Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)
Part of a series on |
Genocide |
---|
![]() |
Issues |
Related topics |
Category |
Part of a series on |
Discrimination |
---|
![]() |
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people[a] in whole or in part. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin. It is defined in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."[1]
The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world", and it also states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity."[1] Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human evil,[2] and has been referred to as the "crime of crimes".[3][4][5] The Political Instability Task Force estimated that 43 genocides occurred between 1956 and 2016, resulting in 50 million deaths.[6] The UNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence.[6]
Definitions of genocide
[edit]The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide. One definition is any conflict that the International Criminal Court has so designated. Mohammed Hassan Kakar argues that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator.[7] He prefers the definition from Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, which defines genocide as "a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator."[8]
In literature, some scholars have popularly emphasized the role that the Soviet Union played in excluding political groups from the international definition of genocide, which is contained in the Genocide Convention of 1948,[9] and in particular they have written that Joseph Stalin may have feared greater international scrutiny of the political killings that occurred in the country, such as the Great Purge;[10] however, this claim is not supported by evidence. The Soviet view was shared and supported by many diverse countries, and they were also in line with Raphael Lemkin's original conception,[b] and it was originally promoted by the World Jewish Congress.[12]
First half of the 20th century (World War I through World War II)
[edit]In 1915, during World War I, the concept of crimes against humanity was introduced into international relations for the first time when the Allied Powers sent a letter to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of the Central Powers, protesting massacres that were taking place within the Empire.[13]
Ottoman Empire
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/220px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg)
On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) jointly issued a statement which for the first time ever explicitly charged a government, the Ottoman Empire, with committing a "crime against humanity" in reference to that regime's persecution of its Christian minorities, including Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks.[15] Many researchers consider these events a single genocide rather than separate genocides, based on their belief that all of these genocides were part of the planned ethnoreligious purification of the Turkish state, a policy which was implemented and advanced by the Young Turks.[16]
This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres."[13]
Greeks
[edit]The Greek genocide[17] refers to the fate of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire both during and after World War I (1914–18). Like the Armenians and the Assyrians, the Greeks were also subjected to massacres, expulsions, death marches and various other forms of persecution by the Young Turks.[18][19] The mass killing of Greeks continued to occur under the rule of the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.[20] George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, among other diplomats, documented the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the post-Armistice period.[21] Estimates of the number of Anatolian Greeks who were killed range from 348,000 to 900,000.[22]
Bulgarians
[edit]Assyrians
[edit]The Assyrian genocide (also known as the Sayfo or the Seyfo; Aramaic: ܩܛܠܐ ܕܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ or ܣܝܦܐ, Turkish: Süryani Soykırımı) was committed against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks.[23] The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia (Tur Abdin, Hakkari, Van, Siirt region in modern-day southeastern Turkey and Urmia region in northwestern Iran) was forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish and allied Kurdish) forces between 1914 and 1920.[24][better source needed] This genocide paralleled the Armenian genocide and Greek genocide.[25][19] The Assyro-Chaldean National Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about 750,000 Assyrians were murdered between 1914 and 1918.[26]
Armenians
[edit]The Armenian genocide (Armenian: Հայոց Ցեղասպանություն, translit.: Hayots' Ts'eġaspanout'youn; Turkish: Ermeni Soykırımı and Ermeni Kıyımı) refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire which occurred both during and just after World War I. It was implemented through extensive massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions which were designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.[27]
The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople. Thereafter, the Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes and forced them to march hundreds of miles, without food or water, to the desert of what is now Syria. The Armenians were massacred regardless of their age or gender, with rape and other acts of sexual abuse being commonplace.[28] The majority of Armenian diaspora communities were founded as a result of these events. Mass killings continued to be committed by the Republic of Turkey during the Turkish–Armenian War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.[29]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Marcharmenians.jpg/220px-Marcharmenians.jpg)
Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923 and since then, it has denied the fact that a genocide occurred. In recent years, it has resisted calls to acknowledge the crime by scholars, countries and international organizations.
Mount Lebanon
[edit]Diyarbekir
[edit]Yazidis
[edit]During the Armenian genocide, many Yazidis were killed by Hamidiye cavalry.[30] According to Aziz Tamoyan, as many as 300,000 Yazidis were killed with the Armenians, while others fled to Transcaucasia.[31]
Kurds
[edit]Concurrent to the Late Ottoman genocides most sources suggest that as many as 700,000 Kurds were deported during World War I, although there are no reliable statistics.[32] Safrastian (1945) estimates that half of these deported Kurds died.[32] Uğur Ümit Üngör writes that "it would require a separate study to calculate meticulously how many were deported".[32]
A few decades later deportations continued. The Dersim massacre for example refers to the depopulation of Dersim in Turkish Kurdistan, in 1937–38, in which approximately 13,000–40,000 Alevi Kurds[33][34] were killed and thousands more of them were driven into exile. A key component of the Turkification process was a policy of massive population resettlement. The main document, the 1934 Law on Resettlement, was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.[35]
Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events which took place in Dersim a genocide. A prominent proponent of this view is İsmail Beşikçi.[36] Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.[37] A Turkish court ruled in 2011 that the events could not be considered genocide because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.[38] Scholars such as Martin van Bruinessen, have instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local language and identity.[37]
Russia and the Soviet Union
[edit]Kyrgyz
[edit]In 1916 in the territory which is currently named Urkun, Kyrgyzstan launched an uprising against Tsarist Russia. A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 in which 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis were killed a genocide, though Russia rejected this characterization.[39] Russian sources put the death toll at 3,000.[40]
Pogroms against Jews
[edit]The Whitaker Report of the United Nations cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 pogroms which occurred during the White Terror in Russia as an act of genocide.[41] During the Russian Civil War, between 1918 and 1921, a total of 1,236 pogroms were committed against Jews in 524 towns in Ukraine. Estimates of the number of Jews who were killed in these pogroms range from 30,000 to 60,000.[42][43] Of the recorded 1,236 pogroms and excesses, 493 of them were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers who were under the command of Symon Petliura, 307 of them were carried out by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 of them were carried out by Denikin's army, 106 of them were carried out by the Red Army and 32 of them were carried out by the Polish Army.[44]
Decossackization
[edit]During the Russian Civil War the Bolsheviks engaged in a genocidal campaign against the Don Cossacks.[45] University of York Russian specialist Shane O'Rourke states that "ten thousand Cossacks were systematically slaughtered in a few weeks in January 1919" and he also states that this mass-slaughter "was one of the main factors which led to the disappearance of the Cossacks as a nation."[46] The late Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, head of the Presidential Committee for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repression, notes that "hundreds of thousands of Cossacks were killed".[47] Historian Robert Gellately claims that "the most reliable estimates indicate that between 300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919–20" out of a population of around three million.[48]
Peter Holquist states that the overall number of executions which were carried out is difficult to establish. In some regions hundreds were executed. In Khoper, the tribunal was very active, with a one-month total of 226 executions. The Tsymlianskaia tribunal oversaw the execution of over 700 people. The Kotel'nikovo tribunal executed 117 in early May and nearly 1,000 were executed overall. Others were not quite as active. The Berezovskaia tribunal made a total of twenty arrests in a community of 13,500 people. Holquist also notes that some of the White reports of Red atrocities in the Don were consciously scripted for agitation purposes.[49] In one example, an insurgent leader reported that 140 were executed in Bokovskaia, but later provided a different account, according to which only eight people in Bokovskaia were sentenced to death, and the authorities did not manage to carry these sentences out. This same historian emphasises he is "not seeking to downplay or dismiss very real executions by the Soviets".[50]
Research by Pavel Polian from the Russian Academy of Sciences on the subject of forced migrations in Russia shows that more than 45,000 Cossacks were deported from the Terek province to Ukraine. Their land was distributed among pro-soviet Cossacks and Chechens.[51]
Ingrian Finns
[edit]Joseph Stalin
[edit]Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death occurred in the Soviet Union when it was under the rule of Joseph Stalin. The causes of these unnatural mass deaths include Union-wide famines in the early 1920s and early 1930s and deportations of ethnic minorities. Stalin due to factional struggles with Bukharin wing of the party, peasant resistance to the NEP under Lenin, and the need for industrialization declared a need to extract a "tribute" or "tax" from the peasantry.[52] This idea was supported by most of the party in the 1920s.[52] The tribute collected by the party took on the form of a virtual war against the peasantry that would lead to its cultural destruction and the relegating of the countryside to essentially a colony homogenized to the urban culture of the Soviet elite.[52] This campaign of "colonizing" the peasantry had its roots both in old Russian Imperialism and modern social engineering of the nation state yet with key differences to the latter such as Soviet repression reflecting more the weakness of said state rather than its strength.[52] There have also been more selective discussions of collectivization as a project of colonialism in regard to Ukraine[53] and Kazakhstan.[54] On 26 April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman Boris Yeltsin, passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide."[55]
Holodomor
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5e/HolodomorKharkiv.jpg/220px-HolodomorKharkiv.jpg)
During the Soviet famine of 1930–1933, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and some densely populated regions of Russia were all affected, but the highest number of deaths occurred in Ukraine. The events which occurred there are referred to as the Holodomor and they are recognized as a genocide by the governments of Australia, Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, Canada, Lithuania, Poland, the US, Hungary and Portugal. The famine was caused by a variety of factors with different explanations depending on the scholar. According to Simon Payaslian, the scholarly consensus classifies the Soviet famine (at least the famine in Ukraine) as a genocide,[56] but some scholars say that it remains a significant issue in modern politics and they do not believe that Soviet policies would fall under the legal definition of genocide.[57][58] Several scholars have disputed the belief that the famine was a genocidal act which was committed by the Soviet government, including J. Arch Getty,[59] Stephen G. Wheatcroft,[60] R. W. Davies,[61] and Mark Tauger.[62] Getty says that the "overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives ... is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan."[59] Wheatcroft says that the Soviet government's policies during the famine were criminal acts of fraud and manslaughter, though not outright murder or genocide.[63] While Wheatcroft rejects the genocide characterization of the famine, he states that "the grain collection campaign was associated with the reversal of the previous policy of Ukrainisation."[64]
A 2020 Journal of Genocide Research article by Oleh Wolowyna estimated 8.7 million deaths across the entire Soviet Union including 3.9 million in Ukraine, 3.3 million in Russia, and 1.3 million in Kazakhstan, plus a lower number of dead in other republics.[65] According to the All-Union census of 1926–1937, the rural population in the North Caucasus decreased by 24%. In the Kuban alone, from November 1932 to the spring of 1933, the number of documented victims of famine was 62,000. According to other historians, the real death toll is many times higher.[66] For example, one paper estimates over 14% of the Krasnodar Oblast which roughly includes the Kuban perished due to the famine.[65] The self-identification of the Ukrainian population of Kuban decreased from 915,000 in 1926, to 150,000 in 1939.[67]
According to some scholars, collectivization in the Soviet Union and the lack of favored industries were the primary contributors to famine mortality (52% of excess deaths), and some evidence shows that ethnic Ukrainians and Germans were discriminated against.[68] Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Professor of History at Michigan State University, states that Ukraine was hit particularly hard by grain quotas which were set at levels which most farms could not produce. The 1933 harvest was poor, coupled with the extremely high quota level, which led to starvation conditions. The shortages were blamed on kulak sabotage, and authorities distributed what supplies were available only in the urban areas.[citation needed] According to a Centre for Economic Policy Research paper published in 2021 by Andrei Markevich, Natalya Naumenko, and Nancy Qian, regions with higher Ukrainian population shares were struck harder with centrally planned policies corresponding to famine, and Ukrainian populated areas were given lower amounts of tractors which were correlated to a reduction in famine mortality, ultimately concluding that 92% of famine deaths in Ukraine along with 77% of famine deaths in parts of Russia and Belarus can be explained by the fact that there was systematic bias against Ukrainians.[69] The collectivization and high procurement quota explanation for the famine is somewhat called into question by the fact that the oblasts of Ukraine with the highest losses being Kyiv and Kharkiv which produced far lower amounts of grain than other sections of the country. Oleh Wolowyna comments that peasant resistance and the ensuing repression of said resistance was a critical factor for the famine in Ukraine and parts of Russia populated by national minorities like Germans and Ukrainians allegedly tainted by "fascism and bourgeois nationalism" according to Soviet authorities.[65]
Ukraine's Yuschenko administration recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide and it pressured international governments to do the same.[70] This move was opposed by the Russian government and some members of the Ukrainian parliament, especially the Communists. A Ukrainian court found Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Genrikh Yagoda, Yakov Yakovlev, Stanislav Kosior, Pavel Postyshev, Vlas Chubar and Mendel Khatayevich posthumously guilty of genocide on 13 January 2010.[71] As of 2010, the Russian government's official position was that the famine took place, but it was not an ethnic genocide;[70] former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych supported this position.[72] A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyiv's Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of "genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932–33 through the artificial creation of living conditions intended for its partial physical destruction."[73]
Kazakhstan
[edit]Some historians and scholars consider the Kazakh famine of 1932–33 to have been a genocide of Kazakhs.[74] The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan.[75][76] Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country.[77] Regarding the Kazakh catastrophe, Michael Ellman states that it "seems to be an example of 'negligent genocide' which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention".[78] However, historian Robert Kindler refuses to call the famine a genocide, claiming that doing so masks the culpability of lower-level cadres who were locally rooted among the Kazakhs themselves.[79] Historian Sarah Cameron argues that while Stalin did not intend to starve Kazakhs, he did see some deaths as a necessary sacrifice to achieve the political and economic goals of the regime.[80] However, Sarah Cameron believes that while the famine combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the UN definition, it does comply with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.[81] Historian Stephen Wheatcroft criticizes this view because he believed that the high expectations of central planners were sufficient to demonstrate their ignorance of the ultimate consequences of their actions.[81] Wheatcroft views the state's policies during the famine as criminal acts, though not as intentional murder or genocide.[81] Niccolò Pianciola argues that from Raphael Lemkin's point of view on genocide, all nomads of the Soviet Union were victims of the crime, not just the Kazakhs.[82] A monument for the famine's victims was constructed in 2017.[83] The Turkic Council has described the famine as a "criminal Stalinist ethnic policy".[84] A genocide remembrance day is commenced on 31 May for the victims of the famine.[citation needed]
Poles in the Soviet Union
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Katyn_massacre_5.jpg/220px-Katyn_massacre_5.jpg)
Several scholars write that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles in the Soviet Union from 1937 to 1938 was genocide.[85] An NKVD official remarked that Poles living in the Soviet Union were to be "completely destroyed". Under Stalin the NKVD's Polish operation soon arrested some 144,000, of whom 111,000 were shot and surviving family members deported to Kazakhstan.[86][87][88]
According to historian Michael Ellman, "The 'national operations' of 1937–38, notably the 'Polish operation', may qualify as genocide as defined by the UN Convention, although there is as yet no legal ruling on the matter".[89] Karol Karski argues that the Soviet actions against Poles are genocide according to international law. He says that while the extermination was targeting other nationalities as well and according to the criteria other than ethnicity, but as long as Poles were singled out basing on their ethnicity, that makes the actions to be genocide.[90] The historian Terry Martin, refers to the "national operations", including the "Polish Operation", as ethnic cleansing and "ethnic terror". According to Martin, the singling out of diaspora nationalities for arrest and mass execution "verged on the genocidal".[91] Historian Timothy Snyder called the Polish Operation genocidal: "It is hard not to see the Soviet "Polish Operation" of 1937-38 as genocidal: Polish fathers were shot, Polish mothers sent to Kazakhstan, and Polish children left in orphanages where they would lose their Polish identity. As more than 100,000 innocent people were killed on the spurious grounds that theirs was a disloyal ethnicity, Stalin spoke of "Polish filth"."[92] Norman Naimark called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal"[93] but did not consider the entire Great Purge genocidal since it targeted political opponents as well.[93] Simon Sebag Montefiore presents a similar opinion.[94]
In practice abandoning its 'official socialist' ideology of the "fraternity of peoples", the Soviets in the Great Terror of 1937–1938 targeted "a national group as an enemy of the state." During their Polish operation against party enemies the NKVD hit "Soviet Poles and other Soviet citizens associated with Poland, Polish culture, or Roman Catholicism. The Polish ethnic character of the operation quickly prevailed in practice... ." Stalin was pleased at "cleaning out this Polish filth." Among the several different nationalities targeted in the Great Terror (e.g., Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Belarusians), "ethnic Poles suffered more than any other group."[95] In 1940 the Soviets also killed thousands of Polish POWs, among about 22,000 Polish citizens shot in the Katyn forest and other places.[96][97]
Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachay, Kalmyks, Meskhetian Turks, and Volga Germans
[edit]The decree on the deportation of Volga Germans was published on 28 August 1941. Men aged 15–55 and later women between the ages of 16 and 45 were forced to work in the forests and mines of Siberia and Central Asia under conditions similar to those prevailing in the slave labor camps of the Gulag. The expulsion of the Germans from the Volga ended in September 1941. The number sent to Siberia and Kazakhstan totaled approximately 438,000. Together with 27,000 evicted in the same ethnic cleansing of the Stalingrad Oblast and 47,000 of the Saratov Oblast, the total number sent to forced internal exile was about 950,000, of which 30% died during deportation (285,000), and most never returned to the Volga Region.
On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechen people during Operation Lentil (23 February 1944), as an act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 IV Hague Convention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land and the CPPCG.[98]
The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire population of Checheno-Ingushetia was summoned to local party buildings where they were told they were to be deported as punishment for their alleged collaboration with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to Siberia.[99][100]
- Many times, resistance was met with slaughter, and in one such instance, in the aul of Khaibakh, about 700 people were locked in a barn and burned to death. By the next summer, Checheno-Ingushetia was dissolved; a number of Chechen and Ingush placenames were replaced with Russian ones; mosques and graveyards were destroyed, and a massive campaign to burn numerous historical Chechen texts was nearly complete.[101] Many people from remote villages were executed per Lavrentiy Beria's verbal order that any Chechen or Ingush deemed 'untransportable should be liquidated' on the spot.[102]
- Throughout the North Caucasus, about 700,000 (according to Dalkhat Ediev, 724297,[103] of which the majority, 412,548, were Chechens, along with 96,327 Ingush, 104,146 Kalmyks, 39,407 Balkars and 71,869 Karachais). Many died on the trip, of exposure in Siberia's extremely harsh environment. The NKVD, supplying the Russian perspective, gives the statistic of 144,704 killed in 1944–1948 alone (with a death rate of 23.5% for all groups). Estimates for Chechen deaths alone (excluding the NKVD statistic), range from about 170,000 to 200,000[104][105] thus ranging from over a third of the total Chechen population to nearly half being killed (of those that were deported, not counting those killed on the spot) in those 4 years alone.
Deportations of Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg/220px-AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg)
The mass deportations of up to 17,500 Lithuanians, 17,000 Latvians and 6,000 Estonians carried out by Stalin's government marked the start of another genocide. Added to the killing of the Forest Brethren and the renewed Dekulakization which followed the Soviet reconquest of the Baltic states at the end of World War II, the total number of people who were deported to Siberia consisted of 118,559 Lithuanians, 52,541 Latvians, and 32,540 Estonians.[107] The high death rate of the deportees during their first few years in exile, caused by the failure of the Soviet authorities to provide them with suitable clothing and housing after they reached their destination, led some sources to label the affair an act of genocide.[108] Based on the Martens Clause and the principles of the Nuremberg Charter, the European Court of Human Rights held that the March deportation constituted a crime against humanity.[109][110] According to Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against humanity, rather than genocide.[111]
Lithuania began holding trials for genocide in 1997. Latvia and Estonia followed in 1998.[112] Latvia has since convicted four security officers and in 2003 it sentenced a former KGB agent to five years in prison. Estonia tried and convicted ten men and is investigating others. In Lithuania by 2004 23 cases were before the courts, but as of the end of the year none had been convicted.[113]
In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old), a former Soviet Communist Party official and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly after the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meri's frail health and then abandoned when he died.[114] A memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genocidal victims of Stalin and Hitler,[115] and the Museum of Genocide Victims in Lithuania, which opened on 14 October 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles the imprisonment and deportation of Lithuanians.[116]
Crimean Tatars
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Uskut.jpg/220px-Uskut.jpg)
The ethnic cleansing[117][118][119] and deportation of the Crimean Tatars from Crimea was ordered by Joseph Stalin as a form of collective punishment for alleged collaboration with the Nazi occupation regime in Taurida Subdistrict during 1942–1943. The state-organized removal is known as the Sürgünlik in Crimean Tatar. A total of more than 230,000 people were deported (the entire ethnic Crimean Tatar population), of which more than 100,000 were killed via starvation or disease.
Many activists, politicians, scholars and historians go even further and consider this deportation a crime of genocide.[120] Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland".[121] Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay[122] and Pyotr Grigorenko[123] both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."[92]
On 12 December 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament issued a resolution recognizing this event as genocide and established 18 May as the "Day of Remembrance for the victims of the Crimean Tatar genocide."[124] The parliament of Latvia recognized the event as an act of genocide on 9 May 2019.[125][126] The Parliament of Lithuania did the same on 6 June 2019.[127] Canadian Parliament passed a motion on 10 June 2019, recognizing the Crimean Tatar deportation of 1944 as a genocide perpetrated by Stalin, designating 18 May to be a day of remembrance.[128]
Transcarpathia
[edit]Genocide scholar Raz Segal considers the actions of the Kingdom of Hungary towards the inhabitants of Transcarpathia (including Rusyns and Jews) to constitute a genocide.[129]
United States
[edit]The Osage Indian murders was a plot by William King Hale and others to kill full-blood Osage to gain the mineral rights for their reservation.[130] The events have been characterized as a genocide due to the intentions of its perpetrators to destroy the Osage nation.[131][132][133] While some label the murders themselves as an instance of genocide, others include the murders in a longer process of genocide against the Osage nation.[134][135] Estimates vary widely as to the percentage of the Osage nation killed in the murders, with the lowest estimate being 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed.[136]
Japan
[edit]Korea and Taiwan (Japanese era)
[edit]Nanjing Massacre
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/220px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg)
During the Nanjing Massacre which was committed during the early months of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese committed mass killings against the Chinese population of the city, during which up to 300,000 people were killed. Bradley Campbell described the Nanjing Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed en masse by the Japanese during the aftermath of the battle for the city, despite its successful and certain outcome.[137] However, Jean-Louis Margolin does not believe that the Nanjing atrocities should be considered a genocide because only prisoners of war were executed in a systematic manner and the targeting of civilians was sporadic and done without orders by individual actors.[138]
Southeast Asia
[edit]Various atrocities were also committed during the Japanese colonial era, one of them was the Manila massacre.[139]
Argentina
[edit]Switzerland
[edit]Kinder der Landstrasse was a project implemented by the Swiss foundation Pro Juventute from 1926 to 1973. The project aimed to assimilate the itinerant Yenish people in Switzerland by institutionalizing the parents and forcibly removing their children and placing them in orphanages or foster homes.[140]
Fascist Italy
[edit]Libya
[edit]The Pacification of Libya,[141] also known as the Libyan Genocide[142][143] or the Second Italo-Senussi War,[144] was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,[145][146] when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.[147] The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's entire population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.[142] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, the refusal to take prisoners of war and the execution rather than the capture of surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.[148] Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.[141][149] In 2008, Italy apologized for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and it went on to say that its apology was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."[150]
Ethiopia
[edit]The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Italian Invasion (Amharic: ጣልያን ወረራ), and in Italy as the Ethiopian War (Italian: Guerra d'Etiopia). It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the Axis powers and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations before the outbreak of the Second World War. By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, which have been described by some historians as constituting genocide.[151]
El Salvador
[edit]Kingdom of Iraq
[edit]The Simele massacre (Syriac: ܦܪܡܬܐ ܕܣܡܠܐ pramta d-Simele, Arabic: مذبحة سميل maḏbaḥat Summayl) was a massacre committed by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Iraq during a campaign which systematically targeted the Assyrians of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term is not only used in reference to the massacre which occurred in Simele, it is also used in reference to the killing spree which occurred in 63 Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts and caused the death of between 5,000[152] and 6,000[153][154] Assyrians.
The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to invent the concept of genocide.[155] In 1933, Lemkin delivered a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law. The concept of the "crime of barbarity" evolved into the idea of genocide, and it was based on the Simele massacre, Armenian genocide, and later the Holocaust.[156]
Dominican Republic
[edit]In 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo ordered the execution of Haitians who were living in the Dominican Republic. The Parsley massacre, known as "El Corte" (the Cutting) in the Dominican Republic, lasted approximately five days. The name of the massacre comes from claims that soldiers used a Shibboleth to identify suspected Haitians, showing them parsley leaves and asking them to pronounce the name of the plant. Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to pronounce the Spanish word for parsley ("perejil") correctly, whereas native Haitian Creole speakers would struggle to pronounce the 'r' adequately. Those who mispronounced "perejil" were assumed to be Haitian and slaughtered. The massacre resulted in the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000 people.[157]
Republic of China and Tibet
[edit]In the 1930s, the Kuomintang's Republic of China government supported Muslim warlord Ma Bufang when he launched seven expeditions into Golog, causing the deaths of thousands of Tibetans.[158] Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that followed genocidal, while David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the number of times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack that made life impossible.[159] Ma was anti-communist and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northeast and eastern Qinghai and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples.[160][161] Ma also patronized the Panchen Lama, who was exiled from Tibet by the Dalai Lama's government.
Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png/220px-WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png)
The Holocaust
[edit]Year | Jews killed[162] |
---|---|
1933–1940 | under 100,000 |
1941 | 1,100,000 |
1942 | 2,700,000 |
1943 | 500,000 |
1944 | 600,000 |
1945 | 100,000 |
The Holocaust is widely recognized as a genocide. The term "genocide" appeared in the indictment of 24 German leaders. Count three of the indictment stated that all of the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide – namely, the extermination of racial and national groups...."[163]
The term "Holocaust" (derived from the Greek words hólos, "whole" and kaustós, "burnt") is often used to describe the killing of approximately six million European Jews, as part of a program of deliberate extermination which was planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers Party in Germany, which was led by Adolf Hitler.[164][165] Many scholars do not include other groups in the definition of the Holocaust, because they choose to limit it to the genocide of the Jews.[166][165][167][168]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg/220px-German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg)
The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers and murdered through over-work. When Nazi Germany conquered new territories in Eastern Europe, specialized units which were called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[169] Jews and Romani people were crammed into ghettos before they were crammed into box cars and transported to extermination camps by freight train where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[170]
Extermination Camp | Estimate of number killed |
Ref |
---|---|---|
Auschwitz-Birkenau | 1,000,000 | [171][172] |
Treblinka | 870,000 | [173] |
Belzec | 600,000 | [174] |
Majdanek | 79,000–235,000 | [175][176] |
Chełmno | 320,000 | [177] |
Sobibór | 250,000 | [178] |
Country | Estimated Pre-War Jewish population |
Estimated killed |
Percent killed |
---|---|---|---|
Poland | 3,300,000 | 3,000,000 | 90 |
Baltic countries | 253,000 | 228,000 | 90 |
Germany and Austria | 240,000 | 210,000 | 87.5 |
Bohemia and Moravia | 90,000 | 80,000 | 89 |
Slovakia | 90,000 | 75,000 | 83 |
Greece | 70,000 | 54,000 | 77 |
Netherlands | 140,000 | 105,000 | 75 |
Hungary | 650,000 | 450,000 | 70 |
Byelorussian SSR | 375,000 | 245,000 | 65 |
Ukrainian SSR | 1,500,000 | 900,000 | 60 |
Belgium | 65,000 | 40,000 | 60 |
Yugoslavia | 43,000 | 26,000 | 60 |
Romania | 600,000 | 300,000 | 50 |
Norway | 2,173 | 890 | 41 |
France | 350,000 | 90,000 | 26 |
Bulgaria | 64,000 | 14,000 | 22 |
Italy | 40,000 | 8,000 | 20 |
Luxembourg | 5,000 | 1,000 | 20 |
Russian SFSR | 975,000 | 107,000 | 11 |
Denmark | 8,000 | 52 | <1 |
Total | 8,861,800 | 5,933,900 | 67 |
This list gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 80–90% were estimated to have been Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half of the total number of Jews who were murdered in the entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland was murdered in these camps.[179]
Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews who were murdered has been six million. The Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise figure for the number of murdered Jews,[180] but it has been able to find documentation of more than three million names of Jewish victims,[181][better source needed] which it displays at its visitors center. The figure most commonly used is the six million attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official.[182]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Auschwitz_Resistance_280_cropped.jpg/250px-Auschwitz_Resistance_280_cropped.jpg)
There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million murdered in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were murdered.[184] The same proportion were murdered in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the majority of these fled to Czechoslovakia, France or the Netherlands, from where they were later deported and murdered.
In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia (whose territories were divided into the German-Italian Puppet state Independent State of Croatia run by the Ustaše and the German Occupied Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia governed by Milan Nedić's Government of National Salvation), over 70 percent were murdered. In The Independent State of Croatia, Ustaše and the German Army carried out extermination of Jews as well as Roma in Ustaše-run concentration camps like Jasenovac, while a considerable number of Jews were rounded up by the Ustaše and turned over to the Germans for extermination in Nazi Germany. In the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, the German Army carried out the extermination of Jews as well as Roma with support and assistance from Milan Nedić's regime and Dimitrije Ljotić's fascist organization Yugoslav National Movement (Zbor), who had joint control over the Banjica concentration camp with the German Army in Belgrade.[185][186] 50 to 70 percent were murdered in Romania, Belgium and Hungary. It is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus and Ukraine, but these figures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Albania was the only country occupied by Germany that had a significantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in 1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored guests in the country.[187] Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member, had its own unique response to German policies regarding Jews; see Shanghai Ghetto.
In addition to those who died in extermination camps, another 800,000 to one million Jews were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate figure, since the Einsatzgruppen murders were frequently undocumented).[188] Many more died through execution or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland before they could be deported.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png/220px-Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png)
In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in Eastern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls which were published in the pioneering works by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilbert's estimation of two million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated figure of one million in the Extermination Camp data box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded in 1999:
The goal of annihilating all of the Jews of Europe, as it was proclaimed at the conference in the villa Am Grossen Wannsee in January 1942, was not reached. Yet the six million murder victims make the holocaust a unique crime in the history of mankind. The number of victims—and with certainty the following represent the minimum number in each case—cannot express that adequately. Numbers are just too abstract. However they must be stated in order to make clear the dimension of the genocide: 165,000 Jews from Germany, 65,000 from Austria, 32,000 from France and Belgium, more than 100,000 from the Netherlands, 60,000 from Greece, the same number from Yugoslavia, more than 140,000 from Czechoslovakia, half a million from Hungary, 2.2 million from the Soviet Union, and 2.7 million from Poland. To these numbers must be added all those killed in the pogroms and massacres in Romania and Transitrien (over 200,000) and the deported and murdered Jews from Albania and Norway, Denmark and Italy, from Luxembourg and Bulgaria.
— Benz, Wolfgang The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide[189]
Non-Jewish victims
[edit]Victims | Killed | Source |
---|---|---|
Jews | 5.93 million | [179] |
Soviet POWs | 2–3 million | [190] |
Ethnic Poles | 1.8–2 million | [191][192] |
Serbs | 200,000—500,000 | [193] |
Disabled | 270,000 | [194] |
Romani | 90,000–220,000 | [195][196] |
Freemasons | 80,000–200,000 | [197][198] |
Homosexuals | 5,000–15,000 | [199] |
Jehovah's Witnesses |
2,500–5,000 | [200] |
Spanish Republicans | 7000 | [201][page needed] |
Some scholars broaden the definition of the Holocaust by including other German killing policies which were carried out during the war, including the mistreatment of Soviet POWs, crimes against ethnic Poles, the mass murder of mentally and physically disabled Germans (which the Nazi authorities framed as "euthanasia"),[202] persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses, the genocide of Romani, and other crimes which the Nazis committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities.[203] Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that the broadest definition, including Soviet deaths due to war-related famine and disease, would produce a death toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent) of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.[204] This was in contrast to the five to 11 million (1.4 percent to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in German-dominated Europe.[205][206] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has the number of people murdered during the Holocaust era at 17 million.
Romani people
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Persecution_of_Roma.gif/330px-Persecution_of_Roma.gif)
The treatment of the Romani people was not consistent in the different areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some areas (e.g. Luxembourg and the Baltic countries), the Nazis murdered virtually the entire Romani population. In other areas (e.g. Denmark and Greece), there is no record of Romanis being subjected to mass murder.[207]
Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death toll was at least 130,000 out of the nearly one million Romani who resided in Nazi-controlled Europe.[208] Michael Berenbaum writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000 and 220,000.[209] A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated at least 220,000 and possibly closer to 500,000 victims, but this study explicitly excluded the Roma who were murdered in Romania and Yugoslavia (Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia) where the genocide of Romanies was intense.[195][210] Martin Gilbert estimated a total of more than 220,000 deaths out of the 700,000 Romani who lived in Europe.[211] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 deaths, claiming that the Romani death toll proportionally equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.[196][212]
Slavic population of the Soviet Union
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg/200px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/200px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg)
The Nazi German government implemented Generalplan Ost which was part of its plan for the colonization of Central and Eastern Europe.[213] Implementation of the plan necessitated genocide[214] and ethnic cleansing which was to be undertaken on a vast scale in the territories which were occupied by Germany during World War II.[214] The plan entailed the enslavement, expulsion, and the partial extermination of most Slavic peoples in Europe, peoples whom the Nazis considered racially inferior and non-Aryan.[214][215] The programme operational guidelines, which were prepared in the years 1939–1942, were based on the policy of Lebensraum which was designed by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi movement, as well as being a fulfillment of the Drang nach Osten (English: Drive towards the East) ideology of German expansion to the east. As such, it was intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.[214]
The civilian death toll in the regions which were occupied by Germany was estimated to be 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his figures, he used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when he referred to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied USSR which were caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major part of the huge toll. The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G. I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two figures is 3,267,613, which is close to estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions Nazi Germany implemented a policy of forced confiscation of food which resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of the population, 4.1 million persons.[216]
Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence | 7,420,379[217] |
Deaths of forced laborers in Germany | 2,164,313[218] |
Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions | 4,100,000[219] |
Total | 13,684,692 |
---|
Poland
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg/220px-The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg)
The Intelligenzaktion ("anti-intelligentsia action") was a highly secretive genocidal action of Nazi Germany against Polish elites (primarily intelligentsia; teachers, doctors, priests, community leaders etc.) in the early stages of World War II. It was conducted as part of an attempt to complete the Germanization of the western regions of occupied Poland before their planned annexation. The operation cost the lives of 100,000 Poles according to the Institute of National Remembrance.[220]
Adolf Hitler believed that the Polish elites might inspire the Poles to disobey their new German masters so he decreed that they had to be eliminated beforehand.[221] The aim was the elimination of Polish society's elite, which was very broadly defined as: Polish nobles, intelligentsia, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, military veterans, members of national organizations, priests, judges, political activists, and anyone who had attended secondary school.[222] It was continued by the German AB-Aktion operation in Poland in the spring and summer of 1940, which saw the massacre of Lwów professors and the execution of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest. Several thousand civilians were executed or imprisoned. The Einsatzgruppen were also responsible for the indiscriminate murder of Poles during the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union (which itself had invaded a sizeable portion of pre-WWII Polish territory, murdering dozens of thousands of imprisoned Poles in turn).[223][failed verification]
Our strength is our quickness and our brutality.... I have given the order—and will have everyone shot who utters but one word of criticism—that the aim of this war does not consist in reaching certain geographical lines, but in the enemies' physical elimination. Thus, for the time being only in the east, I put ready my Death's Head units, with the order to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of the Polish race or language... Adolf Hitler, Obersalzberg Speech, given on 22 August 1939, a week before the invasion
Volhynia and Eastern Galicia
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lipniki_massacre.jpg/220px-Lipniki_massacre.jpg)
The massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were part of an ethnic cleansing operation carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created Distrikt Galizien in General Government), and UPA North in Volhynia (in Nazi created Reichskommissariat Ukraine), from March 1943 until the end of 1944. The peak took place in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander, Dmytro Klyachkivsky, ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of age.[224][225] Despite this, most were women and children. The UPA murdered 40,000–60,000 Polish civilians in Volhynia,[226] from 25,000[227] to 30,000–40,000 in Eastern Galicia.[226] The murders were directly linked with the policies of the Bandera fraction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, whose goal, specified at the Second Conference of the OUN-B, was to remove non-Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.[228]
The massacres are recognized in Poland as ethnic cleansing with "marks of genocide".[229] According to IPN prosecutor Piotr Zając, the crimes have a "character of genocide".[230]
On 22 July 2016, the Parliament of Poland passed a resolution declaring 11 July a National Day of Remembrance to honor the Polish victims murdered by Ukrainian nationalists, and formally calling the massacres a Genocide.[231]
Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
[edit]After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, Croatian Nazis and fascists who were known as the Ustaše established a clerical fascist regime which was known as the Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (Independent State of Croatia) or the NDH. Immediately afterwards, the Ustashe launched a genocidal campaign against Serbs, Jews and Romani people who lived inside the borders of the NDH. The Ustaše's view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory that the Serbs constituted an inferior race, was influenced by anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment, anti-Serb sentiment and the works of Croatian nationalists and intellectuals which were written from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.[232][233][234] The Ustaše enacted a policy which called for a solution to the "Serbian problem" in Croatia. The solution, as it was promulgated by Mile Budak, was to "kill one-third of the Serbs, expel one-third, and convert one-third (to Roman Catholicism)."[235] Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazis' decision to murder all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941, specifically in late June, which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Final Solution.[236]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Gudovac_massacre.jpg/220px-Gudovac_massacre.jpg)
From 1941 to 1945, the Ustaše regime killed at least 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs,[237][238] It is estimated that in the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp alone, which was notorious for its high mortality rate (higher than the mortality rate at Auschwitz) and the barbaric practices which occurred in it, approximately 100,000 people were murdered.[239] The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis installed puppet state which erected children's concentration camps.[193] Serbs who lived in the NDH suffered one of the highest casualty rates in Europe during World War II, while the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes which existed during the 20th century.[240][241] Historian Stanley G. Payne claimed that the direct and indirect executions which were carried out by the NDH regime were an "extraordinary mass crime", which in proportionate terms exceeded the crimes which were committed by any other European regime besides Hitler's Third Reich, while Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes which were committed against Serbs who lived in the NDH were the "earliest total genocide to be attempted during World War II."[242] Payne added that the crimes which were committed in the NDH were only proportionately surpassed by the crimes which were committed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and the crimes which were committed by several of the extremely genocidal African regimes.[242]
Serbs in Montenegro
[edit]The Genocide in Piva and Velika[243] was the genocide of 522 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, along with Croatian Ustaše and the SS Handschar Division on 7 June 1943 in the village of Doli Plivski, Montenegro, near the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina,[244] and the genocide of between 428 and 550 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen and 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg on 28 July 1944 in the settlement of Velika, in Plav, Montenegro during World War II.
Bosnian Muslims and Croats
[edit]The mass-killings which were committed against non-Serbs by members of the Chetniks, a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Sandžak constituted a genocide, according to some historians.[245][246] This can be seen through the mass-killings of ethnic Croats and Muslims that conformed to the Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' which were issued by the Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović, concerning the cleansing of non-Serbs on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia.[247][248][249] The number of victims by ethnicity includes between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and 29,000 to 33,000 Bosnian Muslims.[250]
Disabled and mentally ill
[edit]Our starting-point is not the individual, and we do not subscribe to the view that one should feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty or clothe the naked—those are not our objectives. Our objectives are entirely different. They can be put most crisply in the sentence: we must have a healthy people in order to prevail in the world.
— Joseph Goebbels, 1938.[251]
Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were murdered; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions.[252] Outside the mental health institutions, the figures are estimated to number 20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the killing facilities known as "euthanasia" centers) or 400,000 (according to Franz Ziereis, the commandant of Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp).[252] Another 300,000 were forcibly sterilized.[citation needed] Overall it has been estimated that over 270,000 individuals[194] with mental disorders of all kinds were murdered, although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Along with the physically disabled, people suffering from dwarfism were persecuted as well. Many were put on display in cages and experimented on by the Nazis.[253] Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and "constituted the connection" to the later annihilation of Jews and other "undesirables" in the Holocaust.[254] After strong protests by the German Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941 Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.[255]
The program was named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, the headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and Institutional Care,[256] led by Philipp Bouhler, head of Hitler's private chancellery (Kanzlei des Führer der NSDAP) and Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician.
Brandt was tried in December 1946 at Nuremberg, along with 22 others, in a case known as United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al., also known as the Doctors' Trial. He was hanged at Landsberg Prison on 2 June 1948.
See also
[edit]- Accusation in a mirror
- Anti-communist mass killings
- Anti-Mongolianism § State-sponsored genocides by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial China/Communist China
- Anti-Romani sentiment
- Antisemitism
- The Black Book of Communism
- Black genocide in the United States – the notion that African Americans have been subjected to genocide throughout their history because of racism against African Americans, an aspect of racism in the United States
- Crimes against humanity
- Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
- Criticism of communist party rule
- Democide
- Discrimination
- Ethnic cleansing
- Ethnic conflict
- Ethnic violence
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnocide
- Far-left politics
- Far-right politics
- Far-right subcultures
- Gendercide
- Genocide denial
- Genocide justification
- Genocide of indigenous peoples
- Genocide recognition politics
- Genocide of Christians by the Islamic State
- Genocide of Iraqi Turkmen by the Islamic State
- Genocide of Shias by the Islamic State
- Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State
- Hate crime
- Hate group
- Hate media
- Hate speech
- Hate studies
- Holocaust studies
- List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
- List of genocides
- List of war crimes
- Mass killings under communist regimes
- Native American genocide in the United States – the notion that Native Americans have been subjected to genocide throughout their history because of racism against them, another aspect of racism in the united States
- Nativism (politics)
- Political cleansing of population – an aspect of political violence
- Population transfer
- Racism
- Religious intolerance
- Religious discrimination
- Religious persecution
- Religious violence
- Sectarian violence
- Supremacism
- Terrorism
- Violence against LGBT people
- War crime
- Xenophobia
Notes
[edit]- ^ Defined under the Genocide Convention as a "national, ethnical, racial, or religious group."
- ^ By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide; his concept of genocide, as it was outlined in Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, covered Stalinist deportations as genocide by default, and differed from the adopted Genocide Convention in many ways. From a 21st-century perspective, its coverage was very broad, and as a result, it would classify any gross human rights violation as a genocide, and many events that were deemed genocidal by Lemkin did not amount to genocide. As the Cold War began, this change was the result of Lemkin's turn to anti-communism in an attempt to convince the United States to ratify the Genocide Convention.[11]
References
[edit]- ^ a b "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 12 January 1951. Archived from the original on 11 December 2005. Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.
- ^ Towner 2011, pp. 625–638; Lang 2005, pp. 5–17: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; Gerlach 2010, p. 6: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; Hollander 2012, pp. 149–189: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators."
- ^ Schabas, William A. (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes (PDF) (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 9, 92, 227. ISBN 0-521-78262-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2024.
- ^ Straus, Scott (2022). Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (eds.). Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 223, 240. ISBN 978-0-2280-0951-1.
- ^ Rugira, Lonzen (20 April 2022). "Why Genocide is "the crime of crimes"". Pan African Review. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ a b Anderton, Charles H.; Brauer, Jurgen, eds. (2016). Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Prevention. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937829-6.
- ^ Kakar, Mohammed Hassan (1995). Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982. University of California Press. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-0-5209-1914-3 – via Google Books.
- ^ Chalk & Jonassohn 1990.
- ^ Staub 1989, p. 8.
- ^ Gellately & Kiernan 2003, p. 267.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2005.
- ^ Schabas 2009, p. 160: "Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to the inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide."
- ^ a b 1915 declaration:
- Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution, 106th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, archived from the original on 14 April 2016, retrieved 23 January 2021;
- Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives), 109th Congress, 1st Session, 15 September 2005, archived from the original on 3 July 2016, retrieved 23 January 2021; H.res.316, House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions, 14 June 2005, archived from the original on 3 July 2016, retrieved 15 September 2005: Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 – 7.
- The French, British and Russian joint declaration (original source of the telegram), Washington, D.C.: The Department of State, 24 May 1915, archived from the original on 27 January 2024, retrieved 4 June 2017
- ^ Morgenthau, Henry (1918). Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
- ^ Midlarsky, Manus I. The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. p. 342.
- ^
- Jones 2006, pp. 171–72 A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS resolution is on p. 172)
- "Resolution by the International Association of Genocide Scholars" (PDF). IAGS. December 2007. Retrieved 15 February 2016.[dead link]
- "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament – full text". Armenia NEWS.am. 15 March 2010. Archived from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
- Gaunt, David (2006). Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0.[permanent dead link]
- Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
- ^ International Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides, Assyrian International News Agency, 15 December 2007, archived from the original on 3 March 2024, retrieved 15 December 2007
- ^ Jones 2006.
- ^ a b Betts, Paul (17 August 2010). Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination: Saul Friedlander and the Future of Holocaust Studies. Continuum. pp. 214–. ISBN 978-1-4411-2987-1. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
Already in the period 1912–14, the Young Turk leadership aimed to replace the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional.... The elimination of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek populations was an integral part of the Young Turk struggle for ...
- ^ Rummel, Rudolph (1994). Death by Government.
- ^ Rendel, G. W. (20 March 1922), Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice (memorandum), Foreign Office
- ^
- Jones 2006, pp. 150–51: 'By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and the Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia… The major populations of "Anatolian Greeks" include those along the Aegean coast and those in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus… A "Christian genocide" framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups that were targeted for genocide… of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor—Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians—approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 were exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.'
- Jones 2006, p. 166: 'An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous "population exchanges" that set the seal on a heavily "Turkified" state.'
- Akçam, Taner (21 August 2007). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Henry Holt and Company. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4668-3212-1.
- Rummel 1998, p. Chapter 5
- ^ Aprim, Frederick A. (January 2005). Assyrians: the continuous saga. F. A. Aprim. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4134-3857-4.
- ^ Ye'or, Bat; Kochan, Miriam; Littman, David (2002). Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 148–49. ISBN 978-0-8386-3943-6. OCLC 47054791.
- ^ Jones 2006, p. Genocides in history (World War I through World War II) at Google Books.
- ^ Yacoub, Joseph (1985). La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938) [The Assyro-Chaldean question: the European Powers and the League of Nations, 1908–38] (thèse) (in French). Lyon. p. 156.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), 4 vol. - ^
- Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1995). The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus. Oxford: Berghahn Books..
- Balakian, Peter (2003). The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins..
- Bloxham, Donald (2005). The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford: Oxford University Press..
- Akçam, Taner (2012). The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (2002). Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah [The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah] (in German). Chronos. p. 114. ISBN 978-3-0340-0561-6.
- ^
- Walker, Christopher J. (1980). Armenia, the Survival of a Nation. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-04944-7.
- Akçam, Taner (2007). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Macmillan. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-8050-8665-2.
- ^ Maisel, Sebastian (30 June 2018). The Kurds: An Encyclopedia of Life, Culture, and Society. ABC-CLIO. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4408-4257-3.
- ^ Rezvani, Babak (15 March 2014). Ethno-territorial conflict and coexistence in the caucasus, Central Asia and Fereydan: academisch proefschrift. Amsterdam University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-90-485-1928-6.
- ^ a b c Üngör, U. (2009). Young Turk social engineering: mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913-1950 (Thesis). University of Amsterdam. hdl:11245/1.319592. S2CID 129130138.
- ^ Osterlund, Paul Benjamin (1 May 2015). "Turkey's Alevis 'under the shadow of military tanks". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022.
- ^ McDowall, David (14 May 2004). A Modern History of the Kurds (Third ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-85043-416-0.
- ^ Andreopoulos 1997, p. 11.
- ^ Besikçi, İsmail (1990), Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi [Tunceli Law (1935) and Dersim Genocide] (in Turkish), Belge Yayınları
- ^ a b van Bruineßen 1994.
- ^ Saymaz, Ismail (14 March 2011). "Turkish prosecutor refuses to hear Dersim 'genocide' claim". Hürriyet Daily News. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
- ^ "Commission Calls 1916 Tsarist Mass Killings Of Kyrgyz Genocide Print Share". Radio Free Europe. Archived from the original on 12 June 2023.
- ^ Pushkareva, Irina (1984). "Shtyurmer, Boris Vladimirovich" Штюрмер, Борис Владимирович [Stürmer, Boris Vladimirovich]. Krugosvet (in Russian). Archived from the original on 11 November 2007.
- ^ "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» ". Prevent Genocide International. Archived from the original on 13 June 2019.
- ^ "History and Culture of Jews in Ukraine ("«Нариси з історії та культури євреїв України»)«Дух і літера» publ., Kyiv, 2008, с. 128 – 135
- ^ Vital, D. (1987). Zionism: the crucial phase. Oxford University Press. p. 359.
- ^ Pipes, R. (1996). A Concise History of the Russian Revolution. Vintage Books. p. 262.
- ^
- Heller, Mikhail; Nekrich, Aleksandr (January 1988). Utopia in power: the history of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the present. Summit Books. ISBN 978-0-671-64535-9.
- Figes, Orlando (1997). A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924. Pimlico. p. 660. ISBN 978-0-7126-7327-3.
- Rayfield, Donald (2004). Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those who Killed for Him. Random House. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-375-50632-1.
- Rummel, R. J. (1996). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. p. Genocides in history (World War I through World War II) at Google Books. ISBN 978-1-4128-2750-8.
- ^ "Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed". University of York Communications Office. 21 January 2003. Archived from the original on 10 December 2009.
- ^ Yakovlev, Alexander Nikolaevich (2002). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-300-08760-8. Archived from the original on 19 November 2014.
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe Archived May 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 pp. 70–71.
- ^ Holquist, Peter (1994). A Russian Vendee: The Practice of Revolutionary Politics in the Don Countryside, 1917–1921 (Ph.D.). Columbia University.
- ^ Holquist, Peter (1997). ""Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919". Cahiers du Monde Russe. 38: 127–162. doi:10.3406/cmr.1997.2486. Archived from the original on 4 December 2009.
- ^ Polian, Pavel (January 2004). Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR. Central European University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-963-9241-68-8.
- ^ a b c d Viola, Lynne (2014). "Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities". The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements. Central European University Press. pp. 49–69. ISBN 978-963-386-048-9.
- ^
- Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (12 May 2021). "Raphaël Lemkin, Genocide, Colonialism, Famine, and Ukraine". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 8 (1): 193–215. doi:10.21226/ewjus645. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- Hechter, Michael (12 May 2021). "Internal Colonialism, Alien Rule, and Famine in Ireland and Ukraine". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 8 (1): 145–157. doi:10.21226/ewjus642. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- Hrynevych, Liudmyla (12 May 2021). "Stalin's Faminogenic Policies in Ukraine: The Imperial Discourse". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 8 (1): 99–143. doi:10.21226/ewjus641. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- Klid, Bohdan (12 May 2021). "Empire-Building, Imperial Policies, and Famine in Occupied Territories and Colonies". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 8 (1): 11–32. doi:10.21226/ewjus634. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ Sabol, Steven (2017). "Internal Colonization". The Touch of Civilization: Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization. University Press of Colorado. pp. 171–204. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6.9. ISBN 978-1-60732-549-9. JSTOR j.ctt1mtz7g6.9.
This work compares the process and practice of nineteenth-century American and Russian internal colonization—a form of contiguous, continental expansion, imperialism, and colonialism or imperialism that incorporated indigenous lands and peoples. Both the republican United States and tsarist Russia exercised internal colonization, yet they remain neglected in many studies devoted to nineteenth-century imperialism and colonialism.
- ^ Perovic, Jeronim (June 2018). From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule. Oxford University Press. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-19-093467-5. OCLC 1083957407.
- ^ Payaslian, Simon (11 January 2021). "20th Century Genocides". International Relations. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199743292-0105. ISBN 978-0-19-974329-2. Retrieved 26 November 2021 – via Oxford Bibliographies Online.
- ^ Marples, David R. (30 November 2005). "The great famine debate goes on..." Edmont Journal. University of Alberta. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 28 November 2021 – via ExpressNews.
- ^ Kulchytsky, Stanislav [in Ukrainian] (17 February 2007). "Holodomor 1932–1933 rr. yak henotsyd: prohalyny u dokazovii bazi" Голодомор 1932 — 1933 рр. як геноцид: прогалини у доказовій базі [Holodomor 1932–1933 as genocide: gaps in the evidence]. Den (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ^ a b Getty, J. Arch (1 March 2000). "The Future Did Not Work". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan.
- ^ Wheatcroft 2018.
- ^ Davies, Robert W.; Wheatcroft, Stephen (2009). The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-230-27397-9.
- ^ Tauger, Mark (1 July 2018). "Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'". History News Network. George Washington University. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (August 2020). "The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (4): 593–597. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1807143. S2CID 225333205.
We may well ask whether having revolutionarily high expectations is a crime? Of course it is, if it leads to an increase in the level of deaths, as a result of insufficient care being taken to safeguard the lives of those put at risk when the high ambitions failed to be fulfilled, and especially when it was followed by a cover-up. The same goes for not adjusting policy to unfolding evidence of crisis. But these are crimes of manslaughter and fraud rather than of murder. How heinous are they in comparison, say, with shooting over 600,000 citizens wrongly identified as enemies in 1937–8, or in shooting 25,000 Poles identified as a security risk in 1940, when there was no doubt as to the outcome of the orders? The conventional view is that manslaughter is less heinous than cold blooded murder.
- ^ Davies, Robert W.; Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2009). The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933. Palgrave Macmillan. p. xv. doi:10.1057/9780230273979. ISBN 978-0-230-23855-8.
- ^ a b c Wolowyna, Oleh (October 2020). "A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (4): 501–526. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741. S2CID 226316468.
- ^ Osadchenko, E. V.; Rudneva, S. E. Голод на Kубани 1932-1933 Гг. [Hunger in Kuban 1932–1933]. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023.
- ^ Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited". Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. S2CID 53655536. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Naumenko, Natalya (March 2021). "The Political Economy of Famine: The Ukrainian Famine of 1933". The Journal of Economic History. 81 (1): 156–197. doi:10.1017/S0022050720000625. ISSN 0022-0507.
- ^ Markevich, Andrei; Naumenko, Natalya; Qian, Nancy (29 July 2021). "The Political-Economic Causes of the Soviet Great Famine, 1932–33" (PDF). Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved 26 November 2021 – via REPEC.
- ^ a b Fawkes, Helen (24 November 2006). "Legacy of famine divides Ukraine". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023.
- ^ "Sentence to Stalin, his comrades for organizing Holodomor takes effect in Ukraine". Kyiv Post. 21 January 2010. Archived from the original on 23 January 2011.
- ^ "Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against Ukrainians". Kyiv Post. 27 April 2010. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010.
- ^ Interfax-Ukraine (27 April 2010). "Our Ukraine Party: Yanukovych violated law on Holodomor of 1932–1933". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
- ^ Sabol, Steven (2017). 'The Touch of Civilization': Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization. University Press of Colorado. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-60732-550-5.
- ^ PIanciola, Niccolò, 2004, "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928-1934", Cahiers du monde russe, vol. 45, No. 1-2, pp. 137-192.
- ^ Pianciola, Niccolò (2009). Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905-1936) [Frontier Stalinism: Agricultural Colonization, Extermination of Nomads, and State-Building in Central Asia (1905-1936)] (in Italian). Rome: Viella.
- ^ Payne, Matthew J. (2011). "Seeing like a soviet state: settlement of nomadic Kazakhs, 1928-1934". In Alexopoulos, Golgo; Hessler, Julie; Tomoff, Kiril (eds.). Writing the Stalin Era: Sheila Fitzpatrick and Soviet Historiography. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 59–86. ISBN 978-0230105492.
- ^ Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33". Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. S2CID 53655536. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Kindler, Robert (21 August 2018). Stalin's Nomads: Power and Famine in Kazakhstan. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8229-6543-5.
- ^ The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan Sarah Cameron p. 99
- ^ a b c Wheatcroft, Stephen G. The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions. [full citation needed]
- ^ Pianciola, Niccolò. Environment, Empire, and the Great Famine in Stalin's Kazakhstan. [full citation needed]
- ^ "Kazakhstan Unveils Monument to Victims of Soviet-Era Famine". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 31 May 2017. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024.
- ^ "Message of the Turkic Council Secretary General on the occasion of the Remembrance Day of the Victims of Political Repressions and Starvation". Turkic Council. 31 May 2021. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022.
- ^ Sommer 2010, pp. 417–18.
- ^ Naimark, Norman M. (2010). Stalin's Genocides. Princeton University Press. pp. 85–86 (arrested, shot), quote at 85.
- ^ Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217.
- ^ Conquest, Robert (1990). The Great Terror: A reassessment. Oxford University Press. pp. 405–407.
The Purge affected not only the Polish Party members but the Polish population as a whole. Between 1926 and 1939 Poles in the Soviet Union decreased by 168,000.
- ^ Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33 Revisited Archived 14 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine PDF file
- ^ Karski, Karol (2013). "The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. 45.
- ^ Lu, Suping (6 December 2019). The 1937 – 1938 Nanjing Atrocities. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-981-13-9656-4.
- ^ a b Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
- ^ a b Genocide: A World History, Norman M. Naimark
- ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (3 June 2010). Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. Orion. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-297-86385-4.
- ^ Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler and Stalin (New York: Basic Books 2010), pp. 93 (quote: "fraternity"); 94 (quote: "Soviet Poles"); 96 (Stalin quote); 103–04 (quote: "ethnic Poles"). In the Polish operation Snyder lists 143,810 arrested, 111,091 executed, mostly Poles (p. 103). Other operations targeted Latvians, Estonians, Finns (p. 104), and "the Belarusian intelligentsia" (p. 98).
- ^ Naimark, Stalin's Genocides (Princeton University Press 2010): Katyn killings, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. The past in Poland's present (Oxford University Press 1984, 2001) pp. 58–59 (Katyn), p. 422 (Soviet President Gorbachev sent Polish President Jaruzelski documentary evidence re Katyn "proving that the mass murder of c.25,000 Polish officers had been perpetrated by the Soviet NKVD in 1940").
- ^ "Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944". Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. 27 February 2004. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
- ^ Dunlop, John B. (28 September 1998). Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-521-63184-6.
- ^ Gammer 2006, p. 170.
- ^ Gammer 2006, p. 182.
- ^ Burds, Jeffrey (2007). "The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942–4". Journal of Contemporary History. 42 (2): 267–314. doi:10.1177/0022009407075545. S2CID 159523593.
- ^ Ediev, Dalkhat (2003). Demograficheskie poteri deportirovannykh narodov SSSR Демографические потери депортированных народов СССР [Demographic losses of the deported peoples of the USSR] (in Russian). Stavropol. pp. 302, Table 109.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^
- Nekrich, Aleksandr (1981). The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00068-9.
- Dunlop, John B. (1998). Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–70. ISBN 978-0-521-63619-3.
- ^ Gammer 2006, pp. 166–171.
- ^ Roszkowski, Wojciech (2016). Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century. Routledge. p. 2549. ISBN 978-1-317-47593-4.
- ^ Naimark, Norman M. (5 December 2011). Stalin's Genocides. Princeton University Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-691-15238-7.
- ^
- Rummel, R. J. (1996). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-2750-8.
- Pohl, J. (1 June 2000). "Stalin's genocide against the 'Repressed Peoples'". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (2): 267–293. doi:10.1080/713677598.
- Mälksoo, Lauri (2001). "Soviet Genocide? Communist Mass Deportations in the Baltic States and International Law". Leiden Journal of International Law. 14 (4). Cambridge University Press: 757–787. doi:10.1017/S0922156501000371.
- ^ "Martin Arpo: kommunismiaja kuritegude tee Euroopa Inimõiguste Kohtuni" [Martin Arpo: the path of crimes of the communist era to the European Court of Human Rights]. Postimees (in Estonian). 31 March 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021.
- ^ "ECHR decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes against Humanity". Council of Europe. derechos.org. 17 January 2006. Archived from the original on 5 October 2006. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
- ^ Oberlander, Erwin (2011). Housden, Martyn; Smith, David James (eds.). Forgotten Pages in Baltic History: Diversity and Inclusion. Rodopi. pp. 253–254. ISBN 978-90-420-3315-3.
- ^ Travis, Hannibal (2013). Ethnonationalism, Genocide, and the United Nations. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-53125-2.
- ^ Budryte, Dovile (2005). Taming Nationalism? Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Ashgate Publishing. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-7546-4281-7.
- ^ "Estonian man on genocide charge". BBC News. 23 August 2007. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023.
- ^ "Genocide in Lithuania". people.cohums.ohio-state.edu. Archived from the original on 11 September 2006.[better source needed]
- ^ Peikštenis, Eugenijus. "Lithuanian Museum of Genocide Victims". Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania. Archived from the original on 13 April 2024. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
- ^ Levene, Mark (2013). Annihilation: Volume II: The European Rimlands 1939–1953. Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-19-968304-8.
- ^ Naimark, Norman M. (2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-674-00994-0.
- ^ Kohl, Philip L.; Kozelsky, Mara; Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (2008). Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts. University of Chicago Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-226-45064-3.
- ^ Tatz & Higgins 2016, p. 28; Uehling 2015, p. 3; Blank 2015, p. 18; Legters 1992, p. 104
- ^ Legters 1992, p. 104.
- ^ Fisher 2014, p. 150.
- ^ Allworth 1998, p. 216.
- ^ "Ukraine's Parliament Recognizes 1944 'Genocide' Of Crimean Tatars". Radio Free Europe. 21 January 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
- ^ "Latvian Lawmakers Label 1944 Deportation Of Crimean Tatars As Act Of Genocide". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 9 May 2019. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
- ^ "Saeima pieņem paziņojumu par Krimas tatāru deportāciju 75.gadadienu, atzīstot notikušo par genocīdu" [The Saeima adopts a statement on the 75th anniversary of the deportation of the Crimean Tatars, recognizing what happened as genocide]. saeima.lv (in Latvian). 9 May 2019. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
- ^ "Lithuanian parliament recognizes Soviet crimes against Crimean Tatars as genocide". The Baltic Times. 6 September 2019. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
- ^ "Foreign Affairs Committee passes motion by Wrzesnewskyj on Crimean Tatar genocide". 21 June 2019. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Segal, Raz (2016). "Introduction". Genocide in the Carpathians: War, Social Breakdown, and Mass Violence, 1914–1945. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8047-9897-6.
- ^ Fixico, Donald L. (2012). The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources (Second ed.). University Press of Colorado. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4571-1166-2. JSTOR j.ctt46nvt7.
- ^ Morska, Izabela (8 December 2022). "Animality as an excuse for murder: David Grann and Killers of the Flower Moon". Beyond Philology (19/4): 97–127. doi:10.26881/bp.2022.4.04. ISSN 2451-1498.
- ^ American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature (DGO - Digital original ed.). Liverpool University Press. 2005. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1. ISBN 978-0-85323-736-5. JSTOR j.ctt5vjbd1.
To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity.
- ^ Asenap, Jason (6 November 2023). "Killers of the Flower Moon and who gets to tell an Osage story". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
- ^ Coyne, Delaney (26 October 2023). "How the Osage Nation became Catholic: The hard truths in 'Killers of the Flower Moon'". America Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
- ^ Bryant, Michael (7 May 2020). "Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 21–39. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632. ISSN 1911-0359.
- ^ United States Census (1930). "Indian Population of the United States" (PDF). 1930 Federal Population Census. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2024.
At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent.
- ^ Campbell, Bradley (June 2009). "Genocide as social control". Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 154. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x. JSTOR 40376129. S2CID 143902886.
Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the Chinese city of Nanking was occupied by the Japanese in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city.
- ^ Jean-Louis, Margolin (2006). "Japanese Crimes in Nanjing, 1937-38: A Reappraisal". China Perspectives. 2006. doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.571.
- ^ Cepeda, Cody (8 December 2018). "Remembering the Filipino comfort women". INQUIRER.net. Archived from the original on 8 July 2024.
- ^ Huonker, Thomas; Ludi, Regula (2001). Roma, Sinti und Jenische. Schweizerische Zigeunerpolitik zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Beitrag zur Forschung [Roma, Sinti and Yenish. Swiss Gypsy policy during the National Socialist era. Contribution to research] (PDF). Veröffentlichungen der UEK (Report) (in German). Vol. 23. UEK, Swiss Government.
- ^ a b Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109.
- ^ a b Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-521-53854-1 – via Google Books.
- ^
- Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Second ed.). SUNY Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4384-2893-2 – via Google Books.
- Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2.
- Duggan 2007, p. 497
- ^ Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (19 January 2015). Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985. Helion and Company. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-910777-51-0 – via Google Books.
- ^ Epton, Nina Consuelo (1953). Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story. New York: Roy Publishers. p. 126.
- ^ Stewart, C. C. (1986). "Islam" (PDF). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 196.
- ^ "La partecipazione della Milizia alla riconquista della Libia" [The Militia's participation in the reconquest of Libya] (in Italian). Regioesercito. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024.
- ^ Duggan 2007, p. 497.
- ^ Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 358.
- ^ The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 17.
- ^ Labanca, Nicola (2004). "Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies". Journal of Modern Italian Studies. 9 (3): 300–313. doi:10.1080/1354571042000254737. S2CID 144498755.
- ^ Zubaida 2000, p. 370.
- ^ "Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees in Iran" (PDF). fidh.org. International Federation for Human Rights. January 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
- ^ DeKelaita, Robert (22 November 2009). The Origins and Developments of Assyrian Nationalism (PDF) (MA). Committee on International Relations of the University of Chicago. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2011 – via Assyrian International News Agency.
- ^ Donabed, Sargon (1 February 2015). Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the 20th Century. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 110–. ISBN 978-0-7486-8605-6.
- ^ "Raphael Lemkin". EuropeWorld. 22 June 2001. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
- ^ "Parsley Massacre: The Genocide That Still Haunts Haiti-Dominican Relations". Ibtimes.com. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
- ^ Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-7425-1144-6. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ Hui, Fu Li (1961). China reconstructs. Vol. 10. China Welfare Institute. p. 16. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ Goodman, David S. G. (2004). China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-61349-1. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ Mayaram, Shail (2009). The other global city. US: Taylor & Francis. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-0-415-99194-0. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Hilberg 2003, p. 1322.
- ^ Monroe, Kristen R. (2011). Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice. Princeton University Press. pp. 10–. ISBN 978-0-691-15143-4.
- ^ Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45.
- ^ a b "Holocaust", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007,
the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question."
"Holocaust". Encarta. 1993. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.Holocaust, the almost complete destruction of Jews in Europe by Germany and its collaborators during World War II (1939–1945). The leadership of Germany ordered the extermination of 5.6 million to 5.9 million Jews (see National Socialism). Jews often refer to the Holocaust as the Shoah (from the Hebrew word for "catastrophe" or "total destruction").
- ^
- Weissman, Gary (2004). Fantasies of Witnessing: Postwar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust. Cornell University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8014-4253-7.
Kren illustrates his point with his reference to the Kommissararbefehl. 'Should the (strikingly unreported) systematic mass starvation of Soviet prisoners of war be included in the Holocaust?' he asks. Many scholars would answer no, maintaining that 'the Holocaust' should strictly refer to those events which involved the systematic killing of the Jews'.
- The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion, Yad Vashem,
The Holocaust, as presented in this resource center, is defined as the sum total of all anti-Jewish actions carried out by the German regime between 1933 and 1945: from stripping the German Jews of their legal and economic status in the 1930s, to segregating and starving Jews in the various occupied countries, to the murder of close to six million Jews in Europe. The Holocaust is part of a broader aggregate of acts of oppression and murder of various ethnic and political groups in Europe by the Germans.
- Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45
- Weissman, Gary (2004). Fantasies of Witnessing: Postwar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust. Cornell University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8014-4253-7.
- ^
- Paulson, Steve (17 February 2011), A View of the Holocaust, BBC, archived from the original on 17 October 2023,
The Holocaust was the Germans' assault on the Jews between 1933 and 1945. It culminated in what the Germans called the 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe', in which six million Jews were murdered.
- "Auschwitz". Auschwitz.dk. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024.
The Holocaust was the systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Germans during World War 2.
- "Holocaust", Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (definition), Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, archived from the original on 16 January 2009,
(Heb., sho'ah). In the 1950s the term came to be applied primarily to the destruction of the Jews of Europe under the German regime, and it is also employed in order to describe the annihilation of other groups of people during World War II. The mass extermination of Jews has become the archetype of GENOCIDE, and the terms sho'ah and 'holocaust' have become linked to the attempt by the German state to destroy European Jewry during World War II... One of the first to use the term in this historical perspective was the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur (Dinaburg), who, in the spring of 1942, stated that the Holocaust was a 'catastrophe' that symbolized the unique situation of the Jewish people among the nations of the world.
- "Holocaust", List of definitions, Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies,
A term for the state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation of European Jewry by Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945.
- Paulson, Steve (17 February 2011), A View of the Holocaust, BBC, archived from the original on 17 October 2023,
- ^
- "The Holocaust", Compact Oxford English Dictionary, archived from the original on 10 February 2016, retrieved 23 January 2021,
the mass murder of Jews under the German regime in World War II.
- "The Holocaust", The 33rd Annual Scholars' Conference on the Holocaust and the Churches (definition),
the German attempt to annihilate European Jewry
, cited in Hancock, Ian (2004), "Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview", in Stone, Dan (ed.), The Historiography of the Holocaust, New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, pp. 383–396, archived from the original on 10 July 2004 - Bauer, Yehuda (2001), Rethinking the Holocaust, New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 10
- Dawidowicz, Lucy (1986). "The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945". Bantam. p. xxxvii.
'The Holocaust' is the term that Jews themselves have chosen to describe their fate during World War II.
- "The Holocaust", Compact Oxford English Dictionary, archived from the original on 10 February 2016, retrieved 23 January 2021,
- ^ "Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found". BBC News. 5 June 2007. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
- ^ Berenbaum, Kramer & United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2005, p. 103.
- ^ "The Number of victims". Memorial and Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ Piper 1998, p. 62.
- ^ "Treblinka" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 July 2024.
- ^ "Belzec" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2024.
- ^ "Majdanek". The Holocaust Resource Center, Yad Vashem Holocaust Studies School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ Reszka, Paweł (23 December 2005). "Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks?". Gazeta Wyborcza. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
- ^ "Chelmno" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2023.
- ^ "Sobibor" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2024.
- ^ a b c Dawidowicz, Lucy (1986). The War Against the Jews. Bantam. p. 403.
- ^ "The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names". Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 15 June 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
- ^ "The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members". Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
- ^ Wilhelm Höttl, an SS officer and a Doctor of History, testified at the Nuremberg Trials and Eichmann's trial that at a meeting he had with Eichmann in Budapest in late August 1944, "Eichmann ... told me that, according to his information, some 6,000,000 (six million) Jews had perished until then – 4,000,000 (four million) in extermination camps and the remaining 2,000,000 (two million) through shooting by the Operations Units and other causes, such as disease, etc." [1] Archived 5 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine [2] [3] Archived 2013-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in Oświęcim, Poland". auschwitz.org. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
- ^ "Responses to common Holocaust-denial claims". ADL. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
- ^ Glenny, Misha (2000). The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. New York: Viking. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-670-85338-0.
The Nazis were assisted by several thousand ethnic Germans as well as by supporters of Dijmitrje Ljotic's Yugoslav fascist movement, Zbor, and General Milan Nedic's quisling administration. But the main Eengine of extermination was the regular army. The destruction of the Serbian Jews gives the lie to Wehrmacht claims that it took no part in the genocidal programmes of the Nazis. Indeed, General Bohme and his men in German-occupied Serbia planned and carried out the murder of over 20,000 Jews and Gypsies without any prompting from Berlin
- ^ Caplan, Richelle Budd. "The Suffering of the Roma in Serbia during the Holocaust". Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024.
- ^ Shoah Research Center;– Albania [4] The Jews of Albania during the Zogist and Second World War Periods [5] and see also Norman H. Gershman's book Besa: Muslims Who Saved Jews in World War II – for reviews etc [6] (all consulted 24 June 2010)
- ^ Rhodes, Richard (2002). Masters of death: the SS-Einsatzgruppen and the invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-40900-4.
- ^ Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 152–53. ISBN 978-0-231-11214-7.
- ^ Berenbaum, Kramer & United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2005, p. 125.
- ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era" (PDF). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
1.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens are estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation and the war. Estimates are by the Polish scholar, Franciszek Piper, the chief historian at Auschwitz.
- ^ Piotrowski, Tadeusz. "Project InPosterum: Poland WWII Casualties". Retrieved 15 March 2007; and Łuczak, Czesław. "Szanse i trudności bilansu demograficznego Polski w latach 1939–1945", Dzieje Najnowsze, issue 1994/2.
- ^ a b Yeomans 2013, p. 18.
- ^ a b Vogelsang, Peter; Larsen, Brian B. M. (2002). "Euthanasia – the 'mercy killing' of disabled people in Germany". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
- ^ a b "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies)". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 17 July 2024. Retrieved 27 September 2012.. The USHMM places the scholarly estimates at 220,000–500,000. According to Berenbaum, Kramer & United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2005, p. 126, "serious scholars estimate that between 90,000 and 220,000 were killed under German rule."
- ^ a b Hancock 2004, pp. 383–396
- ^ "GrandLodgeScotland.com". GrandLodgeScotland.com. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
- ^ Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. Hitler and the Nazis
- ^ The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd., p. 108.
- ^ Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.
- ^ Pike, David Wingeate (2000). Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube. London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-415-22780-3.
- ^ Friedlander, Henry (1997). The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. University of North Carolina Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-8078-4675-9.
- ^ Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45–52.
- ^ Gilbert, Martin (1988). Atlas of the holocaust. Pergamon Press. pp. 242–244. ISBN 978-0-08-036761-3.
- ^ Small, Melvin; Singer, Joel David (1982). Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7.
- ^ Berenbaum, Michael (1990). A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1175-0.
- ^ Edelheit; Edelheit; Edelheit (1995). History of the Holocaust: a Handbook and a Dictionary. Free Press. p. 458.
- ^ Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 47.
- ^ Berenbaum, Kramer & United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2005, p. 126.
- ^ "Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals" (PDF). U.S. District Court – Eastern New York. 11 September 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
- ^ Gilbert, Martin (2002). The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28145-4. (ref Map 182 p. 141 with Romani deaths by country & Map 301 p. 232) Note: formerly The Dent Atlas of the Holocaust; 1982, 1993.
- ^ Hancock, Ian (6 March 2019). "Jewish Responses to the Porajmos (The Romani Holocaust)". In Rosenbaum, Alan S (ed.). Is The Holocaust Unique? Perspectives On Comparative Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-71117-6.
- ^ "Der Generalplan Ost" [The Generalplan Ost]. Eine Ausstellung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (in German). 2006. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d Eichholtz, Dietrich (September 2004). ""Generalplan Ost" zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker" ["Generalplan Ost" on the enslavement of Eastern European peoples] (PDF). UTOPIE Kreativ (in German) (167): 800–808. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2008.
- ^ Hitler's Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis Jill Stephenson page 113 " Other non-'Aryans' included Slavs, Blacks and Roma and Sinti (Romanies)"
- ^ Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей -Human Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles. Saint-Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0 p. 126
- ^ Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–131 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.
- ^ Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–31.
- ^ Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–31 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.
- ^ Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion [The year was 1939. Operation of German security police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion] (PDF) (in Polish). Portal edukacyjny Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej. pp. 1/356. ISBN 978-83-7629-063-8. Archived from the original (PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar.
[It is estimated that Intelligenzaktion took the lives of 100,000 Poles [p. 8, or p. 10 in PDF].] - ^ "Chapter XIII. Germanization and Spoliation". Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality. Vol. 1. Nuremberg: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1946. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
- ^ Lukas, Richard C. (1997). Forgotten Holocaust. Hippocrene. p. 8. ISBN 0-781-80528-7.
- ^ Headland, Ronald (1992). Messages of Murder: A Study of the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941–1943. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8386-3418-9. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
- ^ Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's holocaust. Published by McFarland. p. 247
- ^ Władysław Filar, Wydarzenia wołyńskie 1939–1944. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Toruń 2008 ISBN 978-83-7441-884-3
- ^ a b Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447
- ^ Timothy Snyder, Rekonstrukcja narodów. Polska, Ukraina, Litwa, Białoruś 1569–1999, Sejny 2009, p. 196
- ^ Gibney & Hansen 2005, p. 204.
- ^ "Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach Wschodnich". Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
- ^ Zając, Piotr (2008). "Persecution of Polish ethnics in the area of Volyn in 1939–1945 – criminal law assessment of events based on the findings of investigations OKŚZpNP in Lublin" (PDF). In Ignatiew, Radosław (ed.). ZBRODNIE PRZESZŁOŚCI Opracowania i materiały prokuratorów IPN [CRIMES OF THE PAST Studies and materials of the IPN prosecutors] (in Polish). Vol. 2. Warsaw: The Institute of National Remembrance. pp. 34–49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016.
- ^ "Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre genocide". Radio Poland. 22 July 2016. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024.
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 7.
- ^ Bartulin, Nevenko (2013). The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory. BRILL. p. 124. ISBN 978-90-04-26282-9.
- ^ Kenrick, Donald (2006). The Final Chapter. University of Hertfordshire Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-902806-49-5.
- ^ Robins & Jones 2009, p. 106.
- ^ Phayer, Michael (2000). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-253-33725-2.
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 18; Tomasevich 2001, p. 719; Ramet 2006, p. 114; Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34
- ^ de Diego García, Emilio (1993). "El drama yugoslavo: ¿Europa entre los siglos XIX y XXI?" [The Yugoslav drama: Europe between the 19th and 21st centuries?] (PDF). Cuadernos de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea (in Spanish). 15. Universidad Complutense de Madrid: 176. ISSN 0214-400X. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
- ^ Levy, Michele Frucht (2009). ""The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 807–837. doi:10.1080/00905990903239174. S2CID 162231741.
- ^ Dulić, Tomislav (2006). "Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945: a case for comparative research". Journal of Genocide Research. 8: 255–281. doi:10.1111/nana.12433. S2CID 242057219.
- ^ Charny, Israel (1999). Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H. ABC-CLIO. pp. 18–23. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1.
- ^ a b Payne, Stanley G. (2006). "The NDH State in Comparative Perspective". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (4): 409–415. doi:10.1080/14690760600963198. S2CID 144782263.
- ^ "Skupština usvojila Rezoluciju o genocidu u Pivi i Velici" [The Assembly adopted the Resolution on the genocide in Piva and Velica] (in Serbo-Croatian). Archived from the original on 13 June 2024.
- ^ Kajosevic, Samir (28 July 2021). "'Genocide' Controversy Erupts over WWII Massacres in Montenegro". Balkan Insight. Archived from the original on 14 June 2023.
- ^ Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (1997). Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Routledge. p. 430. ISBN 978-0-203-89043-1. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0.
- ^ Tomasevich 1975, p. 170.
- ^ Lerner 1994, p. 105.
- ^ Mulaj 2008, p. 42.
- ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators". Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate. VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 85–88.
- ^ Burleigh & Wippermann 1991, p. 69.
- ^ a b Lifton 2000, p. 142
- ^ Pednaud, J. Tithonus (2008). "The Ovitz Family – Nazi Experiments". Thehumanmarvels.com. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ Strous 2007.
- ^ Lifton 2000, p. 95.
- ^ Sereny 1995, pp. 48–49.
Sources
[edit]- Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1994-8. LCCN 97019110. OCLC 610947243.
- Andreopoulos, George J. (1997). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1616-5.
- Asociación Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia (1999). "Metodología intermuestra I: introducción y resumen" [Intersample methodology I: introduction and summary]. Instrumentes Legales y Operativos Para el Funcionamiento de la Comisión Para el Esclarecimiento Histórico (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 May 2013.
- Berenbaum, Michael; Kramer, Arnold; United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2005). The world must know: the history of the Holocaust as told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3.
- Blank, Stephen (2015). "A Double Dispossession: The Crimean Tatars After Russia's Ukrainian War". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 9 (1): 18–32. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.9.1.1271.
- Bonwick, James (1870). The Last of the Tasmanians; or, The Black War of Van Diemen's Land. London: Sampson Low, Son, & Marston.
- Burleigh, Michael; Wippermann, Wolfgang (1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2.
- Chakma, Kabita; Hill, Glen (2013). "Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh". In Visweswaran, Kamala (ed.). Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 132–57. ISBN 978-0-8122-4487-8.
- Chalk, Frank; Jonassohn, Kurt (1990). The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04446-1.
- Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004 (PDF) (Thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane: Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2008.
- Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización (1999). "Agudización de la Violencia y Militarización del Estado (1979–1985)" [Intensification of Violence and Militarization of the State (1979–1985)]. Guatemala: Memoria del Silencio (in Spanish). Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociación Americana del Avance de la Ciencia. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
- Cribb, Robert; Coppel, Charles (2009). "A genocide that never was: explaining the myth of anti-Chinese massacres in Indonesia, 1965–66". Journal of Genocide Research. 11 (4). Taylor & Francis: 447–465. doi:10.1080/14623520903309503. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 145011789.
- Cooper, Allan D. (3 August 2006). "Reparations for the Herero Genocide: Defining the limits of international litigation". African Affairs. 106 (422): 113–26. doi:10.1093/afraf/adl005.
- Crowe, David M. (2013). "War Crimes and Genocide in History". In Crowe, David M. (ed.). Crimes of State Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-98681-2.
- Curthoys, Ann (2008). "Genocide in Tasmania". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4.
- Diamond, Jared (1993). The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-098403-8.
- Duggan, Christopher (2007). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
- Finnegan, Richard B.; McCarron, Edward (2000). Ireland: Historical Echoes, Contemporary Politics. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3247-5.[permanent dead link]
- Fisher, Alan W. (2014). Crimean Tatars. Stanford, California: Hoover Press. ISBN 978-0-8179-6663-8. LCCN 76041085. OCLC 946788279.
- Frank, Matthew James (2008). Expelling the Germans: British opinion and post-1945 population transfer in context. Oxford historical monographs. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-923364-9.
- Friedrichsmeyer, Sara; Lennox, Sara; Zantop, Susanne (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-06682-7.
- Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall, eds. (2005). Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-796-2.
- Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52750-7.
- Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2 – via Google Books.
- Glynn, Ian; Glynn, Jenifer (2004). The Life and Death of Smallpox. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Gammer, M. (2006). The Lone Wolf and the Bear: Three Centuries of Chechen Defiance of Russian Rule. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-748-4.
- Gray, Richard A. (1994). "Genocide in the Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh". Reference Services Review. 22 (4): 59–79. doi:10.1108/eb049231.
- Goble, Paul (15 July 2005). "Circassians demand Russian apology for 19th century genocide". Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007.
- Hilberg, Raul (2003) [1961]. The Destruction of the European Jews. Vol. I–III (3rd ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09592-9.
- Hollander, Paul (1 July 2012). "Perspectives on Norman Naimark's Stalin's Genocides". Journal of Cold War Studies. 14 (3): 149–189. doi:10.1162/JCWS_a_00250. S2CID 57560838.
- Jaimoukha, Amjad (2004). The Chechens: A Handbook. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-35643-2.
- Jones, Adam (2006). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35385-4. Excerpts Chapter 1: Genocide in prehistory, antiquity, and early modernity Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Kennedy, Liam (2016). Unhappy the Land: The Most Oppressed People Ever, the Irish?. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-78537-047-2.
- Kiernan, Ben (2002). "Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines" (PDF). Critical Asian Studies. 34 (2): 163–92. doi:10.1080/14672710220146197. S2CID 146339164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2003.
- ——— (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3.
- Kinealy, Christine (1995). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845–52. Gill & Macmillan. p. 357. ISBN 978-1-57098-034-3.
- King, Michael (2000). Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Viking. ISBN 978-0-14-010391-5.
- Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (11 April 2003). "A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism". National Review Online. Archived from the original on 11 April 2003.
- Lang, Berel (2005). "The Evil in Genocide". Genocide and Human Rights: A Philosophical Guide. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 5–17. doi:10.1057/9780230554832_1. ISBN 978-0-230-55483-2.
- Legters, Lyman H. (1992). "The American Genocide". In Lyden, Fremont J. (ed.). Native Americans and Public Policy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-7682-0. OCLC 555693841.
- Lerner, Natan (1994). "Ethnic Cleansing". In Dinstein, Yoram (ed.). Israel Yearbook on Human Rights. Vol. 24. ISBN 978-90-411-0026-9. ISSN 0333-5925.
- Levene, Mark (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State. Vol. 2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4.
- Levene, Mark (2008). "Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 183–204. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4.
- Lifton, Robert J. (2000) [1986]. The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (2000 ed.). New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9.
- Madley, Benjamin (2008). "From Terror to Genocide: Britain's Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australia's History Wars". Journal of British Studies. 47 (1): 77–106. doi:10.1086/522350. JSTOR 10.1086/522350. S2CID 146190611.
- McCarthy, Justin (1995), Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922, Darwin
- Mey, Wolfgang, ed. (1984). Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh (PDF). Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2024.
- Moshin, A. (2003). The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
- Mulaj, Klejda (2008). Politics of ethnic cleansing: nation-state building and provision of in/security in twentieth-century balkans. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1782-8.
- Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.
The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II.
- O'Brien, Sharon (2004). "The Chittagong Hill Tracts". In Shelton, Dinah (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Macmillan Library Reference. pp. 176–177.
- Ó Gráda, Cormac (2000). Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory. Princeton University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-691-07015-5.
- Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23141-6.
- Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2008). Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-70050-4.
- Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01684-2.
- Piper, Franciszek (1998). "The Number of Victims". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2.
- Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. New York: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34656-8.
- Robins, Nicholas; Jones, Adam (2009). Genocides by the Oppressed. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6.
- Roy, Rajkumari (2000). Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
- Rubinstein, William D. (2004). Genocide: A History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-50601-5.
- Rummel, Rudolph J. (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5.
- Sarkin-Hughes, Jeremy (2008). Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36257-6.
- Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71900-1.
- Sereny, Gitta (1995), Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth, Knopf, ISBN 978-0-394-52915-8
- Sheriff, Abdul; Ferguson, Ed (1991). Zanzibar under colonial rule. J. Currey. ISBN 978-0-8214-0996-1.
- Sommer, Tomasz (2010). "Execute the Poles: The Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 1937–1938. Documents from Headquarters". The Polish Review. 55 (4): 417–436. doi:10.2307/27920673. JSTOR 27920673. S2CID 151099905.
- Speller, Ian (2007), "An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964.", Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 35 (2): 1–35, doi:10.1080/03086530701337666, S2CID 159656717
- Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
... estimated population for the year 1769 ... Nationwide by this time only about one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people—were natives. The worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed ... finally had leveled off. There was, at last, almost no one left to kill.
- Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42214-7.
- Strous, Rael D. (2007). "Psychiatry during the Nazi Era: Ethical Lessons for the Modern Professional". Annals of General Psychiatry. 6 (8): 8. doi:10.1186/1744-859X-6-8. PMC 1828151. PMID 17326822.
- Tan, Mely G. (2008). Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan [Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: A Collection of Writings] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 978-979-461-689-5.
- Tatz, Colin; Higgins, Winton (2016). The Magnitude of Genocide. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-3161-4. LCCN 2015042289. OCLC 930059149.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1.
- Towner, Emil B. (2011). "Quantifying Genocide: What Are We Really Counting (On)?". JAC. 31 (3/4): 625–638. ISSN 2162-5190. JSTOR 41709663.
- Uehling, Greta (2015). "Genocide's Aftermath: Neostalinism in Contemporary Crimea". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 9 (1): 3–17. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.9.1.1273.
- van Bruineßen, Martin (1994), "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in Andreopoulos, George J. (ed.), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide (PDF), University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 141–170, archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2013, retrieved 24 December 2013
- Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19421-1.
- Weisbord, Robert G. (2003). "The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican". Journal of Genocide Research. 5: 35–45. doi:10.1080/14623520305651. S2CID 73371517.
- Weiss-Wendt, Anton (December 2005). "Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide'". Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4). Routledge: 551–559. doi:10.1080/14623520500350017. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 144612446.
- Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2018). "The Turn Away from Economic Explanations for Soviet Famines". Contemporary European History. 27 (3): 465–469. doi:10.1017/S0960777318000358. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30116832.
- Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1964). "The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849". Signet: New York: 19.
- Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History of Progress. Toronto: House of Anansi Press. ISBN 978-0-88784-706-6.
- Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-7793-3.
- Zubaida, S (July 2000). "Contested nations: Iraq and the Assyrians" (PDF). Nations and Nationalism. 6 (3): 363–382. doi:10.1111/j.1354-5078.2000.00363.x. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
- Евдокимов, Ростислав, ed. (1995). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей [Human Losses of the USSR during the Second World War: a collection of articles]. Saint-Petersburg: Ин-т российской истории РАН (Russian Academy of Sciences). ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0.
Further reading
[edit]- Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984 (in French 1979).
- Cronon, William, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England 1983 ISBN 0-8090-1634-6
- Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900, Cambridge University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-521-45690-8
- Evdokimov, Rostislav, ed. (1995). Lyudskiye poteri SSSR v period vtoroy mirovoy voyny: sbornik statey Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей [Human Losses of the USSR during the Second World War: a collection of articles] (in Russian). Saint-Petersburg: Ин-т российской истории РАН (Russian Academy of Sciences). ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0.