Examine individual changes

'J ==Early life== [[File:Anne of Denmark; King Charles I when Prince of Wales; King James I of England and VI of Scotland by Simon De Passe (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Engraving by [[Simon de Passe]] of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne, c. 1612]] The second son of King [[James VI and I|James&nbsp;VI of Scotland]] and [[Anne of Denmark]], Charles was born in [[Dunfermline Palace]], [[Fife]], on 19 November 1600.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Weir|1996|p=252}}.</ref> At a Protestant ceremony in the [[Chapel Royal]] at [[Holyrood Palace]] in [[Edinburgh]] on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by [[David Lindsay (d. 1613)|David Lindsay]], [[Bishop of Ross (Scotland)|Bishop of Ross]], and created [[Duke of Albany]], the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland, with the [[subsidiary title]]s of [[Earl of Ormond (Scottish)|Marquess of Ormond]], [[Earl of Ross]] and Lord Ardmannoch.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=4–5}} James&nbsp;VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], and when she died childless in March 1603, he became [[King of England]] as James&nbsp;I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for [[England]] in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health,{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=2}} he remained in Scotland with his father's friend [[Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline|Lord Fyvie]], appointed as his guardian.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=2}} By 1604, Charles was three and a half and as he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, it was decided that he was strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=9}}.</ref> In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier [[Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth|Sir Robert Carey]], who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=11}} His speech development was also slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech, for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=12}} In January 1605, Charles was created [[Duke of York]], as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a [[Knight of the Bath]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=13}} [[Thomas Murray (provost of Eton)|Thomas Murray]], a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] Scot, was appointed as a tutor.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=22}}.</ref> Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=16}} In 1611, he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=22}} [[File:Charles I (young).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Portrait by [[Robert Peake the elder|Robert Peake]], c. 1610]] Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity,{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=22}} which might have been caused by [[rickets]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=11}} He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=16}} Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller{{efn|Charles grew to a peak height of {{convert|5|ft|4|in|cm}}.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=12}} }} elder brother, [[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales]], whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=18–19}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=21–23}}.</ref> However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been [[typhoid]] (or possibly [[porphyria]]).{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=29}} Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became [[heir apparent]]. As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, Charles automatically gained several titles (including [[Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Duke of Rothesay]]). Four years later, in November 1616, he was created [[Prince of Wales]] and [[Earl of Chester]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=47}} ==Heir apparent== In 1613, his sister [[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Elizabeth]] married [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]], and moved to [[Heidelberg]].{{sfn|Hibbert|1968|p=24}} In 1617, the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Ferdinand of Austria]], a Catholic, was elected [[king of Bohemia]]. The following year, the [[Bohemian Revolt|Bohemians rebelled]], [[Defenestrations of Prague#Second Defenestration of Prague|defenestrating the Catholic governors]]. In August 1619, the Bohemian [[Diet (assembly)|diet]] chose as their monarch Frederick&nbsp;V, who was leader of the [[Protestant Union]], while Ferdinand was elected [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in the [[Imperial election#Election of 1619|imperial election]]. Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the [[Thirty Years' War]]. The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the [[Parliament of England|English Parliament]] and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants.<ref>{{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Howat|1974|pp=26–28}}.</ref> In 1620, Charles's brother-in-law, Frederick V, was defeated at the [[Battle of White Mountain]] near [[Prague]] and his hereditary lands in the [[Electoral Palatinate]] were [[Palatinate campaign|invaded by a Habsburg force]] from the [[Spanish Netherlands]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Howat|1974|pp=27–28}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=79}}.</ref> James, however, had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand's niece, Habsburg princess [[Maria Anna of Spain]], and began to see the [[Spanish match]] as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=49–50}}.</ref> Unfortunately for James, negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular, both with the public and with James's court.{{sfn|Coward|2003|p=152}} The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of [[recusancy]] laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=67–68}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=49–50}}.</ref> James's [[Lord Chancellor]], [[Francis Bacon]], was impeached before the [[House of Lords]] for corruption.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=31}} The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king's official sanction in the form of a [[bill of attainder]]. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters: the [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham|Duke of Buckingham]], [[William Laud|Archbishop Laud]], and the [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford|Earl of Strafford]]. James insisted that the [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]] be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales.{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=8}} Charles, like his father, considered the discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's [[royal prerogative]].{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=5–9}} In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=68}}.</ref> [[File:Charles I (Prince of Wales).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Portrait of Charles as Prince of Wales after [[Daniel Mytens]], c. 1623]] Charles and the Duke of Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=30–32}}.</ref> travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=78–82}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=11}}.</ref> In the end, however, the trip was an embarrassing failure.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=87–89}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=5}}.</ref> The Infanta thought Charles was little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=84}} The Spanish insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the [[Penal law (Britain)|penal laws]], which Charles knew would never be agreed by Parliament, and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the terms of the treaty.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=85–87}} A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares|Count of Olivares]], the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=42–43}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=34–35}}.</ref> When Charles returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=31}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=5–6}}.</ref> he and Buckingham pushed a reluctant King James to declare war on Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=36–38}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=94}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=6}}.</ref> With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the [[Lord Treasurer]], [[Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex]], who opposed war on grounds of cost and who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=97–99}} James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned his son that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=64}}.</ref> An under-funded makeshift army under [[Ernst von Mansfeld]] set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=56}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Schama|2001|p=65}}.</ref> By 1624, James was growing ill, and as a result was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed ''de facto'' control of the kingdom.{{sfn|Trevelyan|1922|p=130}} {{House of Stuart|charles1}} ==Early reign== With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=103–105}}; {{harvnb|Howat|1974|p=31}}.</ref> On 1 May 1625<!--11 May in the [[Gregorian calendar]] used in France--> Charles was [[Proxy marriage|married by proxy]] to the fifteen-year-old French princess [[Henrietta Maria of France|Henrietta Maria]] in front of the doors of the [[Notre Dame de Paris]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Weir|1996|p=252}}.</ref> Charles had seen Henrietta Maria in Paris while en route to Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=80}}.</ref> The couple married in person on 13 June 1625 in [[Canterbury]]. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the second ceremony, to forestall any opposition.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Trevelyan|1922|p=133}}.</ref> Many members of the Commons were opposed to the king's marriage to a Roman Catholic, fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed [[Church of England]]. Although he told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with [[Louis XIII of France]].{{sfn|Carlton|1995|pp=55, 70}} Moreover, the treaty placed under French command an English naval force that would be used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at [[La Rochelle]]. Charles was [[Coronation of the British monarch|crowned]] on 2 February 1626 at [[Westminster Abbey]], but without his wife at his side because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=76}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Weir|1996|p=252}}.</ref> Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial [[History of Calvinist-Arminian debate|anti-Calvinist]] ecclesiastic, [[Richard Montagu]], who was in disrepute among the [[Puritan]]s.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=130–131}} In his pamphlet ''A New Gag for an Old Goose'' (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet ''A New Gag for the New Gospel'', Montagu argued against [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] [[predestination]], the doctrine that [[salvation]] and [[damnation]] were preordained by God. Anti-Calvinists – known as [[Arminianism|Arminians]] – believed that human beings could influence their own fate through the exercise of free will.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=84–86}} Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage.{{sfn|Coward|2003|p=153}} With the support of King James, Montagu produced another pamphlet, entitled ''[[Richard Montagu#The Appello|Appello Caesarem]]'', in 1625 shortly after the old king's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains, increasing many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid the resurgence of Catholicism.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=131}} Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping for the capture of the [[Spanish treasure fleet]]s. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, which was an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=129}}.</ref> Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of [[tonnage and poundage]] (two varieties of customs duties) to a period of one year, although previous sovereigns since [[Henry VI of England]] had been granted the right for life.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=68–69}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=129}}.</ref> In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=129}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1999|pp=54, 114}}.</ref> The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its [[first reading]].{{sfn|Smith|1999|pp=54, 114}} Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=138}} [[File:King Charles I by Gerrit van Honthorst sm.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait by [[Gerrit van Honthorst]], 1628]] A poorly conceived and executed [[Cadiz Expedition (1625)|naval expedition against Spain]] under the leadership of Buckingham went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=71–75}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=50–52}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=138–147}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|pp=21–28}}.</ref> In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as [[Chancellor of Cambridge University]] in a show of support,{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=150}} and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham – [[Dudley Digges]] and [[John Eliot (statesman)|Sir John Eliot]] – arrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=149–151}}.</ref> On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given."{{sfn|Loades|1974|pp=369–370}} Despite Parliament's protests, however, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=75, 81}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=29}}.</ref> Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her [[jointure]], appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=86–88}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=154–160}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=91–95}}.</ref> Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched [[Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1627)|an attack on the French coast]] to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle.{{sfn|Howat|1974|p=35}} The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenots – and his retreat from [[Saint-Martin-de-Ré]] – spurred Louis XIII's [[siege of La Rochelle]] and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the duke.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=173–174}} [[File:Dankaerts-Historis-9285.tif|thumb|Engraving of Charles I of England]] Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the [[King's Bench]], the "[[Darnell's Case|Five Knights' Case]]", found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=162}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=67}}.</ref> Summoned again in March 1628, on 26 May Parliament adopted a [[Petition of Right]], calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, not impose martial law on civilians, not imprison them without due process, and not quarter troops in their homes.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=170–173}} Charles assented to the petition on 7 June,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=74}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=39}}.</ref> but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and re-asserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=175}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=40}}.</ref> On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=103–104}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=76}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=104}}.</ref> Charles was deeply distressed. According to [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon]], he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears".<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=77}}.</ref> He remained grieving in his room for two days.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=176}}.</ref> In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, which accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation, and between the Crown and the Commons.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=110–112}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=48–49}}.</ref> Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Howat|1974|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|pp=107–108}}.</ref> It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=112–113}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=105}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=170–171}}.</ref> Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=107}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=168}}.</ref> She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew ever stronger.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=109–111}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=170–171}}.</ref> Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=148–150}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=111}}.</ref> ==Personal rule== ===Parliament prorogued=== [[File:Peter Paul Rubens - Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon - WGA20401.jpg|thumb|Charles depicted as a victorious and chivalrous [[Saint George]] in an English landscape by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], 1629–30.{{efn|Rubens, who acted as the Spanish representative during peace negotiations in London, painted ''Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon'' in 1629–30.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=190–195}} The landscape is modelled on the [[Thames Valley]], and the central figures of [[Saint George]] (England's [[patron saint]]) and a maiden resemble the king and queen.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=146}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=195}}.</ref> The dragon of war lies slain under Charles's foot.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=146}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=161}}.</ref>}}]] In January 1629 Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been [[Legislative session#Procedure in Commonwealth realms|prorogued]] in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=114–115}} Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of [[John Rolle (Parliamentarian)|John Rolle]], a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage.{{sfn|Quintrell|1993|p=42}} Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=118}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=185}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=43}}.</ref> members held the Speaker, [[John Finch, 1st Baron Finch|Sir John Finch]], down in his chair so that the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=118}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=186}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=35}}.</ref> The provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=118}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=186}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=43}}.</ref> thereby turning the men into martyrs,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=108}}.</ref> and giving popular cause to their protest.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=121–122}} Shortly after the prorogation, without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or the influence of Buckingham, Charles made [[Treaty of Suza|peace with France]] and Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=169–171}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=187–197}}; {{harvnb|Howat|1974|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=65–68}}.</ref> The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are referred to as the [[Personal rule of Charles I (1629–1640)|personal rule]] or the "eleven years' tyranny".<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=153–154}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=xv}}.</ref> Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent.{{efn|For example, James I ruled without Parliament between 1614 and 1621.{{sfn|Sharpe|1992|p=603}} }} Only Parliament, however, could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives.{{sfn|Starkey|2006|p=104}} ===Finances=== [[File:Charles I AR Sixpence 722625.jpg|thumb|[[Sixpence (British coin)|Sixpence]] of Charles I]] A large fiscal deficit had arisen in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=40}} Notwithstanding Buckingham's short lived campaigns against both Spain and France, there was little financial capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister, Elizabeth, and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate.{{sfn|Sharpe|1992|pp=509–536, 541–545, 825–834}} England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=220}} To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=228}}.</ref>{{efn|For comparison, a typical farm labourer could earn 8d a day, or about £10 a year.{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=18}} }} The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as [[ship money]],<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=62}}.</ref> which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than poundage and tonnage before it. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. Charles, however, argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined.<ref>{{harvnb|Adamson|2007|pp=8–9}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=585–588}}.</ref> Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king's prerogative, though some of them had reservations.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=130, 193}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=64}}.</ref> The prosecution of [[John Hampden]] for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges only found against Hampden by the narrow margin of 7–5.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=194}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=301–302}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|pp=65–66}}.</ref> The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies, despite a [[Statute of Monopolies|statute forbidding such action]], which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s.{{sfn|Loades|1974|p=385}}{{efn|The statute forbade grants of monopolies to individuals but Charles circumvented the restriction by granting monopolies to companies.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=167}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=215–216}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=138}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=385}}.</ref>}} Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=185}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=212–217}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=286}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|pp=12–13}}.</ref> In addition, the boundaries of the [[royal forest]]s in England were extended to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the re-asserted boundaries for encroachment.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=224–227}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|pp=61–62}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=116–120}}.</ref> The practice of granting extensive monopolies agitated the public, who were forced to pay higher prices by the monopoly holders. Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in the summer of 1640 as parliament continued to refuse new taxes. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances further refused to make any loans to the king, and likewise he was unable to suscribe any foreign loans. In this extremity, Charles seized the money held in trust at the mint of the Exchequer in the tower of London. The royal mint held a monopoly on the exchange of foreign coin and from this the mint operated as a bank containing much capital of the merchants and goldsmiths of the city. In July, Charles seized all £130,000 of this money, and in August he followed it up by seizing all the stocks of pepper held by the East India Company, and selling it at distress prices.<ref>{{harvnb|Scott|1912|pp=224}}.</ref> ==Religious conflicts== [[File:Anthony van Dyck - Charles I (1600-49) with M. de St Antoine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Charles I with M. de St Antoine]]'' by [[Anthony van Dyck]], 1633]] Throughout Charles's reign, the issue of how far the [[English Reformation]] should progress was constantly brought to the forefront of political debate. [[Arminianism|Arminian]] theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, and was consequently viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism by its [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] opponents. Charles's sympathy to the teachings of Arminianism, and specifically his wish to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction, were perceived by [[Puritan]]s as irreligious tendencies.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=97–103}} In addition, Charles's Protestant subjects followed news of the European war closely{{sfn|Donaghan|1995|pp=65–100}} and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively.{{sfn|Howat|1974|pp=40–46}} In 1633, Charles appointed [[William Laud]] as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=133}} Together, they began a series of anti-Calvinist reforms that attempted to ensure religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting that the [[liturgy]] be celebrated as prescribed in the [[Book of Common Prayer]], organising the internal architecture of English churches so as to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and re-issuing King James's [[Declaration of Sports]], which permitted secular activities on the sabbath.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|pp=174–175}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=133–147}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=267, 273}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=284–292, 328–345, 351–359}}.</ref> The [[Feoffees for Impropriations]], an organisation that bought [[benefice]]s and [[advowson]]s so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=175}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=310–312}}.</ref> To prosecute those who opposed his reforms, Laud used the two most powerful courts in the land, the [[Court of High Commission]] and the Court of [[Star Chamber]].{{sfn|Coward|2003|pp=175–176}} The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views, and became unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|pp=113–115}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=393}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=382}}.</ref> For example, in 1637 [[William Prynne]], [[Henry Burton (Puritan)|Henry Burton]] and [[John Bastwick]] were [[pillory|pilloried]], whipped and mutilated by [[Cropping (punishment)|cropping]] and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=680, 758–763}}.</ref> [[File:Sir Anthony Van Dyck - Charles I (1600-49) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[Charles I in Three Positions]]'' by Anthony van Dyck, 1635–36]] When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=212, 219}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=774–776}}.</ref> To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted in the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] rite.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=780–781}}.</ref> In 1637, the king ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the [[Kirk]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=288}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=783–784}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=107}}.</ref> Although written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing the new prayer book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=195}}; {{harvnb|Trevelyan|1922|pp=186–187}}.</ref> On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a re-affirmation of the [[National Covenant]], whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations that were not authorised by Kirk and Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=189–197}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=224–230}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=288–289}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=788–791}}.</ref> When the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]] met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished [[Episcopal polity|episcopal church government]] by bishops, and adopted [[Presbyterian polity|Presbyterian]] government by elders and deacons.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=236–237}} ===Bishops' Wars=== {{Main|Bishops' Wars}} Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the [[Bishops' Wars|First Bishops' War]] in 1639.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=197–199}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=230–231}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=792–794}}.</ref> Charles did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, but instead raised an army without parliamentary aid and marched to [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], on the border of Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Adamson|2007|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=290–292}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=797–802}}.</ref> Charles's army did not engage the [[Covenanter]]s as the king feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots.<ref>{{harvnb|Adamson|2007|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=246–247}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=805–806}}.</ref> In the [[Treaty of Berwick (1639)|Treaty of Berwick]], Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called.<ref>{{harvnb|Adamson|2007|pp=9–10}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=248}}.</ref> Charles's military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise finance from Spain, while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives, led to the public humiliation of the [[Battle of the Downs]], where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy.<ref>{{harvnb|Howat|1974|pp=44, 66}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=809–813, 825–834, 895}}.</ref> Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=251}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=294}}.</ref> Both English and [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish parliaments]] were summoned in the early months of 1640.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=11}} In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=11}} In the English general election in March, however, court candidates fared badly,{{sfn|Loades|1974|p=401}} and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate.{{sfn|Loades|1974|p=402}} The earls of [[Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland|Northumberland]] and [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford|Strafford]] attempted to broker a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at around £1&nbsp;million).{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=14}} Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=15}} The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of Northumberland,{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=17}} the [[Short Parliament]] (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=211–212}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=253–259}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=305–307}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=402}}.</ref> {{double image|right|Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford.jpg|150|William Laud.jpg|145|The Earl of Strafford (left) and William Laud (right): two of Charles's most influential advisors during the personal rule{{sfn|Kishlansky|Morrill|2008}} }} By this stage Strafford, [[Lord Deputy of Ireland]] since 1632,{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=243}} had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and together with Laud, pursued a policy of "[[Thorough]]" that aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=185–186}}; {{harvnb|Quintrell|1993|p=114}}.</ref> Although originally a critic of the king, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628 (due in part to Buckingham's persuasion),{{sfn|Quintrell|1993|p=46}} and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers.{{sfn|Sharpe|1992|p=132}} Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king's consent and, in August 1640, the Covenanter army moved into the English county of [[Northumberland]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1973|pp=183–208}} Following the illness of the earl of Northumberland, who was the king's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=313–314}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=147, 150}}.</ref> The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War,{{sfn|Stevenson|1973|p=101}} had far greater morale and training compared to their English counterparts, and met virtually no resistance until reaching [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] where, at the [[Battle of Newburn]], they defeated the English forces and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring county of [[County Durham|Durham]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=262–263}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=313–315}}.</ref> As demands for a parliament grew,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=264–265}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=914–916}}.</ref> Charles took the unusual step of summoning a [[great council of peers]]. By the time it met, on 24 September at [[York]], Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=214}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=265–266}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|pp=916–918}}.</ref> A cessation of arms, although not a final settlement, was negotiated in the humiliating<!--ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=315}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=150}}; {{harvnb|Stevenson|1973|p=213}}</ref--> [[Treaty of Ripon]], signed in October 1640.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=315}}; {{harvnb|Stevenson|1973|pp=212–213}}.</ref> The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day, until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=404}}; {{harvnb|Stevenson|1973|pp=212–213}}.</ref> Consequently, in November Charles summoned what later became known as the [[Long Parliament]]. Once again, Charles's supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons, over 350 were opposed to the king.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=216}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=317–319}}.</ref> ==Long Parliament== {{Main|Long Parliament}} {{See also|Wars of the Three Kingdoms}} ===Tensions escalate=== The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the king's leading counsellors of high treason.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=323}} Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Lord Keeper Finch was impeached the following day, and he consequently fled to [[the Hague]] with Charles's permission on 21 December.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=324–325}} To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the [[Triennial Act]], which required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years, and permitted the [[Lord Keeper of the Great Seal]] and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the king failed to do so.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=276}}; {{harvnb|Russell|1991|p=225}}.</ref> The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and so to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted [[royal assent]] in February 1641.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=326}}.</ref> Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly [[John Pym]], and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=327}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=151–153}}.</ref> However, the key allegation by [[Henry Vane the Elder|Sir Henry Vane]] that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=328}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=154}}.</ref> Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=154}} and {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=944}} assume that Pym was involved with the launch of the bill; {{harvnb|Russell|1991|p=288}}, quoting and agreeing with Gardiner, suspects that it was initiated by Pym's allies only.</ref> {{Wikisource|Speech against the attainder of Strafford}} Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune",<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=222–223}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=282}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=330}}.</ref> and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent.{{sfn|Hibbert|1968|pp=154–155}} Furthermore, many members and most peers were opposed to the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice".<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=330}}; see also {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=282}} and {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=944}}.</ref> However, increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=283–287}}; {{harvnb|Russell|1991|pp=291–295}}</ref> The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=329, 333}} Charles, fearing for the safety of his family in the face of unrest, assented reluctantly on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=287}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=333–334}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=156}}.</ref> Strafford was beheaded three days later.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=334}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=156–157}}.</ref> On 3 May, Parliament's [[Protestation of 1641|Protestation]] had attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government"; while those who signed the petition undertook to defend the king's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects".{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=127}} Within a week, Charles had assented to an unprecedented Act, which forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without Parliament's consent.<ref>{{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|pp=127–128}}.</ref> In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=335}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=128}}.</ref> All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act.{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=129}} The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords.{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=130}} Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by securing the favour of the Scots on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of Presbyterianism.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=225–226}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=112}}.</ref> However, following an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as "[[The Incident (conspiracy)|The Incident]]", Charles's credibility was significantly undermined.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=133}}; {{harvnb|Stevenson|1973|pp=238–239}}.</ref> ===Irish rebellion=== {{Main|Irish Rebellion of 1641}} In Ireland, the population was split into three main socio-political groups: the [[Gaelic Ireland|Gaelic Irish]], who were Catholic; the [[Old English (Ireland)|Old English]], who were descended from [[Norman invasion of Ireland|medieval Normans]] and were also predominantly Catholic; and the [[Plantations of Ireland|New English]], who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|pp=42–43}}.</ref> He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the king and had weakened the authority of the Irish Parliament,{{sfn|Gillespie|2006|p=125}} while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to Presbyterians.{{sfn|Coward|2003|p=172}} As a result, all three groups had become disaffected.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=183, 229}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=42}}.</ref> Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined together to present evidence against him.{{sfn|Gillespie|2006|p=130}} In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the king had been led astray by malign counsellors,{{sfn|Gillespie|2006|p=131}} and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in governance.{{sfn|Gillespie|2006|p=137}} Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=306}}.</ref> The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment,{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=127}} until Charles was eventually forced through lack of money to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial.{{sfn|Russell|1991|p=298}} Disputes concerning the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant,{{sfn|Gillespie|2006|p=3}} particularly in relation to the [[plantation of Ulster]],<ref>{{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=413}}; {{harvnb|Russell|1990|p=43}}.</ref> coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=307–308}}; {{harvnb|Russell|1990|p=19}}.</ref> sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English, in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king.{{sfn|Schama|2001|p=118}} In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the [[Grand Remonstrance]], a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the king was an unwitting member),{{sfn|Starkey|2006|p=112}} but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes – 159 to 148.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=340–341}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=415}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1999|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=113}}.</ref> Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked.<ref>{{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1999|p=128}}.</ref> The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity.{{sfn|Loades|1974|p=414}} Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Schama|2001|pp=118–120}}.</ref> which included massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillespie|2006|p=144}}; {{harvnb|Schama|2001|pp=118–120}}.</ref> Rumours of "papist" conspiracies in England circulated the kingdom,<ref>{{harvnb|Loades|1974|pp=416–417}}; {{harvnb|Schama|2001|pp=118–120}}.</ref> and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=341–342}} [[File:HenriettaMariaofFrance03.jpg|thumb|upright|Henrietta Maria by Sir Anthony van Dyck, 1632]] The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces raised by Charles might later be used against Parliament itself.{{sfn|Coward|2003|p=200}} Pym's [[Militia Bill]] was intended to wrest control of the army from the king, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles.{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=136}} Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=237}} The [[Militia Ordinance]] appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the king.{{sfn|Smith|1999|p=129}} In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into anarchy, when he placed the [[Tower of London]] under the command of Colonel [[Thomas Lunsford]], an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer.{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=137}} When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, the king decided to take drastic action.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=235–236}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=323–324}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=343}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=417}}.</ref> ===Five members=== Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots.{{sfn|Starkey|2006|p=113}} On 3 January, Charles directed Parliament to give up [[five members]] of the Commons – Pym, [[John Hampden]], [[Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles|Denzil Holles]], [[William Strode]] and [[Arthur Haselrig|Sir Arthur Haselrig]] – and one peer – [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Lord Mandeville]] – on the grounds of high treason.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=232}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=320}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=177}}.</ref> When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which Charles intended to carry out personally.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=321–324}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=343}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|pp=113–114}}.</ref> However, news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January 1642.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=232}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=320–321}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=179}}.</ref> Having displaced the Speaker, [[William Lenthall]], from his chair, the king asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=233}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=344}}.</ref> famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."{{sfn|Robertson|2005|p=62}} Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire, empty-handed.{{sfn|Starkey|2006|p=114}} The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles.<ref>{{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=418}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|pp=114–115}}.</ref> No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=344}} In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder.{{sfn|Loades|1974|p=418}} Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for [[Hampton Court Palace]] on 10 January 1642,<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=326–327}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=180–181}}.</ref> moving two days later to [[Windsor Castle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=234, 236}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=181}}.</ref> After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=237–238}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=181–182}}.</ref> To his dismay, he was [[Siege of Hull (1642)|rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor]], [[Sir John Hotham, 1st Baronet|Sir John Hotham]], who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=238}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=338–341}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=351}}.</ref> ==English Civil War== [[File:Charles Landseer - The Eve of the Battle of Edge Hill, 1642 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A nineteenth-century painting depicting Charles (centre in blue sash) before the [[battle of Edgehill]], 1642]] {{Main|English Civil War}} In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of [[commission of array]], and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia.{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=350}} Following futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard in [[Nottingham]] on 22 August 1642.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=352}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=182}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=422}}.</ref> At the start of the [[First English Civil War]], Charles's forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at [[Oxford]]. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy.{{sfn|Loades|1974|pp=423–424}} After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at [[Edge Hill, Warwickshire|Edgehill]], on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander [[Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey|Lord Lindsey]], and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by [[Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth|Lord Forth]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=366–367}} Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=248}} Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=368}} In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved".{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=249}} He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, [[Battle of Brentford (1642)|capturing Brentford]] on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At [[Battle of Turnham Green|Turnham Green]] on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=249}} He over-wintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. [[Treaty of Oxford|Peace talks]] between the two sides collapsed in April.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=254}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=371}}</ref> [[File:Wenceslas Hollar - Charles I (State 3).jpg|thumb|left|Charles depicted by [[Wenceslaus Hollar]] on horseback in front of his troops, 1644]] The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=378, 385}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=195–198}}.</ref> After Rupert [[Storming of Bristol|captured Bristol]] in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and lay [[Siege of Gloucester|siege to Gloucester]], further up the [[river Severn]]. His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to [[Sudeley Castle]].{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=257}} The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at [[Newbury, Berkshire]], on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the [[First Battle of Newbury|battle]] stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=258}} In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the [[Oxford Parliament (1644)|Oxford Parliament]], which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=381–382}} Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=263}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=382}}</ref> In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to [[Relief of Newark|relieve Newark]] and [[Siege of York|York]], which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the [[battle of Cropredy Bridge]] in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the [[battle of Marston Moor]] just a few days later.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=382–386}} The king continued his [[Battle of Lostwithiel|campaign in the south]], encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of the [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=268–269, 272}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=389}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=387–388}}</ref> Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at [[Second Battle of Newbury|Newbury for a second time]] before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=388–389}} Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides re-armed and re-organised, were again unsuccessful.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=275–278}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=391–392}}</ref> At the [[battle of Naseby]] on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge, against the flank of Parliament's [[New Model Army]], but Charles's troops elsewhere on the field were pushed back by the opposing forces. Charles, attempting to rally his men, rode forward but as he did so, [[Robert Dalzell, 1st Earl of Carnwath|Lord Carnwath]] seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the king's safety. Carnwath's action was misinterpreted by the royalist soldiers as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=404–405}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=396}}</ref> The military balance tipped decisively in favour of Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=403–405}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=396–397}}; {{harvnb|Holmes|2006|pp=72–73}}.</ref> There followed a series of defeats for the royalists,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=294}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=408}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=398}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=230, 232–234, 237–238}}.</ref> and then the [[Siege of Oxford]], from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=300}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=406}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=67}}.</ref> He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging [[Newark, England|Newark]], and was taken northwards to [[Newcastle upon Tyne]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=303, 305}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=420}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=407–408}}.</ref> After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future,{{efn|The Scots were promised £400,000 in instalments.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=309}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=241}}.</ref>}} the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=411}} ===Captivity=== Parliament held Charles under house arrest at [[Holdenby House]] in Northamptonshire, until Cornet [[George Joyce]] took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=310}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=429–430}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=411–413}}.</ref> By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and Presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by [[Independent (religion)|Independent]] [[non-conformists]] who sought a greater political role.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|pp=224–236}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Holmes|2006|pp=101–109}}.</ref> Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=412–414}} He was taken first to [[Newmarket, Suffolk|Newmarket]], at his own suggestion,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=311}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=431}}.</ref> and then transferred to [[Oatlands Palace|Oatlands]] and subsequently [[Hampton Court Palace|Hampton Court]], while more [[Heads of Proposals|ultimately fruitless negotiations]] took place.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|pp=312–314}} By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape – perhaps to France, Southern England or to [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], near the Scottish border.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=435–436}} He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of [[Southampton Water]] made contact with Colonel [[Robert Hammond (English army officer)|Robert Hammond]], Parliamentary Governor of the [[Isle of Wight]], whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=419}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=247}}.</ref> Hammond, however, confined Charles in [[Carisbrooke Castle]] and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=419–420}} From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "[[Engagers|Engagement]]", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=437}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=248}}.</ref> The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the [[Second English Civil War|Second Civil War]], and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in [[Kent]], [[Essex]], and [[Cumberland]], and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]] in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=329–330}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=424}}.</ref> Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations,{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=442}} which were held at [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]] on the Isle of Wight.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=331}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=426}}.</ref> On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted by 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king,<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=237}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=118}}.</ref> but [[Oliver Cromwell]] and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power.<ref>{{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=251}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|pp=122–124}}.</ref> Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=429}} In [[Pride's Purge]] on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel [[Thomas Pride]],<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=336}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=252}}.</ref> while others stayed away voluntarily.<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=237}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=123}}.</ref> The remaining members formed the [[Rump Parliament]]. It was effectively a military coup.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|pp=84–85}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|pp=118–119}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=123}}.</ref> ==Trial== {{Main|High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I}} [[File:Charles I at his trial.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Charles at his trial, by [[Edward Bower]], 1649. He let his beard and hair grow long because Parliament had dismissed his barber, and he refused to let anyone else near him with a razor.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=326}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=422}}.</ref>]] [[File:Court-charles-I-sm.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Charles (in the dock with his back to the viewer) facing the High Court of Justice, 1649{{sfn|Gregg|1981|loc=between pages 420 and 421}}]] Charles was moved to [[Hurst Castle]] at the end of 1648, and thereafter to [[Windsor Castle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=335–337}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=429–430}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=253–254}}.</ref> In January 1649, the Rump House of Commons indicted him on a charge of treason, which was rejected by the House of Lords.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=432}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=255, 273}}.</ref> The idea of trying a king was a novel one.{{sfn|Robertson|2002|pp=4–6}} The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England – [[Henry Rolle]], [[Oliver St John]] and [[John Wilde (jurist)|John Wilde]] – all opposed the indictment as unlawful.{{sfn|Edwards|1999|pp=99, 109}} The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=452}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=432}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=137}}.</ref> The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=433}} Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in [[Palace of Westminster#Westminster Hall|Westminster Hall]].<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|pp=125–126}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=436}}.</ref> [[John Bradshaw (judge)|John Bradshaw]] acted as President of the Court, and the [[prosecutor|prosecution]] was led by the [[Solicitor General for England and Wales|Solicitor General]], [[John Cook (regicide)|John Cook]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=435–436}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|pp=143–144}}.</ref> Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country.{{sfn|Gardiner|1906|pp=371–374}} The charge stated that he, "for accomplishment of such his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation."{{sfn|Gardiner|1906|pp=371–374}} Reflecting the modern concept of [[command responsibility]],{{sfn|Robertson|2005|pp=15, 148–149}} the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby."<ref>{{harvnb|Gardiner|1906|pp=371–374}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=437}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|pp=15, 149}}.</ref> An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=304}} Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|pp=132–146}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=437–440}}.</ref> stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?"<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=345}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2002|pp=4–6}}.</ref> He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch,{{sfn|Robertson|2002|pp=4–6}} that his own authority to rule had been [[Divine right of kings|given to him by God]] and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, {{quote|no earthly power can justly call me (who am your King) in question as a delinquent&nbsp;... this day's proceeding cannot be warranted by God's laws; for, on the contrary, the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted, and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament&nbsp;... for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong&nbsp;... the higher House is totally excluded; and for the House of Commons, it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting&nbsp;... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government.{{sfn|Gardiner|1906|pp=374–376}} }} The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of [[sovereign immunity]], and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'."{{sfn|Robertson|2005|p=15}} {{Wikisource|Death warrant of King Charles I}} At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=347}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=146}}.</ref> which then heard over 30 witnesses against the king in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The following day, the king was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty and sentenced.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=440–441}} [[List of regicides of Charles I|Fifty-nine of the commissioners]] signed Charles's death warrant.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=162}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=267}}.</ref> ==Execution== [[File:Contemporary German print depicting Charles Is beheading.jpg|thumb|Contemporary German print of Charles I's beheading]] Charles's [[beheading]] was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: [[Elizabeth Stuart (1635–1650)|Elizabeth]] and [[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry]]. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=350–351}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=443}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=276–277}}.</ref> The following morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear:<ref name="royalwebsite">{{citation|title=Charles I (r. 1625–49)|publisher=Official website of the British monarchy|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesI.aspx|accessdate=20 April 2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=352}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=168}}.</ref> "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation."<ref name="royalwebsite" /> He walked under guard from [[St James's Palace]], where he had been confined, to the [[Palace of Whitehall]], where an execution scaffold was erected in front of the [[Banqueting House, Whitehall|Banqueting House]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|pp=352–353}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=443}}.</ref> Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=353}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=444}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=279}}; {{harvnb|Holmes|2006|p=93}}.</ref> He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me."<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=353}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=444}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=157, 279}}.</ref> He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government&nbsp;... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things."<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=444}}; see also a virtually identical quote in {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=180}}.</ref> He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be."<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=354}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=182}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=279}}; {{harvnb|Starkey|2006|p=126}}.</ref> At about 2:00&nbsp;p.m.,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=354}}; {{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=443–444}}.</ref> Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke.<ref>{{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|pp=279–280}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=200}}.</ref> According to observer [[Philip Henry (clergyman)|Philip Henry]], a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd,{{sfn|Hibbert|1968|p=280}} some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the king's blood as a memento.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=184}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=280}}.</ref> The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity.<!--{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=173}}--> The commissioners approached [[Richard Brandon]], the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200.<!--{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=173}}--> It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but there are others who have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, [[William Hewlett (regicide)|William Hulet]] and [[Hugh Peters]].{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=173}} The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the king's body at Windsor in 1813,{{sfn|Robertson|2005|p=201}}{{efn|In 1813, part of Charles's beard, a piece of neck bone, and a tooth were taken as relics. They were placed back in the tomb in 1888.<ref>{{citation|title=Henry VIII'S Final Resting Place|publisher=St George's Chapel, Windsor|url=http://www.stgeorges-windsor.org/assets/files/LearningResources/HenryVIIIRestingPlace.pdf|accessdate=1 August 2014}}</ref>}} suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman.{{sfn|Robertson|2005|p=333}} It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!"{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=183}} Although Charles's head was exhibited,<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}.</ref> the words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised.{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=183}} On the day after the execution, the king's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=445}} {{multiple image |align = right |direction = vertical |image1 = DelarocheCromwell.jpg |caption1 = Cromwell was said to have visited Charles's coffin, sighing "Cruel necessity!" as he did so.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=197}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=280}}.</ref> The story was depicted by [[Paul Delaroche|Delaroche]] in the nineteenth century. |image2 = Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers.jpg |caption2 = Another of Delaroche's paintings, ''[[Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers]]'', is an allegory for [[Execution of Louis XVI|later events in France]] and the [[mocking of Christ]].{{sfn|Higgins|2009}} }} The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at [[Westminster Abbey]], so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=188}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}.</ref> He was buried in private in the Henry VIII vault alongside the coffins of [[Henry VIII]] and Henry's third wife, [[Jane Seymour]], in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]], on 9 February 1649.<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=189}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}.</ref> The king's son, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in [[Hyde Park, London]], but it was never built.{{sfn|Kishlansky|Morrill|2008}} ==Legacy== {{See also|English Interregnum}} Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purporting to be written by the king appeared for sale.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=445}} This book, the ''[[Eikon Basilike]]'' (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an ''apologia'' for royal policies, and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. [[John Milton]] wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the ''[[Eikonoklastes]]'' ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=445}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|pp=208–209}}.</ref> Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom,{{sfn|Cust|2005|p=461}} and the [[Church of England]] canonised him as a [[Saints in Anglicanism|saint]], in the [[Convocations of Canterbury and York]] of 1660.<ref name="Mitchell2012">{{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Jolyon|title=Martyrdom: A Very Short Introduction|date=29 November 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780191642449|page=99|quote=In 1660 the convocations of Canterbury and York canonized King Charles.}}</ref> High Anglicans commemorated his martyrdom on the anniversary of his death and churches, such as those at [[Church of King Charles the Martyr, Falmouth|Falmouth]] and [[Church of King Charles the Martyr, Royal Tunbridge Wells|Tunbridge Wells]], were founded in his honour.{{sfn|Kishlansky|Morrill|2008}} Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623,<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=83}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=133}}.</ref> Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=141}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=156–157}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|p=194}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=135}}.</ref> His intimate courtiers including the Duke of Buckingham and the Earl of Arundel shared his interest and have been dubbed [[the Whitehall group]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Oliver|last=Millar|year=1958|title=Rubens:the Whitehall Ceiling|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=6}}</ref> In Spain, he sat for a sketch by [[Diego Velázquez|Velázquez]], and acquired works by [[Titian]] and [[Antonio da Correggio|Correggio]], among others.{{sfn|Gregg|1981|p=83}} In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the [[Banqueting House, Whitehall]], by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]] and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as [[Gerard van Honthorst|van Honthorst]], [[Daniel Mytens|Mytens]], and [[Anthony van Dyck|van Dyck]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=145}}; {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=134}}.</ref> In 1627 and 1628, he purchased the entire collection of the [[Duke of Mantua]], which included work by Titian, Correggio, [[Raphael]], [[Caravaggio]], [[Andrea del Sarto|del Sarto]] and [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=167–169}}; see also {{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=142}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=157}} and {{harvnb|Hibbert|1968|p=135}}.</ref> Charles's collection grew further to encompass [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Bernini]], [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder|Bruegel]], [[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]], [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]], [[Wenceslaus Hollar|Hollar]], [[Tintoretto]] and [[Paolo Veronese|Veronese]], and self-portraits by both [[Albrecht Dürer|Dürer]] and [[Rembrandt]].{{sfn|Gregg|1981|pp=249–250, 278}} By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1760 paintings,{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=142}} most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament.{{sfn|Carlton|1995|p=143}} With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "[[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and executive power was assumed by a [[English Council of State|Council of State]].<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=166}}.</ref> All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of [[Oliver Cromwell]] in the [[Third English Civil War]] and the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]].<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|pp=166–168}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|pp=450–452}}.</ref> Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653,<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2006|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=170}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=454}}.</ref> thereby establishing [[The Protectorate]] with himself as [[Lord Protector]].<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|pp=455–459}}.</ref> Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2006|p=174}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Loades|1974|p=459}}.</ref> Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was [[English Restoration|restored]] to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2006|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|pp=177–180}}.</ref> ===Assessments=== In the words of [[John Philipps Kenyon]], "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy".{{sfn|Kenyon|1978|p=93}} Revered by [[high Tories]] who considered him a saintly martyr,{{sfn|Kishlansky|Morrill|2008}} he was condemned by [[Whig history|Whig historians]], such as [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner]], who thought him duplicitous and delusional.<ref>{{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=414, 466}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=93}}.</ref> In recent decades, most historians have criticised him,<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=xvi}}; {{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=xxiii}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|pp=472–473}}.</ref> the main exception being [[Kevin Sharpe (historian)|Kevin Sharpe]] who offered a more sympathetic view of Charles that has not been widely adopted.<ref>{{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=xvii}}; {{harvnb|Coward|2003|p=xxii}}; {{harvnb|Cust|2005|p=466}}.</ref> While Sharpe argued that the king was a dynamic man of conscience, Professor Barry Coward thought Charles "was the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI",{{sfn|Coward|2003|p=xxii}} a view shared by [[Ronald Hutton]], who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages".<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Carlton|1995|p=xvii}}</ref> Archbishop [[William Laud]], who was beheaded by Parliament during the war, described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great."<ref>Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain [[Peter Heylin]] in ''Cyprianus Angelicus'', 1688</ref> Charles was more sober and refined than his father,<ref>{{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=93}}; {{harvnb|Robertson|2005|p=32}}.</ref> but he was intransigent and deliberately pursued unpopular policies that ultimately brought ruin on himself.{{sfn|Cust|2005|pp=466–474}} Both Charles and James were advocates of the [[divine right of kings]], but while James's ambitions concerning [[Absolutism (European history)|absolute prerogative]] were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed that he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions.<ref>{{harvnb|Kenyon|1978|p=94}}; {{harvnb|Sharpe|1992|p=198}}.</ref> He thought that he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone".{{sfn|Gardiner|1906|p=83}} ==Titles, styles, honours and arms== [[File:Anthonis van Dyck 046.jpg|thumb|Charles, as painted by van Dyck between 1637 and 1638]] ===Titles and styles=== * '''23 December 1600&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''': Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch{{sfn|Weir|1996|p=252}} * '''6 January 1605&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''': Duke of York{{sfn|Weir|1996|p=252}} * '''6 November 1612&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''': Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay{{sfn|Weir|1996|p=252}} * '''4 November 1616&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''': Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester{{sfn|Weir|1996|p=252}} * '''27 March 1625&nbsp;– 30 January 1649''': ''His Majesty'' The King The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles I as king was "Charles, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Scottish monarchs|Scotland]], [[British claims to the French throne|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc."{{sfn|Wallis|1921|p=[https://archive.org/stream/englishregalyear00wall#page/60/mode/2up 61]}} The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] to [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.{{sfn|Weir|1996|p=286}} The authors of his death warrant referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England".<ref>{{harvnb|Edwards|1999|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Gregg|1981|pp=436, 440}}.</ref> ===Honours=== * '''KB''': [[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Bath]], ''6 January 1605&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''<ref name=kt>{{harvnb|Cokayne|Gibbs|Doubleday|1913|p=[https://archive.org/stream/completepeerageo03coka#page/444/mode/2up 445]}}; {{harvnb|Weir|1996|p=252}}.</ref> * '''KG''': [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], ''24 April 1611&nbsp;– 27 March 1625''<ref name=kt/> ===Arms=== As Duke of York, Charles bore the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|royal arms of the kingdom]] [[Cadency|differenced]] by a [[Label (heraldry)|label]] [[Argent]] of three points, each bearing three [[torteau]]x [[Gules]].{{sfn|Ashmole|1715|p=532}} The Prince of Wales bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points.{{sfn|Ashmole|1715|pp=531, 534}} As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], I and IV Grandquarterly, [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]] three [[Fleur-de-lis|fleurs-de-lis]] [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] (for France) and Gules three lions [[Attitude (heraldry)#Passant|passant guardant]] in [[Pale (heraldry)|pale]] Or ([[Royal Arms of England|for England]]); II Or a lion [[rampant]] within a [[tressure]] flory-counter-flory Gules ([[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|for Scotland]]); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter.{{sfn|Johnston|1906|p=18}} {| border="0" align="center" width="85%" |- !width=25% |[[File:Coat of arms of Charles Stuart, Duke of York.svg|center|130px]] !width=25% |[[File:Coat of Arms of the Stuart Princes of Wales (1610-1688).svg|center|200px]] !width=25% |[[File:Coat of Arms of England (1603-1649).svg|center|200px]] !width=25% |[[File:Coat of Arms of Scotland (1603-1649).svg|center|200px]] |- |<center>Coat of arms as Duke of York from 1611 to 1612</center> |<center>Coat of arms as heir apparent and Prince of Wales used from 1612 to 1625</center> |<center>Coat of arms of Charles I used (outside Scotland) from 1625 to 1649</center> |<center>Coat of arms of Charles I used in Scotland from 1625 to 1649</center> |} ==Issue== [[File:Anthony van Dyck - Five Eldest Children of Charles I - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Charles I's five eldest children, 1637. Left to right: [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]], [[James II of England|James]], [[Charles II of England|Charles]], [[Elizabeth Stuart (1635–1650)|Elizabeth]] and [[Anne of England (1637–1640)|Anne]].]] Charles had nine children, two of whom eventually succeeded as king, and two of whom died at or shortly after birth.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=252–254}} {| class="wikitable" |- !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |Charles James, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay||13 May 1629||13 May 1629||Born and died the same day. Buried as "Charles, Prince of Wales".{{sfn|Cokayne|Gibbs|Doubleday|1913|p=[https://archive.org/stream/completepeerageo03coka#page/446/mode/1up 446]}} |- |[[Charles II of England|Charles II]]||29 May 1630||6 February 1685||Married [[Catherine of Braganza]] (1638–1705) in 1662. No legitimate liveborn issue. |- |[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary, Princess Royal]]||4 November 1631||{{nowrap|24 December 1660}}||Married [[William II of Orange|William II, Prince of Orange]] (1626–1650) in 1641. She had one child: [[William III of England|William III]]. |- |[[James II of England|James II & VII]]||{{nowrap|14 October 1633}}||6 September 1701<!--16 September NS-->||Married (1) [[Anne Hyde]] (1637–1671) in 1659. Had issue including [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] and [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain]];<br />Married (2) [[Mary of Modena]] (1658–1718) in 1673. Had issue. |- |[[Elizabeth Stuart (1635–1650)|Princess Elizabeth]]||{{nowrap|29 December 1635}}||8 September 1650||No issue. |- |[[Anne of England (1637–1640)|Princess Anne]]||17 March 1637||5 November 1640||Died young. |- |Princess Catherine||29 June 1639||29 June 1639||Born and died the same day. |- |[[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry, Duke of Gloucester]]||8 July 1640||{{nowrap|13 September 1660}}|| No issue. |- |[[Henrietta of England|Princess Henrietta Anne]]||16 June 1644||30 June 1670||Married [[Philippe I, Duke of Orléans|Philip, Duke of Orléans]] (1640–1701) in 1661. Had issue. |} ==Ancestry== {{ahnentafel top|width=100%}} <center>{{ahnentafel-compact4 | style = font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; | border = 1 | boxstyle = padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; | boxstyle_1 = background-color: #fcc; | boxstyle_2 = background-color: #fb9; | boxstyle_3 = background-color: #ffc; | boxstyle_4 = background-color: #bfc; |1= 1. '''Charles I of England''' |2= 2. [[James VI and I|James I of England (VI of Scotland)]] |3= 3. [[Anne of Denmark]] |4= 4. [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]] |5= 5. [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] |6= 6. [[Frederick II of Denmark]] |7= 7. [[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow|Sophia of Mecklenburg]] |8= 8. [[Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox|Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} |9= 9. [[Margaret Douglas]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}}{{efn|name=Margaret|James V and Margaret Douglas were both children of [[Margaret Tudor]], the daughter of [[Henry VII of England]]: James V by [[James IV of Scotland]], Margaret by [[Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus|Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus]].{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} }} |10= 10. [[James V of Scotland]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}}{{efn|name=Margaret}} |11= 11. [[Mary of Guise]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} |12= 12. [[Christian III of Denmark]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}}{{efn|name=Frederick I|Christian III and Elizabeth were both children of [[Frederick I of Denmark]]: Christian by [[Anna of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg|Anne of Brandenburg]], Elizabeth by [[Sophia of Pomerania]].{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} }} |13= 13. [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} |14= 14. [[Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}} |15= 15. [[Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg|Elizabeth of Denmark]]{{sfn|Louda|Maclagan|1999|pp=27, 50}}{{efn|name=Frederick I}} }}</center> {{ahnentafel bottom}} ==See also== * [[Caroline era]] * [[Cultural depictions of Charles I of England]] * [[Society of King Charles the Martyr]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} * {{Citation |last=Adamson |first=John | year=2007|title=The Noble Revolt |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson | isbn= 978-0-297-84262-0}} * {{Citation|last=Ashmole|first=Elias|authorlink=Elias Ashmole|year=1715|title=The History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter|location=London|publisher=Bell, Taylor, Baker, and Collins}} * {{Citation |last=Carlton |first=Charles|year=1995 |title=Charles I: The Personal Monarch |edition=Second|location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-12141-8}} * {{Citation|authorlink1=George Edward Cokayne|last1=Cokayne|first1=George Edward|authorlink2=Vicary Gibbs (MP)|last2=Gibbs|first2=Vicary|last3=Doubleday|first3=Arthur|year=1913|title=[[The Complete Peerage]]|volume=III|location=London|publisher=St Catherine Press}} * {{Citation |last=Coward |first=Barry |year=2003 |title=The Stuart Age|edition=Third |location=London |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-77251-9}} * {{Citation |last=Cust |first=Richard |year=2005 |title=Charles I: A Political Life |location=Harlow|publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=0-582-07034-1}} * {{Citation|last=Donaghan|first=Barbara|year=1995|title=Halcyon Days and the Literature of the War: England's Military Education before 1642|journal=Past and Present|volume=147|pages=65–100|jstor=651040|doi=10.1093/past/147.1.65}} * {{Citation|last=Edwards|first=Graham|year=1999|title=The Last Days of Charles I|publisher=Sutton Publishing|location=Stroud|isbn=0-7509-2079-3}} * {{Citation |last=Gardiner |first=Samuel Rawson|authorlink=Samuel Rawson Gardiner |year=1906 |title=The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660 |edition=Third |location= Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=http://openlibrary.org/books/OL13527275M/The_constitutional_documents_of_the_Puritan_revolution_1625-1660}} * {{Citation |last=Gillespie |first=Raymond |title=Seventeenth Century Ireland |edition=Third |location= Dublin |publisher=Gill & McMillon |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7171-3946-0}} * {{Citation |last=Gregg |first=Pauline |authorlink=Pauline Gregg |year=1981 |title=King Charles I |location=London |publisher=Dent |isbn=0-460-04437-0}} * {{Citation|last=Hibbert |first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Hibbert |year=1968|location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |title=Charles I}} * {{Citation|last=Higgins|first=Charlotte|authorlink=Charlotte Higgins|date=24 November 2009|title=Delaroche masterpiece feared lost in war to go on show at National Gallery|journal=The Guardian|url=http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/nov/24/delaroche-painting-national-gallery|accessdate=22 October 2013}} * {{Citation |last=Holmes |first=Clive |title=Why was Charles I Executed? |publisher=Hambledon Continuum|location=London & New York|year=2006 |isbn=1-85285-282-8}} * {{Citation|last=Howat|first=G. 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M.|authorlink=David Loades |title=Politics and the Nation |location= London |publisher=Fontana |year=1974 |isbn=0-00-633339-7}} * {{Citation|last=Louda|first=Jiří|last2=Maclagan|first2=Michael|authorlink2=Michael Maclagan|year=1999|origyear=1981|title=Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-84820-6}} * {{Citation |last=Quintrell |first=Brian |title=Charles I: 1625–1640 |location=Harlow |publisher=Pearson Education |year=1993 |isbn=0-582-00354-7}} * {{Citation |last=Robertson |first=Geoffrey |authorlink=Geoffrey Robertson|year=2002|title=Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice |edition=Second |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-101014-4}} * {{Citation |last=Robertson |first=Geoffrey |year=2005 |title=The Tyrannicide Brief |location=London|publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=0-7011-7602-4}} * {{Citation|last=Russell|first=Conrad|authorlink=Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell|year=1990|title=The Causes of the English Civil War|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-822141-8}} * {{Citation|last=Russell|first=Conrad|year=1991|title=The Fall of the British Monarchies 1637–1642|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-820588-0}} * {{Citation |last=Schama |first= Simon|authorlink=Simon Schama|year=2001 |title=A History of Britain: The British Wars 1603–1776 |location=London |publisher=BBC Worldwide |isbn=0-563-53747-7}} * {{Citation |last=Scott|first= William Robert|year=1912 |title=The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{Citation |last=Sharpe |first=Kevin|authorlink=Kevin Sharpe (historian)|year=1992 |title=The Personal Rule of Charles I | location=New Haven & London|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-05688-5}} * {{Citation |last=Smith |first= David L.|authorlink=David Smith (historian) |title=The Stuart Parliaments 1603–1689 |location=London |publisher=Arnold |year=1999 |isbn=0-340-62502-3}} * {{Citation |last=Starkey |first= David|authorlink=David Starkey |title=Monarchy |location=London |publisher=HarperPress |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-00-724750-9}} * {{Citation |last=Stevenson |first= David |title=The Scottish Revolution 1637–1644|location=Newton Abbot |publisher=David & Charles |year=1973 |isbn=0-7153-6302-6}} * {{Citation |last=Trevelyan |first=G. M.|authorlink=G. M. Trevelyan |title=England under the Stuarts |edition=Tenth|location= London |publisher=Putnam |year=1922|url=http://archive.org/details/englandunderstu00trevgoog}} * {{citation|last=Wallis|first=John Eyre Winstanley|year=1921|title=English Regnal Years and Titles: Hand-lists, Easter dates, etc|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge|location=London|url=http://archive.org/stream/englishregalyear00wall}} * {{Citation|authorlink=Alison Weir |last=Weir |first=Alison |year=1996 |title=Britain's Royal Families: A Complete Genealogy|edition=Revised|publisher=Pimlico|location=London|isbn=978-0-7126-7448-5}} ==Further reading== * {{Citation|last=Ashley |first=Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Ashley (historian) |title=Charles I and Cromwell |publisher=Methuen|location=London |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-413-16270-0}} * Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1882), ''The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637–1649'': [https://archive.org/details/fallmonarchycha02gardgoog Volume I (1637–1640)]; [https://archive.org/details/fallmonarchycha00gardgoog Volume II (1640–1642)] * {{Citation|last=Hibbard|first=Caroline M.|year=1983|title=Charles I and the Popish Plot|location=Chapel Hill|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=0-8078-1520-9}} * {{Citation|last=Kishlansky |first=Mark A.|authorlink=Mark Kishlansky |year=2005 |title=Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity|journal=Past and Present|volume=189|issue=1|pages=41–80 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gti027}} * {{Citation|editor-last=Lockyer |editor-first=Roger|editor-link=Roger Lockyer|year=1959 |title=The Trial of Charles I|location=London|publisher=Folio Society|mode=cs2}} * {{Citation|last=Reeve |first=L. J.|title=Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-521-52133-5}} * {{Citation|last=Wedgwood |first=Cicely Veronica |authorlink=Veronica Wedgwood|title=The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 1637–1641 |publisher=Collins|location=London |year=1955}} * {{Citation|last=Wedgwood|first=Cicely Veronica |title=The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641–1647|location= London |publisher=Collins |year=1958}} * {{Citation|last=Wedgwood |first=Cicely Veronica|title=A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I |location= London |publisher=Macmillan |year=1964}} ==External links== {{Commons category}} {{Wikiquote}} * {{NRA|P5401}} * {{npg name|id=00840|name=King Charles I}} * [http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesI.aspx Official website of the British monarchy] * [http://www.skcm.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr] * [http://www.skcm-usa.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States)] * {{Gutenberg author | id=Charles+I,+King+of+England | name=Charles I, King of England}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Charles I |sopt=t}}<!--See docs to create custom search--> {{S-start}} {{S-hou|[[House of Stuart]]|19 November|1600|30 January|1649}} {{S-reg}} {{S-bef|rows=2|before=[[James VI and I|James I & VI]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of English monarchs|King of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1625–1649}} {{S-vac|next=[[Charles II of England|Charles II]]|reason=[[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]}} |- {{S-ttl|title=[[List of Scottish monarchs|King of Scotland]]|years=1625–1649}} {{S-aft|after=[[Charles II of England|Charles II]]}} {{S-roy|gb}} {{S-break}} {{S-bef|before=[[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales|Henry Frederick]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Cornwall]]<br />[[Duke of Rothesay]]|years=1612–1625}} {{S-vac|rows=2|next=[[Charles II of England|Charles]]<br /><small>''later became King Charles II''</small>}} |- {{S-vac|last=[[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales|Henry Frederick]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1616–1625}} {{S-end}} {{English, Scottish and British monarchs}} {{Princes of Wales}} {{Dukes of Albany}} {{Dukes of Cornwall}} {{Dukes of Rothesay}} {{Dukes of York}} {{Anglicanism (footer)|collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}} {{Use British English|date=December 2013}} {{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> | NAME = Charles I | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Charles Stuart | SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Great Britain and Ireland | DATE OF BIRTH = 19 November 1600 | PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Dunfermline]], Scotland | DATE OF DEATH = 30 January 1649 | PLACE OF DEATH = [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]], England }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Charles 01 Of England}} [[Category:Charles I of England| ]] [[Category:English monarchs]] [[Category:Scottish monarchs]] [[Category:Protestant monarchs]] [[Category:Anglican saints]] [[Category:17th-century monarchs in Europe]] [[Category:English pretenders to the French throne]] [[Category:Princes of England]] [[Category:Princes of Scotland]] [[Category:Princes of Wales]] [[Category:House of Stuart]] [[Category:Dukes of Albany]] [[Category:Dukes of Cornwall]] [[Category:Dukes of Rothesay]] [[Category:Dukes of York]] [[Category:Earls of Ross|Stuart, Charles]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:People from Dunfermline]] [[Category:People of the English Civil War]] [[Category:Executed royalty]] [[Category:Executed reigning monarchs]] [[Category:British people executed by decapitation]] [[Category:People executed under the Interregnum (England) for treason against England]] [[Category:People executed under the Interregnum (England) by decapitation]] [[Category:1600 births]] [[Category:1649 deaths]] [[Category:Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]] [[Category:Publicly executed people]]'