List of massacres in Turkey
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The following is a list of massacres that occurred in Anatolia (numbers may be approximate, as estimates vary greatly):
Antiquity
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fall of Miletus | 494 BC | Miletus | Most Milesian men | Persian Empire | Greeks | [1] |
Battle of Aegospotami | 405 BC | Aegospotami | 3,000 | Sparta | Athenian sailors | 3,000 Athenian sailors executed |
Fall of Sestos | 353 BC | Sestos | All males of Sestos | Athens | Greeks | |
Asiatic Vespers | 88 BC | Asia (Roman province) | 80,000–150,000 | Mithridates VI of Pontus | Romans and Italians | [2][3] |
Middle Ages
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nika Revolt | January 532 | Constantinople | 30,000 | Byzantine Empire | Byzantines | About thirty thousand rioters were reportedly killed.[4] |
Sack of Amorium | August 838 | Amorium | 30,000–70,000[5] | Abbasid Caliphate | Byzantines | |
Battle of Levounion | 29 April 1091 | Enez | tens of thousands[6] | Byzantine Empire & Cumans | Pechenegs | The Pechenegs consisting of 80,000 warriors and their families invaded the Byzantine Empire. Near Enez they were ambushed by a combined Byzantine and Cuman army, fighting soon turned into wholesale slaughter. Warriors and civilians were killed and the Pecheneg people were nearly wiped out.[6] |
Siege of Antioch | 3 June 1098 | Antioch | Muslim and Christian population | Crusaders | Muslim and Christian population | |
Massacre of the Latins | May 1182 | Constantinople | Uncertain – tens of thousands | Byzantine mob | Roman Catholics | The bulk of the Latin community, estimated at over 60,000 at the time, was wiped out or forced to flee; some 4,000 survivors were sold as slaves to the Turks. The massacre further worsened relations and increased enmity between the Western and Eastern Christian churches, and a sequence of hostilities between the two followed. |
Siege of Constantinople (1204) | 8–13 April 1204 | Constantinople | many civilians killed[7] | Crusaders | Byzantines | The city was sacked and looted. |
Siege of Antioch (1268) | 18 May 1268 | Antioch | 14,000 | Mamluk Sultanate | Christians | 14,000 Christians slaughtered by the forces of Baibars.[citation needed] |
Fall of Constantinople | 1453 | Constantinople | 4,000[8][9] | Ottomans | Byzantines | 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages were massacred during these days. Moreover, the dwellings and the churches were plundered. Some 30,000 were enslaved.[9] |
Siege of Trebizond | 1461[10] | Trabzon | Ottomans | Trebizonds |
Ottoman Empire
Before 1914
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Massacres during the Greek War of Independence | 1821–1829 | Ottoman Empire | Unknown | Ottoman government | Greeks | |
Massacres of Badr Khan | 1840 | Hakkari | 10,000[11] | Kurdish Emirs of Bhutan, Badr Khan and Nurullah | Assyrians | Many who were not killed were sold into slavery. 1826 Janissaries massacred by government (link to Auspicious Incident). |
Hamidian massacres | 1894–1896 | Eastern Ottoman Empire | 100,000–300,000[12] | Ottoman Empire Hamidiye, Turkish, Kurdish tribes |
Armenians | |
Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895) | 1895 | Diyarbakır Vilayet | 25,000 | Young Turks and Kurdish irregulars | Armenians and Assyrians | |
Adana massacre | April 1909 | Adana Vilayet | 15,000–30,000[13][14] | local Turkish nationalist activist, conservative reactionary to Young Turk government | Armenians | |
Ethnic cleansing of Turks in Edirne during First Balkan War[15] | October 1912-June 1913 | Edirne Vilayet | 5,000 (excluding Edeköy Massacre)[16] | Bulgarian army | Turks | |
Havsa Massacre | 1912 | Havsa in Edirne Vilayet | 10 | Bulgarian army | Turks | Turkish quarter was almost entirely burnt.[17] |
Edeköy Massacre | November 1912 | Edeköy (nowadays Kadıdondurma) in Edirne Vilayet | Thousands[18] | Bulgarian army | Turks | Many incidents of torture and robbery.[18] |
Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians | 1913 | Thrace; Bulgarköy, Edirne[19] | 60,000[20][21] | Young Turk government, Ottoman army | Bulgarians |
World War I (1914–1918)
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Greek genocide[22][23][24][25] | 1917–1922 | Ottoman Empire | 500,000–900,000 | Young Turk government | Greeks | Reports detail massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other atrocities.[26][27] |
Seyfo[28] | 1914–1918 | Ottoman Empire | 270,000 | Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes | Assyrians | Denied by the Turkish government. |
Armenian genocide | 1895–1918 | Ottoman Empire | 850,000–1,800,000 | Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes | Armenians | The Armenians of the eastern regions of the empire were massacred. The Turkish government currently denies the genocide.[29][30][31] It is the second most publicised case of genocide after the Holocaust.[32] |
Massacres in Eastern Anatolia | 1915-1916 | Eastern Anatolia | 128,000+[33] | Russian army and possibly Armenian irregulars | Muslim population | According to J. Rummel at least 128,000 Muslims were killed (death toll includes death by famine and diseases) by Russian troops and possibly Armenian irregulars during the period between 1915 and 1916.[33] |
Massacres in the Çoruh River valley | 1916[34] | Çoruh River valley | 45,000[34] | Cossack regiments | Muslim population | During WWI, Russian "General Liakhov, for instance 'accused the Muslims of treachery, and sent his Cossacks from Batum with orders to kill every native at sight, and burn every village and every mosque. And very efficiently had they performed their task, for as we passed up the Chorokh valley to Artvin not a single habitable dwelling or a single living creature did we see.'"[34] |
Massacres against Kurdish civilians | 1915-1918[35][36] | Eastern Anatolia | estimated to 600,000[35][36] | Russian Army, and possibly Armenians irregulars along with Assyrians led by Agha Petros | Kurds | In 1914, the Russians defeated the Ottoman Army. Then using the help provided by the Armenians and Assyrian irregular military forces, they penetrated deep into Anatolia and invaded major Kurdish cities. It is estimated that more than 600,000 Kurds lost their lives between 1915 and 1915.[35][36][37] |
Post-World War I (1919–1923)
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Massacre in Marash | 1920 | Marash, Aleppo Vilayet | 5,000–12,000 | Turks | Armenians | [38][39][40] |
Massacre in Birecik[41] | February 11–24, 1920 | Birecik, Aleppo Vilayet | 280 | French | Turks | 70 wounded,[42] many women were raped[43] |
Kahyaoğlu Farm Massacre | June 11, 1920 | Yeşiloba, Adana Vilayet | 64+ to ~200 | Armenians | Turks | Report which was given to Mustafa Kemal Pasha included 43 men, 21 women and tens of children. Other estimates are up to 200.[44] |
Karadeniz massacre | January 28–29, 1921 | waters of the Black Sea | 15 | Kemalists/Committee of Union and Progress (disputed) | Communist Party of Turkey |
Republic of Turkey (1923–present)
Name | Date | Location | Deaths | Responsible Party | Victims | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diyarbakir massacre | 1925 | Diyarbakir Province, Elazığ Province | 15,200 (206 villages destroyed) | Turkish security forces | Kurds | Part of Deportations of Kurds between 1916 and 1934.[45] |
Zilan massacre | July 1930 | Van Province | 4,500–15,000 | Turkish security forces | Kurds | 5,000 women, children, and elderly people were reportedly killed[46] |
1934 Thrace pogroms | 21 June-4 July 1934 | Thrace | 1 | Local people | Jews | Over 15,000 Jews had to flee from region[47] |
Dersim rebellion | Summer 1937-Spring 1938 | Tunceli Province | 13,806–70,000[48] | Turkish security forces | Alevi Kurds/Zazas | The killings have been condemned by some as an ethnocide or genocide[49][50] |
Zini Rift Massacre | 6 August 1938 | Erzincan Province | 95 | Turkish security forces | Kurds | [51][52][53][54] |
Muğlalı incident | July 1943 | Van Province | 32 | Turkish security forces | Kurds | 33 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı for allegedly smuggling livestock, one of them escaped.[55][56][57] |
Karahan village massacre | October 1944 | Van Province | 6 | Turkish security forces | Kurds | 6 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı. This was the second massacre of Muğlalı, with the possibility of more uncovered massacres having been committed.[58] |
Istanbul pogrom | 6–7 September 1955 | Istanbul | 13–30[59] | Turkish government[60] | primarily Greeks, as well as Armenians, Jews | The killings are identified as genocidal by Alfred-Maurice de Zayas.[61] Many of the non-Muslim minorities, mostly Greek Christians, forced to leave Turkey. Several churches are demolished by explosives. |
Taksim Square massacre | May 1, 1977 | Taksim Square in Istanbul | 34[62]-42[63] | Some unidentified armed people | Leftist demonstrators, civilians | |
Beyazıt massacre | March 16, 1978 | Istanbul | 7 | Grey Wolves, Turkish deep state (alleged) | Leftist university students | Cemil Sönmez, Baki Ekiz, Hatice Özen, Abdullah Şimşek, Murat Kurt, Hamdi Akıl and Turan Ören were killed and 41 others were injured by a bomb that was followed by gunfire March 16, 1978. |
Ümraniye massacre | March 17, 1978 | Ümraniye in Istanbul | 5 | Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist | Grey Wolves affiliated workers | Grey Wolves claim that the victims were badly tortured.[64] Reaction to the aforementioned Beyazıt massacre. |
Malatya massacre | April 17, 1978 | Malatya Province | 8 | Grey Wolves, Salafists | Alevi Turks | Grey Wolves and salafists attacked Alevi regions of city after assassination of Hamit Fendoğlu leaving 8 dead, including 3 children and 100 wounded. 1000 shops were looted and destroyed.[65] |
Balgat massacre | August 10, 1978 | Çankaya, Ankara | 5 | Grey Wolves | Civilians (claimed that they were leftist) | |
Bahçelievler massacre | October 9, 1978 | Bahçelievler, Ankara | 7[66] | Grey Wolves | Workers' Party of Turkey member students | |
Maraş massacre | December 19–26, 1978 | Kahramanmaraş Province | 109[67] | Grey Wolves[67] | Alevi Kurds | |
Piyangotepe massacre | May 16, 1979 | Keçiören in Ankara | 7 | Grey Wolves | Civilians | [citation needed] |
Adana high school massacre | September 19, 1979 | Adana Construction Vocational High School | 6 | Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist | Grey Wolves affiliated teachers | Müslüm Teke, Yılmaz Kızılay, Davut Korkmaz, Ahmet Güleç, Özcan Doruk and Mustafa Karaca were killed by 2 Leftist men. Reaction to the aforementioned Maraş massacre where the Grey Wolves killed more than a hundred civilians.[64][68][69] |
Çorum massacre | May–July, 1980 | Çorum Province | 57[70] | Grey Wolves | Alevi Turks | |
Ortabağ massacre | January 23, 1987 | Uludere in Şırnak Province | 8 | PKK | Civilians | [71][72] |
Pınarcık massacre | June 20, 1987 | Pınarcık in Mardin Province | 30 | JİTEM/PKK (disputed) | Civilians | |
Çevrimli massacre | June 11, 1990 | Güçlükonak in Şırnak Province | 27 | PKK | Civilians | In the massacre, 27 people were killed, 12 were children and 7 were women. 4 village guards died in clashes with PKK members, 1 PKK member was killed.[73][74][75] |
Çetinkaya Store massacre | December 25, 1991 | Bakırköy in Istanbul | 11 | PKK | Civilians | The PKK attacks a store in the Bakırköy district with Molotov cocktails, resulting in 11 deaths, including 7 women and 1 child.[74][76] |
Cevizdalı massacre | October 21, 1992 | Cevizdalı in Bitlis Province | 30 | PKK | Civilians | Cevizdali village of Bitlis was raided during the nighttime, PKK militias killed 30 people, including 8 children, and wounded 20 others. Militias then burned whole the village by the news they received that soldiers are on the way to the village.[77] |
Sivas massacre[78]
(aka Madımak massacre) |
July 2, 1993 | Sivas | 35 (+2 perpetrators) | Salafists, Grey Wolves | Alevi and leftist intellectuals | |
Başbağlar massacre | July 5, 1993 | Başbağlar, near Erzincan | 33 | JİTEM/PKK (disputed)[79] | Civilians | |
Digor massacre | August 14, 1993 | Digor, Kars | 17 | Turkish security forces | Kurdish Civilians | Opened fire on Kurdish villagers by the Special Operation Department. 17 villagers including 7 children were killed and 63 were injured.[80] |
Vartinis massacre | October 3, 1993 | Vartinis, Muş province | 9 | Turkish Armed Forces | Civilians | |
Lice massacre | October 20–23, 1993 | Lice in Diyarbakır Province | 30+ | Turkish Armed Forces | Kurdish Civilians | Turkish security forces attacked the town of Lice, destroying 401 houses, 242 shops and massacring more than thirty civilians, and leaving 100 wounded.[81] |
Yavi Massacre[82] | October 25, 1993 | Yavi, Çat, Erzurum Province | 38 | PKK | Civilians | |
Ormancık massacre | January 21, 1994 | Ormancık, Savur, Mardin Province | 19 | PKK | Village guards and affiliated civilians | The massacre may have been a chemical attack.[83][84] |
Kuşkonar and Koçağılı massacre | March 23, 1994 | Kuşkonar and Koçağılı villages, Şırnak | 38[85] | Turkish Air Force | Kurdish Civilians | The government bombed and killed residents of villages who refused to join the government forces. The government spread pictures of dead children in newspapers and blamed the PKK. Turkey was condemned for carrying out the massacre of Kurdish civilians in the ECHR. |
Gazi Quarter massacre | March 15, 1995 | Istanbul and Ankara | 23[86] | JİTEM, Turkish deep state (alleged) | Alevis | More than 400 injured[86] |
Güçlükonak massacre | February 15, 1996 | Güçlükonak in Şırnak province | 11 | JİTEM | Civilians | [87][88][89][90] |
Blue Market massacre | March 13, 1999 | Istanbul | 13 | PKK | Civilians | [91] |
Operation Back to Life | December 19, 2000 | Turkey | 32 | Turkish security forces | Leftist prisoners | Deaths include 30 prisoners and 2 soldiers[92] |
Diyarbakır events of March 2006 | March 28–31, 2006 | Diyarbakır | 14 | Turkish security forces | Protesters | 14 Kurdish civilians including 6 children, 4 of them under the age of 10 were killed by the security forces in protests[93] |
Zirve Publishing House massacre | April 18, 2007 | Malatya | 3 | Islamists | German Christians | [94] |
Mardin engagement ceremony massacre | May 4, 2009 | Bilge, Mardin | 44[95] | Village Guards | Civilians | Reuters said it was "one of the worst attacks involving civilians in Turkey's modern history", declaring that the scale of the attack had shocked the nation.[96] |
Roboski airstrike | December 28, 2011 | Uludere in Şırnak Province | 34[85] | Turkish Air Force | Kurdish Civilians | Warplanes killed who had been involved in smuggling gasoline and cigarettes in the area, villagers during an operation meant to target Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) rebels. The government gave no information about the facts.[97][98][99] |
Suruç bombing | July 20, 2015 | Suruç in Şanlıurfa Province | 34 | ISIL | Socialist Party of the Oppressed member university students | |
2015 Ankara bombings | October 10, 2015 | Ankara | 109 | ISIL | Protesters, civilians | |
Cizre basement massacre | February 7, 2016 | Cizre, Şırnak | +178 | Turkish Armed Forces | Kurdish Civilians | 178 civilians, dozens of them children, some of them as young as 9 were burnt alive in three basements.[100][101] Turkish government reacted to the massacre by calling it "baseless terror propaganda", and covering it up by flattening the ruins and filling the basements up with rubble.[102] |
February 2016 Ankara bombing | February 17, 2016 | Ankara | 30 | TAK | Civilian employees of Turkish Armed Forces and soldiers | |
March 2016 Ankara bombing | March 13, 2016 | Ankara | 38 | TAK | Civilians | |
2016 Atatürk Airport attack | June 28, 2016 | Atatürk Airport, Istanbul | 45 | ISIL | Civilians | |
2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt | July 15–16, 2016 | Turkey (Mainly Istanbul, Ankara, Malatya, Kars and Marmaris) | 270–350[103] | Peace at Home Council | Civilians and soldiers | Turkey witnessed the bloodiest coup attempt in its political history on July 15, 2016, when a section of the Turkish military launched a coordinated operation in several major cities to topple the government[104] |
2017 Istanbul nightclub attack | January 1, 2017 | Istanbul | 39 | ISIS | Civilians | A gunman opened fire in the Reina Nightclub during New Year celebrations |
2021 Konya massacre | July 30, 2021 | Meram district, Konya Province | 7 | Mehmet Altun | Kurds |
Gallery
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Aftermath of the massacres at Erzurum (1895)
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An Armenian town left pillaged and destroyed, during the Adana massacre
-
Photo taken after the Smyrna fire. The text inside indicates that the photo had been taken by representatives of the Red Cross in Smyrna
-
Armenian woman kneeling beside dead child in field "within sight of help and safety at Aleppo"
References
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- ^ Valerius Maximus 9.2.3; Memnon 22.9.
- ^ Plutarch, 24.4.
- ^ This is the number given by Procopius, Wars (Internet Medieval Sourcebook.)
- ^ Treadgold, Warren T. (1988). The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1462-2.
- ^ a b Grumeza, Ion (2010). The Roots of Balkanization: Eastern Europe C.E. 500–1500. University Press of America. p. 35. ISBN 9780761851356.
- ^ Claster, Jill N. (2009). Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396. University of Toronto Press. p. 35. ISBN 9781442600584.
- ^ Philippides, Marios (2007). Mehmed II the Conqueror and the fall of the Franco-Byzantine Levant to the Ottoman Turks : some western views and testimonies. Tempe, Ariz.: ACMRS/Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. p. 197. ISBN 978-0866983464.
- ^ a b Fuller, J.F.C. (1987). A military history of the Western World ([Da Capo Press pbk. ed.]. ed.). New York, N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 522. ISBN 0306803046.
- ^ William Miller, Trebizond: The last Greek Empire of the Byzantine Era: 1204–1461, 1926 (Chicago: Argonaut, 1969), p. 106
- ^ Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I, Gorgias Press LLC, p. 32, ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0[permanent dead link].
- ^ Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act. 2006, page 69–70: "fifteen to twenty thousand Armenians were killed"
- ^ Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views By Samuel. Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny
- ^ "Report of the International Commission to inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of Intercourse and Education, Publication No. 4.] (Washington, D. C.: Published by the Endowment. 1914. Pp. 413.)". The American Historical Review. April 1915. doi:10.1086/ahr/20.3.638. ISSN 1937-5239.
- ^ Hamza, Jusuf, 1945- (1995). Mladoturskata revolucija vo Osmanskata imperija. Skopje: Logos-a. ISBN 9989-601-21-6. OCLC 40838454.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Report of the International Commission to Inquire Into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 1914.
- ^ a b "Rum çetelerinin karanlıkta kalan soykırımı: Edeköy Katliamı". Sabah (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-10.
- ^ "Carnegie Endowment for International peace, Report to inquire into the causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. CHAPTER III. Bulgarians, Turks and Servians, 2. Thrace, p.130-131".
- ^ Carnegie (1914). Report of the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
- ^ Vukov, Nikolai (2015), "Resettlement Waves, Historical Memory and Identity Construction: The Case of Thracian Refugees in Bulgaria", Migration in the Southern Balkans, IMISCOE Research Series, p. 68, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3_4, ISBN 978-3-319-13718-6
- ^ IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the Ottoman Empire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), International Association of Genocide Scholars, archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-28
- ^ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament — full text containing the IAGS resolution and the Swedish Parliament resolution from". news.am. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
- ^ Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
- ^ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
- ^ The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).
- ^ Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times Archived 2007-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2006
- ^ Travis, Hannibal (2006). ""Native Christians Massacred": The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians during World War I". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 1 (3): 327–371. doi:10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055.
- ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian genocide. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- ^ Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-59420-100-5.
- ^ "A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars" (PDF). Genocide Watch. 13 June 2005.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Rummel, RJ (1 April 1998), "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective", The Journal of Social Issues, 3 (2)
- ^ a b J. Rummel, Rudolph (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 82, 83. ISBN 9783825840105.
- ^ a b c Gerwarth, Robert; Horne, John (2012). War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe After the Great War. Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780199654918.
- ^ a b c McDowall, David (2021-03-25). A Modern History of the Kurds. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7556-0077-9.
- ^ a b c Haner, Murat (2017-09-11). The Freedom Fighter: A Terrorist's Own Story. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-59141-6.
- ^ Blincoe, Robert (1979-06-01). Ethnic Realities and the Church (Second Edition): Lessons from Kurdistan. William Carey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87808-049-6.
- ^ Levene, Mark (2013). Devastation. Oxford University Press. p. 227. ISBN 9780191505546.
- ^ Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973). The Lions of Marash. SUNY Press. pp. 195–196. ISBN 9781438408828.
- ^ Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache
- ^ "Birecik'in Düşman İşgalinden Kurtuluşunun 98. Yıl Dönümü Tören İle Kutlandı". www.birecik.gov.tr. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
- ^ "ADANA VE ÇEVRESİNDE ERMENİ MEZALİMİ". Yeni Çağ Gazetesi. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
- ^ Osmanli Belgelerınde Ermenı-Fransiz İlışkılerı (1920-1922) III [Armenian-French Relations in Ottoman Documents] (PDF) (in Turkish), Ankara: State Archives Department, 2003
- ^ YURTSEVER, Cezmi (2015). Katliamın Tanığı Yeşiloba. pp. 4–22.
- ^ Üngör, Ugur Ümit (2011), The making of modern Turkey : nation and state in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950, Oxford University Press, p. 129, ISBN 9780199603602
- ^ Ahmet Kahraman, ibid, pp. 207–208. (in Turkish)
- ^ Guttstadt, Corry (2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 9780521769914. OCLC 870196866.
- ^ "Dersim massacre monument to open next month". Today's Zaman. 24 October 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
- ^ The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) Archived 2016-01-08 at the Wayback Machine Excerpts from: Martin van Bruinessen, "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in: George J. Andreopoulos (ed), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 141–170.
- ^ İsmail Besikçi, Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi, Belge Yayınları, 1990.
- ^ "1938 Dersim Olayları: 'Zini' gün yüzüne çıkıyor! | Gündem Haberleri". 2015-07-15. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
- ^ "Zini Gediği katliamına soruşturma". www.demokrathaber.org (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
- ^ "'Zini Gediği Katliamı' Dosyası". Haberler.com (in Turkish). 5 October 2011. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
- ^ Mynet (28 September 2011). "Zini Gediği Katliamı'na soruşturma". Mynet YurtHaber (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
- ^ oran, süleyman arif (2017-12-18). "TEKKEDE ZAMAN Üsküdar'da Rifâî Sandıkçı Dergâhı ve Vukuât-ı Tekâya, Muharrem Varol, İstanbul, Dergah Yay., 2017, 284 s." Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (SAUIFD). doi:10.17335/sakaifd.349943. ISSN 2146-9806.
- ^ Ritter, H. (1954-01-01). "İstanbulBelediye KütüphanesiAlfabetikKatalogu. I. Osman Ergin Kitaplan. Arapça ve Farsça basma eserler. Tertipliyen M. ORHAN DURUSOY, Istanbul Belediye Kütüphanesi Müdürü. — İstanbul 1953, Millî Egitim basimevi. 16, 298 s.". Oriens. 7 (1): 108. doi:10.1163/1877837254x00440. ISSN 0078-6527.
- ^ Aras, Ramazan (2013-11-12). The Formation of Kurdishness in Turkey: Political Violence, Fear and Pain. Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-134-64871-9.
- ^ "Muğlalı'nın gizli kalan ikinci 33 Kurşun Katliamı".
- ^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. "Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου" (PDF). University of Thessaloniki. p. 29.
- ^ Mills, Amy (2010). Streets of memory : landscape, tolerance, and national identity in Istanbul. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 119. ISBN 9780820335735.
...the state-led local violence that shattered neighborhoods across Istanbul in 1955 made ethnic-religious difference visible and divisive as Greeks and other minorities in the city were targeted and their property violated.
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