Firewood in Nigeria
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Firewood_%28184189073%29.jpeg/220px-Firewood_%28184189073%29.jpeg)
In Nigeria, firewood is a traditional source of energy for domestic and commercial use.[1][2][3] Fuel wood is derived from cutting and burning wood materials such as logs and twigs.[4][5][6][7] It has long been prevalent among rural and sometimes urban dwellers.[8]
In Nigeria, as in numerous other developing nations, a significant portion of the population lacks access to modern energy alternatives.[9][10][11] Consequently, they heavily depend on traditional biomass fuels such as crop waste and wood to fulfill their basic energy requirements, particularly for home and commercial cooking purposes.[12][13][14][15][16]
This reliance on fuel wood has implications for deforestation, as the unsustainable harvesting of wood for fuel contributes to the degradation of forests and the loss of biodiversity. The excessive demand for fuel wood places immense pressure on forest resources, leading to the depletion of woodlands and the disruption of delicate ecosystems. Furthermore, deforestation exacerbates climate change by releasing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.[8] This approach would not only aid in biodiversity conservation but also contribute to the expansion of national vegetation cover.
Use of fuel wood
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Fire_woods.jpg/220px-Fire_woods.jpg)
Fuel wood is commonly obtained and utilized in different forms. Round wood is commonly sold and used for domestic purposes, including in stores and open fires. Split logs, on the other hand, are predominantly utilized for commercial and industrial needs. In rural areas, small twigs and thin materials are typically not sold but are often used as fuel, either at a low cost for free.[17] The production of fuel wood generally requires minimal capital investment, with basic tools such as an axe or machete being the primary requirements. In cases where large trees need to be harvested, methods like ring girdling or burning at the base may be employed to kill the trees, allowing them to dry out before use. Many farmers view fuel wood as a readily available resource that does not require any financial transaction, often relying on their existing farm tools for its collection.[17]
![firewood](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Firewood_gathered_together.jpg/220px-Firewood_gathered_together.jpg)
Fuel wood in Nigeria is used for various purposes due to its availability and affordability. Here are some common uses of fuel wood in Nigeria:
- Cooking: Fuel wood serves as a primary source of energy for cooking in many households and commercial outlets across Nigeria. It is used in traditional stoves or open fires to prepare meals and heat food.[18]
- Heating: In colder regions or during colder seasons, fuel wood is used for heating purposes. It provides warmth in homes and can be used in fireplaces or traditional heating devices.[19]
- Small-scale industries and artisanal activities: Fuel wood is often utilized by small-scale industries for various production processes. Examples include baking and food processing, pottery making, brick-making, and blacksmithing.[20] In rural areas, fuel wood is used for artisanal activities such as carving, woodworking, and crafting traditional items.[21]
- Charcoal production: Fuel wood is also a key raw material for charcoal production. Charcoal, derived from the carbonization of wood, is used for cooking, heating, and industrial processes.[22][23]
- Campfire, cultural and religious practices: Fuel wood plays a role in cultural and religious practices in Nigeria. It is used for traditional ceremonies, rituals, and religious ceremonies involving fire.[24]
-
Firewood is commonly processed by axing and cutting it into smaller pieces for cooking purposes
-
Fuel wood used for cooking
-
Firewood for heating/warming
-
Firewood for artisanal activities
-
Charcoal for retail or wholesale purposes
Environmental impacts of fuel wood utilization
[edit]Fuel wood utilization in Nigeria has significant environmental impacts, which include deforestation and loss of forest ecosystems, air pollution, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and land degradation, water resource depletion, Disruption of local ecosystems and associated health concerns, as well as contributing to climate change through carbon emissions.[25][26][27]
Deforestation and loss of forest ecosystems
[edit]![Deforestation](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Deforestation_of_Rainforest.jpg/220px-Deforestation_of_Rainforest.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AFRICAN_WOMEN_CARRYING_FIREWOOD.jpg/220px-AFRICAN_WOMEN_CARRYING_FIREWOOD.jpg)
The widespread use of fuel wood in Nigeria has led to deforestation and the loss of valuable forest ecosystems.[28] As communities rely heavily on fuel wood for cooking, heating, and other energy needs, large areas of forests are cleared to meet the growing demand. This deforestation not only disrupts the natural habitat of numerous plant and animal species but also reduces the overall biodiversity of the region. The loss of forests also contributes to soil erosion, reduced water quality, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters such as flooding.[29]
Air pollution
[edit]The burning of fuel wood for energy releases various pollutants into the atmosphere, leading to air pollution and associated health concerns.[29] Traditional cooking methods, such as open fires and inefficient stoves, produce high levels of smoke and particulate matter, which can have detrimental effects on respiratory health. Prolonged exposure to indoor air pollution from fuel wood combustion has been linked to respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis, asthma, and even lung cancer. Additionally, the release of pollutants contributes to outdoor air pollution, further impacting the health and well-being of communities.[30]
Loss of biodiversity
[edit]Fuelwood collection often involves the removal of branches and smaller trees from forests.[31][32] This can lead to the loss of habitat for various plant and animal species that rely on these trees for shelter, nesting, and food sources. Reductions in biodiversity can disrupt ecosystems and have long-term negative consequences.[33][34]
Loss of biodiversity refers to the decline in the variety and abundance of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms in a particular habitat or across the entire planet.[35][36] It is a significant global environmental issue with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, human well-being, and the sustainability of the planet.[37][38][39]
Biodiversity encompasses the total range of biological variation on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.[40][41] It is a measure of the richness and complexity of life in a given area. The loss of biodiversity occurs when species become extinct or when their populations decline to a critically low level.
There are several causes of biodiversity loss, many of which are the result of human activities:
- Habitat Destruction: The conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land, urban areas, or industrial zones destroys the homes and resources that many species depend on.[42] Deforestation, wetland draining, and land clearing for infrastructure development are examples of habitat destruction.
- Pollution: Pollution from industrial activities, agriculture, and improper waste disposal can contaminate air, water, and soil, affecting the health and survival of various species.[43] Pollutants can accumulate in the food chain, causing harmful effects on both wildlife and humans.
- Climate Change: Alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events due to climate change can disrupt ecosystems and negatively impact species' ability to survive and reproduce.[44][45] Climate change can cause shifts in species distribution, changes in migration patterns, and loss of habitats such as coral reefs and polar ice caps.
- Overexploitation: Unsustainable harvesting of resources, such as overfishing, illegal wildlife trade, and excessive logging, can deplete populations of certain species.[46] Overexploitation disrupts ecological balance and can lead to species extinction and ecosystem degradation.
- Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species into ecosystems can have detrimental effects on native flora and fauna. Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt natural food chains, and alter habitats, resulting in the decline or extinction of native species.
The loss of biodiversity has significant implications for ecosystems and human well-being:
- Ecosystem Functioning: Biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining the functioning and stability of ecosystems. Each species contributes to important ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control. Loss of biodiversity can disrupt these processes, leading to ecosystem degradation and reduced resilience to environmental changes.
- Economic Impact: Biodiversity loss can have severe economic consequences. Many industries, such as agriculture, fisheries, and pharmaceuticals, rely on biodiversity for their productivity and profitability. The loss of key species or genetic resources can disrupt these industries and lead to economic losses.
Soil erosion and land degradation
[edit]Removing vegetation, particularly trees, from an area can lead to increased soil erosion.[47] Trees play a crucial role in stabilizing soil, reducing the impact of rainfall on the ground, and preventing erosion. The removal of trees for fuel wood can result in degraded soil quality, decreased fertility, and increased vulnerability to erosion.[48]
Agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and sustainable development are all impacted by soil erosion and land degradation.[49][50] Natural forces like wind, water, or human activities can cause soil particles to be detached, transported, and deposited elsewhere.[51][52] The concept of land degradation refers to a wide range of deterioration in the quality and productivity of land.[53][54]
Causes of soil erosion and land degradation
[edit]- Water Erosion: This type of erosion occurs when rainfall, surface runoff, and flowing water dislodge and carry away soil particles. It is primarily influenced by factors such as slope gradient, soil texture, vegetation cover, and rainfall intensity. Overgrazing, deforestation, and improper land management practices exacerbate water erosion.[55]
- Wind Erosion: Wind erosion involves the detachment, transport, and deposition of soil particles by the wind. It is most common in arid and semi-arid regions with sparse vegetation cover. Factors like soil texture, wind speed, and land use practices influence wind erosion. Unsustainable agricultural practices, desertification, and land disturbance contribute to wind erosion.[55]
- Soil Compaction: Excessive agricultural machinery use, improper land management, and heavy grazing can lead to soil compaction. Compacted soils have reduced pore space, resulting in reduced water infiltration, decreased root growth, and increased runoff, leading to erosion and degradation.[56]
- Deforestation: Forests play a crucial role in preventing erosion and maintaining soil stability. Deforestation for agriculture, logging, or urbanization removes the protective vegetative cover, exposing the soil to erosion agents such as rainfall and wind.[57][58][59]
- Unsustainable Agriculture: Unsuitable agricultural practices, such as improper tillage methods, monocropping, excessive use of agrochemicals, and inadequate soil conservation measures, contribute to soil erosion and degradation.[60]
Impacts of soil erosion and Land Degradation
[edit]- Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Erosion and degradation can lead to loss of topsoil, essential nutrients, and organic matter, resulting in decreased soil fertility and agricultural productivity. It affects crop yields, food security, and farmers' livelihoods.[56]
- Water Pollution: Sediment runoff from eroded soil contaminates water bodies, impairing water quality and aquatic ecosystems. It can also lead to increased sedimentation in reservoirs, reducing storage capacity[61]
- Desertification: Land degradation, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, can contribute to desertification, the expansion of desert areas, and the loss of productive land. It has severe ecological, social, and economic consequences.[62][63][64]
- Biodiversity Loss: Soil erosion and degradation can result in habitat destruction and fragmentation, leading to plant and animal species loss. It is ecosystem services and reduces resilience to environmental changes.[60]
Climate change and carbon emissions
[edit]Fuel wood utilization contributes to climate change through the release of carbon emissions into the atmosphere. When fuel wood is burned, carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas, is released. The combustion process is often incomplete and inefficient, leading to the emission of other greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)[65][66] These emissions contribute to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat in the atmosphere and causing global warming. The increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributes to climate change, resulting in adverse effects such as rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and sea-level rise.[67][68]
Disruption of local ecosystems
[edit]The removal of fuel wood from forests can disrupt local ecosystems, including nutrient cycling, pollination, and seed dispersal.[69] Trees play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance and supporting the survival of numerous species. The removal of fuel wood without sustainable practices can disrupt these ecological processes. With human populations becoming more concentrated, there is growing worry over the global degradation of coastal ecosystems, which includes eutrophication, overfishing, habitat disruption, pollution, and aesthetic degradation. The food business with the quickest growth, aquaculture, reached over 47 million metric tons of production in 2005.[70]
The severity and scope of disturbances determine how quickly terrestrial ecosystems recover. Primary succession happens in lifeless landscapes, such as the receding ice sheets of North America and Eurasia. Where there are already established organism communities and biological remains are still there, secondary succession takes place. The degree of disturbance determines which "legacies" they are. In Nigeria, ecosystems are also experiencing serious disturbances that need urgent intervention by the government and all stakeholders.[71] Nigerian government should start thinking of how the ecosystem will be recovered from disturbances for the health of the human environment.
Water resource depletion
[edit]Fuel wood collection often involves the gathering of deadwood, which can include branches and fallen trees found near water bodies.[72][73] Removing these materials from riparian areas can disrupt the natural flow of water, impacting aquatic ecosystems and reducing water availability for local communities.[74]
Conserving and Restoration Measures
[edit]- Conservation Tillage: Practices like minimum tillage, no-till, and strip cropping help reduce soil erosion by maintaining crop residues on the soil surface, improving water infiltration, and promoting soil organic matter accumulation.[56]
- Contour Farming: Planting crops along slope contour lines slows down water runoff, reducing erosion. It involves constructing contour bunds or terraces to trap sediment and retain water.[55]
- Agroforestry: Integrating trees with crops or livestock systems can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content, and provide windbreaks to minimize wind erosion.[60]
- Rehabilitation of Degraded Land: Restoring degraded land through reforestation, re-vegetation, and soil improvement techniques can help combat erosion and promote sustainable land use practices.[75] It is crucial to implement these measures on a large scale, promote sustainable land management practices, and raise awareness about the importance of soil conservation to mitigate soil erosion and land degradation.
Government policies and initiatives to reduce fuel wood use
[edit]The Nigerian government has implemented various policies and initiatives to reduce fuel wood use, addressing the environmental and social challenges associated with its utilization. These efforts aim to conserve forests, improve energy efficiency, and transition to alternative energy sources.
Forest conservation and management strategies
[edit]To address deforestation and the loss of forest ecosystems caused by fuel wood utilization, the Nigerian government has implemented forest conservation and management strategies, such as the National Forest Policy. The National Forest Policy for the sustainable utilization of Nigeria's forest resources was introduced during the commemoration of the International Day of Forests in 2022. The policy was launched in Abuja, the capital of Nigeria.[76] Other strategies include the establishment of protected areas, national parks, and forest reserves to safeguard valuable forest resources.[77] The government collaborates with local communities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders to develop sustainable forest management plans, promoting responsible harvesting practices and reforestation initiatives. By enforcing regulations and raising awareness about the importance of forest conservation, the government strives to preserve the ecological integrity and biodiversity of Nigerian forests.[78]
Promotion of efficient cooking technologies
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Biogas_stove_%285268651030%29.jpg/220px-Biogas_stove_%285268651030%29.jpg)
The promotion of efficient cooking technologies is a key aspect of the government's efforts to address the environmental and health concerns associated with fuel wood utilization. Traditional cooking methods, such as open fires and rudimentary stoves, are highly inefficient and contribute to high levels of smoke and indoor air pollution.[29] The government promotes the adoption and distribution of these efficient cooking technologies through awareness campaigns, subsidies, and partnerships with NGOs and private sector entities. On October 5, 2021, the Federal Government of Nigeria joined forces with key stakeholders to ensure the successful implementation of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) aimed at promoting the adoption of clean and efficient cooking technologies throughout the country.[79]
Alternative energy sources and transitioning away from fuel wood
[edit]Recognizing the need to transition away from fuel wood as a primary source of energy, the Nigerian government is actively promoting the use of alternative energy sources. This includes promoting the adoption of clean and renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind energy, and biogas.[80] In August 2022, Nigeria introduced its Energy Transition Plan. The plan encompasses key sectors such as power, cooking, oil and gas, transport, and industry. Vice President Yemi Osinbajo, along with other stakeholders in the energy sector, unveiled the plan, which outlines Nigeria's roadmap towards achieving net-zero emissions by 2060.[81] By diversifying the energy mix and reducing reliance on fuel wood, the government aims to mitigate deforestation, improve air quality, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts.[82]
Progress toward sustainable energy practices in Nigeria
[edit]The future outlook for energy practices in Nigeria is gradually shifting towards more sustainable alternatives, aiming to address the environmental, social, and economic challenges associated with fuel wood utilization. Efforts are being made to promote cleaner energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and foster sustainable practices in the country.[82][30]
To ensure a sustainable future, there is also a need to prioritize sustainable forest management and conservation efforts. This involves implementing robust policies and regulations to prevent illegal logging, deforestation, and degradation of forest ecosystems.[83] By promoting responsible and sustainable forest practices, which includes but not limited to, responsible harvesting practices, reforestation initiatives, Nigeria can protect its valuable forest resources, preserve biodiversity, and mitigate the adverse impacts of fuel wood utilization.[84][85]
Community engagement, education, and awareness programs are crucial for fostering a culture of forest conservation and sustainable resource use. The Green Vision for Community Development Initiative (GVCDI), a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), provided training to community members in Cross Rivers state on forest protection techniques to combat deforestation.[86] In 1981, the Ekuri community in Nigeria, independently conceptualized a formal community forest management initiative. Their aim was to ensure the preservation of their heritage, sustain livelihoods, foster community development, reduce poverty, and prevent the negative consequences experienced by other communities that had lost their forests. This initiative was born out of the community's internal motivation and foresight, without any external influence.[87]
One of the key focus areas for a sustainable energy transition in Nigeria is the promotion of renewable energy sources. The government, in collaboration with private sector entities and international partners, is investing in renewable energy infrastructure.[79] These sources offer significant potential to diversify the energy mix, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and provide access to clean and affordable energy, particularly in rural areas.[81]
In parallel with the transition to renewable energy, enhancing energy efficiency is another crucial aspect of sustainable energy practices. Improving energy efficiency in sectors such as residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial areas can contribute to reducing energy demand and optimizing resource utilization. This includes the promotion of energy-efficient appliances, building design and insulation standards, and the implementation of energy management systems.[88] By adopting energy-efficient technologies and practices, Nigeria can reduce energy waste, lower energy costs, and lessen the environmental impact associated with energy consumption.[89]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "Knowledge Regarding Adverse Effects of Plastic Bags Usage and ITS Associated Factors Among Consumers in Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria". International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences. 6 (3). 2019-06-01. doi:10.32827/ijphcs.6.3.179. ISSN 2289-7577. S2CID 198808576.
- ^ Afonne, C.; Ojo, T.O. (August 2018). "Sociodemographic factors associated with malaria parasitaemia among under-fives in Nigeria: Evidence from National Malaria Indicator Survey (NMIS), 2015". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 73: 93. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2018.04.3635. ISSN 1201-9712.
- ^ "Annexes". Consumption Tax Trends. 2016-11-30. doi:10.1787/g2487684c3-en. ISBN 9789264264045. ISSN 1999-0979.
- ^ Tillman, D.A.; Jamison, R.L. (January 1982). "Cogeneration with wood fuels: A review". Fuel Processing Technology. 5 (3–4): 169–181. doi:10.1016/0378-3820(82)90013-3. ISSN 0378-3820.
- ^ Ugwusihiwu, Boniface Obi; Uke, Samuel Obinna; Ugwu, Samson Nnnaemeka; Nwakaire, Joel Nweze; Nwoke, Achuka Oji (2019). "Wood Biomass Utilization and Consequence Environmental Challenges in Nigeria- A Review". 2019 Boston, Massachusetts July 7- July 10, 2019. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. doi:10.13031/aim.201900070.
- ^ Abah, D.; Umeonuora, T. G.; Jimehena, T. S. (2020-06-01). "ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FUEL WOOD CONSUMPTION IN GUMA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA". Journal of Agripreneurship and Sustainable Development. 3 (2): 90–100. doi:10.59331/jasd.v3i2.122. ISSN 2651-6365.
- ^ Abanikannda, J.O.; Dantani, A. (2021-11-04). "Fuel Wood Exploitation and Sustainable Forest Management". Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 25 (6): 987–993. doi:10.4314/jasem.v25i6.16. ISSN 2659-1502.
- ^ a b Ijeomah, HM; Ijeomah, UD; Okagbare, OH (2013-11-08). "Ecological Survey of Avifaunal Resources in University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria". Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management. 6 (6). doi:10.4314/ejesm.v6i6.8. ISSN 1998-0507.
- ^ Mohammed, Y.S.; Mustafa, M.W.; Bashir, N.; Mokhtar, A.S. (2013). "Renewable energy resources for distributed power generation in Nigeria: A review of the potential". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 22: 257–268. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.020. ISSN 1364-0321.
- ^ North, Douglass C.; Wallis, John Joseph; Webb, Steven B.; Weingast, Barry R. (2007-11-09). "Limited Access Orders In The Developing World :A New Approach To The Problems Of Development". Policy Research Working Papers. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-4359. hdl:10986/7341. ISSN 1813-9450. S2CID 10695345.
- ^ Haenel, H. (1976). "Alternative Approaches to Meeting Basic Health Needs in Developing Countries. A Joint UNICEF/WHO Study. Herausgegeben von V. Djukanovic und E. P. Mach. 116 Seiten, 5 Tab. WHO Genf 1975. Preis: 24,— sfrs". Food / Nahrung. 20 (10): 930–931. doi:10.1002/food.19760201021. ISSN 0027-769X.
- ^ Ghazoul, J.; Evans, J. (2004), "SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT | Causes of Deforestation and Forest Fragmentation", Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, Elsevier, pp. 1367–1375, doi:10.1016/b0-12-145160-7/00018-1, ISBN 9780121451608, retrieved 2023-05-21
- ^ Ibitoye, Francis I (2013-10-17). "The millennium development goals and household energy requirements in Nigeria". SpringerPlus. 2 (1): 529. doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-529. ISSN 2193-1801. PMC 3825065. PMID 24255832.
- ^ Itodo, Isaac Nathaniel; Bala, Eli Jidere; Sambo, Abubakar Sani (2021-11-10), "Renewable Energy Policies and Standards in Nigeria", Biogas Technology in Nigeria, Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 85–90, doi:10.1201/9781003241959-12, ISBN 9781003241959, S2CID 243999511, retrieved 2023-10-12
- ^ Sokan-Adeaga, Adewale Allen; Ana, Godson R.E.E. (2015-01-01). "A comprehensive review of biomass resources and biofuel production in Nigeria: potential and prospects". Reviews on Environmental Health. 30 (3): 143–162. doi:10.1515/reveh-2015-0015. ISSN 2191-0308. PMID 26351798. S2CID 9521059.
- ^ Kaygusuz, K. (February 2011). "Energy services and energy poverty for sustainable rural development". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 15 (2): 936–947. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.003. ISSN 1364-0321.
- ^ a b Orimoogunje, Oluwagbenga O.I.; Asifat, Janet (2015-01-01). "Fuel Wood Consumption and Species Degradation in South-Western Nigeria: The Ecological Relevance". Journal of Landscape Ecology. 8 (1): 56–68. doi:10.1515/jlecol-2015-0004. ISSN 1805-4196. S2CID 90565232.
- ^ Matemilola, Saheed; Elegbede, Isa O.; Kies, Fatima; Yusuf, Gbolahan A.; Yangni, Ganbobga N.; Garba, Ibrahim (2019-01-01). "An Analysis of the Impacts of Bioenergy Development on Food Security in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects". Environmental and Climate Technologies. 23 (1): 64–83. Bibcode:2019SJRUE..23...64M. doi:10.2478/rtuect-2019-0005. hdl:10281/236662. ISSN 2255-8837. S2CID 198964019.
- ^ Bowyer, J. L. (2001-01-01), "Wood: Future Availability", in Buschow, K. H. Jürgen; Cahn, Robert W.; Flemings, Merton C.; Ilschner, Bernhard (eds.), Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 9637–9641, Bibcode:2001emst.book.9637B, doi:10.1016/b0-08-043152-6/01746-0, ISBN 978-0-08-043152-9, retrieved 2023-05-21
- ^ Sola, Phosiso; Cerutti, Paolo Omar; Zhou, Wen; Gautier, Denis; Iiyama, Miyuki; Schure, Jolien; Chenevoy, Audrey; Yila, Jummai; Dufe, Vanessa; Nasi, Robert; Petrokofsky, Gillian; Shepherd, Gill (2017-02-13). "The environmental, socioeconomic, and health impacts of woodfuel value chains in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic map". Environmental Evidence. 6 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/s13750-017-0082-2. ISSN 2047-2382. S2CID 216353.
- ^ Morgan, W.B. (1978). "Development and the fuelwood situation in Nigeria". GeoJournal. 2 (5). doi:10.1007/bf00156221. ISSN 0343-2521. S2CID 154561400.
- ^ "Wood energy". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Wood, T S; Baldwin, S (1985). "Fuelwood and Charcoal Use in Developing Countries". Annual Review of Energy. 10 (1): 407–429. doi:10.1146/annurev.eg.10.110185.002203. ISSN 0362-1626.
- ^ Akintan, Oluwakemi; Jewitt, Sarah; Clifford, Mike (2018). "Culture, tradition, and taboo: Understanding the social shaping of fuel choices and cooking practices in Nigeria". Energy Research & Social Science. 40: 14–22. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2017.11.019. S2CID 115739869.
- ^ Schramm, Gunter; Warford, Jeremy J. (July 1989). Environmental Management and Economic Development. The World Bank. doi:10.1596/0-8018-3950-5. ISBN 978-0-8018-3950-4.
- ^ Alhassan, Joseph; Ofosu, Andrews; Iddrisu, Suale; Kofi Garsonu, Emmanuel (2022-03-31). "Wood Fuel Producers' Insight on the Environmental Effects of Their Activities in Ghana". Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 42 (6): 607–623. doi:10.1080/10549811.2022.2053162. ISSN 1054-9811. S2CID 247898684.
- ^ Nwaka, Ikechukwu D.; Uma, Kalu E.; Ike, George Nwokike (2020-07-26). "Determinants of household fuel choices among Nigerian family heads: are there gender-differentiated impacts?". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 27 (34): 42656–42669. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-09554-x. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 32712942. S2CID 220746333.
- ^ Ghazoul, Jaboury; Evans, Julian (2001), "Deforestation and Land Clearing", Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Elsevier, pp. 23–36, doi:10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00066-3, ISBN 9780122268656, retrieved 2023-05-21
- ^ a b c Ayodeji, Stephen (2020-11-04). "Nigeria's trees suffer as firewood replaces 'expensive' clean cook fuel". The Energy Intelligence. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ a b Adedigba, Azeezat (2019). "Despite health risks, firewood use still thrives in Nigerian communities". Premium Times Nigeria. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Arjunan, M.; Holmes, Christopher; Puyravaud, Jean-Philippe; Davidar, Priya (2006). "Do developmental initiatives influence local attitudes toward conservation? A case study from the Kalakad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India". Journal of Environmental Management. 79 (2): 188–197. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.06.007. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 16202505.
- ^ Abbot, Joanne I. O.; Homewood, Katherine (1999). "A history of change: causes of woodland decline in a protected area in Malawi". Journal of Applied Ecology. 36 (3): 422–433. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.1999.00413.x. ISSN 0021-8901.
- ^ Hautier, Yann; Tilman, David; Isbell, Forest; Seabloom, Eric W.; Borer, Elizabeth T.; Reich, Peter B. (2015-04-17). "Anthropogenic environmental changes affect ecosystem stability via biodiversity". Science. 348 (6232): 336–340. Bibcode:2015Sci...348..336H. doi:10.1126/science.aaa1788. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25883357. S2CID 2153276.
- ^ Isbell, Forest; Reich, Peter B.; Tilman, David; Hobbie, Sarah E.; Polasky, Stephen; Binder, Seth (2013). "Nutrient enrichment, biodiversity loss, and consequent declines in ecosystem productivity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (29): 11911–11916. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11011911I. doi:10.1073/pnas.1310880110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3718098. PMID 23818582.
- ^ Gardi, Ciro; Jeffery, Simon; Saltelli, Andrea (2013-03-12). "An estimate of potential threats levels to soil biodiversity in EU". Global Change Biology. 19 (5): 1538–1548. Bibcode:2013GCBio..19.1538G. doi:10.1111/gcb.12159. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 23505125. S2CID 26857074.
- ^ Rawat, U.S.; Agarwal, N.K. (2015-12-15). "Biodiversity: Concept, threats and conservation". Environment Conservation Journal. 16 (3): 19–28. doi:10.36953/ecj.2015.16303. ISSN 0972-3099.
- ^ Wood, Megan Epler (2017-02-28). Sustainable Tourism on a Finite Planet. doi:10.4324/9781315439808. ISBN 9781315439808.
- ^ Mearns, Robin; Norton, Andrew, eds. (2009-12-02). The Social Dimensions of Climate Change. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7887-8. ISBN 978-0-8213-7887-8.
- ^ The wealth of the poor managing ecosystems to fight poverty : world resources 2005 / World Resources Institute. Afghanistan Centre at Kabul University. 2005. doi:10.29171/azu_acku_ge170_w434_2005.
- ^ Maiti, Tannistha; Maiti, Anwita; Maiti, Biswajit; Singh, Tarry (2023), "Urbanization Impact Arising from the Behavioral Shift of Citizens and Consumers in a Post-pandemic World", Pandemic and the City, Footprints of Regional Science, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 139–160, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21983-2_9, ISBN 978-3-031-21982-5, retrieved 2023-06-15
- ^ Duelli, Peter (April 1997). "Biodiversity evaluation in agricultural landscapes: An approach at two different scales". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 62 (2–3): 81–91. doi:10.1016/s0167-8809(96)01143-7. ISSN 0167-8809.
- ^ Grainger, Alan (March 1991). "Book reviews: Goudie, A.S., editor, 1990 : Techniques for desert reclamation. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. xiv + 274 pp. £39.95 cloth". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 15 (1): 121. doi:10.1177/030913339101500116. ISSN 0309-1333. S2CID 128916882.
- ^ Chowdhary, Pankaj; Bharagava, Ram Naresh; Mishra, Sandhya; Khan, Nawaz (2019-07-04), "Role of Industries in Water Scarcity and Its Adverse Effects on Environment and Human Health", Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 235–256, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-5889-0_12, ISBN 978-981-13-5888-3, S2CID 198580300, retrieved 2023-06-15
- ^ HELLMANN, JESSICA J.; BYERS, JAMES E.; BIERWAGEN, BRITTA G.; DUKES, JEFFREY S. (June 2008). "Five Potential Consequences of Climate Change for Invasive Species". Conservation Biology. 22 (3): 534–543. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00951.x. ISSN 0888-8892. PMID 18577082. S2CID 16026020.
- ^ Ficke, Ashley D.; Myrick, Christopher A.; Hansen, Lara J. (2007-04-20). "Potential impacts of global climate change on freshwater fisheries". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 17 (4): 581–613. doi:10.1007/s11160-007-9059-5. ISSN 0960-3166. S2CID 18832521.
- ^ "8 Illegal Fishing in the Arafura Sea", Working with Nature against Poverty, ISEAS Publishing, pp. 178–200, 2009-12-31, doi:10.1355/9789812309600-014, hdl:1885/39655, ISBN 9789812309600, retrieved 2023-06-15
- ^ Papanastasis, Vasilios P.; Bautista, Susana; Chouvardas, Dimitrios; Mantzanas, Konstantinos; Papadimitriou, Maria; Mayor, Angeles G.; Koukioumi, Polina; Papaioannou, Athanasios; Vallejo, Ramon V. (2015-03-19). "Comparative Assessment of Goods and Services Provided by Grazing Regulation and Reforestation in Degraded Mediterranean Rangelands". Land Degradation & Development. 28 (4): 1178–1187. doi:10.1002/ldr.2368. hdl:10045/66109. ISSN 1085-3278. S2CID 85549397.
- ^ Simmonds, N. W. (1984). "Plant Research and Agroforestry. Edited by P. A. Huxley. Nairobi, Kenya: International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) (1983), pp. 617, US$15.00 (plus postage)". Experimental Agriculture. 20 (4): 346. doi:10.1017/s0014479700018081. ISSN 0014-4797. S2CID 84171751.
- ^ Pimentel, David (February 2006). "Soil Erosion: A Food and Environmental Threat". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 8 (1): 119–137. doi:10.1007/s10668-005-1262-8. ISSN 1387-585X. S2CID 6152411.
- ^ Iwuchukwu, Felicitas U.; Ewuzie, Ugochukwu; Ajala, Oluwaseun J.; Ojukwu, Victor E.; Nnorom, Innocent C.; Egbueri, Johnbosco C.; Pande, Chaitanya B.; Ighalo, Joshua O. (2023), "A Consideration of the Climatic Drivers, Focal Points and Challenges of Soil Erosion, Land Degradation, Landslides and Landscapes in Nigeria", Climate Change Impacts on Nigeria, Springer Climate, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 449–477, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21007-5_23, ISBN 978-3-031-21006-8, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ Potter, Paul E.; Maynard, J. Barry; Depetris, Pedro J. (2005). Mud and Mudstones. doi:10.1007/b138571. ISBN 978-3-540-22157-9.
- ^ Renard, Kenneth G.; Lane, Leonard J.; Foster, George R.; Laflen, John M. (2023-05-25), "Soil Loss Estimation", Soil Erosion, Conservation, and Rehabilitation, Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 169–202, doi:10.1201/9781003418177-9, ISBN 978-1-003-41817-7, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ Shakesby, R. A. (May 2002). "Handbook for the field assessment of land degradation, edited by M. Stocking and N. Murnaghan. Earthscan, London, 2001. ISBN 1 85383 831 4, £25.00 (paperback), xiii+169 pp". Land Degradation & Development. 13 (3): 271–272. doi:10.1002/ldr.496. ISSN 1085-3278.
- ^ Osman, Khan Towhid (2014). Soil Degradation, Conservation and Remediation. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7590-9. ISBN 978-94-007-7589-3. S2CID 133025778.
- ^ a b c Coulter, John K. (April 2004). "World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030. An FAO Perspective. Edited by J. Bruinsma. Rome: FAO and London: Earthscan (2003), pp. 432, £35.00 Paperback. ISBN 92-5-104835-5". Experimental Agriculture. 40 (2): 269. doi:10.1017/s0014479704211796. ISSN 0014-4797. S2CID 86359926.
- ^ a b c Eswaran, H.; Lal, R.; Reich, P.F. (2019-04-24), Bridges, E. Michael; Hannam, Ian D.; Oldeman, L. Roel; de Vries, Frits W.T. Penning (eds.), "Land degradation: An overview", Response to Land Degradation (1 ed.), CRC Press, pp. 20–35, doi:10.1201/9780429187957-4, ISBN 978-0-429-18795-7, S2CID 198419587, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ Blanco-Canqui, Humberto; Lal, Rattan (2010), "Soil Resilience and Conservation", Principles of Soil Conservation and Management, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 425–447, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8709-7_16, ISBN 978-90-481-8529-0, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ García-Ruiz, José M. (2013-06-03). "ZACHAR, O., 1982. Soil erosion. Elsevier, 547 pp., Amsterdam". Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica. 10: 219–220. doi:10.18172/cig.1094. ISSN 1697-9540.
- ^ Blanco-Canqui, Humberto; Lal, Rattan (2010), "Soil and Water Conservation", Principles of Soil Conservation and Management, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–19, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8709-7_1, ISBN 978-90-481-8529-0, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ a b c Ayub, Muhammad Ashar; Usman, Muhammad; Faiz, Tehmina; Umair, Muhammad; ul Haq, Muhammad Anwar; Rizwan, Muhammad; Ali, Shafaqat; Zia ur Rehman, Muhammad (2020), Meena, Ram Swaroop (ed.), "Restoration of Degraded Soil for Sustainable Agriculture", Soil Health Restoration and Management, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 31–81, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8570-4_2, ISBN 978-981-13-8569-8, S2CID 202198049, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ Wohl, Ellen (August 2015). "Legacy effects on sediments in river corridors". Earth-Science Reviews. 147: 30–53. Bibcode:2015ESRv..147...30W. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.05.001. ISSN 0012-8252.
- ^ Gaur, Mahesh K.; Squires, Victor R. (2017-08-31), "Geographic Extent and Characteristics of the World's Arid Zones and Their Peoples", Climate Variability Impacts on Land Use and Livelihoods in Drylands, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 3–20, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56681-8_1, ISBN 978-3-319-56680-1, retrieved 2023-06-16
- ^ Emadodin, Iraj; Reinsch, Thorsten; Taube, Friedhelm (2019-08-07). "Drought and Desertification in Iran". Hydrology. 6 (3): 66. doi:10.3390/hydrology6030066. ISSN 2306-5338.
- ^ Rastgoo, Mehdi; Hasanfard, Alireza (2022-02-16), "Desertification in Agricultural Lands: Approaches to Mitigation", Deserts and Desertification, IntechOpen, doi:10.5772/intechopen.98795, ISBN 978-1-83962-717-0, S2CID 238650429
- ^ Borisade, E.; Stanley, A. M.; Dadu, D. W.; Sani, I. F.; Abah, A. M. (2020-11-06). "An Appraisal of Household Cooking Fuel Consumption and their Carbon related Emission in Zaria Metropolis, Nigeria". FUTY Journal of the Environment. 14 (1): 50–59. ISSN 1597-8826.
- ^ Nwafor, Justice. "How clean cooking helps the climate". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Isaac, Nkechi (2021-05-26). "Why FG Should Discourage Use Of Firewood – Eleri". Science Nigeria. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ "9. IMPLICATIONS OF WOODFUEL USE FOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Armesto, Juan J.; Smith-Ramírez, Cecilia; Carmona, Martín R.; Celis-Diez, Juan L.; Díaz, Iván A.; Gaxiola, Aurora; Gutiérrez, Alvaro G.; Núñez-Avila, Mariela C.; Pérez, Cecilia A. (2009), "Old-Growth Temperate Rainforests of South America: Conservation, Plant–Animal Interactions, and Baseline Biogeochemical Processes", Old-Growth Forests, Ecological Studies, vol. 207, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 367–390, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92706-8_16, ISBN 978-3-540-92705-1, retrieved 2023-06-13
- ^ "Habitat Disruption - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
- ^ "Ecological disturbance - Recovery, Dynamics, Effects | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
- ^ Kuyah, Shem; Sileshi, G. W.; Luedeling, Eike; Akinnifesi, F. K.; Whitney, Cory W.; Bayala, Jules; Kuntashula, E.; Dimobe, K.; Mafongoya, P. L. (2020), "Potential of Agroforestry to Enhance Livelihood Security in Africa", Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 135–167, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_4, ISBN 978-981-15-4135-3, S2CID 226735421, retrieved 2023-06-13
- ^ Lattimore, B.; Smith, C.T.; Titus, B.D.; Stupak, I.; Egnell, G. (2009). "Environmental factors in woodfuel production: Opportunities, risks, and criteria and indicators for sustainable practices". Biomass and Bioenergy. 33 (10): 1321–1342. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.06.005. ISSN 0961-9534.
- ^ Castello, Leandro; Macedo, Marcia N. (2015-12-23). "Large‐scale degradation of Amazonian freshwater ecosystems". Global Change Biology. 22 (3): 990–1007. doi:10.1111/gcb.13173. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 26700407. S2CID 34442666.
- ^ Marques, Maria; Schwilch, Gudrun; Lauterburg, Nina; Crittenden, Stephen; Tesfai, Mehreteab; Stolte, Jannes; Zdruli, Pandi; Zucca, Claudio; Petursdottir, Thorunn; Evelpidou, Niki; Karkani, Anna; AsliYilmazgil, Yasemen; Panagopoulos, Thomas; Yirdaw, Eshetu; Kanninen, Markku (2016-02-20). "Multifaceted Impacts of Sustainable Land Management in Drylands: A Review". Sustainability. 8 (2): 177. doi:10.3390/su8020177. hdl:10400.1/9631. ISSN 2071-1050.
- ^ Nliam, Amaka (2022-04-08). "Nigeria launches National Forest Policy". Voice of Nigeria. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Hyman, Eric L. (1993-01-01). "Forestry policies and programmes for fuelwood supply in Northern Nigeria". Land Use Policy. 10 (1): 26–43. doi:10.1016/0264-8377(93)90028-9. ISSN 0264-8377.
- ^ Ozor, N; Odo, P (2008-05-13). "Community Strategies For The Conservation And Preservation Of Forest Resources In Nsukka Agricultural Zone Of Nigeria". Agro-Science. 7 (1). doi:10.4314/as.v7i1.1580. ISSN 1119-7455.
- ^ a b Simire, Michael (2021-10-05). "Govt collaborates with stakeholders to promote clean, efficient cooking technologies – Minister". EnviroNews Nigeria. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ "Is Nigeria Ready for Low-carbon Energy Transition? – THISDAYLIVE". www.thisdaylive.com. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ a b "Tackling the Challenges of Nigeria's Energy Transition Plan – THISDAYLIVE". www.thisdaylive.com. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ a b Eweka, Ebuwa Elisabeth; Lopez-Arroyo, Enrique; Medupin, Christian Oluwaremilekun; Oladipo, Abiola; Campos, Luiza Cintra (2022-07-29). "Energy Landscape and Renewable Energy Resources in Nigeria: A Review". Energies. 15 (15): 5514. doi:10.3390/en15155514. ISSN 1996-1073.
- ^ Okunlola, Oa; Akinyele, Ao (2015-08-12). "Sustainable management of the Nigerian forests for poverty alleviation". Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and the Social Sciences. 12 (1): 176. doi:10.4314/joafss.v12i1.19. ISSN 1597-0906.
- ^ Ogana, Temitope Elizabeth (2022-06-22). "Joint Forest Management: A Potential Option for Restoring Degraded Forest Reserves in Nigeria". Forestist. doi:10.5152/forestist.2022.22006. ISSN 2602-4039. S2CID 249966290.
- ^ Hall, John B. (1991). "Trees of Nigeria". Forest Ecology and Management. 44 (2–4): 292–293. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(91)90016-o. ISSN 0378-1127.
- ^ "Group empowers community on forest protection". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. 2021-05-06. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ "Nigera: A unique example of community based forest management at the Ekuri community | World Rainforest Movement". www.wrm.org.uy. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
- ^ Udale Hussaini, Ibrahim (2019-02-20), Eyvaz, Murat; Gok, Abdülkerim; Yüksel, Ebubekir (eds.), "Households' Energy Efficiency Practices in a Bereft Power Supply Economy of Nigeria", Energy-Efficient Approaches in Industrial Applications, IntechOpen, doi:10.5772/intechopen.81408, ISBN 978-1-78985-519-7, S2CID 169738645, retrieved 2023-05-21
- ^ Oyedepo, Sunday Olayinka (2012). "Energy and sustainable development in Nigeria: the way forward". Energy, Sustainability and Society. 2 (1). doi:10.1186/2192-0567-2-15. ISSN 2192-0567. S2CID 256232531.