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Natural Disaster Science and Mitigation Engineering:
DPRI Reports
Tetsuya Sumi
Sameh A. Kantoush
Mohamed Saber Editors
Editor-in-Chief
Hiroshi Kawase, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
Because of the high concentration of population in urban habitats and the strong
linkage to infrastructures that support a modern urban lifestyle, natural disasters
such as fl oods, typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, and volcanoes always
create new areas of severe damage whenever they occur. Japan is a “disaster
country” of sorts: the Japanese have had to survive many different kinds of natural
disasters and consequently they have accumulated a substantial body of knowledge
in the phenomenology and mitigation of natural disasters. This series of books
presents recent advances in all aspects of natural disasters and related mitigation
technologies developed in Japan to be shared with the international community.
The areas covered in this series include
1. Earthquake risk
2. Strong motions and damage prediction for urban structures
3. Volcanic eruptions
4. Ground failures
5. Climate and water disasters
6. Fire and environmental disasters
7. Disaster management and mitigation
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Hiroshi Kawase (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Editors
Prof. Manabu Hashimoto (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Tomotaka Iwata (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Masato Iguchi (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Masahiro Chigira (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Kaoru Takara (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Tetsuya Sumi (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Hirokazu Tatano (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Mohamed Saber
Editors
123
Editors
Tetsuya Sumi Sameh A. Kantoush
Water Resources Research Center (WRRC) Water Resources Research Center (WRRC)
Disaster Prevention Research Institute Disaster Prevention Research Institute
(DPRI) (DPRI)
Kyoto University Kyoto University
Uji, Kyoto, Japan Uji, Kyoto, Japan
Mohamed Saber
Water Resources Research Center (WRRC)
Disaster Prevention Research Institute
(DPRI)
Kyoto University
Uji, Kyoto, Japan
This book was funded by the Water Resources Research Center (WRRC) of the Disaster
Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) at Kyoto University, which provided support for
publishing the book as Open Access through Springer. In addition, the book has been
professionally edited using financial support from Springer’s DPRI book series at DPRI,
Kyoto University. The editors highly appreciate the financial support from WRRC and DPRI.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
To academics, researchers, engineers,
students, professionals, and decision-makers
who are interested in flash flood risk
reduction and sustainable water management
for improving secure development in arid and
semiarid regions
Preface
Introduction
Over the last two decades, a number of studies, research papers, and contributions
have been published on wadi system issues. The first specific and original book was
presented by Sen in 2008, and it was named “Wadi hydrology.” In this book, the
author highlighted the wadi terminology to provide a definition for arid basins and
addressed the assessment methodologies from different aspects of water resources
with innovative and distinctive concepts. Additionally, UNESCO IHP established
the “Global Network on Water and Development Information for Arid Lands
(G-WADI)” in 2004. It was originally initiated to strengthen the capacity to manage
water resources in arid and semiarid regions and build an effective global com-
munity through the integration of networks, centers, organizations, and individuals
(https://gwadi.org/). Although many previous studies have focused on arid envi-
ronment characteristics and rainfall-runoff modeling, water management, and dis-
aster risk reduction, the current situation is still challenging due to climate change
impacts and global warming. Therefore, we present this book as an attempt to
continue the efforts of previous researchers and scientists to develop a tangible and
sustainable management process that considers all water resource aspects in arid
and semiarid regions.
Wadi flash floods (WFFs) have recently become more frequent and devastating,
and they result in significant economic, property, and life losses, as well as envi-
ronmental degradation. The wadi systems of arid and semiarid regions face various
challenges that hamper water resource management for secure sustainable devel-
opment. Among these, challenges are data limitations (availability and quality),
dual disaster events (floods and droughts), water shortage (quantity and quality),
improper management (water and sediment), and weak comprehensive under-
standing of the WFF processes and appropriate WFF approaches (models, strate-
gies, and planning). Although several research studies focused on the use of WFFs
to mitigate flash floods in some arid regions based on impact modeling (Saber et al.
2010, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020a, b; Saber 2010; Kantoush et al. 2011;
vii
viii Preface
Cools et al. 2012; Moawad 2013; Sumi et al. 2013; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2015; Saber
and Habib 2016; Youssef et al. 2016; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2016; Abuzeid et al. 2016;
Abdel-Fattah et al. 2017; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018; Saber and Yilmaz 2018;
Al-Mamari et al. 2019; Abdrabo et al. 2020; Prama et al. 2020; Abdel-Fattah et al.
2021), the spatiotemporal variability in both the magnitude and frequency of flash
floods is still not well understood and has not been scientifically evaluated, espe-
cially in terms of climate change. In this book volume, a comprehensive vision and
research directions are introduced with the goal of enhancing the scientific under-
standing of natural disaster science and WFF mitigation. The book stresses the
urgent need to develop sustainable approaches and methods to simulate and forecast
WFFs by focusing on water management, climate change impacts, disaster risk
reduction, society and environmental development.
The book includes selected high-quality papers from five series of the
International Symposium on Flash Floods in Wadi Systems (ISFF) that were held in
2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2020 in Japan and Egypt, Oman, Morocco, and Japan,
respectively. The main merit of this comprehensive book is its focus on research
and technical papers as well as case study applications in different regions world-
wide (see the global maps, Fig. 1) that cover many topics and answer several
scientific questions.
The main factors that lead to increases in wadi flash floods in terms of frequency
and intensity must be identified to develop robust forecasting programs and proper
mitigation strategies for flash flood risk reduction. Additionally, the hydrological
characteristics, such as rainfall spatiotemporal variability, infiltration processes,
runoff generation, and surface and subsurface water interactions, must be investi-
gated along with geomorphological, topographical, and geological features. This
approach represents an optimal method of overcoming the identified issues.
Water resources are highly scarce in arid and semiarid regions; therefore, water
management is a must. There are challenges in water resource management related
Fig. 1 Target regions and country applications reported in the WFF textbook
Preface ix
to the increases in population, agricultural areas, and water demand. Moreover, the
hydrological conditions in such regions are not only extremely variable but also
affected by climate change. Due to the absence of water management and sus-
tainable mitigation strategies, the development of effective hydrological models is
desperately needed to overcome wadi system problems. Therefore, we propose a
multidisciplinary approach relying on the addressed factors (Fig. 2). Such a pro-
posed research strategy focuses on WFF modeling, mitigation, and harvesting as
well as the related socioenvironmental issues. We propose an integrated strategy
based on multidisciplinary research according to the following issues:
• Innovative approaches: What factors are missing in the existing approaches for
flash floods? How can we enhance the forecasting and mitigation of models and
methodologies?
• Databased networks: What are the existing challenges of observation and
monitoring networks for modeling and forecasting? How can we enable these
ungauged wadi basins?
• Teamwork: What are the existing global and national networking programs for
research collaboration? How can we start efficient networks that include
researchers, professionals, engineers, and stakeholders from different countries?
• Risk reduction and sediment management: How can we propose flash flood
risk reduction approaches based on innovative hydrological models and miti-
gation actions?
• Water harvesting and water management: How can we integrate methods for
surface and subsurface water management for water harvesting and groundwater
recharge?
x Preface
• Society and environment: How can we develop wadi societies and commu-
nities by involving the local population in research project implementation?
• Decision making, planning, and governance: How can we improve the
existing national and global plan for wadi society development?
The main purpose of this book is to bring together research studies, developments,
and application-related flash flood topics on wadi systems in arid regions. In this
book, the authors and contributors (engineers, researchers, and professionals) have
introduced their recent scientific findings to develop proper, applicable, and inno-
vative tools for mitigation, forecasting, and water management as well as society
development. The main contents include recent scientific achievements and find-
ings, which are introduced in 22 chapters under seven main research themes as
follows:
Part I. Wadi Flash Flood Challenges and Strategies
Part II. Hydrometeorology and Climate Changes
Part III. Rainfall-Runoff Modeling and Approaches
Part IV. Disaster Risk Reduction and Mitigation
Part V. Reservoir Sedimentation and Sediment Yield
Part VI. Groundwater Management
References
Abdel-Fattah, M., Kantoush, S. A., Saber, M., & Sumi, T. (2021). Evaluation of Structural
Measures for Flash Flood Mitigation in Wadi Abadi Region of Egypt. J Hydrol Eng, 26(2),
04020062
Abdel-Fattah, M., Kantoush, S., & Sumi, T. (2015). Integrated management of flash flood in wadi
system of egypt: Disaster prevention and water harvesting. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B=
Annu Disas Prev Res Inst. B, 58(B):485–496
Abdel-Fattah, M., M. Saber, et al. (2017). “A Hydrological and Geomorphometric Approach to
Understanding the Generation of Wadi Flash Floods.” Water 9(7): 553
Abdel-Fattah, M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2018). “Rainfall-Runoff Modeling For Extreme Flash
Floods In Wadi Samail, Oman.” J Jpn Soc Civ Eng Ser B1 (Hydraul Eng) 74(5)
Abdel-Fattah M, Kantoush S, Saber M., & Sumi T. (2016). “Hydrological modelling of flash flood
at wadi samail, Oman.” 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prevention Research Institute
Annuals. B 59 no. B:533–541
Abdrabo, K. I., Kantoush, S. A., Saber, M., Sumi, T., Habiba, O. M., Elleithy, D., & Elboshy, B.
(2020). Integrated Methodology for Urban Flood Risk Mapping at the Microscale in Ungauged
Regions: A Case Study of Hurghada, Egypt. Remote Sens 12(21):3548
Preface xi
Abuzied, S., Yuan, M., Ibrahim, S., Kaiser, M., & Saleem, T. (2016). Geospatial risk assessment
of flash floods in Nuweiba area, Egypt.J Arid Environ 133:54–72
Al-Mamari, M. M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2019). “Real-Time Measurement of Flash-Flood in a
Wadi Area by LSPIV and STIV.” Hydrology 6(1):27
Cools, J., Vanderkimpen, P., Afandi, G. E., Abdelkhalek, A., Fockedey, S., Sammany, M. E., ... &
Huygens, M. (2012). An early warning system for flash floods in hyper-arid Egypt. Nat
Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12(2):443–457
Kantoush, S. A., Sumi, T., Kojiri, T., Saber, M., Elshennawy, I., Awad, H., & Sefelnaser, A.
(2011). JE-HydroNet: Modern Methodologies for the Management, Monitoring and Planning
of Integrated Water Resources in the Nile Delta of Egypt. In Proceedings of the 34th World
Congress of the International Association for Hydro-Environment Research and Engineering:
33rd Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium and 10th Conference on Hydraulics in
Water Engineering (p. 3928). Engineers Australia.
Moawad, M. B. (2013). Analysis of the flash flood occurred on 18 January 2010 in wadi El Arish,
Egypt (a case study). Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 4(3):254–274
Prama, M., Omran, A., Schröder, D., & Abouelmagd, A. (2020). Vulnerability assessment of flash
floods in Wadi Dahab Basin, Egypt. Environ Earth Sci, 79(5):1–17
Saber, M. (2010). Hydrological Approaches of Wadi System Considering Flash Floods in Arid
Regions. Kyoto, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University
Saber, M. and E. Habib (2015). Flash floods modelling for wadi system: Challenges and trends.
Landscape Dynamics, Soils and Hydrological Processes in Varied Climates: 317–339
Saber, M., & Yilmaz, K. K. (2018). Evaluation and bias correction of satellite-based rainfall
estimates for modelling flash floods over the Mediterranean region: application to Karpuz
River Basin, Turkey. Water, 10(5), 657
Saber, M., Abdrabo, K. I., Habiba, O. M., Kantosh, S. A., & Sumi, T. (2020). Impacts of triple
factors on flash flood vulnerability in Egypt: urban growth, extreme climate, and misman-
agement. Geosciences, 10(1), 24.
Saber, M., Kantoush, S., Sumi, T., Abdel-Fattah, M., Alharrasi, T., Koshiba, T., ... & Almamari,
M. (2018). Field investigation on wadi system in arid regions: Flash flood indicators and
sedimentation impacts. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prev Res Inst Ann. B, 61
(B):722–731
Saber, M., Kantoush, S., Sumi, T., Ogiso, Y., & Alharrasi, T. (2019). Reservoir Sedimentation at
Wadi System: Challenges and Management Strategies. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B=
Disaster Prevention Research Institute Annuals. B, 62(B):689–699
Saber, M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2020). “Assessment of spatiotemporal variability of water
storage in Arabian countries using global datasets: implications for water resources manage-
ment.” Urban Water J 1–15
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Aswan, Egypt.” 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prev Res Inst Annuals. B 60(B):853–
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wadi system to simulate flash floods in arid regions.” Arab J Geosci 8(1):143–160
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comparative study between some Arabian wadi basins.” Annu J Hydraul Eng Jpn Soc Civil
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nology collaborative research for flash flood management. J Disaster Res 8(1):28–36
Acknowledgements
The main contents of this book are collected from research papers, technical studies,
and case studies presented at the ISFF conferences series; therefore, we would like
to express our deep gratitude to all of the participants and authors for their worthy
contributions to this book. Special gratitude is extended to the reviewers and
experts who have generously helped and contributed significantly to improving the
quality of the submitted book chapters based on their constructive comments and
suggestions. Additionally, the editors greatly appreciate the financial support from
DPRI for publishing this book in Springer’s DPRI book series.
xiii
Summary
The chapters of the book are summarized in this section. The WFF book contains
six themes and a total of 22 chapters focused on several topics associated with arid
and semiarid regions. The first theme (Part I) is “WFF Challenges and Strategies,”
and it includes three chapters (Kantoush et al. 2021; Loudyi and Fekri 2021; and
Boutaghane et al. 2021) that define the research gaps, directions, strategies, and
challenges at the regional scale of the MENA region and the country scale, such as
Morocco and Algeria.
Kantoush et al. (2021) (Chap. 1) provide a state-of-the-art scientific basis in
terms of integrated flash flood management, and it mainly highlights the research
gaps and emerging research methodologies that can contribute to guiding the
management of WFFs in the Middle East and North African (MENA) arid areas.
The chapter also discusses the importance and objectives of the international
symposium on flash floods (ISFF) project and the different dimensions of flash
flood phenomena, causes, and resulting impacts in the MENA region. This chapter
highlights that flash flood disasters in arid environments are associated with several
challenges related to flash flood features, arid environment characteristics, and data
and methodology limitations. At the country scale, two chapters address local
strategies. The second chapter addresses flood risk management practices in
Morocco by Loudyi and Fekri (2021) (Chap. 2). In this chapter, the phenomenon of
floods in Morocco is discussed, and the evolution of approaches to assess flood risk,
related technical and governance aspects, and best practices for managing floods are
highlighted. This chapter provides holistic insights into flood risk management in
Morocco. The authors stated that the engagement of citizens and other public
stakeholders within a participatory approach is recommended for better commu-
nication of flood risk preparedness and resilience enhancement, and it indicates that
the involvement of international organizations, such as OECD and WB, and
international collaboration in research can also offer a great opportunity for
improving flood risk assessment in the country. The third chapter by Boutaghane
et al. (2021) (Chap. 3) highlights the strategies for flood analysis and mitigation in
Algeria. The flood monitoring network is also addressed by highlighting the data
availability and quality and implementing the first forecasting and early warning
xv
xvi Summary
system. The authors stated that there are problems with the length of historical
datasets obtained from hydrometric and pluviometric monitoring networks.
The second theme (Part II) is “Hydrometeorology and Climate Changes,” and it
includes two chapters. The first study by Nayak and Takemi (2021) (Chap. 4)
focuses on the impact of climate change on temperature and precipitation in India.
The study introduces a comprehensive assessment of future climate change in terms
of the climatologies, distribution patterns, annual cycles, and frequency distribu-
tions of temperature and precipitation over India. The results indicate that some
desert regions in the west and tropical humid climate types in the central and south
regions of the country show possible temperature increases of 4–5 °C while the
temperatures over the subtropical humid climates in the north and east regions
of the country show increases of 3–4 °C. The second chapter by Belarbi et al.
(2021) (Chap. 5) presents an analysis of the hydrological behavior of watersheds in
the context of climate change in Algeria. The study focused on the temporal evo-
lution of the rainfall-runoff relations in four basins in northwestern Algeria. The
results show that in the four basins, rainfall deficits started in 1974/1975 and
continue to the present with annual variability. The authors stated that such chan-
ges, which are characterized by downward trends, have motivated them to pay more
attention to the proper functioning of completed or planned projects with the
challenge of attaining sustainable management of water resources in the region to
mitigate persistent drought. Both studies in India and Algeria highlight the
importance of understanding climatic variability and its impacts on water resources
as well as its relation with different climatic environments, and they also provide
insights to understand climatic dynamics and variability.
The third theme (Part III) is “Rainfall-Runoff Modeling and Approaches,” and it
includes five chapters (Tügel et al. 2021; Holzbecher et al. 2021; Abdelmoneim
et al. 2021; Al-mamari et al. 2021; and Banihabib and Vaziri 2021). Tügel et al.
(2021) (Chap. 6) investigated flash floods in the region of El Gouna in Egypt by
using a 2D robust shallow water model that incorporates time-dependent infiltration
to find the most realistic infiltration settings for this desert area. The study con-
cluded that in addition to the overestimation of infiltration, the DSM lacked
accuracy and resolution because some important topographical features were not
well captured. The authors recommended extending their research work to include
infiltration measurements with a rainfall simulator to better represent the natural
conditions during heavy rainfall events and to investigate the effect of surface
sealing and improve the DSM. Holzbecher et al. (2021) (Chap. 7) introduced smart
technology for an early warning system that includes hydrological sensors, remote
sensing, sensor networks, data integration, hydrodynamic simulation and visual-
ization, decision support and early warning systems and the dissemination of
information to decision-makers and the public. Two case studies are presented in
Australia and Oman with similar flood characteristics. The case of the flash flood
guidance system of Oman shows that technical issues associated with flood warning
systems can be addressed and resolved.
Abdelmoneim et al. (2021) (Chap. 8) presented a study on different global
precipitation estimations based on satellite products (PESPs) with high resolution as
Summary xvii
Brazil. The climatic characteristics are reviewed for both regions, and the
rainfall-runoff inundation model (RRI) was used to simulate the discharge and flood
inundation of recent flood events in the study areas. This simulation highlighted the
severity and frequency of recent flash flood events to better assess the current
mitigation measures in arid and semiarid basins. The findings indicated that flash
floods tend to be more severe and extreme in arid regions than in semiarid regions
despite the lower frequency of flash floods and the water scarcity in arid regions.
Distributed dams also proved to be more effective in preventing flash floods in arid
regions than in semiarid regions
The fifth theme (Part V) is “Reservoir Sedimentation and Sediment Yield,” and
it includes five chapters (Saber et al. 2021; Holzbecher and Hadidi 2021; Djoukbala
et al. 2021; Adam and Suleiman 2021; Banihabib and Tanhapour 2021). In arid and
semiarid environments, little attention has been focused on sedimentation assess-
ments and impacts associated with flash floods, especially in the MENA region,
with hyperarid conditions. Saber et al. (2021) (Chap. 15) highlighted the integration
of field investigation and modeling as well as remote sensing techniques to
understand the sediment dynamics in hyperarid reservoirs in Oman. This chapter
presents an international collaboration project implemented in Oman focusing on
monitoring and observing sedimentation and its impacts on infiltration in the
Asserin Reservoir, Wadi Mijlas, Oman. Detailed field investigations were con-
ducted, including drone surveys, pedon analysis, and infiltration tests, and ques-
tionnaires about flash floods were also implemented. The detailed field survey is
highly important for assessing sediment transport and sedimentation impacts on
infiltration. Holzbecher and Hadidi (2021) (Chap. 16) introduced a multiphysics
approach that coupled shallow water equations (SWEs) representing water height
and velocity with equations for suspended particulate matter and bed loads by using
COMSOL Multiphysics software. The study examined the capability of the
numerical approach to simulate basic processes that change the bottom elevation of
a water body. However, this study demonstrated that basic phenomena associated
with sediment transport, such as scour creation and sediment deposition, can be
captured by a 2D coupled multiphysics approach. Sedimentation in Algeria is
associated with a high level of challenges, especially in the northern and central
basins. Therefore, Djoukbala et al. (2021) (Chap. 17) aimed to estimate the eroded
and transported sediment yields from the whole Hodna Basin area by two
approaches. In the first model, the eroded yield is estimated by mapping erosion
using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). In the second approach,
the data of the gauged subbasins are extrapolated to the ungauged areas based on
homogeneous factors that influence the water erosion-sediment transport process.
The results of the two methods showed that high eroded and transported sediment
yield values were observed in the basin.
Sedimentation is also a challenging issue in Sudan due to its impacts on the
operations of reservoirs and irrigation networks, as highlighted by Adam and
Suleiman (2021) (Chap. 18). This study discusses the sediment management
practices used in the Khashm el-Girba Dam, which crosses the Atbara River in
Eastern Sudan, and their impacts on maintaining reservoir capacity. Practices
Summary xix
including operation policy (OP), trap efficiency (TE), sluicing, sediment sluicing,
and flushing operation (FO) were discussed. The authors stated that the adopted
management practices succeeded in removing a considerable amount of silt and
maintaining the lifetime of the reservoir. Determining the precipitation intensity
threshold of debris flood occurrence was addressed by Banihabib and Tanhapour
(2021) (Chap. 19). In this study, a laboratory model was employed to determine the
precipitation intensity threshold at which debris floods occur using a set of factors,
including sediment layer thickness, bed slope, grain mean diameter, length of
sediment, precipitation intensity, and time of debris flood occurrence.
The sixth theme (Part VI) is “Groundwater Management,” and it includes three
chapters (groundwater in arid regions is an important and basic water resource for
different uses in most arid regions). Ebraheem et al. (2021) (Chap. 20) presented
geophysical methods to determine the locations of saturated fractures and karsts and
the thicknesses of the unconsolidated materials in the wadis. The locations of the
two production wells were determined in the Wadi Ham and Ain Madab Springs
areas in the UAE for feeding the spring during drought seasons. The authors
indicated that to avoid losses of spring water, water should be transported by pipes
or by the construction of sealed small canals toward the bathing pool.
Overexploitation of groundwater has led to declining water levels in many aquifers
in arid regions, as stated by Sherif et al. (2021) (Chap. 21). This study was con-
ducted to evaluate the effect of the Wadi Bih Dam on groundwater resources and to
provide data on the hydrodynamics of the aquifer. The results showed that the
additional recharge provided by dam storage does not balance groundwater
extraction; thus, the present exploitation regime is not sustainable. To achieve
sustainable management of the groundwater resources in Wadi Bih, an integrated
solution must be pursued considering demand management as well as options for
further mitigating the impacts of groundwater abstraction. In terms of water quality
and the impact of groundwater overpumping, Saber et al. (2021) (Chap. 22)
investigated the environmental impacts of the increasing groundwater level through
field observations and chemical analyses of the groundwater wells in the Faris Area,
Aswan. The results revealed that the use of flood irrigation systems in the upper
newly reclaimed land area in the study area is the main cause of the decreasing
groundwater levels, which have led to remarkable environmental degradation in the
city. Additionally, the water quality also drastically changed due to the over-
pumping of groundwater.
In conclusion, the presented chapters comprehensively and significantly high-
light different scientific research disciplines related to wadi flash floods, including
climatology, hydrological models, new monitoring techniques, remote sensing
techniques, field investigations, international collaboration projects, risk assessment
and mitigation, sedimentation and sediment transport, and groundwater quality and
xx Summary
Mohamed Saber
[email protected]
Sameh A. Kantoush
[email protected]
Tetsuya Sumi
[email protected]
Reviewers List
xxi
Contents
xxiii
xxiv Contents
xxvii
xxviii About the Editors
Keywords Wadi flash floods ISFF Flood risk management MENA region
1.1 Introduction
‘Wadi’ is an Arabic word that is commonly used to refer to dry stream channels and
ephemeral streams or valleys typically in arid zones, such as in the Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) countries (Jackson and Bates 1997; Sen 2008). In the past
(before the year 2003, usually in late October or November), rainfall in the wadis
can be described as episodic, varying widely on spatial and temporal scales, with
many years receiving no precipitation at all. Recently, in the last 10 years, wadi
flash floods (WFFs) in arid regions have become catastrophic and more frequent
due to climate change impacts. In direct response to intense and usually sudden
rains, WFFs can produce enough runoff such that wadis flow for some distance
within the basin, but the flow often does not reach the coast because of high
transmission losses, as documented by El Bastawesy et al. (2009), who analyzed
pre- and post-flood remotely sensed data. Therefore, water harvesting of flash flood
water can be a significant approach to mitigate some potential wadis.
Floods are natural disasters worldwide; however, their adverse impact is superior
in developing countries (Alcántara-Ayala 2002). It was recently reported by the
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) that Arabian coun-
tries were affected by many disasters (approximately 270) over the last 30 years,
resulting in over 150,000 deaths and influencing approximately 10 million people
(Guha-Sapir et al. 2016). Recently, WFFs have been extreme and frequent in most
of the MENA arid zone, resulting in substantial economic and property losses. For
instance, flash floods struck Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia 39 times from 1900–
2016, causing 1,508 casualties and significant damages exceeding 1.8 billion USD
(De Vries et al. 2018). For instance, October 2016 flash floods left 26 dead people
and tens of millions of USD in damages in Ras Gharib City (Abdel-Fattah et al.
2017). Due to extreme precipitation in Sudan during a 6-h period on 7 August 2013,
the Humanitarian Aid Commission (HAC) estimated that 499,900 people coun-
trywide had been impacted and more than 85,385 houses were destroyed in the
affected states, with Khartoum State experiencing the worst effects (IFRC 2013).
Flash floods in Oman are often caused by more severe phenomena, which include
tropical cyclones that bring massive devastation to infrastructure and the loss of
human life. Oman was also hit by an extreme cyclone in July 2007 that killed 54
people, and property damage was assessed at 3.9 billion USD (Al Khatry and
Helmi 2008; Al Barwani 2015). In October 2018, the increased frequency of
extreme rainfall events associated with various flash floods triggered widespread
destruction in most of the MENA region, including Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, the UAE, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, Sudan and Oman.
Because previous experience of such disasters in arid regions is limited, proper
planning and management are now required. Events such as those in Egypt (2010),
Oman (2007), Yemen (2008), Jordan (2012), and Bahrain (2008) ensure that WFFs
remain the leading meteorological disaster causing death and property damage.
These floods destroy the main infrastructure, such as buildings, villages, agricul-
tural lands, roads, power towers, and pipelines, and they injure and kill humans and
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 5
animals (Murata et al. 2015; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018). In 2018, wadi flooding
trapped tourists and forced 4,000 tourists to evacuate to safe places within 1 h
before the peak flood reached the historic site of Petra, Jordan (Guardian 2018).
Sirens blared minutes before extreme flash flooding after heavy rainfall approached
Petra (historical city, dating back to 9,000 B.C.). The last deadly flash flood hit
Petra in 1963, when 22 French tourists and a local guide were killed by flash floods
(Laure Van Ruymbeke 2018).
Monitoring, modelling and early warning of WFFs are difficult, especially in
ungauged wadis. Furthermore, the lack of a complete data archive of pre- and
post-WFF events across the MENA region obstructs efforts to mitigate the flooding
risk (Viglione and Rogger 2014; Saber and Habib 2015). Most of the published
studies regarding WFFs have focused on the geology, geomorphology, and
hydrogeology of wadi systems (Moneim 2005; Elewa and Qaddah 2011;
Abdelkareem and El-Baz 2015). The other flash-flood-related features of wadi
systems, such as integrated management, hydrological modelling, and risk assess-
ment, have not been sufficiently addressed. Unfortunately, modelling the response
of wadis to rainfall is challenging due to the lack of data and to special charac-
teristics of wadis; consequently, developing powerful hydrological models is dif-
ficult (Wheater et al. 2007). Different rainfall modelling tools and methodologies
have been widely used, but most of them were originally established for humid
environments; nevertheless, arid and semi-arid regions facing severe water
resources scarcity and flash flood threats have received little attention. The lack of
high-quality observations is hindering the development in arid regions (Pilgrim
et al. 1988). Precipitation events are spatiotemporally irregular, highly variable and
localized. Flow measurements are lacking or uncertain. Moreover, some of the
developed hydrological models that were constructed for humid conditions cannot
be easily adapted to arid environmental conditions (Cools et al. 2012). Generally, in
humid environments, during the dry seasons, flow discharge increases downstream
and groundwater contributes to river systems, whereas in arid environments, the
opposite is valid, the surface flow is reduced because the groundwater table is
usually depressed (Sen 2008). For these reasons, the hydrological processes of arid
lands differ from those of humid lands and present particular challenges.
Developing hydrological models and methodologies is urgently needed in arid and
semi-arid regions. According to many previous studies, nonrioting and measuring
of flow is mostly problematic in arid regions for numerous reasons (Rodier and
Roche 1978; Kilpatrick and Cobb 1985; Pilgrim et al. 1988; Lange et al. 1999; Lin
1999; Abushandi and Merkel 2011) and can be summarized as follows: (1) during
flash floods, there is a rapid rising and falling of the water level; (2) it is difficult to
install monitoring devices in the target area; (3) appropriate natural control sectors
are nonexistent, artificial control in wadis is expensive; (4) extreme physical and
climatologic circumstances exist; (5) sediment transport, moving rocks and debris
can damage the installed instruments; (6) access is difficult due to few drivable
roads, especially during the rainy and flooding seasons; (7) the population density
in arid environments is typically low; (8) there is insufficient awareness of the
6 S. A. Kantoush et al.
importance of flooding studies and monitoring; and (9) the devices for flood
measurement are expensive, especially in developing countries.
Not all flash floods are destructive, and the harvest of floodwater and
rainfall-runoff for human and livestock usage and agricultural development should
be considered by management in the construction of underground dams, artificial
lakes, recharge dams and off-stream structures. Structures located unwisely in wadis
are vulnerable to damage, and residents and tourists may be killed or injured, as
vividly illustrated by the November 2009 floods in Jeddah (BBC 2009).
Unfortunately, culverts, dams and other flood mitigation structures that have been
designed and constructed in many wadis put significant numbers of people at risk.
In the MENA region, very few researchers have considered the different alternatives
for flash flood mitigation. Al-Weshah and El-Khoury (1999) compared various
mitigation measures, including terracing, storage dams, construction of check, and
afforestation, as well as different combinations of these measures using hydrological
modelling tools. A master plan was proposed by McLane and Wüst (2000) to
mitigate the flooding impact on the archaeological tombs of the Valley of Kings. An
integrated approach using GIS and remote sensing was proposed for flash flood
mitigation and water resource management in Safaga, Red Sea, Egypt. In this study,
the prone area for flood risk was identified and mapped, the appropriate locations
for dam construction were determined, and highly potential sites for water
recharging were determined. Additionally, various rainfall-runoff analyses and
discharge forecasting were conducted, and the inundation areas were identified. To
date, no comprehensive proper strategies for mitigating and managing water
resources have been developed in wadi basins. Establishing guidelines and inte-
grated methods for the management and mitigation of wadis for potential future
development projects is urgently needed to utilize floodwater as an additional water
resource in arid areas.
The ISFF project is focused on disaster risk reduction (DRR) by discussing
existing mitigation strategies for flash flood protection and consequent proper
floodwater management (water harvesting) in arid countries in Egypt, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, Yemen, Sudan, Jordan, and Morocco. Priorities will be defined for future
research challenges, gaps, and potential projects for flash floods in wadi systems.
ISFF projects have different objectives: (1) to initiate a networking platform for
sharing knowledge, data, and experience among researchers, scientists, and
authorities in the MENA countries, (2) to boost collaboration among researchers in
both fundamental and applied sciences, and (3) to transfer Japanese technologies to
the MENA region for FF protection and water harvesting.
The current chapter aims to present the current status of wadi flash floods in
some parts of the MENA region, provide a state-of-the-art summary of current
management and existing WFF mitigation strategies, present and discuss the
approach of integrated flash flood management, and discuss the main research
challenges to be addressed in future years.
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 7
The ISFF project was originally initiated by The Water Resources Research Center
(WRRC) and the Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes (GADRI) of the
Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto University, to discuss the
research outcomes of the MENA region and to establish research projects with
several Arabian countries, including Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan, Egypt, Morocco,
Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Sudan, and Jordan. The first ISFF was organized at
Kyoto University from 14 to 15 October 2015. The main purpose was to bring
together researchers, scientists, and experts from governmental and private orga-
nizations in Japan, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Oman, and Europe to
initiate a scientific platform to discuss different topics related to flash floods,
including hydrometeorology, flood disasters, and risk management, and to boost the
foundation of joint research cooperation programmes. The ISFF was established to
fill the current gaps in flash flood knowledge and to confirm a proper integrated
strategy for water resource management in wadi systems. Several related topics
have been addressed from different aspects, including water harvesting, mitigation
measures (structural and non-structural), hydrological modelling, and early warning
systems.
The main outcomes of the first ISFF symposium were drawing a roadmap for the
next five years to support and continue the efforts of organizations and governments
and to implement more scientific research and propose guidelines for assessing,
mitigating and utilizing flash floods. In the symposium, a training course under the
framework agenda of the UNESCO Japanese Fund-In-Trust (JFIT) project was
organized with the title “Urgent Capacity Development for Managing Natural
Disaster Risks of Flash Floods in Egypt, Jordan, Sudan and Yemen”. Many par-
ticipants from developing countries joined the course, which focused on flash flood
management and prediction using the integrated flood analysis system (IFAS) and
the rainfall‐runoff-inundation (RRI) model designed by the International Centre for
Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM), Japan. This training was planned
to foster the participants’ awareness of WFF risk assessment and management.
Based on the road map, the second ISFF was organized and hosted by the TUB,
El Gouna campus, Egypt, with the support of the UNESCO project. The third ISFF
was organized in 2017 at GUTech in Muscat, Oman. It was mainly concentrating
on flood risk mitigation, management, and assessment. The fourth ISFF was
organized in 2018 at Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco. From 25 to 28
February 2020, the fifth ISFF was organized and hosted at WRRC, DPRI, Kyoto
University, Japan. The fifth ISFF symposium was focused on wadi flash flood
challenges in arid regions and especially “Disaster Risk Reduction and Assessment
for the Flood Prone Urbanized & Archaeological Wadis in Middle East and North
Africa MENA Region”. During the symposium, a special seminar on flash flood
risk at UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS) was held on 26 February 2020. Due
8 S. A. Kantoush et al.
The arid areas in the MENA region are typically hot and dry deserts (Fig. 1.1a) with
rare to intermittent rainfall. However, the climate is variable according to the
topography of each country (compare Fig. 1.1a–c), and extreme rainfall events are a
crucial part of the region’s climate (De Vries et al. 2018). Various examples of
different wadi climates in Egypt, Morocco, and Oman are shown in Fig. 1.1. The
infrequent storms recharge the freshwater storage, supporting agriculture and sus-
tainable development, as shown in Wadi Samail (Fig. 1.1c). However, they can also
be transformed into deadly and economical disasters in a short time. Flash floods in
arid wadis are distinguished from other types of urban and river flooding by the
following characteristics: (1) the dry stream channel is characterized by the absence
of base flow (Fig. 1.1a) (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018); (2) wadi surface runoff presents
discontinuous flow due to short-duration rainfall events with highly localized
spatial extent (Wheater et al. 1991; Saber 2010; Saber et al. 2010a, b, 2015); (3) the
flow volume from single events is high, starting with low flow before the ascending
hydrograph and increasing to the maximum peak of discharge before flow recession
(Knighton and Nanson 1997; Saber and Habib 2015); (4) the evaporation rate,
permeability of the desert, recharge of ground surfaces, sediment yield and slope are
high; (5) plants and organic material are scarce, and soils are thin and poorly
developed (McIntyre and Al-Qurashi 2009; Camarasa-Belmonte 2016); and
(6) monitoring (rainfall, water level and discharge rates), accurate prediction,
planning and strategies are lacking.
Extreme WFFs in the MENA region are characterized by high spatiotemporal
variability in terms of frequency and intensity (Saber et al. 2017a, b, 2020). In the
wadi systems of Arabian countries, a total of 50 flood events were recorded
between 2000 and 2018, as shown in Fig. 1.2. The regional events in 2010, 2015,
and 2018 affected more than one country. For instance, a single event in November
2018 affected Kuwait, the UAE, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan, and
extreme impacts occurred in most of the region. Figure 1.2 shows the total number
of events in each country in the MENA region. More events occur in Saudi Arabia
and Jordan due to cyclones.
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 9
Fig. 1.1 Arid wadis system in a Wadi Qena (Egypt), b Oued (Wadi) El-Abed (Morocco) and
c Wadi Samail (Oman)
10 S. A. Kantoush et al.
Fig. 1.2 Extreme flash floods events in the Arab region (2000–2018) showing the degree of flood
frequency (upper panel) and the increasing trend in floods within the last two decades (lower
panel)
Fig. 1.3 Comparative analysis of 3 selected extreme events identified based on the maximum
rainfall per day
shows the maximum spatial (Algeria, Arabian Peninsula, and Sudan) and temporal
rainfall for three extreme events based on satellite rainfall datasets. The high
variability in spatial coverage and intensity for the daily time series was investi-
gated. Spatially, the first event over the northeastern part of the region produced a
maximum rainfall rate of approximately 86.778 mm/day, the second event affected
the Arabian Peninsula with 151.40 mm/day, and the third event over Sudan
involved approximately 162.4 mm/day. These WFFs were highly variable
depending on the climate and topography of each region.
MENA countries represent different climatic, hydrological, land use, and obser-
vational characteristics and storm types. WFFs in most of the region are produced
by convective clouds at the end or beginning of winter and summer, when hot air
masses cause heavy rainfall connected with thunderstorms except for the Arabian
Peninsula, which is affected additionally by tropical cyclones. Most of these
cyclone tracks develop over the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea from April to June
12 S. A. Kantoush et al.
Fig. 1.4 Annual average rainfall over the Arabian countries from PERSIANN data
and October through December. For instance, Egypt has a very dry and arid climate
with low annual average rainfall (<50 mm), whereas Oman has semi-arid to arid
climatic conditions and a higher annual average rainfall of 50–350 mm. In Oman,
WFFs are mainly discharged to coastal drainage systems. Figure 1.4 shows the
annual average spanning 35 years over Oman associated with the total rainfall
during cyclones. Records show that severe damage occurred in Oman in 1989,
1997, 2002, 2003, 2007, 2010, 2015 and 2016 (Al Barwani 2015) due to WFFs.
The most extreme rainfall events that occurred in Oman were due to tropical
cyclones Gonu-2007 and Phet-2010 (Al Barwani 2015; MRMWR 2015), which
caused 56 fatalities with 6 billion USD of economic losses. Several wadis (W.
Kabir, W. Aday and W. Samail) in Oman have experienced flash floods with huge
impacts on the human life, infrastructure and property (Al-Rawas and Valeo 2008).
Detailed hydrological research studies are desperately required to assess flash flood
risks and propose effective mitigation measures in the MENA region.
Flash floods in arid environments can be dangerous because when rain falls on
unabsorbent or clay soils, the amount of runoff increases and exceeds the wadi
channel capacities (Saber 2010). Topographic factors play a significant role in the
evolution of rainfall that causes flash floods. There are different issues that have a
critical impacts on the occurrences of flash floods, including rainfall intensity and
duration, topography, soil conditions and terrain. Topographic features, such as
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 13
steep slopes, highland terrains and narrow valleys, increase the flash flood proba-
bility and accelerate surface runoff. The surface runoff is also affected by shallow
watertight geological and saturated soil layers. Urbanized and affiliated construction
with water-tight materials are supposed to generate runoff several times greater than
that in natural coverage terrains (meadows, fields, and forests). Another flash flood
hazard source is transported sediments and debris during flooding. Debris flow
impacts can be explained as follows (Hungr et al. 1987): (1) hazards of the direct
and indirect influence of high-energy, coarse-grained debris that can adversely
affect structures and (2) hazards of debris deposits associated with the flood waters
leading to the erosion of vulnerable surfaces and consequently flood damage.
The rapid increases in urbanization, population, and touristic and economic
developments have pushed residences to build in vulnerable risk zones, including
wadi flood plains. Figure 1.5 shows the present status of flash floods in different
countries in the MENA region and different times of flood events. Flash flood
management and the determination of flood-prone regions are extremely important
due to residential development on hill slopes and at outlets of wadis as well as the
lack of previous studies addressing flood hazard assessment given the infrequent
occurrence of rainfall and the absence of well-defined watercourses. In general,
most low-lying urban centres are flood-prone areas, which consequently require
assessment and management using advanced techniques. Many cities have been
affected by such flash flood events, such as Taba in Sinai and Wadis Abu-Shieha,
Fig. 1.5 a The affected areas by flash floods in Rafah, Sinai, Egypt, on 20 January 2010 (© Photo
courtesy AF) and b Taba and Nweba flash flood in May 2010 (© El-Masry Elyoum)
14 S. A. Kantoush et al.
Fig. 1.6 The downstream delta of Wadi Abou Sheih along the river Nile, showing the extension
of urbanization and agriculture reclamation (left panel) and the affected mitigation dams (right
panel). Modified from Saber et al. (2017a, b)
Sohag, Aswan and Kom ombo along the River Nile. Wadi AbuShiha, one of the
most important wadis in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, has suffered from many flash
floods. It is characterized by many sub-basins (Fig. 1.6) in the downstream region,
with many urbanized areas and agricultural reclamation projects. The downstream
delta of the wadi is very large and has many new sites of urbanization, agriculture
reclamation started in 2000, and the extension of agricultural lands increased to
cover a much larger area in front of the outlet of the wadi, which is prone to flash
floods, as shown in Fig. 1.6 (Saber et al. 2017a, b). Due to the importance of this
downstream development in the wadi, the government constructed three mitigation
dams (Fig. 1.6). However, after the 2014 flash flood, the first dam was broken at the
abutment. Considering the climate change impacts and increased urbanization and
reviewing the wadi management according to the occurrence of events are
important, as well as enhancing the design codes for integrated management.
In summary, several factors contribute to flash flood risk, including human
intervention and non-human actions. The flash flooding phenomenon is one of the
most difficult natural hazards to predict and manage. As a result, responding
appropriately is challenging for the concerned communities and authorities, and
response plans are also essential (APFM 2007). During a flash flood, the water
levels in streams rise suddenly, and the flow velocity can be very high. The strength
of the water can be strong enough to uproot trees, move boulders, and destroy
buildings and bridges located in its pathway. Water flowing often changes the
morphology and riverbed characteristics and can consequently appear in locations
where it usually does not. Water at a depth of 1 m depth and speed of 1.0 m/s can
pose a destructive threat for an adult person; flash floods often flow at very high
speeds, and a water level of merely a dozen cm can be very hazardous (APFM
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 15
2007). Early warning systems could be the significant element in dropping the risk
to human lives and their properties. Conventional forecasting approaches cannot
provide satisfactory warning, and people have insufficient time to move away from
the floods.
Fig. 1.8 Available wadi monitoring stations in Egypt (left panel) and Oman (right panel). Sources
The National Water Research Center in Egypt and Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources in Oman
of water levels, soil moisture and infiltration using radar sensors and ultrasonic
devices to measure flow velocities and calculate discharges. Moreover, the available
techniques for the direct measurement of evaporation rates and remote sensing
systems produced spatial datasets for different applications in hydrology (Tomsett
and Leyland 2019). Wadis present various challenges to installing rain gauges and
measuring flow, Therefore, there are a limited number of wadi monitoring stations
in Oman and Egypt except for the rain gauges, water flow, and ground water wells
(Fig. 1.8).
Monitoring systems that use recorded videos have the advantage of capturing
real-time floods so that the flow discharge can be computed, which can help in flood
management. The implementation of large-scale particle image velocimetry
(LSPIV), which is an image-based technique, was recently accomplished for the
first time in Oman at Wadi Samail (Al-Mamari et al. 2019). Various fixed cameras
have been installed on the bridges crossing the wadi channel, and they can record
the surface flow movements. LSPIV based on drone images is now common in
many applications among the river engineering community, such as for
time-averaged surface velocities. The rapid development of unmanned aerial sys-
tems (UASs) has allowed us to measure streamflow in real-time with high spatial
and temporal variations (Tauro et al. 2016). To capture valuable information about
the river hydraulic conditions during flash floods in humid environments, a UAS
was successfully utilized by Perks et al. (2016). The potential of UASs during
low-flow conditions was demonstrated by Detert and Weitbrecht (2015).
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 17
El Shamy (1992) developed a method to evaluate the flash flood possibility and
groundwater recharge in several sub-basins, employing various geomorphometric
parameters, such as the drainage density, drainage frequency, and bifurcation ratio.
This model has since been adopted by many studies (Youssef and Hegab 2005;
El-Behiry et al. 2006; Arnous et al. 2011; Abdel-Lattif and Sherief 2012; Abdalla
et al. 2014). Abdel-Fattah et al. (2017) proposed a consistent methodology applied
to assess flash floods in Wadi Qena, where field data are limited. Flash flood
consequences include environmental and economic issues because these floods may
cause impairment to urbanized and agricultural regions as well as lead to the loss of
human lives (Merz et al. 2010). The increasing frequency of destructive flash floods
requires an ongoing enhancement in the identification and mapping of flood hazards
(Kundzewicz and Kaczmarek 2000; Ebert et al. 2009). Al Saud (2010) used
high-resolution satellite images to identify the 2009 flood damage in Jeddah City,
KSA. Omran et al. (2011) used the standardization of morphometric parameters
with the same weight for basin-based flash flood hazard assessment in Wadi Dahab,
Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The same method was applied in Wadi Al Lith (Bajabaa
et al. 2014) and at Wadi Rabigh, Wadi Yanbu, Wadi Khulais, Wadi Jizanhe, Wadi
Baish, and Wadi El-Qunfza in the KSA (Shi 2014). By integrating geomorphology
and geology along with remote sensing techniques and field observations, geo-
morphological hazard assessments based on GIS have been performed in several
areas in Egypt, including the area between Quseir and Safaga near the Red Sea,
using the El-Shamy model (Youssef et al. 2009), and along the Katherine-Feiran
road in South Sinai (Youssef et al. 2011).
To reduce the flood damage impacts of FF hazards, proposing proper dam sites
have been proposed for several urban areas. The probability of flood hazards has
been estimated for different catchments based on geomorphometric features (El
Shamy 1992). Further, geomorphometric-based studies have been conducted to
assess FF risk levels in many basins. For instance, El-Magd et al. (2010) used
remote sensing data and GIS tools combined with morphometric parameters to
assess FF hazards in the Abu Dabbab wadi basin. Then, all the datasets were
integrated as inputs for a hydrological model to estimate surface runoff and identify
the flood risk levels.
Sen et al. (2013) proposed a procedure for establishing flood inundation maps in
the southwestern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia using surveyed cross-sections of the
flood plain. The main geological hazards, flash flood causes, and main rainfall
events in the KSA were summarized by Youssef and Maerz (2013). An analytical
hierarchical process (AHP) was used by Elkhrachy (2015) to estimate the flood
18 S. A. Kantoush et al.
hazard index in Najran, Saudi Arabia, employing the main controlling parameters
of flash floods, such as the channel discharge, soil type, drainage density, surface
roughness, surface slope, distance from main streams and land use. An AHP was
further used by Youssef et al. (2015) to utilize variant geological, geomorpholog-
ical, and geographical features in an approach to understand the effects of urban
development in Wadi Al-Aska, Jeddah, KSA. Abuzied et al. (2016) used multi-
source geospatial data with remote sensing techniques, GIS analyses, and field
investigations to evaluate flash flood hazards in the Nuweiba area based on basin
morphometric analysis and hydrological modelling indices using the Soil
Conservation Services (SCS) method.
The major limitation of furthering our understanding of wadi flood events is that in
most wadis, hydrological measurements do not exist. Most researchers have con-
ducted flash flood analyses using simplified hydrological models. These models
mathematically represent various hydrological processes, such as surface and
groundwater processes, and are essential tools for water resources management
(Abdel-Fattah et al. 2017). Hydrological models are desperately needed due to the
limited measurements and the intricacy of hydrological systems (Beven 2011). The
selection of the hydrological model approach relies on the number of measured
parameters and the required observational data for the input model parameters and
catchment characteristics (Abushandi 2011). Most WFFs in arid regions have been
studied using lumped or semi-distributed models with very few applications based
on distributed models because these models are data-driven. Various challenges
remain to validate and calibrate the developed models in arid regions (Cools et al.
2012; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018), to improve the reliability of the results, and to
conduct a sensitivity analysis of the model parameters.
Few hydrological models have been adopted and developed for flash flood mod-
elling in wadis, such as the applied models in wadis in Oman, including the RRI
model (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018), the KINEROS2 model (Al-Qurashi et al. 2008),
and the IHACRES model (McIntyre and Al-Qurashi 2009), as well as the soil water
assessment tool (SWAT) in the UAE (Al Mulla 2005; Abushandi and Merkel 2011)
and the HEC-HMS model in Oman, the West Bank-Palestine and the UAE
(Al-Rawas and Valeo 2008; Shadeed and Almasri 2010; Sherif et al. 2010).
In addition to the aforementioned studies, several trials have been conducted,
such as that by Al-Weshah and El-Khoury (1999), who applied and calibrated the
HEC-1 model utilizing the SCS and curve number (CN) methods in the Petra
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 19
region, Jordan, and further used these hydrological modelling tools to determine the
impact of several mitigation scenarios. Abdulla et al. (2002) developed a watershed
model for a simple single event to predict surface runoff in the western part of Iraq.
In Saudi Arabia, a geomorpho-climatic model has been adopted (Al-Turbak 1996),
in which rainfall duration and intensity are estimated in three catchments from the
infiltration parameters. In Palestine, (Lange et al. 2000) focused on the
rainfall-runoff modelling of single flood events. It was stated that the analysis of a
single storm event is highly recommended to understand extreme floods in arid
environments. The HEC-HMS model and the spatial water budget model (SWBM)
were employed in the Zarqa River Basin to manage water resources (Al-Abed et al.
2005; Abushandi and Merkel 2011; Dawod et al. 2011, 2012), and the SCS and CN
methods in GIS have been used to assess flash floods, to determine the impacts of
some basin geomorphometric parameters on the estimated flood characteristics in
the Makkah metropolitan region, and to classify the flood hazard degree on city
roads.
Foody et al. (2004) predicted sites at risk from high peak flows accompanying
flash flooding in wadis intersecting the Idfu-Marsa Alam road (near the Red Sea)
using the HMS model and field observations of the soil texture and infiltration
capacity. This study was further updated using the same model setting by Ghoneim
and Foody (2013) to investigate the impact of flood sites, areal coverage, and
rainfall depth. El Bastawesy et al. (2009) presented an integrated method using
ArcGIS and remote sensing data for modelling flash floods, where Landsat images
can be used to distinguish flooded and non-flooded areas. The physical hydrological
parameters, including rainfall, infiltration, land use and soil types, must be taken
into consideration. Flash flood simulations for some rainfall events at wadis of the
River Nile were conducted by Saber et al. (2010a, b) using Hydro-BEAM inte-
grated with remote sensing and satellite datasets. In the study of Ismail et al. (2010),
GIS, morphometric parameters and rainfall-runoff modelling based on flood routing
processing (FRP) were integrated and employed to simulate the flow discharge at
Wadi Abu Ghusun, the Eastern Desert, Egypt. Kehew et al. (2010) reconstructed
extreme flash floods in Wadi Isla, South Sinai, Egypt, using palaeohydrological
indictors related to flood velocity and discharge, such as the size of boulders
transported within the wadi. Additionally, the calibrated SWAT model was used to
estimate the amount of rainfall required to generate a flood. The flood hazard levels
and ground recharge potentiality have been assessed at W. Abadi (Ibrahim et al.
2011). Based on field measurements of paleo-flood events and the rating curve, the
peak flow of the January 2010 flash flood event was estimated, and this discharge
peak was then used for model calibration. Hydrological modelling conducted in
Wadi Hodin used the HEC-1 model by Soussa (2012) and the SCS method to
calculate the losses. Hadadin et al. (2013) used routing and Snyder synthetic unit
hydrograph methods to estimate the peak flow in 12 main basins in Jeddah City,
KSA. Fathy et al. (2015) developed a lumped model for arid watersheds and
compared the results with those from the watershed modelling system (WMS). This
model was applied to W. Sudr in the Sinai Peninsula. The peak runoff discharge of
six basins in western Saudi Arabia was estimated by Shi (2014) using three
20 S. A. Kantoush et al.
empirical models (Farquharson’s model, Nouh’s model and Al-Subai’s model) and
the Snyder unit hydrograph. Moreover, Abuzied (2016) conducted hydrological
modelling at Wadi Watier using the SCS method.
Many studies have examined groundwater recharge due to rainfall events and
surface runoff. For instance, Gheith and Sultan (2002) estimated groundwater
recharge in the alluvial aquifers of several wadis in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (W.
El-Arish, W. Asyuti, W. Tarfa, W. Qena, and W. Hammamt). In this study, a
hydrological model that considers the spatiotemporal rainfall distribution, appro-
priate sub-basin unit hydrographs and infiltration parameters were utilized to cal-
culate initial and transmission losses and runoff. The model incorporated geological
and meteorological datasets along with remote sensing and GIS techniques.
Milewski et al. (2009) modelled runoff and groundwater recharge based on remote
sensing datasets by focusing on the heavy rainfall events between 1998 and 2007
for the main wadis of the Sinai Peninsula and Eastern Desert. In the studied
catchments, the annual precipitation, runoff, initial losses, and recharge through
transmission losses were assessed. This approach has also been utilized to calculate
the annual groundwater recharge at the Nubian Sandstone aquifer, South Sinai
(Sultan et al. 2011). A proper example of cost-effective and practical integrated
solutions, including geophysics, geochemistry, and modelling, that utilize global
remote sensing datasets and web-based GIS technologies was proposed by Becker
et al. (2012) for the wadis of the Eastern Desert and Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The
study implemented approaches to develop a conceptual model for hydrogeological
settings in different aquifers to assess the annual runoff and recharge using a
hydrologic model of the main watersheds.
The potential sites for surface runoff recharge in Sinai have been determined
using an integration of GIS, remote sensing, and watershed modelling to introduce a
multi-criteria decision support system that includes several parameters, such as the
flood volume, average overland flow distance, lineament frequency density, soil
infiltration, and morphometric parameters. The potential areas for rainwater har-
vesting have been determined based on such criteria by conducting weighted spatial
probability modelling. The potential sites for water harvesting have been deter-
mined by applying Finkel-SCS rainfall-runoff approaches (Elewa et al. 2012).
Furthermore, the same approach has been utilized to recommend proper dam
locations for flood management and control at Wadi El-Arish. Technical consid-
erations and design criteria have been introduced for the planned mitigation
structures (Elewa et al. 2013).
To estimate surface runoff and groundwater recharge, the relationship between
runoff and rainfall has been assessed depending on paleo-flood indicators. Two
methods have been tested to evaluate the relationships between rainfall and runoff at
the El-Hawashyia basin and Ghazala sub-basin in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Some
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 21
Substantial efforts have been undertaken by governments and the private sectors of
the MENA countries to enhance flash flood mitigation structures and early warning
systems, while WFFs continue to be one of nature’s worst killers in this region.
Within the ISFF project, we can conclude that critical infrastructure and houses are
newly allocated by the government and are often located in wadi channels because
the wadi floors are flat and construction material is available. We find that this
infrastructure is constructed in the path of flooding leading to a narrow channel to
convey floodwaters along streams, in addition to the existence of important
infrastructure and houses situated on higher lands. Such settlements are also
affected by floods because the population chooses flood-sensitive economic, cul-
tural and social activities (McBain 2012; Sayers et al. 2013). Understanding the
contribution of structural and non-structural measures on flood risk reduction could
support proper decision making and future planning (Shah 2015). Usually, the main
structural measures in wadis rely on an ‘embankment only’ option that has been
broadened to integrate other options, such as improvements to drainage channels,
diversion dykes, detention and flood storage dams.
Flood risk reduction can be accomplished by controlling the flood magnitude
flood-prone areas (Heidari 2009), where flood mitigation measures can be cate-
gorized into non-structural and structural measures (Hansson et al. 2008; Heidari
2009). Non-structural measures refer to non-engineering actions, such as increasing
preparedness through early warnings, using insurance, land use, restricting devel-
opment, planning and operating flood control reservoirs (Hansson et al. 2008; Shah
et al. 2015). Structural defence strategies can be either conventional measures, such
as dams and levees, or extensive ecosystem-specific measures, such as restoration
of natural conditions (Hansson et al. 2008). Furthermore, structural measures can be
important for managing water and controlling hazardous floods (Ho et al. 2017).
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the actinic rays begin to destroy the tissues of the body, and nerves break
down. The symptoms of neurasthenia are:
(3) Suicide.
Every range man will remember how these three forms of nervous
disorder have wrecked the lives of his friends, and how the best men were
taken, not the weaklings. If so much disaster is avoided by wearing colours
which protect the body from actinic burning, it seems a reasonable conduct
to avoid blue clothing, and to copy the hues—such as dun, bay, or brown,
which nature provides to guard the animals.
The hat THE HAT. The Red Indian calls the white men "hat-
wearers," and takes notice of our baldness. Savages who
wear no hats are never bald. Why then should we wear hats? I think that on
the range, if we began early enough, we should do well to let our hair grow
for the protection of the head and the nape of the neck from the sun. On the
old American Frontier the pioneers did grow long hair because a man with
no scalplock was not worth killing, and therefore barred from councils of
the Indians.
The primitive hat of the range was a disc of bison skin, sodden, and the
middle, thrust into a hole in the ground, was filled with stones. A leather
string laced round the edge kept the brim from flopping. A leather band
fitted the crown to the head.
Later came a Mr. Stetson of Philadelphia, with a copy of this range hat
in beaver-fur felt soaked in shellac, and so felted that the edges did not flop.
A bootlace round the front of the hatband passed through an eyelet above
each ear, and was tied with a hard knot behind the head. This prevented the
hat from blowing away and let in air behind the head to ventilate the crown.
Pinching the crown with four dints for the words North West Mounted
Police, branded the cowboy Stetson as a soldier's hat which was adopted in
South Africa by most of the mounted Irregulars of the British Empire, and
by the Boy Scouts who copied the design in felt of rabbit fur.
The measure of A rival type of slouch hat which flopped down all round
warmth was used by the ancient Greeks. Looped on one side it was
worn by the Cavaliers of the British Civil War, looped on
three sides it became the cocked hat of the eighteenth century, and on two
sides, of the Napoleonic era, surviving in diplomatic uniforms and those of
naval officers and civic functionaries. Looped on one side again it was worn
in the American Civil War, and by British Africanders and Australasians.
Softened and not looped it replaced the stiff-brimmed Stetson on the
American range.
Shirt and SHIRT. It was among the Eskimo that I learned the
breeches philosophy of the shirt. These very practical folk wear a
hooded shirt, close-fitting at the throat, wrists and waist. For
summer the material is cotton or serge, for winter the warmest furs; but in
any case it forms a bag of air warmed by the body. The shirt then consists of
an outer garment of skin or a textile fabric, and an inner garment of heated
air protecting the vital organs. Opened at neck and wrists it is the coolest of
garments, closed it is the warmest for any given weight. In contrast a coat
or jacket is open at the bottom, the front, the neck and the wrists, so that
four times the weight is needed to produce the warmth of a shirt.
The mounted civilian rides for pleasure in a coat, the mounted soldier
rides for duty in a tunic, the range horseman rides for a living and wears a
shirt. By the exercise of human reason the range man protects his vital
organs at a fourth part of the cost, weight, and encumbrance to which the
fashions have subjected the sportsmen and the soldiers.
Towards the middle of the nineteenth century the increase of town life
and improved paving made boot-tops worn under trousers appear
superfluous in weight, cost and discomfort. Thus came the ankle boot as an
economy and a comfort, but coupled with it was a lacing to "support" the
ankle. To lace a man's ankle or a woman's waist is to replace with a merely
stiff material the strong elastic muscles of the natural body, and sap the
necessary health and strength which God has given.
The logic of In all outdoor life long boots ensure dry feet, and the top
boots should reach the knee-cap to be of real use in wet ground, or
when one kneels cooking beside the camp fire. The boot
legs guard one against venomous reptiles and insects, and protect the shin
bone which, for lack of any muscle, is liable to be broken by many kinds of
accident. Lacing either a long or an ankle boot puts an end to free
ventilation of the foot, making the skin to sweat, to soften, and in many
cases to become offensive.
For horsemen the boot leg is a useful protection from the chafing of
stirrup leathers.
In war the soldier who wears laced boots is obliged to sleep in them,
whereas long boots, kept properly greased, are so quickly put on that it is
safe to remove them at night. For infantry, the world's marching record was
made by Colorado miners as volunteers for the New Mexico campaign.
They wore long boots, as do the Russian and Germanic armies whose
marching is said to be better than that of the French and British who have
laced the ankle.
The boot-leg
The boot leg should not be shaped like a bucket to catch
rain as with the United States Cavalry, or like a stovepipe to cripple a man
afoot as with British horsemen. Without being tight like the puttee for the
production of varicocele, the boot leg should fit close. The ankle should be
supple as a stocking, and "bellowsed" to make sure of suppleness. The
counter should be of the hardest possible leather, thick, but fining upwards
to an edge, and so made that when the man's foot spreads the foot of the
boot, this fine upper edge, closes over the ball of the heel to prevent
chafing. For the horseman the heel should be broad and flat, or high and
tapering to prevent it from getting through the stirrups.
The boot-top of the seventeenth century came well up the thigh, but was
turned down in summer for coolness, showing the brown inside of the
leather. Later on this turned down top was replaced for smartness by a
useless detachable cuff. For smartness also, the English leg was made rigid,
disabling the wearer. Lately I went to a smart London maker for boots to
suit my need of a supple ankle, flat heel, and modelled counter. The sales
gentleman made me feel acutely that I was a cad, the workmen struck, and
the proprietor corrected my design, revenging himself in his bill for the
delay he caused me. It is in details such as this that one feels that the whole
art of horsemanship in England has become a frozen convention, and is
dying.
The rowel should be loose enough to rattle, so that at night one may go
to one's horse in pasture, and, knowing the sound of his master, he will not
run away.
A gentle spur is used to encourage and not to hurt a horse, to bring him
to attention, to aid in fine steering. It may be locked in the girth so that,
holding on by one leg one may lie behind the horse's neck when under fire,
or pick up a rope from the ground.
NECK CLOTH. A kerchief loose round the neck saves the top of the
spine from sunstroke. It should be of any colour not containing blue, of the
lightest silk for use as mosquito bar at night, and twenty-six inches square
for use as a sling, bandage, or tourniquet in case of accident.
The woolly or hairy fronted snaps made for snowy or wet districts are
more plentiful among tenderfeet, showmen and cinema actors than they
ever were upon the modest stock range. The usual pattern is of plain brown
leather, nearly black with use. It is sometimes fringed, or ornamented with
silver dollars or even twenty dollar golden pieces down the outer seam.
The uses of shaps are to give a grip in the saddle, to shelter the legs
from heat, cold, rain, snow, to serve as armour against kicking, biting,
scraping, backfalls, rolling and other diversions of horses, the horns of
cattle, rocks, thorns, snakes, scorpions, tarantulas, rope abrasions, grass
fires and other little discomforts. Their excellent comfort in the saddle, and
in lieu of blankets at night, would be enough to justify their use, but without
them one would be hurt or even seriously killed in course of the day's work.
As they make walking difficult they are useless for all the purposes of war.
If a fellow takes to the range, who is not in search of trouble, but merely
intends to earn an honest living and make a decent home, he is better
without a weapon. When I was a younger fool than I am now, and took a
delight in revolvers, and bluffed with a gun, it nearly always got me into
trouble. I found that it was a poor thing to shirk the first obligation of
manhood, which is self-reliance, and sink to mere dependence on a weapon.
The killing of live creatures or even men has always been abhorrent to
me. I am not sure of having murdered anything bigger than a crow with a
broken leg, who had to be knocked out with a stone as an act of mercy. Not
being a sportsman I may not advise on the use of weapons for sport.
By contrast the Boer is the most slovenly of horsemen, both in his old
slop suit and in his flapping gait, but in scouting and fighting by far the best
instructor we ever met, and either as enemy or friend we love his manhood.
If horsemanship is an expression of manhood, we do not mind the form if
we can get the fact. More manhood goes to the making of one Boer than to
a hundred Mexicans.
The rough riding of the range is incomparable, but as the broncho buster
is usually smashed internally if not killed outright within three years of
practice, this worst possible method of breaking a horse is lacking in
practical value.
After the main essentials of a pure heart and four legs, I look for large
eyes with no white showing, and a broad forehead. If a horse is nervous
when approached, he cannot be relied upon in emergencies. If he is less
than seven years of age he is not fully matured for work which needs
endurance. I prefer a gelding as being less flighty, less apt to break back
than a mare. I will add dollars to get a glutton, close quickly with the offer
of a horse in really hard condition, refuse a rough-gaited trotter as a gift,
and cannot be paid to ride a beast who bucks. As to the 'points' by which a
civilised horseman judges horseflesh, they are all very nice if one has plenty
of money. The prices have trebled since the turn of the century.
Saddling and THE SADDLING. After throwing the saddle on, pass
mounting the hands all over the blanket under the flaps to see there is
no rucking. Lift the blanket into the arch of the saddle to be
sure that no pressure will rest upon the withers. Shift the saddle aft until
quite sure it is free of the shoulder blades. Girth up, and be sure the horse is
not holding his wind. If there is doubt the off knee in his stomach will make
him relax his lungs.
THE FIRST MILE. Walking the first mile supples the horse and eases
the harness. A horse who holds his wind can then be butted with the knee in
his stomach while the girth is pulled up to the proper notch for safety.
The pace that PACES. Whether the wild horse trots, is not a subject in
saves which the range horse has given me any guidance. In
handling stock he usually goes on grass and prefers to
canter. In travel he usually goes on a road, and distinctly prefers to trot.
From careful watching I doubt if he likes trotting on grass, as the hoofs are
apt to brush and may stumble against the turf. A canter on road or very hard
ground jars him, and is likely to cause injury to feet and legs.
There are certain artificial gaits most variously named such as the
tripple, rack, pace, and side pace adopted I think under compulsion of lazy
horsemen who find them comfortable. I have known horses using such gaits
to lag miserably until I persuaded them that trotting was permitted, after
which they cheered up and gained in speed.
As a slow walk tires both man and horse much more than the trot or
canter, it is easy, by riding on the rein and using a little persuasion, to train
an average animal in fast walking.
On the whole then a steady alternation of trot and walk, making the
day's gait about five miles an hour, is the best economy for journeys.
On marches exceeding fifty-five miles a day the canter, trot and walk
become alternate gaits, but journeys must then be broken with days for rest.
Seat SEAT. I have seen horses prosper under all the different
and possible methods of decent horsemen, and do not
believe that form makes any difference. From the Red Indians of the plains
I learned to sit skin tight and upright at the trot and canter.
"Letting men sit side-saddle on a tired horse is the easiest way of giving
it a sore back. At walking gait it is far better for the rider to dismount and
walk. The loup or lobbing canter is the easiest pace for man and horse.
Except a continuous walk, the round trot is the most tiring. Frequent
cantering and walking alternately—the rider then going on foot—is the way
to get over the ground in going a long distance."
The range man does not look upon riding as a formal parade, but likes
to practise circus tricks, or lounge at ease while he smokes, reads a book,
sings, or plays some musical instrument. I have seen the cowhand wile
away the time by eating a quart of pickles. For my part, a luncheon from the
wallets is part of the procedure of every pack drive, followed by a
comfortable nap in the saddle. Horses often doze at a walk, even, I suspect,
at the trot, and a nap for man and horse adds a great deal to the endurance
of both.
As to going afoot, it takes a very steep down hill track to enforce such a
thing upon me. Rumour says that we will walk half a mile to get a pony
from pasture in order to ride a hundred yards on an errand. But to be afoot
is for the range horseman the last depth of calamity and degradation.
GUIDANCE. While the range man never walks, but makes the saddle
his home, and lives at ease, it would be an error to suppose him
unobservant. In wild countries one's life depends on alertness.
So much for the rule of thumb, but one's real reliance is on the
indications of the landscape: the reading of trees and bushes as shaped by
the prevalent wind; the reading of rocks or tree trunks for any mosses or
lichens which grow on the side (north for northern hemisphere) on which
the sun does not shine; and sundry other signs local to different regions.
The constant habit of locating north grows to an instinct. In Petrograd,
as a stranger unable to ask questions or read signs in Russian, on level
alluvial land, in a thick winter night, without having seen one inch of the
route before, I was able to walk by the shortest cut three and a half miles
directly to my hotel.
For the rest, it is useful to note the tracks on the trail showing who
passed and when.
Rather than put one's trust in guides, maps, trail directions, the compass
or any other form of vanity and vexation, it is wiser to rely on common
sense in scouting. And there the indications given by one's horse are always
valuable.
Whatever a horse may smell, hear or see, he points out with nice
gestures of the ears and nostrils which are of infinite value for a man to read
and understand. They convey to the practised eye all sorts of warnings and
useful little hints. It is the training in peace of the habit of observation
which makes the scout for war.
In my short halts I always hold the rein while the horse gets a bite of
grass or a little water. The reason for this is that he may be suddenly
frightened by a snake or a bustling squirrel, and if he breaks away it might
be awkward to be left afoot: so many men have been left afoot and
perished.
In the greatest heat one may water horses fully if they stand knee deep
in pool or stream; but if they drink their fill they go sluggishly afterwards
and need to drink the more. For a man a sip of cold tea allays thirst better
than a pint of water, and for neither the horse nor the rider is it wise to drink
to repletion until after the day's work.
In lone travelling with a pack horse I always make the day's work in a
single drive rather than waste time unloading and loading the pack in a day
which may prove too brief for the finding of a camp before dark. The
earliest rising, the most urgent driving are needed to make sure against a dry
camp, or being caught in bad ground by the fall of night.
The night halt THE NIGHT HALT. In country where the grass is eaten
for miles surrounding watering places, or where there is
danger from hostile savages, I always drive on from the evening water until
I can camp in safety on good pasture. Also one needs a margin of time to
walk the last mile or two, bringing the horses in cool at the end of the day's
work.
For horse- Rather than let horses stand shivering in a wet or cold
comfort gale, it is better to march, and keep travelling until shelter
can be found.
Where flies are bad, it is kindly to bank a fire with damp herbage which
makes a smoke in which the horses can shelter. It is in forest and fly
country that one has greatest need of a few feeds of oats in the pack, or even
slung to the saddles.
For cold and exhaustion I give sugar, if possible in the water. The
carbon is fuel which enters the blood, and so becomes exposed to oxygen in
the lungs, where its burning produces the heat which warms the body.