpetological Journal, 11(3), 91–100.
  5. ^ a b Manzanilla, J., Jowers, M., Marca, E., & García-París, M. (2007). Taxonomic reassessment of Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) with a description of a new species from Venezuela. The Herpetological Journal, 17, 31–42.
  6. ^ a b Jowers, M., & Downie, J. (2004). Distribution of the frog Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in Trinidad, West Indies. Living World, 2004.
  7. ^ a b "Mannophryne trinitatis (Trinidad Stream Frog)" (PDF). Sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  8. ^ a b Pröhl, H. (2005). Territorial Behavior in Dendrobatid Frogs. Journal of Herpetology, 39(3), 354–365.
  9. ^ a b c Cummins, C. P., & Swan, M. J. S. (1995). Variation in Reproductive Characteristics of the Stream Frog Colostethus trinitatis on the Island of Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11(4), 603–618.
  10. ^ Durant, P., & Dole, J. W. (1975). Aggressive Behavior in Colostethus (=Prostherapis) collaris (Anura: Dendrobatidae). Herpetologica, 31(1), 23–26.
  11. ^ Greener, M. S., Hutton, E., Pollock, C. J., Wilson, A., Lam, C. Y., Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Jowers, M. J., & Downie, J. R. (2020). Sexual dichromatism in the neotropical genus Mannophryne (Anura: Aromobatidae). PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0223080. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223080
  12. ^ Praderio, M. J., & Robinson, M. D. (1990). Reproduction in the Toad Colostethus trinitatus (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in a Northern Venezuela Seasonal Environment. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 6(3), 333–341.
  13. ^ Kaiser, H. (2002). Intestinal helminths of seven frog species from Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Journal of Science, 38(1-2), 147-150.
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