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=== Subspecies and Uniquely Identifiable Evolutionary Units ===
=== Subspecies and Uniquely Identifiable Evolutionary Units ===
During the annual meeting of the American Fisheries Society (AFS) in 2015, the Western Division of AFS (WDAFS) organized a special workshop with a panel of scientific experts. The panel’s task was to evaluate the validity of the currently recognized subspecies, considering the available evidence both supporting and challenging the existing classification system. The panel found the current classification scientifically indefensible, and proposed a revised phylogeny and classification that aligns with the comprehensive evidence.
During the annual meeting of the [[American Fisheries Society]] (AFS) in 2015, the Western Division of AFS (WDAFS) organized a special workshop with a panel of experts to evaluate the validity of the currently recognized subspecies, considering the available evidence both supporting and challenging the existing classification system. The panel found the current classification scientifically indefensible, and proposed a revised [[phylogeny]] and classification that aligns with the comprehensive evidence.<ref name=":1" />


In that discussion, the panelists were unable to resolve how to discuss specific subsets of the population. One side argued that subspecies are valuable taxonomic ranks, because they represent important evolutionary and ecological information that should be recognized to preserve biodiversity. The other side argued that subspecies do not always align with true evolutionary entities, and are arbitrary designations of geographic lineages within a species.
In that discussion, the panelists were unable to resolve how to discuss specific subsets of the population. One side argued that subspecies are valuable [[taxonomic ranks]], because they represent important evolutionary and ecological information that should be recognized to preserve biodiversity. The other side argued that subspecies do not always align with true evolutionary entities, and are arbitrary designations of geographic lineages within a species.


To resolve the impasse, the panel coined the term "uniquely identifiable evolutionary unit" (UIEU) to describe subunits that have diverged from species. These UIEUs are distinct population groups that show evolutionary independence but do not meet all the criteria to be considered full species. The creation of this term allowed the panel to acknowledge and discuss these units without getting bogged down in the subspecies debate.<ref name=":1" />
To resolve the impasse, the panel coined the term "uniquely identifiable evolutionary unit" (UIEU) to describe subunits that have diverged from species. These UIEUs are distinct population groups that show evolutionary independence but do not meet all the criteria to be considered full species. The creation of this term allowed the panel to acknowledge and discuss these units without getting bogged down in the subspecies debate.<ref name=":1" />
Line 67: Line 67:


==== The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage ====
==== The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage ====
The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage, exhibiting nine uniquely identifiable evolutionary units (UIEUs) to date, shows complex patterns of divergence and dispersal. Genetic evidence suggests that the lineage initially diverged from the Lahontan Basin lineage around 9 million years ago, potentially facilitated by drainage connections between the two basins<ref>Wallace, A. R. 2003. Regional geologic setting of late Cenozoic lacustrine diatomite deposits, Great Basin and surrounding region: overview and plans for investigation. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 2209-B, Reston, Virginia.</ref><ref>Wallace, A. R., M. E. Perkins, and R. J. Fleck. 2008. Late Cenozoic paleogeographic evolution of northeastern Nevada: evidence from sedimentary basins. Geosphere 4:36–74</ref><ref name=":3" />. However, gene exchange between these lineages persisted until approximately 3.07 million years ago<ref>Shiozawa, D. K., R. P. Evans, D. D. Houston, and P. J. Unmack. 2018. Geographic variation, isolation, and evolution of Cutthroat Trout with comments on future directions for management and research. Pages 129–172 in P. Trotter, P. Bisson, L. Schultz, and B. Roper, editors. Cutthroat Trout: evolutionary biology and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 36, Bethesda, Maryland.</ref><ref>Arnold, M. L. 2007. Evolution through genetic exchange. Oxford University Press, New York</ref>.
The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage, exhibiting nine uniquely identifiable evolutionary units (UIEUs) to date, shows complex patterns of divergence and dispersal. Genetic evidence suggests that the lineage initially diverged from the [[Lahontan Basin]] lineage around 9 million years ago, potentially facilitated by drainage connections between the two basins<ref>Wallace, A. R. 2003. Regional geologic setting of late Cenozoic lacustrine diatomite deposits, Great Basin and surrounding region: overview and plans for investigation. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 2209-B, Reston, Virginia.</ref><ref>Wallace, A. R., M. E. Perkins, and R. J. Fleck. 2008. Late Cenozoic paleogeographic evolution of northeastern Nevada: evidence from sedimentary basins. Geosphere 4:36–74</ref><ref name=":3" />. However, gene exchange between these lineages persisted until approximately 3.07 million years ago<ref>Shiozawa, D. K., R. P. Evans, D. D. Houston, and P. J. Unmack. 2018. Geographic variation, isolation, and evolution of Cutthroat Trout with comments on future directions for management and research. Pages 129–172 in P. Trotter, P. Bisson, L. Schultz, and B. Roper, editors. Cutthroat Trout: evolutionary biology and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 36, Bethesda, Maryland.</ref><ref>Arnold, M. L. 2007. Evolution through genetic exchange. Oxford University Press, New York</ref>.


Among the nine recognized UIEUs within this lineage are an upper Snake/Yellowstone UIEU, a Bear River UIEU, and a Bonneville Basin UIEU<ref name=":0" />. Notably, the Fine-spotted Snake River Cutthroat Trout, previously designated as O. c. behnkei, lacks support as a distinct UIEU in the current molecular evidence, despite its ecological and morphological differences<ref name=":1" />.
Among the nine recognized UIEUs within this lineage are an [[Yellowstone cutthroat trout|upper Snake/Yellowstone]] UIEU, a [[Bear River (Great Salt Lake)|Bear River]] UIEU, and a [[Bonneville cutthroat trout|Bonneville Basin]] UIEU<ref name=":0" />. Notably, the Fine-spotted Snake River Cutthroat Trout, previously designated as O. c. behnkei, lacks support as a distinct UIEU in the current molecular evidence, despite its ecological and morphological differences<ref name=":1" />.


Studies<ref>Toline, C., T. Seamons, and J. Hudson. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of selected populations of Bonneville, Colorado River, and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout. Final report of Utah State University, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife to Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City.</ref><ref>Smith, G. R., T. E. Dowling, K. W. Gobalet, T. Lugaski, D. K. Shiozawa, and R. P. Evans. 2002. Biogeography and timing of evolutionary events among Great Basin fishes. Pages 175–234 in R. Hershler, D. B. Madsen, and D. R. Curry, editors. Great Basin aquatic systems history. Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences 33, Washington, D.C.</ref> indicate a closer ancestral relationship between Bear River Cutthroat Trout and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout than with Bonneville Cutthroat Trout, suggesting a complex branching within the upper Snake River/Yellowstone lineage. Additionally, mtDNA sequence data point to a genetic affinity between the Bonneville UIEU and Cutthroat Trout in the Colorado River and nearby watersheds<ref>Loxterman, J. L., and E. R. Keeley. 2012. Watershed boundaries and geographic isolation: patterns of diversification in Cutthroat Trout from western North America. BMC Evolutionary Biology [online serial] 12:38.</ref>, hinting at potential dispersal routes beyond those traditionally proposed.
Studies<ref>Toline, C., T. Seamons, and J. Hudson. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of selected populations of Bonneville, Colorado River, and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout. Final report of Utah State University, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife to Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City.</ref><ref>Smith, G. R., T. E. Dowling, K. W. Gobalet, T. Lugaski, D. K. Shiozawa, and R. P. Evans. 2002. Biogeography and timing of evolutionary events among Great Basin fishes. Pages 175–234 in R. Hershler, D. B. Madsen, and D. R. Curry, editors. Great Basin aquatic systems history. Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences 33, Washington, D.C.</ref> indicate a closer ancestral relationship between Bear River Cutthroat Trout and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout than with Bonneville Cutthroat Trout, suggesting a complex branching within the upper Snake River/Yellowstone lineage. Additionally, [[mitochondrial DNA]] sequence data point to a genetic affinity between the Bonneville UIEU and Cutthroat Trout in the Colorado River and nearby watersheds<ref>Loxterman, J. L., and E. R. Keeley. 2012. Watershed boundaries and geographic isolation: patterns of diversification in Cutthroat Trout from western North America. BMC Evolutionary Biology [online serial] 12:38.</ref>, hinting at potential dispersal routes beyond those traditionally proposed.


==== Southern Rocky Mountain lineage ====
==== Southern Rocky Mountain lineage ====
The Southern Rocky Mountain region, previously thought to harbor four Cutthroat Trout subspecies, has been revealed to contain six distinct UIEUs<ref>Metcalf, J. L., V. L. Pritchard, S. M. Silvestri, J. B. Jenkins, J. S. Wood, D. E. Cowley, R. P. Evans, D. K. Shiozawa, and A. P. Martin. 2012. Historical stocking data and 19th century DNA reveal human-induced changes to native diversity and distribution of Cutthroat Trout. Molecular Ecology 21:5194–5207</ref><ref name=":4">Rogers, K. B. 2012. Piecing together the past: using DNA to resolve the heritage of our state fish. Colorado Outdoors 2012 September/October:28–32</ref><ref>Bestgen, K. R., K. B. Rogers, and R. Granger. 2013. Phenotype predicts genotype for lineages of native Cutthroat Trout in the Southern Rocky Mountains. Colorado State University, Larval Fish Laboratory, Fort Collins. Final report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Colorado Field Office, Denver</ref><ref>Rogers, K. B., K. R. Bestgen, and J. Epp. 2014. Using genetic diversity to inform conservation efforts for native Cutthroat Trout of the Southern Rocky Mountains. Pages 218–228 in R. F. Carline and C. LoSapio, editors. 2014. Wild Trout XI: looking back and moving forward. Wild Trout Symposium, West Yellowstone, Montana. Available: www.wildtroutsymposium. com/wildTroutXI.php. (January 2018).</ref><ref name=":2" />. This includes two distinct clades within the Colorado River Cutthroat Trout (O. c. pleuriticus), referred to as the blue and green lineages, as well as the Greenback Cutthroat Trout, the extinct Yellowfin Cutthroat Trout, the San Juan Cutthroat Trout, and the Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout. These findings, along with the misidentification of the holotype specimen for the Greenback Cutthroat Trout<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />, underscore the evolving nature of the understanding of Cutthroat Trout diversity and the importance of ongoing research.
The Southern Rocky Mountain region, previously thought to harbor four Cutthroat Trout subspecies, has been revealed to contain six distinct UIEUs<ref>Metcalf, J. L., V. L. Pritchard, S. M. Silvestri, J. B. Jenkins, J. S. Wood, D. E. Cowley, R. P. Evans, D. K. Shiozawa, and A. P. Martin. 2012. Historical stocking data and 19th century DNA reveal human-induced changes to native diversity and distribution of Cutthroat Trout. Molecular Ecology 21:5194–5207</ref><ref name=":4">Rogers, K. B. 2012. Piecing together the past: using DNA to resolve the heritage of our state fish. Colorado Outdoors 2012 September/October:28–32</ref><ref>Bestgen, K. R., K. B. Rogers, and R. Granger. 2013. Phenotype predicts genotype for lineages of native Cutthroat Trout in the Southern Rocky Mountains. Colorado State University, Larval Fish Laboratory, Fort Collins. Final report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Colorado Field Office, Denver</ref><ref>Rogers, K. B., K. R. Bestgen, and J. Epp. 2014. Using genetic diversity to inform conservation efforts for native Cutthroat Trout of the Southern Rocky Mountains. Pages 218–228 in R. F. Carline and C. LoSapio, editors. 2014. Wild Trout XI: looking back and moving forward. Wild Trout Symposium, West Yellowstone, Montana. Available: www.wildtroutsymposium. com/wildTroutXI.php. (January 2018).</ref><ref name=":2" />. This includes two distinct clades within the Colorado River Cutthroat Trout (O. c. pleuriticus), referred to as the blue and green lineages, as well as the Greenback Cutthroat Trout, the extinct [[Yellowfin cutthroat trout|Yellowfin Cutthroat Trout]], the San Juan Cutthroat Trout, and the Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout. These findings, along with the misidentification of the holotype specimen for the Greenback Cutthroat Trout<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />, underscore the evolving nature of the understanding of Cutthroat Trout diversity and the importance of ongoing research.
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Revision as of 18:19, 13 August 2024

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Rocky Mountain Cutthroat Trout

Rocky mountain cutthroat trout
Image of a Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout being held.
Rio Grande cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus virginalis virginalis, the type subspecies

Secure  (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Oncorhynchus
Species:
O. virginalis
Binomial name
Oncorhynchus virginalis
(Girard, 1857)[2]
Subspecies
Subspecies
  • Oncorhynchus virginalis virginalis (Rio Grande)
    O. v. bouvierii (Yellowstone)
    O. v. utah (Bonneville)
    O. v. ssp. (Bear River)
    O. v. macdonaldi† (Yellowfin)
    O. v. pleuriticus (Colorado River)
    O. v. ssp. (Green River)
    O. v. ssp. (San Juan)
    O. v. stomias (threatened)(Greenback)
Range map of Rocky Mountain Cutthroat Trout (Onchorynchus virginalis)
Synonyms[3]
previous scientific names
  • Salmo clarkii (Richardson, 1836) Fario clarkii (Richardson, 1836) Parasalmo clarkii (Richardson, 1836) Salmo clarkii clarkii (Richardson, 1836) Salmo clarki (Richardson, 1836) Salmo clarki clarki (Richardson, 1836) Fario stellatus (Girard, 1856) Salmo stellatus (Girard, 1856) Salar lewisi (Girard, 1856) Salmo lewisi (Girard, 1856) Salmo clarki lewisi (Girard, 1856) Salmo clarkii lewisi (Girard, 1856) Salmo brevicauda (Suckley, 1861) Salmo pleuriticus (Cope, 1872) Salmo purpuratus bouvieri (Jordan & Gilbert, 1883) Salmo clarkii alpestris (Dymond, 1931) Salmo mykiss (non Walbaum, 1792) Salmo purpuratus (non Pallas, 1814)

The rocky mountain cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus virginalis), formerly lumped in with the cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii)[4][5][6][7][8] as one species with multiple subspecies, is a fish species of the family Salmonidae native to cold-water tributaries of the northern[9] and southern[10] Rocky Mountains, as well as into portions of the Great Basin[9] in North America. As a member of the genus Oncorhynchus, it is one of the Pacific trout, a group that includes the widely distributed rainbow trout. Cutthroat trout are popular gamefish, especially among anglers who enjoy fly fishing. The common name "cutthroat" refers to the distinctive red coloration on the underside of the lower jaw.

Taxonomy

Historically, cutthroat trout was considered one species (Oncorhynchus clarkii).[4][11] However, recent genetic, taxonomic, and geologic[12] evidence has determined that cutthroat trout should be divided into four species, with each (except for the coastal cutthroat) having multiple subspecies corresponding to the evolutionary lineages[13] found within major river basins.

Subspecies and Uniquely Identifiable Evolutionary Units

During the annual meeting of the American Fisheries Society (AFS) in 2015, the Western Division of AFS (WDAFS) organized a special workshop with a panel of experts to evaluate the validity of the currently recognized subspecies, considering the available evidence both supporting and challenging the existing classification system. The panel found the current classification scientifically indefensible, and proposed a revised phylogeny and classification that aligns with the comprehensive evidence.[4]

In that discussion, the panelists were unable to resolve how to discuss specific subsets of the population. One side argued that subspecies are valuable taxonomic ranks, because they represent important evolutionary and ecological information that should be recognized to preserve biodiversity. The other side argued that subspecies do not always align with true evolutionary entities, and are arbitrary designations of geographic lineages within a species.

To resolve the impasse, the panel coined the term "uniquely identifiable evolutionary unit" (UIEU) to describe subunits that have diverged from species. These UIEUs are distinct population groups that show evolutionary independence but do not meet all the criteria to be considered full species. The creation of this term allowed the panel to acknowledge and discuss these units without getting bogged down in the subspecies debate.[4]

Evolutionary Lineages

The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage

The upper Snake River/Yellowstone evolutionary lineage, exhibiting nine uniquely identifiable evolutionary units (UIEUs) to date, shows complex patterns of divergence and dispersal. Genetic evidence suggests that the lineage initially diverged from the Lahontan Basin lineage around 9 million years ago, potentially facilitated by drainage connections between the two basins[14][15][12]. However, gene exchange between these lineages persisted until approximately 3.07 million years ago[16][17].

Among the nine recognized UIEUs within this lineage are an upper Snake/Yellowstone UIEU, a Bear River UIEU, and a Bonneville Basin UIEU[9]. Notably, the Fine-spotted Snake River Cutthroat Trout, previously designated as O. c. behnkei, lacks support as a distinct UIEU in the current molecular evidence, despite its ecological and morphological differences[4].

Studies[18][19] indicate a closer ancestral relationship between Bear River Cutthroat Trout and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout than with Bonneville Cutthroat Trout, suggesting a complex branching within the upper Snake River/Yellowstone lineage. Additionally, mitochondrial DNA sequence data point to a genetic affinity between the Bonneville UIEU and Cutthroat Trout in the Colorado River and nearby watersheds[20], hinting at potential dispersal routes beyond those traditionally proposed.

Southern Rocky Mountain lineage

The Southern Rocky Mountain region, previously thought to harbor four Cutthroat Trout subspecies, has been revealed to contain six distinct UIEUs[21][22][23][24][10]. This includes two distinct clades within the Colorado River Cutthroat Trout (O. c. pleuriticus), referred to as the blue and green lineages, as well as the Greenback Cutthroat Trout, the extinct Yellowfin Cutthroat Trout, the San Juan Cutthroat Trout, and the Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout. These findings, along with the misidentification of the holotype specimen for the Greenback Cutthroat Trout[10][22], underscore the evolving nature of the understanding of Cutthroat Trout diversity and the importance of ongoing research.

Description

Lifecycle

Ecology

Range

Habitat

Population Threats

  1. ^ Hammerson, G. (March 12, 2003). "Oncorhynchus clarkii Cutthroat Trout". NatureServe. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
  2. ^ girard, Charles (1857). Notice upon the species of the genus Salmo, of authors, observed chiefly in Oregon and California. Philadelphia: Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. pp. 217–220.
  3. ^ "Synonyms of Oncorhynchus clarkii (Richardson, 1836)". Fishbase. Retrieved 2014-02-23.
  4. ^ a b c d e Trotter, Patrick; Bisson, Peter; Roper, Brett; Schultz, Luke; Ferraris, Carl; Smith, Gerald R.; Stearley, Ralph F. (2018), Trotter, Patrick; Bisson, Peter; Shultz, Luke; Roper, Brett (eds.), "A Special Workshop on the Taxonomy and Evolutionary Biology of Cutthroat Trout", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch1, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-12
  5. ^ Behnke, R. J. 1979. Monograph of the native trouts of the genus Salmo of western North America. U.S. Forest Service, Lakewood, Colorado.
  6. ^ Behnke, R. J. 1988. Phylogeny and classification of Cutthroat Trout. Pages 1–7 in R. E. Gresswell, editor. Status and management of interior stocks of Cutthroat Trout. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 4, Bethesda, Maryland.
  7. ^ Behnke, R.J. 1992. Native trout of western North America. American Fisheries Society, Monograph 6, Bethesda, Maryland.
  8. ^ Behnke, R. J. 2002. Trout and salmon of North America. The Free Press, New York.
  9. ^ a b c Campbell, Matthew R.; Keeley; Kozfkay; Loxterman; Evans (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Schultz, Shiozawa; Roper (eds.), "Describing and Preserving the Diversity of Cutthroat Trout in the Yellowstone River, Snake River, and Bonneville Basin", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch12, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-12
  10. ^ a b c Rogers; Bestgen; Love Stowell; Martin (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Schultz; Roper (eds.), "Cutthroat Trout Diversity in the Southern Rocky Mountains", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch13, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-12
  11. ^ Love Stowell; Metcalf; Markle; Stearly (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Shultz; Roper (eds.), "Species Conceptualization and Delimitation: A Framework for the Taxonomic Revision of Cutthroat Trout", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch2, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-13
  12. ^ a b Link; Keeley (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Shultz; Roper (eds.), "Geologic Constraints on Snake-Columbia River Drainage Changes and the Associated Evolutionary Diversification of Cutthroat Trout over the Past 17 Million Years", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch3, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-13
  13. ^ Smith; Stearly (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Shultz; Roper (eds.), "The Fossil Record of Cutthroat Trout: Implications for Evolution and Conservation", Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy, American Fisheries Society, doi:10.47886/9781934874509.ch4, ISBN 978-1-934874-50-9, retrieved 2024-08-13
  14. ^ Wallace, A. R. 2003. Regional geologic setting of late Cenozoic lacustrine diatomite deposits, Great Basin and surrounding region: overview and plans for investigation. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 2209-B, Reston, Virginia.
  15. ^ Wallace, A. R., M. E. Perkins, and R. J. Fleck. 2008. Late Cenozoic paleogeographic evolution of northeastern Nevada: evidence from sedimentary basins. Geosphere 4:36–74
  16. ^ Shiozawa, D. K., R. P. Evans, D. D. Houston, and P. J. Unmack. 2018. Geographic variation, isolation, and evolution of Cutthroat Trout with comments on future directions for management and research. Pages 129–172 in P. Trotter, P. Bisson, L. Schultz, and B. Roper, editors. Cutthroat Trout: evolutionary biology and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 36, Bethesda, Maryland.
  17. ^ Arnold, M. L. 2007. Evolution through genetic exchange. Oxford University Press, New York
  18. ^ Toline, C., T. Seamons, and J. Hudson. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of selected populations of Bonneville, Colorado River, and Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout. Final report of Utah State University, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife to Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City.
  19. ^ Smith, G. R., T. E. Dowling, K. W. Gobalet, T. Lugaski, D. K. Shiozawa, and R. P. Evans. 2002. Biogeography and timing of evolutionary events among Great Basin fishes. Pages 175–234 in R. Hershler, D. B. Madsen, and D. R. Curry, editors. Great Basin aquatic systems history. Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences 33, Washington, D.C.
  20. ^ Loxterman, J. L., and E. R. Keeley. 2012. Watershed boundaries and geographic isolation: patterns of diversification in Cutthroat Trout from western North America. BMC Evolutionary Biology [online serial] 12:38.
  21. ^ Metcalf, J. L., V. L. Pritchard, S. M. Silvestri, J. B. Jenkins, J. S. Wood, D. E. Cowley, R. P. Evans, D. K. Shiozawa, and A. P. Martin. 2012. Historical stocking data and 19th century DNA reveal human-induced changes to native diversity and distribution of Cutthroat Trout. Molecular Ecology 21:5194–5207
  22. ^ a b Rogers, K. B. 2012. Piecing together the past: using DNA to resolve the heritage of our state fish. Colorado Outdoors 2012 September/October:28–32
  23. ^ Bestgen, K. R., K. B. Rogers, and R. Granger. 2013. Phenotype predicts genotype for lineages of native Cutthroat Trout in the Southern Rocky Mountains. Colorado State University, Larval Fish Laboratory, Fort Collins. Final report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Colorado Field Office, Denver
  24. ^ Rogers, K. B., K. R. Bestgen, and J. Epp. 2014. Using genetic diversity to inform conservation efforts for native Cutthroat Trout of the Southern Rocky Mountains. Pages 218–228 in R. F. Carline and C. LoSapio, editors. 2014. Wild Trout XI: looking back and moving forward. Wild Trout Symposium, West Yellowstone, Montana. Available: www.wildtroutsymposium. com/wildTroutXI.php. (January 2018).
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