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== Before World War II ==
== Before World War II ==
In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the [[Edo period]], known as the [[Bakumatsu]] period, some new religious movements appeared. Among them were [[Tenrikyo]], [[Kurozumikyo|Kurozumikyo,]] and [[Oomoto]], sometimes called ''Nihon Sandai Shinkōshūkyō'' ("Japan's three large new religions"), which were directly influenced by [[Shinto]] (the [[State Shinto|state religion]]) and [[shamanism]].
In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the [[Edo period]], known as the [[Bakumatsu]] period, some new religious movements appeared. Among them were [[Tenrikyo]], [[Kurozumikyo]], and [[Oomoto]], sometimes called {{Lang|ja-latn|Nihon Sandai Shinkōshūkyō}} ({{Gloss|Japan's three large new religions}}), which were directly influenced by [[Shinto]] (the [[State Shinto|state religion]]) and [[shamanism]].


The social tension continued to grow during the [[Meiji period]], affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional [[syncreticism]] between Shinto and Buddhism ended and Shinto became the [[state religion|national religion]]. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions.
The social tension continued to grow during the [[Meiji period]], affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional [[syncreticism]] between Shinto and Buddhism ended and Shinto became the [[state religion|national religion]]. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions.


The Japanese government was very suspicious towards these religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe during the early 20th century, particularly from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of [[Japanese nationalism]] and [[State Shinto]] were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime ''[[lèse-majesté]]'' prohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism, arresting some members and leaders of Shinshukyo, including [[Onisaburo Deguchi]] of Oomoto and [[Tsunesaburō Makiguchi]] of Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (now [[Soka Gakkai]]), who typically were charged with violation of ''lèse-majesté'' and the [[Peace Preservation Law]].
The Japanese government was very suspicious towards these religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe during the early 20th century, particularly from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of [[Japanese nationalism]] and [[State Shinto]] were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime ''[[lèse-majesté]]'' prohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism, arresting some members and leaders of {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}}, including [[Onisaburo Deguchi]] of Oomoto and [[Tsunesaburō Makiguchi]] of Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (now [[Soka Gakkai]]), who typically were charged with violation of ''[[lèse-majesté]]'' and the [[Peace Preservation Law]].


== After World War II ==
== After World War II ==


=== Background ===
=== Background ===
After Japan was defeated in World War II, its government and policy changed radically during [[Occupation of Japan|occupation]] by Allied troops. The official status of [[State Shinto]] was abolished, and Shinto shrines became religious organizations, losing government protection and financial support. Although the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers|Occupation Army (GHQ)]] practiced censorship of all types of organizations, specific suppression of Shinshūkyō ended.
After Japan was defeated in World War II, its government and policy changed radically during [[Occupation of Japan|occupation]] by Allied troops. The official status of [[State Shinto]] was abolished, and Shinto shrines became religious organizations, losing government protection and financial support. Although the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers|Occupation Army (GHQ)]] practiced censorship of all types of organizations, specific suppression of {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}} ended.


GHQ invited many Christian missionaries from the United States to Japan, through [[Douglas MacArthur|Douglas MacArthur's]] famous call for 1,000 missionaries. Missionaries arrived not only from traditional churches, but also from some modern denominations, such as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Jehovah's Witnesses missionaries were so successful that they have become the second largest Christian denomination in Japan, with over 210,000 members (the largest is [[Catholicism]] with about 500,000 members). In Japan, Jehovah's Witnesses tend to be considered a Christianity-based Shinshūkyō, not only because they were founded in the 19th century (as were other major Shinshūkyō), but also because of their missionary practices, which involve door-to-door visiting and frequent meetings.
GHQ invited many Christian missionaries from the United States to Japan, through [[Douglas MacArthur|Douglas MacArthur's]] famous call for 1,000 missionaries. Missionaries arrived not only from traditional churches, but also from some modern denominations, such as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Jehovah's Witnesses missionaries were so successful that they have become the second largest Christian denomination in Japan, with over 210,000 members (the largest is [[Catholicism]] with about 500,000 members). In Japan, Jehovah's Witnesses tend to be considered a Christianity-based {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}}, not only because they were founded in the 19th century (as were other major {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}}), but also because of their missionary practices, which involve door-to-door visiting and frequent meetings.


Despite the influx of Christian missionaries, the majority of Shinshūkyō are Buddhist- or Shinto-related sects. Major sects include [[Risshō Kōsei Kai]] and [[Shinnyo-en]]. Major goals of Shinshūkyō include spiritual healing, individual prosperity, and social harmony. Many also hold a belief in [[Apocalypticism]], that is in the imminent [[Eschatology|end of the world]] or at least its radical transformation.<ref name = clarke1999>[[Peter B. Clarke]], 1999, "Japanese New Religious Movements in Brazil: from ethnic to 'universal' religions", ''New Religious Movements: challenge and response'', Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0415200504}}</ref> Most of those who joined Shinshūkyō in this period were women from lower-middle-class backgrounds.<ref name = barker1999>[[Eileen Barker]], 1999, "New Religious Movements: their incidence and significance", ''New Religious Movements: challenge and response'', Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0415200504}}</ref>
Despite the influx of Christian missionaries, the majority of {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}} are Buddhist- or Shinto-related sects. Major sects include [[Risshō Kōsei Kai]] and [[Shinnyo-en]]. Major goals of {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}} include spiritual healing, individual prosperity, and social harmony. Many also hold a belief in [[Apocalypticism]], that is in the imminent [[Eschatology|end of the world]] or at least its radical transformation.<ref name = clarke1999>[[Peter B. Clarke]], 1999, "Japanese New Religious Movements in Brazil: from ethnic to 'universal' religions", ''New Religious Movements: challenge and response'', Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0415200504}}</ref> Most of those who joined {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}} in this period were women from lower-middle-class backgrounds.<ref name = barker1999>[[Eileen Barker]], 1999, "New Religious Movements: their incidence and significance", ''New Religious Movements: challenge and response'', Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0415200504}}</ref>


[[Soka Gakkai]] has a particular influence to politics since 1964, thanks to their affiliated party Komeito, later [[Komeito|New Komeito]]. In 1999, it was estimated that 10 to 20 per cent of the Japanese population were members of a Shinshūkyō.<ref name = barker1999/>
[[Soka Gakkai]] has a particular influence on politics since 1964, due to their affiliated party Komeito, later [[Komeito|New Komeito]]. In 1999, it was estimated that 10 to 20 per cent of the Japanese population were members of a {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}}.<ref name = barker1999/>


=== Influence ===
=== Influence ===
After World War II, the structure of the state was changed radically. Prior to WWII, the [[National Diet]] was restricted and the real power lay with the executive branch, in which the prime minister was appointed by the emperor. Under the new [[Constitution of Japan]], the Diet had the supreme authority for decision making in state affairs and all its members were elected by the people. Especially in the [[House of Councillors (Japan)|House of Councillors]], one third of whose members were elected through nationwide vote, nationwide organizations found they could influence national policy by supporting certain candidates. Major Shinshūkyō became one of the so-called "vote-gathering machines" in Japan, especially for the conservative parties which merged into the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] in 1955.
After World War II, the structure of the state was changed radically. Prior to WWII, the [[National Diet]] was restricted and the real power lay with the executive branch, in which the prime minister was appointed by the emperor. Under the new [[Constitution of Japan]], the Diet had the supreme authority for decision making in state affairs and all its members were elected by the people. Especially in the [[House of Councillors (Japan)|House of Councillors]], one third of whose members were elected through nationwide vote, nationwide organizations found they could influence national policy by supporting certain candidates. Major {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}} became one of the so-called "vote-gathering machines" in Japan, especially for the conservative parties which merged into the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] in 1955.


== Other nations ==
== Other nations ==
In the 1950s, Japanese wives of American servicemen introduced the Soka Gakkai to the United States, which in the 1970s developed into the [[Soka Gakkai International]] (SGI). The SGI has steadily gained members while avoiding much of the controversy encountered by some other new religious movements in the US.{{Original research inline|date=July 2022}} Well-known American SGI converts include musician [[Herbie Hancock]] and singer [[Tina Turner]].<ref name = gallagher2004>Eugene V. Gallagher, 2004, ''The New Religious Movement Experience in America'', [[Greenwood Press]], {{ISBN|0313328072}}, pages 120–124</ref>
In the 1950s, Japanese wives of American servicemen introduced the Soka Gakkai to the United States, which in the 1970s developed into the [[Soka Gakkai International]] (SGI). The SGI has steadily gained members while avoiding much of the controversy encountered by some other new religious movements in the US.{{Original research inline|date=July 2022}} Well-known American SGI converts include musician [[Herbie Hancock]] and singer [[Tina Turner]].<ref name = gallagher2004>Eugene V. Gallagher, 2004, ''The New Religious Movement Experience in America'', [[Greenwood Press]], {{ISBN|0313328072}}, pages 120–124</ref>


In Brazil Shinshūkyō, like [[Honmon Butsuryū-shū]], were first introduced in the 1920s among the Japanese immigrant population. In the 1950s and 1960s some started to become popular among the non-Japanese population as well. [[Seicho-no-Ie]] now has the largest membership in the country. In the 1960s it adopted Portuguese, rather than Japanese, as its language of instruction and communication. It also began to advertise itself as philosophy rather than religion in order to avoid conflict with the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] and other socially conservative elements in society. By 1988 it had more than 2.4 million members in Brazil, 85% of them not of Japanese ethnicity.<ref name = clarke1999/>
In Brazil {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}}, like [[Honmon Butsuryū-shū]], were first introduced in the 1920s among the Japanese immigrant population. In the 1950s and 1960s some started to become popular among the non-Japanese population as well. [[Seicho-no-Ie]] now has the largest membership in the country. In the 1960s it adopted Portuguese, rather than Japanese, as its language of instruction and communication. It also began to advertise itself as philosophy rather than religion in order to avoid conflict with the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] and other socially conservative elements in society. By 1988 it had more than 2.4 million members in Brazil, 85% of them not of Japanese ethnicity.<ref name = clarke1999/>


== Statistics ==
== Statistics ==
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}}


{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%" style="background:#ffffff;"
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
| align="left" width="30%" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Name'''
! width="30%" |Name
! Founder
| align="left" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Founder'''
! Founded
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Founded'''
! 1954
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''1954'''
! 1974
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''1974'''
! 1990
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''1990'''
! 2012
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''2012'''
|-
|-
| Nyorai-kyō (如来教)||Isson-nyorai Kino (1756–1826)||1802||75,480||33,674||27,131||7,477
| Nyorai-kyō ({{lang|ja|如来教}})||Isson-nyorai Kino (1756–1826)||1802||75,480||33,674||27,131||7,477
|-
|-
| [[Kurozumikyo|Kurozumi-kyō]] (黒住教)||Munetada Kurozumi (1780–1850)||1814||715,650||407,558||295,225||297,767
| [[Kurozumikyo|Kurozumi-kyō]] ({{lang|ja|黒住教}})||Munetada Kurozumi (1780–1850)||1814||715,650||407,558||295,225||297,767
|-
|-
| [[Tenrikyo|Tenri-kyō]] (天理教)||[[Nakayama Miki]] (1798–1887)||1838||1,912,208||2,298,420||1,839,009||1,199,652
| [[Tenrikyo|Tenri-kyō]] ({{lang|ja|天理教}})||[[Nakayama Miki]] (1798–1887)||1838||1,912,208||2,298,420||1,839,009||1,199,652
|-
|-
| [[Honmon Butsuryū-shū]] (本門佛立宗)||Nagamatsu Nissen (1817–1890)||1857||339,800||515,911||526,337||345,288
| [[Honmon Butsuryū-shū]] ({{lang|ja|本門佛立宗}})||Nagamatsu Nissen (1817–1890)||1857||339,800||515,911||526,337||345,288
|-
|-
| [[Konkokyo|Konko-kyō]] (金光教)||Konkō Daijin (1814–1883)||1859||646,206||500,868||442,584||430,021
| [[Konkokyo|Konko-kyō]] ({{lang|ja|金光教}})||Konkō Daijin (1814–1883)||1859||646,206||500,868||442,584||430,021
|-
|-
| Maruyama-kyō (丸山教)||Rokurōbei Itō (1829–1894)||1870||92,011||3,200||10,725||11,057
| Maruyama-kyō ({{lang|ja|丸山教}})||Rokurōbei Itō (1829–1894)||1870||92,011||3,200||10,725||11,057
|-
|-
| [[Oomoto]] (大本)||Nao Deguchi (1837–1918)<br />[[Onisaburō Deguchi]] (1871–1948)||1899||73,604||153,397||172,460||169,525
| [[Oomoto]] ({{lang|ja|大本}})||Nao Deguchi (1837–1918)<br />[[Onisaburō Deguchi]] (1871–1948)||1899||73,604||153,397||172,460||169,525
|-
|-
| Nakayama-Shingoshō-shū (中山身語正宗)||Matsutarō Kihara (1870–1942)||1912||282,650||467,910||382,040||295,275
| Nakayama-Shingoshō-shū ({{lang|ja|中山身語正宗}})||Matsutarō Kihara (1870–1942)||1912||282,650||467,910||382,040||295,275
|-
|-
| [[Honmichi]] (ほんみち)||Ōnishi Aijirō (1881–1958)||1913||225,386||288,700||316,825||318,974
| [[Honmichi]] ({{lang|ja|ほんみち}})||Ōnishi Aijirō (1881–1958)||1913||225,386||288,700||316,825||318,974
|-
|-
| En'ō-kyō (円応教)||Chiyoko Fukada (1887–1925)||1919||71,654||266,782||419,452||457,346
| En'ō-kyō ({{lang|ja|円応教}})||Chiyoko Fukada (1887–1925)||1919||71,654||266,782||419,452||457,346
|-
|-
| [[Reiyūkai|Reiyū-kai]] (霊友会)||Kakutarō Kubo (1892–1944)||1924||2,284,172||2,477,907||3,202,172||1,412,975
| [[Reiyūkai|Reiyū-kai]] ({{lang|ja|霊友会}})||Kakutarō Kubo (1892–1944)||1924||2,284,172||2,477,907||3,202,172||1,412,975
|-
|-
| Nenpō-shinkyō (念法眞教)||Ogura Reigen (1886–1982)||1925||153,846||751,214||807,486||408,755
| Nenpō-shinkyō ({{lang|ja|念法眞教}})||Ogura Reigen (1886–1982)||1925||153,846||751,214||807,486||408,755
|-
|-
| [[PL Kyodan|Perfect Liberty Kyōdan]] (パーフェクト リバティー教団)||Miki Tokuharu (1871–1938)<br />Miki Tokuchika (1900–1983)||(1925)<ref>The (1925) date refers to the Hito-no-Michi Kyōdan, the mother organization of Perfect Liberty Kyōdan</ref><br />1946||500,950||2,520,430||1,259,064||942,967
| [[PL Kyodan|Perfect Liberty Kyōdan]] ({{lang|ja|パーフェクト リバティー教団}})||Miki Tokuharu (1871–1938)<br />Miki Tokuchika (1900–1983)||(1925)<ref>The (1925) date refers to the Hito-no-Michi Kyōdan, the mother organization of Perfect Liberty Kyōdan</ref><br />1946||500,950||2,520,430||1,259,064||942,967
|-
|-
| [[Seicho-no-Ie|Seichō-no-Ie]] (生長の家)||Masaharu Taniguchi (1893–1985)||1930||1,461,604||2,375,705||838,496||618,629
| [[Seicho-no-Ie|Seichō-no-Ie]] ({{lang|ja|生長の家}})||Masaharu Taniguchi (1893–1985)||1930||1,461,604||2,375,705||838,496||618,629
|-
|-
| [[Soka Gakkai|Sōka Gakkai]] (創価学会)||[[Tsunesaburō Makiguchi]] (1871–1944)<br />[[Jōsei Toda]] (1900–1958)||1930||341,146||10,000,000 (claimed)||12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars)||12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars)
| [[Soka Gakkai|Sōka Gakkai]] ({{lang|ja|創価学会}})||[[Tsunesaburō Makiguchi]] (1871–1944)<br />[[Jōsei Toda]] (1900–1958)||1930||341,146||10,000,000 (claimed)||12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars)||12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars)
|-
|-
| [[Church of World Messianity|Sekai Kyūsei-kyō]] (世界救世教)||[[Mokichi Okada]] (1882–1955)||1935||373,173||661,263||835,756||835,756
| [[Church of World Messianity|Sekai Kyūsei-kyō]] ({{lang|ja|世界救世教}})||[[Mokichi Okada]] (1882–1955)||1935||373,173||661,263||835,756||835,756
|-
|-
| [[Shinnyo-en]] (真如苑)||[[Shinjō Itō]] (1906–1956)||1936||155,500||296,514||679,414||902,254
| [[Shinnyo-en]] ({{lang|ja|真如苑}})||[[Shinjō Itō]] (1906–1956)||1936||155,500||296,514||679,414||902,254
|-
|-
| Kōdō Kyōdan (孝道教団)||Shōdō Okano (1900–1978)||1936||172,671||417,638||400,720||184,859
| Kōdō Kyōdan ({{lang|ja|孝道教団}})||Shōdō Okano (1900–1978)||1936||172,671||417,638||400,720||184,859
|-
|-
| [[Risshō Kōsei Kai|Risshō Kōsei-kai]] (立正佼成会)||[[Myōkō Naganuma]] (1889–1957)<br />[[Nikkyō Niwano]] (1906–1999)||1938||1,041,124||4,562,304||6,348,120||3,232,411
| [[Risshō Kōsei Kai|Risshō Kōsei-kai]] ({{lang|ja|立正佼成会}})||[[Myōkō Naganuma]] (1889–1957)<br />[[Nikkyō Niwano]] (1906–1999)||1938||1,041,124||4,562,304||6,348,120||3,232,411
|-
|-
| [[Tenshō Kōtai Jingūkyō|Tenshō Kōtai Jingū-kyō]] (天照皇大神宮教)||Sayo Kitamura 1900–1967)||1945||89,374||386,062||439,011||479,707
| [[Tenshō Kōtai Jingūkyō|Tenshō Kōtai Jingū-kyō]] ({{lang|ja|天照皇大神宮教}})||Sayo Kitamura 1900–1967)||1945||89,374||386,062||439,011||479,707
|-
|-
| Zenrin-kyō (善隣教)||Tatsusai Rikihisa (1906–1977)||1947||404,157||483,239||513,321||132,286
| Zenrin-kyō ({{lang|ja|善隣教}})||Tatsusai Rikihisa (1906–1977)||1947||404,157||483,239||513,321||132,286
|-
|-
| Ōyama Nezunomikoto Shinji Kyōkai (大山ねずの命神示教会)||Sadao Inaii (1906–1988)||1948||||59,493||826,022||
| Ōyama Nezunomikoto Shinji Kyōkai ({{lang|ja|大山ねずの命神示教会}})||Sadao Inaii (1906–1988)||1948||||59,493||826,022||
|-
|-
| [[Bussho Gonenkai Kyōdan]] (佛所護念会教団)||Kaichi Sekiguchi (1897–1961)<br />Sekiguchi Tomino (1905–1990)||1950||352,170||1,210,227||2,196,813||1,277,424
| [[Bussho Gonenkai Kyōdan]] ({{lang|ja|佛所護念会教団}})||Kaichi Sekiguchi (1897–1961)<br />Sekiguchi Tomino (1905–1990)||1950||352,170||1,210,227||2,196,813||1,277,424
|-
|-
| [[Myōchikai Kyōdan]] (妙智会教団)||Mitsu Miyamoto (1900–1984)||1950||515,122||673,913||962,611||709,849
| [[Myōchikai Kyōdan]] ({{lang|ja|妙智会教団}})||Mitsu Miyamoto (1900–1984)||1950||515,122||673,913||962,611||709,849
|-
|-
| Byakkō Shinkō-kai (白光真宏会)||Masahisa Goi (1916–1980)||1951||||||500,000||
| Byakkō Shinkō-kai ({{lang|ja|白光真宏会}})||Masahisa Goi (1916–1980)||1951||||||500,000||
|-
|-
| [[Agon Shu|Agon-shū]] (阿含宗)||Seiyū Kiriyama (1921–)||1954||||500||206,606||353,890
| [[Agon Shu|Agon-shū]] ({{lang|ja|阿含宗}})||Seiyū Kiriyama (1921–)||1954||||500||206,606||353,890
|-
|-
| Reiha-no-Hikari Kyōkai (霊波之光)||Hase Yoshio (1915–1984)||1954||||||761,175||
| Reiha-no-Hikari Kyōkai ({{lang|ja|霊波之光}})||Hase Yoshio (1915–1984)||1954||||||761,175||
|-
|-
| Jōdoshinshū Shinran-kai (浄土真宗親鸞会)||Kentetsu Takamori (1934–)||1958||||||100,000<ref name="nenkan">Most of the statistics in these charts are from the 1991 edition of the Shūkyō Nenkan (Religion Yearbook, Tokyo: Gyōsei). Numbers marked with this footnote are from other sources{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} reporting the organizations‘ own membership statistics around 1990.</ref>||
| Jōdoshinshū Shinran-kai ({{lang|ja|浄土真宗親鸞会}})||Kentetsu Takamori (1934–)||1958||||||100,000<ref name="nenkan">Most of the statistics in these charts are from the 1991 edition of the Shūkyō Nenkan (Religion Yearbook, Tokyo: Gyōsei). Numbers marked with this footnote are from other sources{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} reporting the organizations‘ own membership statistics around 1990.</ref>||
|-
|-
| [[Mahikari|Sekai Mahikari Bunmei Kyōdan]] (世界真光文明教団)||[[Yoshikazu Okada|Kōtama Okada]](Yoshikazu Okada) (1901–1974)||1959||||||97,838||
| [[Mahikari|Sekai Mahikari Bunmei Kyōdan]] ({{lang|ja|世界真光文明教団}})||[[Yoshikazu Okada|Kōtama Okada]](Yoshikazu Okada) (1901–1974)||1959||||||97,838||
|-
|-
| Honbushin (ほんぶしん)||Ōnishi Tama (1916–1969)||1961||||||900,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
| Honbushin ({{lang|ja|ほんぶしん}})||Ōnishi Tama (1916–1969)||1961||||||900,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
|-
|-
| God Light Association Sōgō Honbu (GLA総合本部)||Shinji Takahashi (1927–1976)||1969||||||12,981||
| God Light Association Sōgō Honbu ({{lang|ja|GLA総合本部}})||Shinji Takahashi (1927–1976)||1969||||||12,981||
|-
|-
| [[Shinji Shumeikai|Shinji Shūmei-kai]] (神慈秀明会)||Mihoko Koyama (1910–2003)||1970||||||1988: 440,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
| [[Shinji Shumeikai|Shinji Shūmei-kai]] ({{lang|ja|神慈秀明会}})||Mihoko Koyama (1910–2003)||1970||||||1988: 440,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
|-
|-
| Nihon Seidō Kyōdan (日本聖道教団)||Shōkō Iwasaki (1934–)||1974||||||69,450||
| Nihon Seidō Kyōdan ({{lang|ja|日本聖道教団}})||Shōkō Iwasaki (1934–)||1974||||||69,450||
|-
|-
| Extra-Sensory-Perception Kagaku Kenkyūjo (ESP科学研究所)||Katao Ishii (1918–)||1975||||||16,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
| Extra-Sensory-Perception Kagaku Kenkyūjo ({{lang|ja|ESP科学研究所}})||Katao Ishii (1918–)||1975||||||16,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
|-
|-
| [[Sukyo Mahikari|Sūkyō Mahikari]] (崇教真光)||[[Yoshikazu Okada]] (1901–1974)||1978||||||501,328||
| [[Sukyo Mahikari|Sūkyō Mahikari]] ({{lang|ja|崇教真光}})||[[Yoshikazu Okada]] (1901–1974)||1978||||||501,328||
|-
|-
| [[Ho No Hana]] (法の華三法行)||Hōgen Fukunaga (1945–)||1980||||||70,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
| [[Ho No Hana]] ({{lang|ja|法の華三法行}})||Hōgen Fukunaga (1945–)||1980||||||70,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
|-
|-
| Yamato-no-Miya (大和之宮)||Tenkei Ajiki (1952–)||1981||||||5,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
| Yamato-no-Miya ({{lang|ja|大和之宮}})||Tenkei Ajiki (1952–)||1981||||||5,000<ref name="nenkan" />||
|-
|-
| World Mate (ワールドメイト)||Seizan Fukami (1951–)||1984||||||30,000<ref name="nenkan" />||72,000
| World Mate ({{lang|ja|ワールドメイト}})||Seizan Fukami (1951–)||1984||||||30,000<ref name="nenkan" />||72,000
|-
|-
| [[Happy Science]] (幸福の科学)||[[Ryuho Okawa|Ryūhō Ōkawa]] (1956–2023)||1986||||||1989: 13,300<br />1991: 1,527,278<ref name="nenkan" />||1,100,000
| [[Happy Science]] ({{lang|ja|幸福の科学}})||[[Ryuho Okawa|Ryūhō Ōkawa]] (1956–2023)||1986||||||1989: 13,300<br />1991: 1,527,278<ref name="nenkan" />||1,100,000
|-
|-
| [[Aum Shinrikyo]] (オウム真理教)||[[Shōkō Asahara]] (1955–2018)||1987 (−2000)||||||2005: 1,650||2018: 1,950<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npa.go.jp/kouhousi/biki2/sec03/sec03_04.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725105241/http://www.npa.go.jp/kouhousi/biki2/sec03/sec03_04.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 July 2011|title=オウム真理教対策（警察庁）|date=25 July 2011|access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref>
| [[Aum Shinrikyo]] ({{lang|ja|オウム真理教}})||[[Shōkō Asahara]] (1955–2018)||1987 (−2000)||||||2005: 1,650||2018: 1,950<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npa.go.jp/kouhousi/biki2/sec03/sec03_04.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725105241/http://www.npa.go.jp/kouhousi/biki2/sec03/sec03_04.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 July 2011|title=オウム真理教対策（警察庁）|date=25 July 2011|access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref>
|}
|}


Line 144: Line 144:


== See also ==
== See also ==
⚫
* [[Chinese new religions]]
* [[Buddhism in Japan]]
* [[Buddhism in Japan]]
* [[Buddhist modernism]]
* [[Buddhist modernism]]
* [[New religious movement]]
* [[Religion in Japan]]
* [[Religion in Japan]]
* [[Shinto sects and schools]] (only some on the list count as Shinshukyo)
* [[Shinto sects and schools]] (only some on the list count as {{Lang|ja-latn|Shinshūkyō}})
* [[Shūkyō nisei]]
* [[Shūkyō nisei]]
⚫
* [[Chinese new religions]]


== References ==
== References ==
Line 155: Line 156:


== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070103061500/http://uk.geocities.com/peterbernardclarke/ Clarke, Peter B.] (1999) ''A Bibliography of Japanese New Religious Movements: With Annotations.'' Richmond : Curzon. {{ISBN|9781873410806}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246578574 OCLC 246578574]
* [[Peter B. Clarke|Clarke, Peter B.]] (1999) ''A Bibliography of Japanese New Religious Movements: With Annotations.'' Richmond, Vi: Curzon. {{ISBN|9781873410806}}. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246578574 OCLC 246578574].
* Clarke, Peter B. (2000). ''Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective.'' Richmond : Curzon. {{ISBN|9780700711857}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/442441364 OCLC 442441364]
* Clarke, Peter B. (2000). ''Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective.'' Richmond, Vi: Curzon. {{ISBN|9780700711857}}. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/442441364 OCLC 442441364].
* Clarke, Peter B., Somers, Jeffrey, editors (1994). Japanese New Religions in the West, Japan Library/Curzon Press, Kent, UK. {{ISBN|1-873410-24-7}}
* Clarke, Peter B., Somers, Jeffrey, editors (1994). Japanese New Religions in the West, Japan Library/Curzon Press, Kent, UK. {{ISBN|1-873410-24-7}}.
* Dormann, Benjamin (2012). Celebrity Gods: New Religions, Media, and Authority in Occupied Japan, University of Hawaiʻi Press. {{ISBN|0824836219}}
* Dormann, Benjamin (2012). Celebrity Gods: New Religions, Media, and Authority in Occupied Japan, University of Hawaiʻi Press. {{ISBN|0824836219}}.
* Dormann, Benjamin (2005). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020234/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/Bulletin_and_Shoho/pdf/29-Dorman.pdf New Religions through the Eyes of Ōya Sōichi, 'Emperor' of the Mass Media]”, in: ''Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture'', 29, pp.&nbsp;54–67
* Dormann, Benjamin (2005). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020234/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/Bulletin_and_Shoho/pdf/29-Dorman.pdf New Religions through the Eyes of Ōya Sōichi, 'Emperor' of the Mass Media]”, in: ''Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture'', 29, pp.&nbsp;54–67.
* Dormann, Benjamin (2004). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212952/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/676.pdf SCAP's Scapegoat? The Authorities, New Religions, and a Postwar Taboo]”, in: ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies'' 31/1: pp.&nbsp;105–140
* Dormann, Benjamin (2004). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212952/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/676.pdf SCAP's Scapegoat? The Authorities, New Religions, and a Postwar Taboo]”, in: ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies'' 31/1: pp.&nbsp;105–140.
* [[Helen Hardacre|Hardacre, Helen]]. (1988). ''Kurozumikyo and the New Religions of Japan.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02048-5}}
* [[Helen Hardacre|Hardacre, Helen]]. (1988). ''Kurozumikyo and the New Religions of Japan.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02048-5}}.
* {{cite book |surname=Hardacre |given=Helen |authorlink=Helen Hardacre |chapter=The New Religions, Family, and Society in Japan |editor-surname=Marty |editor-given=Martin E. |editor-link=Martin E. Marty |editor-surname2=Appleby |editor-given2=R. Scott |editor-link2=R. Scott Appleby |title=Fundamentalisms and Siciety: Reclaming the Sciences, the Family, and Education |series=[[Fundamentalism Project|The Fundamentalism Project]], 2 |place=Chicago, Il; London |year=1993 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |chapter-url={{Google books|id=Ye7DYE39tf8C|plainurl=y|page=294|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=Ye7DYE39tf8C|plainurl=y}} |pages=294–310 |isbn=0-226-50880-3}}
* Kisala, Robert (2001). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020458/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/Bulletin_and_Shoho/pdf/25-Kisala.pdf Images of God in Japanese New Religions]”, in: ''Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture'', 25, pp.&nbsp;19–32
* Kisala, Robert (2001). “[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020458/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/Bulletin_and_Shoho/pdf/25-Kisala.pdf Images of God in Japanese New Religions]”, in: ''Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture'', 25, pp.&nbsp;19–32.
⚫
* Wilson, Bryan R. & Karel Dobbelaere. (1994). ''A Time to Chant''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827915-9}}
* Staemmler, Birgit & Ulrich Dehn, eds. ''Establishing the Revolutionary: An Introduction to New Religions in Japan''. Munster: LIT, 2011. {{ISBN|978-3-643-90152-1}}
* Staemmler, Birgit & Ulrich Dehn, eds. ''Establishing the Revolutionary: An Introduction to New Religions in Japan''. Munster: LIT, 2011. {{ISBN|978-3-643-90152-1}}.
⚫
* Wilson, Bryan R. and Karel Dobbelaere. (1994). ''A Time to Chant''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827915-9}}.


{{New religious movements}}
{{New religious movements}}

Latest revision as of 09:18, 6 September 2024

The Dai Heiwa Kinen Tō, Peace Tower built by Perfect Liberty Kyōdan

Japanese new religions are new religious movements established in Japan. In Japanese, they are called shinshūkyō (新宗教) or shinkō shūkyō (新興宗教). Japanese scholars classify all religious organizations founded since the middle of the 19th century as "new religions"; thus, the term refers to a great diversity and number of organizations. Most came into being in the mid-to-late twentieth century and are influenced by much older traditional religions including Buddhism and Shinto. Foreign influences include Christianity, the Bible, and the writings of Nostradamus.[1][2]

Before World War II

[edit]

In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the Edo period, known as the Bakumatsu period, some new religious movements appeared. Among them were Tenrikyo, Kurozumikyo, and Oomoto, sometimes called Nihon Sandai Shinkōshūkyō ('Japan's three large new religions'), which were directly influenced by Shinto (the state religion) and shamanism.

The social tension continued to grow during the Meiji period, affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional syncreticism between Shinto and Buddhism ended and Shinto became the national religion. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions.

The Japanese government was very suspicious towards these religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe during the early 20th century, particularly from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of Japanese nationalism and State Shinto were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime lèse-majesté prohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism, arresting some members and leaders of Shinshūkyō, including Onisaburo Deguchi of Oomoto and Tsunesaburō Makiguchi of Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (now Soka Gakkai), who typically were charged with violation of lèse-majesté and the Peace Preservation Law.

After World War II

[edit]

Background

[edit]

After Japan was defeated in World War II, its government and policy changed radically during occupation by Allied troops. The official status of State Shinto was abolished, and Shinto shrines became religious organizations, losing government protection and financial support. Although the Occupation Army (GHQ) practiced censorship of all types of organizations, specific suppression of Shinshūkyō ended.

GHQ invited many Christian missionaries from the United States to Japan, through Douglas MacArthur's famous call for 1,000 missionaries. Missionaries arrived not only from traditional churches, but also from some modern denominations, such as Jehovah's Witnesses. The Jehovah's Witnesses missionaries were so successful that they have become the second largest Christian denomination in Japan, with over 210,000 members (the largest is Catholicism with about 500,000 members). In Japan, Jehovah's Witnesses tend to be considered a Christianity-based Shinshūkyō, not only because they were founded in the 19th century (as were other major Shinshūkyō), but also because of their missionary practices, which involve door-to-door visiting and frequent meetings.

Despite the influx of Christian missionaries, the majority of Shinshūkyō are Buddhist- or Shinto-related sects. Major sects include Risshō Kōsei Kai and Shinnyo-en. Major goals of Shinshūkyō include spiritual healing, individual prosperity, and social harmony. Many also hold a belief in Apocalypticism, that is in the imminent end of the world or at least its radical transformation.[1] Most of those who joined Shinshūkyō in this period were women from lower-middle-class backgrounds.[2]

Soka Gakkai has a particular influence on politics since 1964, due to their affiliated party Komeito, later New Komeito. In 1999, it was estimated that 10 to 20 per cent of the Japanese population were members of a Shinshūkyō.[2]

Influence

[edit]

After World War II, the structure of the state was changed radically. Prior to WWII, the National Diet was restricted and the real power lay with the executive branch, in which the prime minister was appointed by the emperor. Under the new Constitution of Japan, the Diet had the supreme authority for decision making in state affairs and all its members were elected by the people. Especially in the House of Councillors, one third of whose members were elected through nationwide vote, nationwide organizations found they could influence national policy by supporting certain candidates. Major Shinshūkyō became one of the so-called "vote-gathering machines" in Japan, especially for the conservative parties which merged into the Liberal Democratic Party in 1955.

Other nations

[edit]

In the 1950s, Japanese wives of American servicemen introduced the Soka Gakkai to the United States, which in the 1970s developed into the Soka Gakkai International (SGI). The SGI has steadily gained members while avoiding much of the controversy encountered by some other new religious movements in the US.[original research?] Well-known American SGI converts include musician Herbie Hancock and singer Tina Turner.[3]

In Brazil Shinshūkyō, like Honmon Butsuryū-shū, were first introduced in the 1920s among the Japanese immigrant population. In the 1950s and 1960s some started to become popular among the non-Japanese population as well. Seicho-no-Ie now has the largest membership in the country. In the 1960s it adopted Portuguese, rather than Japanese, as its language of instruction and communication. It also began to advertise itself as philosophy rather than religion in order to avoid conflict with the Roman Catholic Church and other socially conservative elements in society. By 1988 it had more than 2.4 million members in Brazil, 85% of them not of Japanese ethnicity.[1]

Statistics

[edit]
Edifices and emblems of various Japanese new religions
Emblem of Tenri-kyō
Head office of Oomoto at Kameoka, Japan
Headquarters of Reiyū-kai
Emblem of Konko-kyō
Rissho Kosei-kai’s Great Sacred Hall
Emblem of Church of World Messianity (Sekai Kyūsei Kyō)
Name Founder Founded 1954 1974 1990 2012
Nyorai-kyō (如来教) Isson-nyorai Kino (1756–1826) 1802 75,480 33,674 27,131 7,477
Kurozumi-kyō (黒住教) Munetada Kurozumi (1780–1850) 1814 715,650 407,558 295,225 297,767
Tenri-kyō (天理教) Nakayama Miki (1798–1887) 1838 1,912,208 2,298,420 1,839,009 1,199,652
Honmon Butsuryū-shū (本門佛立宗) Nagamatsu Nissen (1817–1890) 1857 339,800 515,911 526,337 345,288
Konko-kyō (金光教) Konkō Daijin (1814–1883) 1859 646,206 500,868 442,584 430,021
Maruyama-kyō (丸山教) Rokurōbei Itō (1829–1894) 1870 92,011 3,200 10,725 11,057
Oomoto (大本) Nao Deguchi (1837–1918)
Onisaburō Deguchi (1871–1948)		 1899 73,604 153,397 172,460 169,525
Nakayama-Shingoshō-shū (中山身語正宗) Matsutarō Kihara (1870–1942) 1912 282,650 467,910 382,040 295,275
Honmichi (ほんみち) Ōnishi Aijirō (1881–1958) 1913 225,386 288,700 316,825 318,974
En'ō-kyō (円応教) Chiyoko Fukada (1887–1925) 1919 71,654 266,782 419,452 457,346
Reiyū-kai (霊友会) Kakutarō Kubo (1892–1944) 1924 2,284,172 2,477,907 3,202,172 1,412,975
Nenpō-shinkyō (念法眞教) Ogura Reigen (1886–1982) 1925 153,846 751,214 807,486 408,755
Perfect Liberty Kyōdan (パーフェクト リバティー教団) Miki Tokuharu (1871–1938)
Miki Tokuchika (1900–1983)		 (1925)[4]
1946		 500,950 2,520,430 1,259,064 942,967
Seichō-no-Ie (生長の家) Masaharu Taniguchi (1893–1985) 1930 1,461,604 2,375,705 838,496 618,629
Sōka Gakkai (創価学会) Tsunesaburō Makiguchi (1871–1944)
Jōsei Toda (1900–1958)		 1930 341,146 10,000,000 (claimed) 12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars) 12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars)
Sekai Kyūsei-kyō (世界救世教) Mokichi Okada (1882–1955) 1935 373,173 661,263 835,756 835,756
Shinnyo-en (真如苑) Shinjō Itō (1906–1956) 1936 155,500 296,514 679,414 902,254
Kōdō Kyōdan (孝道教団) Shōdō Okano (1900–1978) 1936 172,671 417,638 400,720 184,859
Risshō Kōsei-kai (立正佼成会) Myōkō Naganuma (1889–1957)
Nikkyō Niwano (1906–1999)		 1938 1,041,124 4,562,304 6,348,120 3,232,411
Tenshō Kōtai Jingū-kyō (天照皇大神宮教) Sayo Kitamura 1900–1967) 1945 89,374 386,062 439,011 479,707
Zenrin-kyō (善隣教) Tatsusai Rikihisa (1906–1977) 1947 404,157 483,239 513,321 132,286
Ōyama Nezunomikoto Shinji Kyōkai (大山ねずの命神示教会) Sadao Inaii (1906–1988) 1948 59,493 826,022
Bussho Gonenkai Kyōdan (佛所護念会教団) Kaichi Sekiguchi (1897–1961)
Sekiguchi Tomino (1905–1990)		 1950 352,170 1,210,227 2,196,813 1,277,424
Myōchikai Kyōdan (妙智会教団) Mitsu Miyamoto (1900–1984) 1950 515,122 673,913 962,611 709,849
Byakkō Shinkō-kai (白光真宏会) Masahisa Goi (1916–1980) 1951 500,000
Agon-shū (阿含宗) Seiyū Kiriyama (1921–) 1954 500 206,606 353,890
Reiha-no-Hikari Kyōkai (霊波之光) Hase Yoshio (1915–1984) 1954 761,175
Jōdoshinshū Shinran-kai (浄土真宗親鸞会) Kentetsu Takamori (1934–) 1958 100,000[5]
Sekai Mahikari Bunmei Kyōdan (世界真光文明教団) Kōtama Okada(Yoshikazu Okada) (1901–1974) 1959 97,838
Honbushin (ほんぶしん) Ōnishi Tama (1916–1969) 1961 900,000[5]
God Light Association Sōgō Honbu (GLA総合本部) Shinji Takahashi (1927–1976) 1969 12,981
Shinji Shūmei-kai (神慈秀明会) Mihoko Koyama (1910–2003) 1970 1988: 440,000[5]
Nihon Seidō Kyōdan (日本聖道教団) Shōkō Iwasaki (1934–) 1974 69,450
Extra-Sensory-Perception Kagaku Kenkyūjo (ESP科学研究所) Katao Ishii (1918–) 1975 16,000[5]
Sūkyō Mahikari (崇教真光) Yoshikazu Okada (1901–1974) 1978 501,328
Ho No Hana (法の華三法行) Hōgen Fukunaga (1945–) 1980 70,000[5]
Yamato-no-Miya (大和之宮) Tenkei Ajiki (1952–) 1981 5,000[5]
World Mate (ワールドメイト) Seizan Fukami (1951–) 1984 30,000[5] 72,000
Happy Science (幸福の科学) Ryūhō Ōkawa (1956–2023) 1986 1989: 13,300
1991: 1,527,278[5]		 1,100,000
Aum Shinrikyo (オウム真理教) Shōkō Asahara (1955–2018) 1987 (−2000) 2005: 1,650 2018: 1,950[6]

Data for 2012 is from the Agency for Cultural Affairs.[7]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Peter B. Clarke, 1999, "Japanese New Religious Movements in Brazil: from ethnic to 'universal' religions", New Religious Movements: challenge and response, Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, Routledge ISBN 0415200504
  2. ^ a b c Eileen Barker, 1999, "New Religious Movements: their incidence and significance", New Religious Movements: challenge and response, Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, Routledge ISBN 0415200504
  3. ^ Eugene V. Gallagher, 2004, The New Religious Movement Experience in America, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313328072, pages 120–124
  4. ^ The (1925) date refers to the Hito-no-Michi Kyōdan, the mother organization of Perfect Liberty Kyōdan
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Most of the statistics in these charts are from the 1991 edition of the Shūkyō Nenkan (Religion Yearbook, Tokyo: Gyōsei). Numbers marked with this footnote are from other sources[citation needed] reporting the organizations‘ own membership statistics around 1990.
  6. ^ "オウム真理教対策（警察庁）". 25 July 2011. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  7. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.bunka.go.jp. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

Bibliography

[edit]
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