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{{short description|Police management system created by the New York City Police Department}}
{{Advert|date=October 2019}}
'''CompStat'''—or '''COMPSTAT''', short for Compare Stats—is a police [[management system]] created by the [[New York City Police Department]] in 1994 with assistance from the [[New York City Police Foundation]]. Under CompStat, the department keeps a daily-updated digital record of crimes reported and in weekly meetings the department's leadership gathers to review trends in the data. It was credited with decreased crime rates in NYC during its early years, though scholarship is divided on whether it played a role. It has been criticized for leading to data manipulation and increased [[Stop-and-frisk in New York City|stop-and-frisk]] searches. Variations of the program have been used in police departments worldwide.
{{more footnotes|date=December 2018}}
'''CompStat'''—or '''COMPSTAT''' (short for COMPuter STATistics, which was the computer file name of the original program)—is a computerization and quantification program used by police departments. It was originally set up by the [[New York City Police Department]] in the 1990s. Variations of the program have since been used in police departments across the world.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Didier|first=Emmanuel|date=2018-07-30|title=Globalization of Quantitative Policing: Between Management and Statactivism|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053308|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=44|issue=1|pages=515–534|doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053308|issn=0360-0572}}</ref>


==Origins==
==Origins==
CompStat is a management system created in April 1994 by [[Bill Bratton]] and [[Jack Maple]], whom Bratton met while he was chief of the [[New York City Transit Police]] and later hired as the [[New York Police Department]]'s top anti-crime specialist when he became Police Commissioner in 1993.<ref name="Smith">{{Cite magazine |last=Smith |first=Chris |date=2018-03-02 |title=The Crime-Fighting Program That Changed New York Forever |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/03/the-crime-fighting-program-that-changed-new-york-forever.html |magazine=New York Magazine |language=en}}</ref> CompStat began as weekly meetings at [[One Police Plaza]] where officers were randomly selected from precincts and quizzed about crime trends in their districts and how to respond.<ref name="Smith"/> At the time, the NYPD collected crime statistics every 6 months; under threat of transfers, they began to collect information daily.<ref name="Smith"/> In February 1994, the department heads provided a hand count of major crimes in the first 6 weeks of 1993 and 1994.<ref name="Eterno">{{Cite journal |last=Eterno |first=John A. |last2=Silverman |first2=Eli B. |year=2006 |title=The New York City Police Department's Compstat: Dream or Nightmare? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1350/ijps.2006.8.3.218 |journal=International Journal of Police Science & Management |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=218–231 |doi=10.1350/ijps.2006.8.3.218 |issn=1461-3557}}</ref>
CompStat was started under the direction of [[Jack Maple]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vitale|first=Joseph L. Giacalone and Alex S.|title=When policing stats do more harm than good: Column|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/policing/spotlight/2017/02/09/compstat-computer-police-policing-the-usa-community/97568874/|access-date=2020-10-09|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US}}</ref> when he was a [[transit police]] officer in New York City. The system was called Charts of the Future<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jack Maple: Betting on Intelligence|url=https://www.govtech.com/magazines/gt/Jack-Maple-Betting-on-Intelligence.html|access-date=2020-10-09|website=www.govtech.com|language=en}}</ref> and was simple – it tracked crime through pins stuck in maps. Charts of the Future is credited with cutting subway crime by 27 percent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Dianting|last2=Tang|first2=Jingwen|last3=Zhang|first3=Chenguang|date=2019|editor-last=Mao|editor-first=Rui|editor2-last=Wang|editor2-first=Hongzhi|editor3-last=Xie|editor3-first=Xiaolan|editor4-last=Lu|editor4-first=Zeguang|title=Application of Data Analysis in Trend Prediction of Different Crime Types in London|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-15-0121-0_35|journal=Data Science|series=Communications in Computer and Information Science|language=en|location=Singapore|publisher=Springer|pages=445–467|doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0121-0_35|isbn=978-981-15-0121-0}}</ref>


Maple drafted junior staffer [[John Yohe]] to modify an existing program to analyze the data.<ref name="Smith"/> CompStat was named after a program called "compare stats".<ref name="Eterno"/> It was originally run on [[Informix]]'s [[SmartWare]] desktop office system before being replaced by [[Microsoft]]'s [[FoxPro]] database for business.<ref name="Eterno"/> The Patrol Bureau's staff computerized the information provided by department heads and created the first 'CompStat' book, collating the information by precinct, patrol borough, and city.<ref name="Eterno"/> The [[New York City Police Foundation]] significantly funded the NYPD's initial development of the program;<ref name="Vitale">{{Cite journal |last=Vitale |first=Alex S. |year=2005 |title=Innovation and Institutionalization: Factors in the Development of “Quality of Life” Policing in New York City |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10439460500071754 |journal=Policing and Society |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=99–124 |doi=10.1080/10439460500071754 |issn=1043-9463}}</ref> they also acquired and gifted the department the first CompStat system.<ref name="Walby">{{Cite journal |last=Walby |first=Kevin |last2=Lippert |first2=Randy K |last3=Luscombe |first3=Alex |date=2017-09-15 |title=The Police Foundation’s Rise: Implications of Public Policing’s Dark Money |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azx055 |journal=The British Journal of Criminology |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=824–844 |doi=10.1093/bjc/azx055 |issn=0007-0955}}</ref>
The original commanding officer of the Transit Police Crime Analysis Unit was Lieutenant Richard Vasconi. Chief of New York City Transit Police [[William J. Bratton]] was later appointed police commissioner by [[Rudolph Giuliani]], and he brought Maple's Charts of the Future with him. Maple eventually made the NYPD adopt it after it was rebranded as '''CompStat''', and it was credited with helping to bringing down crime by around 60%. There was a CompStat meeting<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vito|first=Gennaro F.|last2=Reed|first2=John C.|last3=Walsh|first3=William F.|date=2017-01-02|title=Police executives’ and managers’ perspectives on Compstat|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1205986|journal=Police Practice and Research|volume=18|issue=1|pages=15–25|doi=10.1080/15614263.2016.1205986|issn=1561-4263}}</ref> every month, and it was mandatory for police officials to attend. The year after CompStat was adopted, 1995, murders dropped to 1,181. By 2012, there were 417 murders—the lowest number since records start in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NCJRS Abstract - National Criminal Justice Reference Service|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=265292|access-date=2020-08-29|website=www.ncjrs.gov|language=en}}</ref>


The weekly CompStat sessions were initially open to the public and commanders would be denigrated by management if they had failed; three-quarters were dismissed over 18 months for failing to bring the numbers down.<ref name=":0"/> The sessions were closed to the public in the late 2000s but since 2010 have been more amiable with commanders sent DVD recordings of sessions for review.<ref name=":0"/>
==Operations==
{{refimprove|section|date=August 2018}}
===Weekly crime reports===
On a weekly basis, personnel from each of the NYPD's 77 precincts, nine police service areas and 12 transit districts compile a statistical summary of the week's crime complaints, arrests and summons activity, as well as a written report of significant cases, crime patterns and police activities. This data, with specific crime and enforcement locations and times, is forwarded to the chief of the department's CompStat Unit, where information is collated and loaded into a citywide database.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The unit runs computer analysis on the data and generates a weekly CompStat report. The report captures crime complaints and arrest activity at the precinct, patrol borough and citywide levels, presenting a summary of these and other important performance indicators.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The data is presented on a week-to-date, prior 28 days and year-to-date basis, with comparisons to previous years' activity. Precinct commanders and members of the agency's top management can easily discern emerging and established crime trends, as well as deviations and anomalies. With the report, department leadership can easily make comparisons between commands. Each precinct is also ranked in each complaint and arrest category.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Accountability===
The CompStat program involves weekly crime control strategy meetings. These gatherings increase information flow between the agency's executives and the commanders of operational units, with particular emphasis on crime and quality of life enforcement information. In the department's vernacular, these briefings are referred to as CompStat ("computerized statistics") meetings, since many of the discussions are based upon the [[statistics|statistical]] analysis and [[map]]s contained within the weekly CompStat reports.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

These meetings and the information sharing they generate are an important part of Bratton's comprehensive, interactive management strategy: enhancing accountability by providing local commanders with considerable discretion and resources. The program also ensures that precinct commanders remain aware of crime and quality of life conditions within their areas of responsibility. By meeting frequently and discussing the department's ten crime and quality of life strategies, the initiatives are fully implemented throughout the agency.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Precinct and other operational unit commanders use this forum to communicate with the agency's top executives and other commanders, sharing the problems they face and successful crime reduction tactics. The process allows top executives to monitor issues and activities within precincts and operational units, evaluating the skills and effectiveness of middle managers. By keeping abreast of situations "on the ground," departmental leaders can properly allocate resources to most effectively reduce crime and improve police performance.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

It is important to note that the weekly CompStat report and crime strategy meetings do not focus simply on enforcement of the seven major crimes comprising the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s [[Uniform Crime Reports]] (UCR) Index, but also capture data on the number of shooting incidents and shooting victims, as well as gun arrests. Summons and arrest activity are also captured.

====In concert with broken windows theory====
By arresting or issuing summonses to people who engage in minor violations and quality of life offenses — such as public drinking and public urination, [[begging|panhandling]], loud radios, [[prostitution]] and disorderly conduct — ensures that those behaviors are deterred. As explained in the [[Broken windows theory]], aggressive enforcement of all statutes has been claimed to restore a sense of order. By capturing enforcement data as reflected in summons and arrest activity, the department is better able to gauge its overall performance.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Commander profile reports===
The CompStat Unit also develops and prepares commander profile reports. These weekly reports help executives scrutinize commanders' performance on a variety of important management variables. All profiles furnish information about the unit commander's appointment date and years in rank, the education and specialized training he or she has received, his or her most recent performance evaluation rating, and the units he or she previously commanded.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Every profile also captures some non-crime statistics: the amount of overtime generated by members of the command, the number of department vehicle accidents, absence rates due to sick time and line-of-duty injuries, and the number of civilian complaints logged against members of the unit.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Community demographics and information on the unit's personnel is also included. With this data, executives can monitor and assess how commanders motivate and manage their personnel resources and how well they address important management concerns. The commander profile also acts as a motivational tool; profile subjects are familiar with the criteria used to evaluate them—and their peers—enabling report subjects to monitor and compare their own success in meeting performance objectives with others' achievements.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Crime strategy meetings===
Crime strategy meetings are convened twice weekly in the Command and Control Center, a high-tech conference facility at police headquarters. These meetings are attended by all commanders of precincts, police service areas, transit districts and other operational unit commanders within a given patrol borough, including the commanding officers and /or supervisors of precinct-based and specialized investigative units. Depending on their weekly crime statistics, every commander can expect to be called at random to make his or her Crime Strategy Meeting presentation approximately once a month.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Also in attendance are representatives from the respective district attorney's offices, command personnel from the department's School Safety Division and a variety of other outside agencies involved in law enforcement activities, the Transit and Housing Bureau commanders whose jurisdictions lie within the patrol borough, the Crime Strategy Coordinators from other patrol boroughs, Internal Affairs Bureau personnel, and ranking officers from a variety of support and ancillary units (such as the Legal Bureau and Management Information Systems Division) which do not perform direct enforcement functions.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

This configuration of participants fosters a team approach to problem solving, and ensures that crime and quality of life problems identified at the meeting can be immediately discussed and quickly addressed through the development and implementation of creative and comprehensive solutions. Because ranking decision-makers are present at the meetings and can immediately commit their resources, the obstacles and delays which often occur in highly structured bureaucratic organizations also tend to be minimized.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Among the Command and Control Center's high-tech capabilities is its computerized "pin mapping" which displays crime, arrest and quality of life data in a host of visual formats including comparative charts, graphs and tables. Through the use of geographic mapping software and other computer technology, for example, the CompStat database can be accessed and a precinct map depicting virtually any combination of crime and/or arrest locations, crime "hot spots" and other relevant information can be instantly projected on the Center's large video projection screens.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Comparative charts, tables and graphs can also be projected simultaneously. These visual presentations are a useful and highly effective adjunct to the CompStat Report, since it permits precinct commanders and members of the Executive Staff to instantly identify and explore trends and patterns as well as solutions for crime and quality of life problems.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

During their presentation, members of the executive staff frequently ask commanders probing questions about crime and arrest activity as well as about specific cases and initiatives they have undertaken to reduce crime and enforce quality of life offenses. Commanders are expected to demonstrate a detailed knowledge of the crime and quality of life problems existing within their commands and to develop innovative and flexible tactics to address them.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

As noted above, the weekly COMPSTAT meetings are but one facet of the department's comprehensive system by which is monitored and used to evaluate the department's performance. There are also pre-COMPSTAT briefings convened at the local patrol borough level, Precinct Management Team meetings in each precinct and strategy evaluation projects conducted by ranking members of the department. In addition, the police commissioner meets with New York City's mayor on a weekly basis to brief them on the department's activities and performance.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The police commissioner also provides the mayor with a formal report capturing much of the data contained within the CompStat Report. Finally, a great deal of the CompStat data and other indices of performance are provided to the public through inclusion in the Mayor's Management Report. This report and the preliminary report issued four months into the fiscal year provide detailed comparative data on the performance of every mayoral agency within city government. The process permits personnel at all levels to monitor and assess the effectiveness of their efforts and re-direct those efforts when necessary.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Technology===
Because it often relies on underlying software tools, CompStat has sometimes been confused for a software program in itself. This is a fundamental misconception. CompStat often does, however, incorporate [[crime mapping]] systems and a commercial or internally developed [[database]] collection system. In some cases, police departments have started offering information to the public through their own websites. In other cases, police departments can either create their own [[XML]] feed or use a third party to display data on a map. The largest of these is CrimeReports.com, used by thousands of agencies nationwide.{{Citation needed|reason=No citation for claim that CrimeReports is largest…something|date=December 2013}}


==Impact==
==Impact==
CompStat shifted the focus of the NYPD from 'service and the beat cop' to 'crime and commanding officers': a greater emphasis was placed on issuing formal arrests and summonses and the NYPD shifted towards a centralized and top-down [[scientific management]] approach.<ref name="Eterno"/> Crime rates decreased while CompStat was implemented, leading to widespread public praise of the program.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Didier |first=Emmanuel |date=2018-07-30 |title=Globalization of Quantitative Policing: Between Management and Statactivism |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053308 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=515–534 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053308 |issn=0360-0572 |s2cid=150164073}}</ref> At the same time, civilian complaints against the NYPD increased.<ref name="Eterno"/> Scholars have inconclusively debated whether CompStat played a role.<ref name="Eterno"/><ref name=":0"/> Proponents of CompStat have argued that the program was responsible for the decrease, others have noted decreases in other cities with different policing models during the same period.<ref name="Eterno"/><ref name="Smith"/>
Research is mixed on whether CompStat had an impact on crime rates.<ref name=":0" /> A 2021 study found no evidence that CompStat had an impact on serious crime, but the study did find substantial evidence that the program lead police to engage in substantial data manipulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eckhouse|first=Laurel|date=2021|title=Metrics Management and Bureaucratic Accountability: Evidence from Policing|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajps.12661|journal=American Journal of Political Science|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12661|issn=1540-5907}}</ref>


An anonymous survey of retired high-ranking police officials found that pressure to reduce crime prompted some supervisors and precinct commanders to distort crime statistics.<ref name="Chen">{{Cite news |last=Chen |first=David W. |date=2010-02-08 |title=Survey Raises Questions on Data-Driven Policy |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/nyregion/09mayor.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 2010 NYPD officer [[Adrian Schoolcraft]] released recordings of his superiors urging him to manipulate data: his captain demanded an increase in summonses issued under threat of retaliation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/10/nyregion/10quotas.html|title=Secret Tape Has Police Pressing Ticket Quotas|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=10 September 2010 |access-date=2016-06-02|last1=Baker |first1=Al |last2=Rivera |first2=Ray }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Parascandola |first=Rocco |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/brooklyn/2010/09/11/2010-09-11_cop_in_scandal_no_fines_no_jobs.html |title=Cop in scandal: No fines, no jobs |publisher=NY Daily News |date=2010-09-11 |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Associated Press|author=Colleen Long and Tom Hayes|date=October 9, 2010|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2010/10/09/national/a094224D52.DTL&ao=2#ixzz11yBYEM4N|title=Cop who made tapes accuses NYPD of false arrest}}</ref> In 2014 Justice Quarterly published an article stating that there was statistical evidence of the NYPD manipulating CompStat data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/files/justice%20quarterly%20article%20Eterno%20Verma%20Silverman.pdf|title=Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting: Insiders' Revelations|website=Justice Quarterly|access-date=8 June 2019}}</ref> A 2021 study found that CompStat led to an increase in minor arrests but no impact on serious crime and led police to engage in data manipulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eckhouse|first=Laurel|date=2021|title=Metrics Management and Bureaucratic Accountability: Evidence from Policing|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajps.12661|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=385–401 |language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12661|s2cid=243672885 |issn=1540-5907}}</ref> In [[Floyd v. City of New York]] (2013), Judge Scheindlin ruled that CompStat led to pressure to conduct more [[Stop-and-frisk in New York City|stop-and-frisk searches]] without review of their constitutionality and "resulted in the disproportionate and discriminatory stopping of blacks and Hispanics".<ref name=":0"/>
Some, such as [[University of Chicago]] economist [[Steven Levitt]], have argued that COMPSTAT's crime-reducing effects have been minor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/LevittUnderstandingWhyCrime2004.pdf |format=PDF |title=Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not |author=Steven D. Levitt |website=Pricetheory.uchicago.edu |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref>
The introduction of COMPSTAT happened alongside:
* The training and deployment of around 5,000 new better-educated police officers
* The integration of New York's housing and transit police into the New York Police Department
* Police decision-making being devolved to precinct level
* The clearing of a backlog of 50,000 unserved warrants
* Robust "zero tolerance" campaign against petty crime and anti-social behavior under [[Mayoralty of Rudy Giuliani|Mayor Giuliani]] and Police Commissioner [[William J. Bratton|Bill Bratton]]
* Widespread removal of [[graffiti]]
* Programs that moved over 500,000 people [[Welfare to work|into jobs from welfare]] at a time of [[1990s United States boom|economic buoyancy]]
* [[Housing Choice Voucher Program|Housing vouchers]] to enable poor families to move to better neighborhoods
* [[Gentrification]], displacement of lower income individuals more likely to commit crimes from gentrifying or gentrified communities
* Demographic changes including a generation raised in the social welfare systems started in the 1970s and 1980s
* End of the [[crack epidemic]] and a shift to a [[marijuana]]-based drug economy with a larger consumer base and less competition
* Advances in [[emergency medicine]] allowing more victims to survive
* A further reduction in the lead contaminants in the environment


Bratton heavily marketed CompStat and used it to market himself in the press.<ref name=":0"/> In 2004, a survey found 11% and 32% of small and large police departments respectively had adopted a CompStat-like program.<ref name=":0"/> A 2011 survey by the [[Police Executive Research Forum]] (PERFS) found that 79% of their member agencies utilized CompStat and 52% had begun using it between 2006 and 2010.<ref name="Eterno"/> The program has been adopted globally, notably in the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, and Mexico.<ref name=":0"/> A report by the [[Brennan Center for Justice]] in 2016 found that mass incarceration had a minimal effect on reducing crime in the United States but CompStat had a modest one. It noted that the NYPD's implementation might be an outlier due to its size and unique implementation.<ref name="Roeder">{{Cite report |url=https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/what-caused-crime-decline |title=What Caused the Crime Decline? |last=Roeder |first=Oliver |last2=Eisen |first2=Lauren-Brooke |date=February 12, 2015 |publisher=Brennan Center for Justice |language=en |last3=Bowling |first3=Julia}}</ref> The program has also been adopted as an all-purpose management technique; in 2010 Mayor Bloomberg had every city service subjected to a CompStat-like evaluation.<ref name=":0"/>
Another criticism of the COMPSTAT program is that it may discourage officers from taking crime reports in order to create a false appearance of a reduction of community problems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nypdconfidential.com/columns/2003/030630.html |title=Crime statistics doubts adding up |website=Nypdconfidential.com |date=2003-06-30 |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0544,moses,69552,5.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=August 28, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811035503/http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0544%2Cmoses%2C69552%2C5.html |archive-date=August 11, 2007 }}</ref> According to journalist [[Radley Balko]], "some recent reports from New York City suggest the program needs some tweaking to guard against the twin dangers of unnecessary police harassment and underreporting of serious crimes."<ref>[[Radley Balko|Balko, Radley]] (2010-12-20) [http://reason.com/archives/2010/12/20/beyond-bars Beyond Bars], ''[[Reason Magazine|Reason]]''</ref> An anonymous survey of "hundreds of retired high-ranking police officials . . . found that tremendous pressure to reduce crime, year after year, prompted some supervisors and precinct commanders to distort crime statistics."<ref>Chen, David (2010-02-08) [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/nyregion/09mayor.html Survey Raises Questions on Data-Driven Policy], ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref>

Similarly, crimes may be reported but downplayed as less significant, to manipulate statistics. As an illustration, before a department begins using CompStat it might list 100 assaults as aggravated and 500 as simple assault. If there were a similar pattern of underlying criminal activity the next year, but instead 550 assaults are listed in CompStat as simple and 50 as aggravated, the system would report that progress had been made reducing major crimes when in fact, the only difference is in how they are reported.

Manipulating reporting data may also negatively affect personnel and financial disbursement; communities whose improvements (on paper) show they need less resources could lose those resources—and still face the same amount of actual crime on the streets.

Many of these negative effects in the possible weaknesses of the COMPSTAT system were dramatized in [[HBO]]'s ''[[The Wire]]'', as part of an overarching theme of systemic dysfunction in institutions.<ref>Crime Stats From HBO to BSO ''Miami Herald'', 1B, December 6, 2004.</ref> Indeed, "[o]ne of the central themes of the critically acclaimed HBO series . . . was the pressure [[politician]]s put on police brass, who then apply it to the department’s middle management, to generate [[Public relations|PR]]-friendly statistics about lowering crime and increasing arrests."<ref>[[Radley Balko|Balko, Radley]] (2010-03-08) [http://reason.com/archives/2010/03/08/the-other-broken-window-fallac The Other Broken Windows Fallacy], ''[[Reason Magazine|Reason]]''</ref> In the show, this was referred to as "juking the stats".

The issue was further publicized in 2010 when NYPD officer [[Adrian Schoolcraft]] released recordings of his superiors urging him to manipulate data.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/10/nyregion/10quotas.html|title=Secret Tape Has Police Pressing Ticket Quotas|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Parascandola |first=Rocco |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/brooklyn/2010/09/11/2010-09-11_cop_in_scandal_no_fines_no_jobs.html |title=Cop in scandal: No fines, no jobs |publisher=NY Daily News |date=2010-09-11 |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Associated Press|author=Colleen Long and Tom Hayes|date=October 9, 2010|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2010/10/09/national/a094224D52.DTL&ao=2#ixzz11yBYEM4N|title=Cop who made tapes accuses NYPD of false arrest}}</ref>

In 2014 Justice Quarterly published an article stating that there was statistical evidence of the NYPD manipulating CompStat data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/files/justice%20quarterly%20article%20Eterno%20Verma%20Silverman.pdf|title=Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting: Insiders' Revelations|website=Justice Quarterly|access-date=8 June 2019}}</ref>
<br>
<br>
'''NYPD Captains Endowment Association'''<br>
On June 24, 2020, the NYPD Captains Endowment Association president, Chris Monahan, wrote a letter to then NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio and Police Commissioner Dermot Shea calling for the NYPD to end its use of COMPSTAT. His criticisms of COMPSTAT include dividing police and the community, particularly black and brown communities, and increasing the chances of officers engaging in street encounters.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2020/06/24/nypd-captains-union-calls-for-end-of-compstat-program/ |title=NYPD captains’ union calls for end of CompStat program |website=[[New York Post]] |access-date=June 24, 2020 |date=June 24, 2020 |last1=Moore | first1=Tina |last2=McCarthy |first2=Craig}}</ref>

==TrafficStat==
The NYPD's TrafficStat was modeled after CompStat. TrafficStat tracks motor vehicle, bicyclist, and pedestrian crashes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/outreach/safedige/spring2000/spr00-11.html|website=NHTSA.gov|title=New York City TrafficStat|access-date=2016-06-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921173032/http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/outreach/safedige/spring2000/spr00-11.html|archive-date=2012-09-21}}</ref>

== Examples of police departments that use CompStat ==

===Canada===
* [[Halifax Regional Police]]
* [[Vancouver Police Department]]

===United States===
*[[Austin]], TX<ref>{{cite web|title=Chief's Monthly Reports|url=https://www.ci.austin.tx.us/police/reports.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630070419/https://www.ci.austin.tx.us/police/reports.htm|archive-date=2011-06-30|access-date=2010-03-29|publisher=City of Austin}}</ref>

*[[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore, MD]], where the system is called Citistat.<ref name="baltimorecity1">{{cite web|title=Baltimore CitiStat|url=http://baltimorecity.gov/Government/AgenciesDepartments/CitiStat.aspx|access-date=2010-03-29|publisher=City of Baltimore}}</ref> In 2007, then Governor of Maryland [[Martin O'Malley]] implemented [[Maryland StateStat]], the first statewide performance management system based on CompStat.

*[[Los Angeles]], CA<ref>{{cite web|title=COMPSTAT|url=http://www.lapdonline.org/crime_maps_and_compstat/content_basic_view/6363|access-date=2010-03-29|publisher=The Los Angeles Police Department}}</ref>

*[[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville, TN]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Nashville > Police Department > Chief of Police > Strategic Development > Crime Analysis|url=http://www.nashville.gov/Police-Department/Chief-of-Police/Strategic-Development/Crime-Analysis.aspx|access-date=2016-06-02|website=Nashville.gov}}</ref>
*[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven, CT]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Bass|first=Paul|date=2012-01-31|title=CompStat Ramps Up|url=http://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/compstat_meeting/|access-date=2016-06-02|publisher=New Haven Independent}}</ref>
*[[Oakland, California|Oakland, CA]]<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-05-01|title=District-Based Investigations in Oakland: Rapid and Effective Responses to Robberies, Burglaries and Shootings|url=http://www2.oaklandnet.com/oakca1/groups/police/documents/webcontent/oak045373.pdf|access-date=2015-06-21|publisher=The Bratton Group, LLC}}</ref>

*[[Philadelphia]], PA<ref>{{cite web|title=CompStat Process|url=http://www.ppdonline.org/hq_compstat.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310002138/http://www.ppdonline.org/hq_compstat.php|archive-date=March 10, 2010|access-date=2010-03-29|publisher=Philadelphia Police Department}} </ref>

*[[San Francisco]], CA<ref>{{cite web|title=SFPD CompStat|url=http://www.sf-police.org/index.aspx?page=3254|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408001247/http://www.sf-police.org/index.aspx?page=3254|archive-date=2010-04-08|access-date=2010-03-29|publisher=San Francisco Police Department}}</ref>

*[[San Juan, Puerto Rico]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Alvarez|first=Lizette|date=2011-06-20|title=Murder Rate and Fear Rise in Puerto Rico|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/21/us/21crime.html}}</ref>
*[[Washington, DC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=COMPSTAT|url=http://mpdc.dc.gov/mpdc/site/default.asp?mpdcNav_GID=1523&mpdcNav=%7c31417|access-date=2010-04-24|publisher=The Metropolitan Police Department Washington, DC}}{{Dead link|date=July 2019|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>
*[[Detroit, MI]]<ref>{{cite news|date=2013-08-01|title=Detroit Police Department takes data-driven approach to crime fighting|work=MLive|url=http://www.mlive.com/news/detroit/index.ssf/2013/08/detroit_police_department_take.html}}</ref>
*[[New York City|New York, NY]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Crime Stats - COMPStat - NYPD|url=https://www1.nyc.gov/site/nypd/stats/crime-statistics/compstat.page|access-date=2018-08-19|website=www1.nyc.gov}}</ref> where statistics are available to the public through the [https://compstat.nypdonline.org/ NYPD CompStat 2.0 Website].
*[[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa, ID]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Police: Crime decreasing in Nampa following change to CompStat policing|url=https://www.ktvb.com/article/news/crime/nampa-police-compstat-crime-rates-drop/277-a54c0e95-eefc-4b96-a9de-274c6947cd2a|access-date=2019-09-19|website=KTVB}}</ref>


== In popular culture ==
== In popular culture ==
* In the CBS TV series ''[[The District]]'', inspired by the real-life experience of former New York Deputy Police Commissioner Jack Maple, statistics clerk Ella Mae Farmer (played by [[Lynne Thigpen]])<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movies/person/70511/Lynne-Thigpen/biography|department=Movies & TV Dept.|work=[[The New York Times]]|title=Lynne Thigpen Biography|access-date=February 18, 2016}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> was shown to be a wiz at using the system, which proved invaluable to the success of Washington, D.C. Police Chief Jack Mannion and to the department, and which contributed to her promotion from an obscure position located in an out-of-the-way office to Director of Administrative Services.<ref>{{cite web|website=TV.com|title=The District|url=http://www.tv.com/shows/the-district/|access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref>
*The use of crime statistics to hold individual members of (the fictional) Miami Metro Police Department "brass" accountable and the resulting pressure on those individuals, is shown repeatedly in the Showtime TV series ''[[Dexter (TV series)|Dexter]]'', with [[Thomas Matthews (Dexter)|Thomas Matthews]], [[María LaGuerta]], and (as of season 6) Lieutenant [[Debra Morgan]] on the line, at various times.
* The [[Law and Order: SVU]] episode "Limitations" features a [[New York City Police Department|NYPD]] CompStat meeting at One Police Plaza.<ref>{{Citation |last=Makris |first=Constantine |title=Limitations |date=2000-02-11 |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0629677/ |access-date=2023-12-21 |series=Law & Order: Special Victims Unit |others=Christopher Meloni, Mariska Hargitay, Richard Belzer}}</ref>
*In the CBS TV series ''[[The District]]'', inspired by the real-life experience of former New York Deputy Police Commissioner Jack Maple, statistics clerk Ella Mae Farmer (played by [[Lynne Thigpen]])<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movies/person/70511/Lynne-Thigpen/biography|department=Movies & TV Dept.|work=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[Baseline (database)|Baseline]] & [[All Movie Guide]]|title=Lynne Thigpen Biography|access-date=February 18, 2016}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> was shown to be a wiz at using the system, which proved invaluable to the success of Washington, D.C. Police Chief Jack Mannion and to the department, and which contributed to her promotion from an obscure position located in an out-of-the-way office to Director of Administrative Services.<ref>{{cite web|website=TV.com|title=The District|url=http://www.tv.com/shows/the-district/|access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref>
*The system is shown in use in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore, MD]] in ''[[The Wire (TV series)|The Wire]]'' on [[HBO]], though in the show it is referred to as "ComStat". (Baltimore's real-life system is called Citistat.)<ref name="baltimorecity1"/>
* The system is shown in use in ''[[The Wire (TV series)|The Wire]]'' on [[HBO]], though in the show it is referred to as "ComStat".<ref name=":0"/>
*The podcast [[Reply All (podcast)|Reply All]] aired two episodes regarding CompStat, titled "The Crime Machine Part I"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gimletmedia.com/reply-all/127-the-crime-machine-part-i|title=#127 The Crime Machine, Part I by Reply All|website=Gimlet Media|access-date=2018-10-12}}</ref> and "The Crime Machine Part II"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gimletmedia.com/reply-all/128-the-crime-machine-part-ii|title=#128 The Crime Machine, Part II by Reply All|website=Gimlet Media|access-date=2018-10-12}}</ref>
* The podcast ''[[Reply All (podcast)|Reply All]]'' aired two episodes regarding CompStat, titled "The Crime Machine Part I"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gimletmedia.com/reply-all/127-the-crime-machine-part-i|title=#127 The Crime Machine, Part I by Reply All |publisher=Gimlet Media|access-date=2018-10-12}}</ref> and "The Crime Machine Part II".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gimletmedia.com/reply-all/128-the-crime-machine-part-ii|title=#128 The Crime Machine, Part II by Reply All |publisher=Gimlet Media|access-date=2018-10-12}}</ref>
*CompStat was featured throughout the [[NBC]] [[sitcom]] series [[Brooklyn Nine-Nine]], which portrays the workings of a fictional precinct within the NYPD. It was a major plot device in the [[Brooklyn Nine-Nine (season 1)|season 1]] episode [[Operation: Broken Feather]], where the characters work to meet their CompStat objectives by applying the same technique to intra-office efficiency.


==See also==
==See also==
Line 137: Line 30:
==Further reading==
==Further reading==
*{{cite news|author=Schoolcraft, Adrian |title=''This American Life'' interview|date=September 28, 2013|work=Public Radio International}}
*{{cite news|author=Schoolcraft, Adrian |title=''This American Life'' interview|date=September 28, 2013|work=Public Radio International}}
* [https://www.govtech.com/magazines/gt/jack-maple-betting-on-intelligence.html How CompStat Began, an Interview with creator Jack Maple]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090620010653/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Crime/HL573.cfm%7CCutting Crime and Restoring Order: What America Can Learn from New York's Finest] by William J. Bratton
* [http://www.lapdonline.org/inside_the_lapd/pdf_view/6247 The Growth of CompStat in American Policing] By David Weisburd, Stephen D. Mastrofski, Rosann Greenspan, and James J. Willis
* [http://www.lapdonline.org/inside_the_lapd/pdf_view/6246 CompStat and Organizational Change in the Lowell Police Department]
* [http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/LevittUnderstandingWhyCrime2004.pdf Steven Levitt's Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070427135737/http://www.nycpba.org/publications/mag-04-summer/compstat.html The Trouble With CompStat]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010607023801/http://www.fordfound.org/publications/ff_report/view_ff_report_detail.cfm?report_index=264 Ford Foundation Report: "Mapping Crime in Philadelphia" Winter 2001]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070712133831/http://bss.sfsu.edu/naff/PA700/CompStat_CitiStat.pdf COMPSTAT AND CITISTAT: SHOULD WORCESTER ADOPT THESE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES?]
* [https://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2007/oct2007/october2007leb.htm#page15 Crime Analysis Reporting and Mapping for Small Agencies: A Low-cost and Simplified Approach]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120921173032/http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/outreach/safedige/spring2000/spr00-11.html New York City TrafficStat]

==External links==
{{External links|date=June 2016}}
* [http://www.govtech.com/gt/94865 How CompStat Began, an Interview with creator Jack Maple]
* [http://www.city-journal.org/2010/eon0217hm.html CompStat and Its Enemies, ''City Journal'' Online, 2-16-10]
* [http://www.lapdonline.org/crime_maps_and_compstat LAPD Citywide COMPSTAT Information]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100421220658/http://crimemap.dc.gov/presentation/query.asp Metropolitan Police Department, Washington, DC Crime Mapping]
* [http://www.lapdonline.org/crimemap/ LAPD Interactive Crime Map derived from COMPSTAT data]
* [http://www.lapdonline.org/inside_the_lapd/content_basic_view/6364 LAPD COMPSTAT Plus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100310002138/http://www.ppdonline.org/hq_compstat.php Philadelphia Police Department COMPSTAT]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706212554/http://www.ci.baltimore.md.us/news/citistat/index.html City of Baltimore Citistat]
* [http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/Home/Leadership/Mayor/CitiStat_Buffalo City of Buffalo Citistat]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070427135737/http://www.nycpba.org/publications/mag-04-summer/compstat.html The Trouble With CompStat]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120909075233/http://www.sf-police.org/index.aspx?page=3254 San Francisco CompStat]


{{New York City Police Department}}
{{New York City Police Department}}

Revision as of 04:42, 2 May 2024

CompStat—or COMPSTAT, short for Compare Stats—is a police management system created by the New York City Police Department in 1994 with assistance from the New York City Police Foundation. Under CompStat, the department keeps a daily-updated digital record of crimes reported and in weekly meetings the department's leadership gathers to review trends in the data. It was credited with decreased crime rates in NYC during its early years, though scholarship is divided on whether it played a role. It has been criticized for leading to data manipulation and increased stop-and-frisk searches. Variations of the program have been used in police departments worldwide.

Origins

CompStat is a management system created in April 1994 by Bill Bratton and Jack Maple, whom Bratton met while he was chief of the New York City Transit Police and later hired as the New York Police Department's top anti-crime specialist when he became Police Commissioner in 1993.[1] CompStat began as weekly meetings at One Police Plaza where officers were randomly selected from precincts and quizzed about crime trends in their districts and how to respond.[1] At the time, the NYPD collected crime statistics every 6 months; under threat of transfers, they began to collect information daily.[1] In February 1994, the department heads provided a hand count of major crimes in the first 6 weeks of 1993 and 1994.[2]

Maple drafted junior staffer John Yohe to modify an existing program to analyze the data.[1] CompStat was named after a program called "compare stats".[2] It was originally run on Informix's SmartWare desktop office system before being replaced by Microsoft's FoxPro database for business.[2] The Patrol Bureau's staff computerized the information provided by department heads and created the first 'CompStat' book, collating the information by precinct, patrol borough, and city.[2] The New York City Police Foundation significantly funded the NYPD's initial development of the program;[3] they also acquired and gifted the department the first CompStat system.[4]

The weekly CompStat sessions were initially open to the public and commanders would be denigrated by management if they had failed; three-quarters were dismissed over 18 months for failing to bring the numbers down.[5] The sessions were closed to the public in the late 2000s but since 2010 have been more amiable with commanders sent DVD recordings of sessions for review.[5]

Impact

CompStat shifted the focus of the NYPD from 'service and the beat cop' to 'crime and commanding officers': a greater emphasis was placed on issuing formal arrests and summonses and the NYPD shifted towards a centralized and top-down scientific management approach.[2] Crime rates decreased while CompStat was implemented, leading to widespread public praise of the program.[5] At the same time, civilian complaints against the NYPD increased.[2] Scholars have inconclusively debated whether CompStat played a role.[2][5] Proponents of CompStat have argued that the program was responsible for the decrease, others have noted decreases in other cities with different policing models during the same period.[2][1]

An anonymous survey of retired high-ranking police officials found that pressure to reduce crime prompted some supervisors and precinct commanders to distort crime statistics.[6] In 2010 NYPD officer Adrian Schoolcraft released recordings of his superiors urging him to manipulate data: his captain demanded an increase in summonses issued under threat of retaliation.[7][8][9] In 2014 Justice Quarterly published an article stating that there was statistical evidence of the NYPD manipulating CompStat data.[10] A 2021 study found that CompStat led to an increase in minor arrests but no impact on serious crime and led police to engage in data manipulation.[11] In Floyd v. City of New York (2013), Judge Scheindlin ruled that CompStat led to pressure to conduct more stop-and-frisk searches without review of their constitutionality and "resulted in the disproportionate and discriminatory stopping of blacks and Hispanics".[5]

Bratton heavily marketed CompStat and used it to market himself in the press.[5] In 2004, a survey found 11% and 32% of small and large police departments respectively had adopted a CompStat-like program.[5] A 2011 survey by the Police Executive Research Forum (PERFS) found that 79% of their member agencies utilized CompStat and 52% had begun using it between 2006 and 2010.[2] The program has been adopted globally, notably in the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, and Mexico.[5] A report by the Brennan Center for Justice in 2016 found that mass incarceration had a minimal effect on reducing crime in the United States but CompStat had a modest one. It noted that the NYPD's implementation might be an outlier due to its size and unique implementation.[12] The program has also been adopted as an all-purpose management technique; in 2010 Mayor Bloomberg had every city service subjected to a CompStat-like evaluation.[5]

  • In the CBS TV series The District, inspired by the real-life experience of former New York Deputy Police Commissioner Jack Maple, statistics clerk Ella Mae Farmer (played by Lynne Thigpen)[13] was shown to be a wiz at using the system, which proved invaluable to the success of Washington, D.C. Police Chief Jack Mannion and to the department, and which contributed to her promotion from an obscure position located in an out-of-the-way office to Director of Administrative Services.[14]
  • The Law and Order: SVU episode "Limitations" features a NYPD CompStat meeting at One Police Plaza.[15]
  • The system is shown in use in The Wire on HBO, though in the show it is referred to as "ComStat".[5]
  • The podcast Reply All aired two episodes regarding CompStat, titled "The Crime Machine Part I"[16] and "The Crime Machine Part II".[17]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Smith, Chris (2018-03-02). "The Crime-Fighting Program That Changed New York Forever". New York Magazine.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Eterno, John A.; Silverman, Eli B. (2006). "The New York City Police Department's Compstat: Dream or Nightmare?". International Journal of Police Science & Management. 8 (3): 218–231. doi:10.1350/ijps.2006.8.3.218. ISSN 1461-3557.
  3. ^ Vitale, Alex S. (2005). "Innovation and Institutionalization: Factors in the Development of "Quality of Life" Policing in New York City". Policing and Society. 15 (2): 99–124. doi:10.1080/10439460500071754. ISSN 1043-9463.
  4. ^ Walby, Kevin; Lippert, Randy K; Luscombe, Alex (2017-09-15). "The Police Foundation's Rise: Implications of Public Policing's Dark Money". The British Journal of Criminology. 58 (4): 824–844. doi:10.1093/bjc/azx055. ISSN 0007-0955.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Didier, Emmanuel (2018-07-30). "Globalization of Quantitative Policing: Between Management and Statactivism". Annual Review of Sociology. 44 (1): 515–534. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053308. ISSN 0360-0572. S2CID 150164073.
  6. ^ Chen, David W. (2010-02-08). "Survey Raises Questions on Data-Driven Policy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  7. ^ Baker, Al; Rivera, Ray (10 September 2010). "Secret Tape Has Police Pressing Ticket Quotas". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
  8. ^ Parascandola, Rocco (2010-09-11). "Cop in scandal: No fines, no jobs". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
  9. ^ Colleen Long and Tom Hayes (October 9, 2010). "Cop who made tapes accuses NYPD of false arrest". Associated Press.
  10. ^ "Police Manipulations of Crime Reporting: Insiders' Revelations" (PDF). Justice Quarterly. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  11. ^ Eckhouse, Laurel (2021). "Metrics Management and Bureaucratic Accountability: Evidence from Policing". American Journal of Political Science. 66 (2): 385–401. doi:10.1111/ajps.12661. ISSN 1540-5907. S2CID 243672885.
  12. ^ Roeder, Oliver; Eisen, Lauren-Brooke; Bowling, Julia (February 12, 2015). What Caused the Crime Decline? (Report). Brennan Center for Justice.
  13. ^ "Lynne Thigpen Biography". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Retrieved February 18, 2016.[dead link]
  14. ^ "The District". TV.com. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
  15. ^ Makris, Constantine (2000-02-11), Limitations, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Christopher Meloni, Mariska Hargitay, Richard Belzer, retrieved 2023-12-21
  16. ^ "#127 The Crime Machine, Part I by Reply All". Gimlet Media. Retrieved 2018-10-12.
  17. ^ "#128 The Crime Machine, Part II by Reply All". Gimlet Media. Retrieved 2018-10-12.

Further reading

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