Curtis Act of 1898: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox U.S. legislation |
{{Infobox U.S. legislation |
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| shorttitle |
| shorttitle = Curtis Act of 1898 |
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| othershorttitles |
| othershorttitles = |
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| longtitle |
| longtitle = An Act for the protection of the people of the Indian Territory, and for other purposes. |
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| colloquialacronym = |
| colloquialacronym = |
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| nickname |
| nickname = Curtis Act (1898) |
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| enacted by |
| enacted by = 55th |
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| effective date |
| effective date = June 28, 1898 |
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| public law url |
| public law url = |
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| cite public law |
| cite public law = {{USPL|55|517}} |
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| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|30|495}} |
| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|30|495}} |
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| acts amended |
| acts amended = |
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| acts repealed |
| acts repealed = |
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| title amended |
| title amended = <!--US code titles changed--> |
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| sections created = <!--{{USC}} can be used--> |
| sections created = <!--{{USC}} can be used--> |
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| sections amended = |
| sections amended = |
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| leghisturl |
| leghisturl = |
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| introducedin |
| introducedin = House |
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| introducedbill |
| introducedbill = {{USBill|55|H.R.|8581}} |
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| introducedby |
| introducedby = [[Charles Curtis]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]–[[Kansas|KS]]) |
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| introduceddate |
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| agreedbody3 |
| agreedbody3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee --> |
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| agreeddate3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee --> |
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| agreedvote3 |
| agreedvote3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee --> |
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| agreedbody4 |
| agreedbody4 = <!-- used if agreedbody3 further amends legislation --> |
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| signedpresident = [[William McKinley]] |
| signedpresident = [[William McKinley]] |
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| signeddate |
| signeddate = June 28, 1898 |
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| unsignedpresident = <!-- used when passed without presidential signing --> |
| unsignedpresident = <!-- used when passed without presidential signing --> |
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| unsigneddate |
| unsigneddate = <!-- used when passed without presidential signing --> |
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| vetoedpresident = <!-- used when passed by overriding presidential veto --> |
| vetoedpresident = <!-- used when passed by overriding presidential veto --> |
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| overriddenbody1 = <!-- used when passed by overriding presidential veto --> |
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| overriddenvote2 = <!-- used when passed by overriding presidential veto --> |
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| SCOTUS cases |
| SCOTUS cases = |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''Curtis Act of 1898''' was an amendment to the United States [[Dawes Act]]; it resulted in the break-up of tribal governments and communal lands in [[Indian Territory]] (now Oklahoma) of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of [[Indian Territory]]: the [[Choctaw]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Muscogee people|Muscogee]] (Creek), [[Cherokee]], and [[Seminole]]. These tribes had been previously exempt from the 1887 General Allotment Act ([[Dawes Act]]) because of the terms of their treaties.<ref>Wright, Muriel H. ''A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma''. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 1968</ref> In total, the tribes immediately lost control of about 90 million acres of their communal lands; they lost more in subsequent years. |
The '''Curtis Act of 1898''' was an amendment to the United States [[Dawes Act]]; it resulted in the break-up of tribal governments and communal lands in [[Indian Territory]] (now Oklahoma) of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of [[Indian Territory]]: the [[Choctaw]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Muscogee people|Muscogee]] (Creek), [[Cherokee]], and [[Seminole]]. These tribes had been previously exempt from the 1887 General Allotment Act ([[Dawes Act]]) because of the terms of their treaties.<ref>Wright, Muriel H. ''A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma''. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 1968</ref> In total, the tribes immediately lost control of about 90 million acres of their communal lands; they lost more in subsequent years. |
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The act also transferred the authority to determine members of tribes to the [[Dawes Commission]] as part of the registration of members. Thus, individuals could be enrolled as members without tribal consent.<ref name="EOHC-CurtisAct">Tatro, M. Kaye. ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''. "Curtis Act."[http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CU006.html]</ref> By effectively abolishing the remainder of tribal courts, tribal governments, and tribal land claims in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma, the act enabled Oklahoma to be admitted as a state, which followed in 1907.<ref>Prucha, Francis Paul. ''Indian Policy in the United States'', Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1981.</ref> |
The act also transferred the authority to determine members of tribes to the [[Dawes Commission]] as part of the registration of members. Thus, individuals could be enrolled as members without tribal consent.<ref name="EOHC-CurtisAct">Tatro, M. Kaye. ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''. "Curtis Act."[http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CU006.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720014537/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CU006.html|date=2010-07-20}}</ref> By effectively abolishing the remainder of tribal courts, tribal governments, and tribal land claims in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma, the act enabled Oklahoma to be admitted as a state, which followed in 1907.<ref>Prucha, Francis Paul. ''Indian Policy in the United States'', Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1981.</ref> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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Officially titled the "Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory", the Act is named for former Vice President [[Charles Curtis]], Republican congressman from Kansas and its author. He was of mixed Native American and European descent: on his mother's side [[Kaw people|Kansa]], [[Osage Nation|Osage]], [[Potawatomi]], and [[French American|French]]; and on his father's side three ethnic lines of British Isles ancestry. Curtis was raised in part on the Kaw Reservation of his maternal grandparents, but also lived with his paternal grandparents and attended Topeka High School. He read law, became an attorney, and later was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] and Senate.<ref>Yoho, Carol. [http://www.washburn.edu/cas/art/cyoho/archive/AroundTopeka/curtiscemetery/index.html "Curtis Cemetery: Topeka, Kansas."] ''Washburn University: Department of Art.'' 2003-2010 (26 Jan 2011)</ref> He served as Vice-President under Herbert Hoover. |
Officially titled the "Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory", the Act is named for former Vice President [[Charles Curtis]],a Republican congressman from Kansas and its author. He was of mixed Native American and European descent: on his mother's side [[Kaw people|Kansa]], [[Osage Nation|Osage]], [[Potawatomi]], and [[French American|French]]; and on his father's side three ethnic lines of British Isles ancestry. Curtis was raised in part on the Kaw Reservation of his maternal grandparents, but also lived with his paternal grandparents and attended Topeka High School. He read law, became an attorney, and later was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] and Senate.<ref>Yoho, Carol. [http://www.washburn.edu/cas/art/cyoho/archive/AroundTopeka/curtiscemetery/index.html "Curtis Cemetery: Topeka, Kansas."] ''Washburn University: Department of Art.'' 2003-2010 (26 Jan 2011)</ref> He served as Vice-President under Herbert Hoover.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Senate: Senate Leaders |url=https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/parties-leadership/curtis-charles.htm |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=www.senate.gov}}</ref> |
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In the usual fashion, by the time the bill HR 8581 had gone through five revisions in committees in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, there was little left of Curtis' original draft. In his hand-written autobiography, Curtis noted having been unhappy with the final version of the Curtis Act.<ref>Colvin manuscript, Kansas State Historical Society</ref> He believed that the Five Civilized Tribes needed to make changes. He thought that the way ahead for Native Americans was through education and use of both their and the majority cultures, but he also had hoped to give more support to Native American transitions. |
In the usual fashion, by the time the bill HR 8581 had gone through five revisions in committees in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, there was little left of Curtis' original draft. In his hand-written autobiography, Curtis noted having been unhappy with the final version of the Curtis Act.<ref>Colvin manuscript, Kansas State Historical Society</ref> He believed that the Five Civilized Tribes needed to make changes. He thought that the way ahead for Native Americans was through education and use of both their and the majority cultures, but he also had hoped to give more support to Native American transitions. |
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==Major |
==Major provisions== |
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===Abolition of tribal governments=== |
===Abolition of tribal governments=== |
||
The Curtis Act called for the abolition of tribal governments on March 6, 1906.<ref name="EOHC-Curtis">Wilson, Linda D. ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''. "Statehood Movement." Retrieved May 6, 2013.[http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/s/st025.html]</ref> It was intended to establish individual land holdings in the European-American model, for subsistence farming by families. The act also provided for the establishment of public schools.<ref name=" |
The Curtis Act called for the abolition of tribal governments on March 6, 1906.<ref name="EOHC-Curtis">Wilson, Linda D. ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''. "Statehood Movement." Retrieved May 6, 2013.[http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/s/st025.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119170430/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/S/ST025.html|date=2012-11-19}}</ref> In 1924, it declared all Indians to be citizens of the United States. <ref name="Adams, David W. ''Education For Extinction''. Retrieved Dec 13, 2021. It was intended to establish individual land holdings in the European-American model, for subsistence farming by families. The act also provided for the establishment of public schools.<ref name=" uslegal"="">Adams, David Wallace. ''Education for Extinction : American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928'' Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 1995.</ref> Due to the nature of the lands in Indian Territory and the dry climate, the 160-acre allotments were often too small to permit profitable farming, and many Indian families had to give up and lost their lands in future years.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Curtis Act Law and Legal Definition {{!}} USLegal, Inc.|url=https://definitions.uslegal.com/c/curtis-act/|access-date=2021-12-14|website=definitions.uslegal.com}}</ref> |
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===Land allotments modification=== |
===Land allotments modification=== |
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{{ |
{{Main|Atoka Agreement}} |
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The Act incorporated the basic points regarding land allotments and termination of tribal governments that had earlier appeared in the [[Atoka Agreement]] between the [[Choctaw Nation|Choctaw]] and [[Chickasaw Nation]]s. The Atoka Agreement had been rejected by a popular vote of the Chickasaw, but accepted by the Choctaw. The Curtis Act required that the Atoka Agreement be resubmitted to a vote of both nations. The agreement was approved in a joint election on August 24, 1898.<ref name = "Time">[https://nativeheritageproject.com/2013/08/17/the-curtis-act-of-1898/ "The Curtis Act of 1898". ''Time''.] Accessed December 4, 2016.</ref> |
The Act incorporated the basic points regarding land allotments and termination of tribal governments that had earlier appeared in the [[Atoka Agreement]] between the [[Choctaw Nation|Choctaw]] and [[Chickasaw Nation]]s. The Atoka Agreement had been rejected by a popular vote of the Chickasaw, but accepted by the Choctaw. The Curtis Act required that the Atoka Agreement be resubmitted to a vote of both nations. The agreement was approved in a joint election on August 24, 1898.<ref name = "Time">[https://nativeheritageproject.com/2013/08/17/the-curtis-act-of-1898/ "The Curtis Act of 1898". ''Time''.] Accessed December 4, 2016.</ref> |
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===Registration of tribal members=== |
===Registration of tribal members=== |
||
The Curtis Act also scrapped the registration of tribal members that had been conducted under the [[Dawes Act]] and ordered |
The Curtis Act also scrapped the registration of tribal members that had been conducted under the [[Dawes Act]] and ordered new enrollments.<ref>[http://www.okhistory.org/research/applications1896 "About the 1896 Applications for Enrollment"], Oklahoma Historical Society]</ref> This Act extended all provisions of the Dawes Act to the lands of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]]. In the end, the large parts declared by the government to be "surplus" to their needs were made available for sale, including to non-Natives. An estimated 90 million acres of land formerly reserved for Native Americans were removed from their control.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/1900/peopleevents/pandeAMEX37.html " America 1900: The General Allotment Act."], ''The American Experience,'' National Public Radio.</ref> |
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===Incorporation of towns=== |
===Incorporation of towns=== |
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The Curtis Act also authorized the incorporation of towns in Indian Territory. This meant that towns had a legal basis for being laid out, surveyed and plotted. Any individual could obtain title to the lot in [[fee simple]]. The title owner of a lot had the legal right to sell or mortgage the property. An incorporated town or city had the right to self-regulation and levy taxes, allowing them to establish public services. By 1900, the largest towns in Indian Territory had incorporated. These included: Ardmore, with 1,500 residents; Muskogee 4,200; McAlester 3,500; Wagoner 2,300; Tulsa 1,300; and Eufaula 800.<ref name="Phoenix">''Muskogee Phoenix''. "Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory." October 27, 2007. Retrieved May 5, 2013.[http://muskogeephoenix.com/local/x2128976549/Curtis-Act-brought-changes-to-towns-in-Indian-Territory "Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory"], ''Muskogee Phoenix''</ref> |
The Curtis Act also authorized the incorporation of towns in Indian Territory. This meant that towns had a legal basis for being laid out, surveyed, and plotted. Any individual could obtain title to the lot in [[fee simple]]. The title owner of a lot had the legal right to sell or mortgage the property. An incorporated town or city had the right to self-regulation and levy taxes, allowing them to establish public services. By 1900, the largest towns in Indian Territory had incorporated. These included: Ardmore, with 1,500 residents; Muskogee, 4,200; McAlester, 3,500; Wagoner, 2,300; Tulsa, 1,300; and Eufaula, 800.<ref name="Phoenix">''Muskogee Phoenix''. "Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory." October 27, 2007. Retrieved May 5, 2013.[http://muskogeephoenix.com/local/x2128976549/Curtis-Act-brought-changes-to-towns-in-Indian-Territory "Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory"], ''Muskogee Phoenix''</ref> |
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===Provision for vote by residents=== |
===Provision for vote by residents=== |
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Residents could not vote for the President or Congress in Indian Territory. The U.S. President appointed territorial government officials, so the question of voting for these officials was irrelevant. However, under the Curtis Act, male residents of Indian Territory, including American Indians, who met voter qualifications were permitted to vote. After Oklahoma was admitted as a state in 1907, residents could also vote for state officials.<ref name="Phoenix"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fifty-fifth Congress Session II. Chpt. 503, 504,517. 1898. |url=https://maint.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/55th-congress/session-2/c55s2ch517.pdf |access-date=May 28, 2024 |website=Library of Congress}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* [https://www.chickasaw.tv/events/curtis-act-passes Curtis Act Information & Video], Chickasaw.TV |
* [https://www.chickasaw.tv/events/curtis-act-passes Curtis Act Information & Video], Chickasaw.TV |
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* [http://www.vpcharlescurtis.net Charles Curtis; Native-American Indian Vice-President; a biography] |
* [http://www.vpcharlescurtis.net Charles Curtis; Native-American Indian Vice-President; a biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813145801/http://www.vpcharlescurtis.net/ |date=2021-08-13 }} |
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* [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CU006.html "Curtis Act (1898)"], ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture'' |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100720014537/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CU006.html "Curtis Act (1898)"], ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture'' |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024013411/http://www.library.okstate.edu/okmaps/ Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024013411/http://www.library.okstate.edu/okmaps/ Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory] |
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* [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=50&page=transcript "Dawes Act"], Our Documents.gov website |
* [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=50&page=transcript "Dawes Act"], Our Documents.gov website |
||
* [https://nativeheritageproject.com/2013/08/17/the-curtis-act-of-1898/ "The Curtis Act of 1898". ''Time''.] Accessed December 4, 2016. |
* [https://nativeheritageproject.com/2013/08/17/the-curtis-act-of-1898/ "The Curtis Act of 1898". ''Time''.] Accessed December 4, 2016. |
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{{Native American rights}} |
{{Native American rights}} |
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{{Aboriginal title in the United States}} |
{{Aboriginal title in the United States}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Curtis Act Of 1898}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Curtis Act Of 1898}} |
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[[Category:United States federal Native American legislation]] |
[[Category:United States federal Native American legislation]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:19th-century Cherokee history]] |
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[[Category:1898 in American law]] |
[[Category:1898 in American law]] |
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[[Category:History of |
[[Category:History of Indian Territory]] |
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[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma]] |
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[[Category:Aboriginal title in the United States]] |
[[Category:Aboriginal title in the United States]] |
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[[Category:1898 in Oklahoma Territory]] |
[[Category:1898 in Oklahoma Territory]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:1898 in Indian Territory]] |
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[[Category:Dawes Rolls]] |
Revision as of 04:36, 28 May 2024
![]() | |
Long title | An Act for the protection of the people of the Indian Territory, and for other purposes. |
---|---|
Nicknames | Curtis Act (1898) |
Enacted by | the 55th United States Congress |
Effective | June 28, 1898 |
Citations | |
Public law | Pub. L. 55–517 |
Statutes at Large | 30 Stat. 495 |
Legislative history | |
|
The Curtis Act of 1898 was an amendment to the United States Dawes Act; it resulted in the break-up of tribal governments and communal lands in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indian Territory: the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Muscogee (Creek), Cherokee, and Seminole. These tribes had been previously exempt from the 1887 General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) because of the terms of their treaties.[1] In total, the tribes immediately lost control of about 90 million acres of their communal lands; they lost more in subsequent years.
The act also transferred the authority to determine members of tribes to the Dawes Commission as part of the registration of members. Thus, individuals could be enrolled as members without tribal consent.[2] By effectively abolishing the remainder of tribal courts, tribal governments, and tribal land claims in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma, the act enabled Oklahoma to be admitted as a state, which followed in 1907.[3]
History
Officially titled the "Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory", the Act is named for former Vice President Charles Curtis,a Republican congressman from Kansas and its author. He was of mixed Native American and European descent: on his mother's side Kansa, Osage, Potawatomi, and French; and on his father's side three ethnic lines of British Isles ancestry. Curtis was raised in part on the Kaw Reservation of his maternal grandparents, but also lived with his paternal grandparents and attended Topeka High School. He read law, became an attorney, and later was elected to the United States House of Representatives and Senate.[4] He served as Vice-President under Herbert Hoover.[5]
In the usual fashion, by the time the bill HR 8581 had gone through five revisions in committees in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, there was little left of Curtis' original draft. In his hand-written autobiography, Curtis noted having been unhappy with the final version of the Curtis Act.[6] He believed that the Five Civilized Tribes needed to make changes. He thought that the way ahead for Native Americans was through education and use of both their and the majority cultures, but he also had hoped to give more support to Native American transitions.
Major provisions
Abolition of tribal governments
The Curtis Act called for the abolition of tribal governments on March 6, 1906.[7] In 1924, it declared all Indians to be citizens of the United States. [8] Due to the nature of the lands in Indian Territory and the dry climate, the 160-acre allotments were often too small to permit profitable farming, and many Indian families had to give up and lost their lands in future years.[9]
Land allotments modification
The Act incorporated the basic points regarding land allotments and termination of tribal governments that had earlier appeared in the Atoka Agreement between the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. The Atoka Agreement had been rejected by a popular vote of the Chickasaw, but accepted by the Choctaw. The Curtis Act required that the Atoka Agreement be resubmitted to a vote of both nations. The agreement was approved in a joint election on August 24, 1898.[10]
Registration of tribal members
The Curtis Act also scrapped the registration of tribal members that had been conducted under the Dawes Act and ordered new enrollments.[11] This Act extended all provisions of the Dawes Act to the lands of the Five Civilized Tribes. In the end, the large parts declared by the government to be "surplus" to their needs were made available for sale, including to non-Natives. An estimated 90 million acres of land formerly reserved for Native Americans were removed from their control.[12]
Incorporation of towns
The Curtis Act also authorized the incorporation of towns in Indian Territory. This meant that towns had a legal basis for being laid out, surveyed, and plotted. Any individual could obtain title to the lot in fee simple. The title owner of a lot had the legal right to sell or mortgage the property. An incorporated town or city had the right to self-regulation and levy taxes, allowing them to establish public services. By 1900, the largest towns in Indian Territory had incorporated. These included: Ardmore, with 1,500 residents; Muskogee, 4,200; McAlester, 3,500; Wagoner, 2,300; Tulsa, 1,300; and Eufaula, 800.[13]
Provision for vote by residents
Residents could not vote for the President or Congress in Indian Territory. The U.S. President appointed territorial government officials, so the question of voting for these officials was irrelevant. However, under the Curtis Act, male residents of Indian Territory, including American Indians, who met voter qualifications were permitted to vote. After Oklahoma was admitted as a state in 1907, residents could also vote for state officials.[13][14]
See also
- Dawes Act
- Dawes Commission
- Dawes Rolls
- Atoka Agreement
- Aboriginal title in the United States
- Eminent domain in the United States
- Diminishment
References
- ^ Wright, Muriel H. A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 1968
- ^ Tatro, M. Kaye. Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. "Curtis Act."[1] Archived 2010-07-20 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Prucha, Francis Paul. Indian Policy in the United States, Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1981.
- ^ Yoho, Carol. "Curtis Cemetery: Topeka, Kansas." Washburn University: Department of Art. 2003-2010 (26 Jan 2011)
- ^ "U.S. Senate: Senate Leaders". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2024-05-28.
- ^ Colvin manuscript, Kansas State Historical Society
- ^ Wilson, Linda D. Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. "Statehood Movement." Retrieved May 6, 2013.[2] Archived 2012-11-19 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction : American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 1995.
- ^ "Curtis Act Law and Legal Definition | USLegal, Inc". definitions.uslegal.com. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
- ^ "The Curtis Act of 1898". Time. Accessed December 4, 2016.
- ^ "About the 1896 Applications for Enrollment", Oklahoma Historical Society]
- ^ " America 1900: The General Allotment Act.", The American Experience, National Public Radio.
- ^ a b Muskogee Phoenix. "Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory." October 27, 2007. Retrieved May 5, 2013."Curtis Act brought changes to towns in Indian Territory", Muskogee Phoenix
- ^ "Fifty-fifth Congress Session II. Chpt. 503, 504,517. 1898" (PDF). Library of Congress. Retrieved May 28, 2024.
External links
- Curtis Act Information & Video, Chickasaw.TV
- Charles Curtis; Native-American Indian Vice-President; a biography Archived 2021-08-13 at the Wayback Machine
- "Curtis Act (1898)", Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
- Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory
- "Dawes Act", Our Documents.gov website
- "The Curtis Act of 1898". Time. Accessed December 4, 2016.