Subject matter jurisdiction is the power of a court to adjudicate a particular type of matter and provide the remedy demanded.
Personal Jurisdiction and Subject Matter Jurisdiction
A court must have jurisdiction to enter a valid, enforceable judgment on a claim. Where jurisdiction is lacking, the validity of a judgment can be retroactively challenged.
Jurisdiction may be broken down into two categories: personal jurisdiction and subject matter jurisdiction. While personal jurisdiction governs where the parties may be heard, subject matter jurisdiction governs what the court can hear specifically.
While litigating parties may waive personal jurisdiction, they cannot waive subject-matter jurisdiction. In federal court, under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, a motion to dismiss for lack of subject-matter jurisdiction is considered a favored defense. It may be raised at any point in the litigation process, even if the parties had previously argued that subject-matter jurisdiction existed. In fact, the court may dismiss a case sua sponte (on its own) for lack of subject-matter jurisdiction. See, e.g., Fed. R. Civ. Proc. 12(b)(1).
Limited Jurisdiction and General Jurisdiction
Because a court is required to have subject-matter over the claims it hears, the legislature can impose limitations on what it can hear. For example, Congress limited the subject-matter jurisdiction of the United States Tax Court to cases related to taxation; thus, that court does not have subject-matter jurisdiction over any other matter.
Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction. To bring an action in a federal court, the plaintiff must find a constitutional or congressional basis of subject-matter jurisdiction for the federal court to hear the claim. See U.S. Const. Art. III, Sec. 2. Generally, courts read congressional grants of subject-matter jurisdiction narrowly and tend to resolve ambiguities in favor of denying jurisdiction.
Most state courts are courts of general jurisdiction. State courts are presumed to have power to hear virtually any claim arising under federal or state law, except those falling under the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal courts. However, for pragmatic reasons some states may deny subject matter jurisdiction to specific claims, such as those arising in other states. Most states also maintain specialized courts of limited subject-matter jurisdiction, such as probate courts, traffic courts, juvenile courts, and small claims courts.
Subject Matter Jurisdiction for Federal Courts
The two primary sources of the subject matter jurisdiction for the federal courts are diversity jurisdiction and federal question jurisdiction.
Diversity jurisdiction generally permits individuals to bring claims in federal court where the claim exceeds $75,000 and the parties are citizens of different states. See 28 U.S.C. § 1332. For example, if a citizen of New York sues a citizen of California for $75,001, a federal court would have subject-matter jurisdiction to hear that claim.
Federal question jurisdiction permits an individual - regardless of the value of the claim - to bring a claim in federal court if it arises under federal law, including the U.S. Constitution. See 28 U.S.C. § 1331. Federal question jurisdiction requires that the federal question appears on the face of a well pleaded complaint, is a substantial component of the complainant's claim, and is of significant federal interest. Federal question subject-matter jurisdiction is frequently derived from federal statutes granting a cause of action to parties who have suffered a particular injury. Furthermore, 28 U.S.C. § 1367 provides for supplemental jurisdiction in federal courts. It allows a federal court to hear a claim over which it does not have independent subject-matter jurisdiction if the claim is related to a claim over which the federal court does have independent jurisdiction.
Jurisdictional Division and Federalism
The jurisdictional division between state and federal courts is an essential component of American federalism. This division ensures that federal courts and state courts each address the types of cases best suited to their respective expertise and roles.
Federal courts possess exclusive jurisdiction over certain subject matter of national significance, notably issues like patent and admiralty law. See 28 U.S.C. §§ 1333, 1338. This exclusive jurisdiction reflects the substantial federal interest in such issues and facilitate the development of a uniform body of federal law to govern complex issues with interstate implications.
Further, the limited jurisdiction of federal courts encourages parties to bring cases to state courts when appropriate. This helps prevent excessive federal judicial intervention and channels claims into courts that are most knowledgeable about the applicable law.
In many areas, federal and state courts also have concurrent subject matter jurisdiction. This gives parties the flexibility to choose the forum that they believe will be most advantageous for their case.
The concept of subject matter jurisdiction also extends beyond the domestic sphere and influences international law. For example, issues frequently arise involving the jurisdiction of international criminal tribunals, like the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Here, subject matter jurisdiction also holds international political significance, as parties must decide the degree to which a supranational tribunal can affect persons traditionally subject to domestic law.
Constitutional Standing and Subject Matter Jurisdiction
A threshold concern for all federal courts is the presence, or absence, of constitutional standing. Article III of the Constitution requires federal courts to adjudicate only cases or controversies, which must comprise an actual injury that can be redressed. See Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife at p559. Subject matter jurisdiction does not exist in the absence of constitutional standing. This restriction prevents courts - whose members are not elected and are therefore not politically accountable - from overstepping their judicial role by making legislative decisions. In this way, the standing doctrine and subject matter jurisdiction work in tandem to facilitate the separation of powers.
[Last updated in June of 2024 by the Wex Definitions Team]