World War II
World War II
“The Second World War” and “WWII” redirect here. For the Western Pacific.
other uses, see The Second World War (disambiguation) The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the crit-
and WWII (disambiguation).
ical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was de-
feated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad
World War II (WWII or WW2), also known as the Sec- in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German
ond World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily
to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It in- and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Ital-
volved the vast majority of the world’s nations—including ian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis
all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all
military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-
widespread war in history, and directly involved more occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all
than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its al-
of "total war", the major participants threw their entire lies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered ma-
economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind jor reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and
the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and
military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, captured key Western Pacific islands.
including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 mil- The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Ger-
lion people were killed)[1][2] and the strategic bombing many by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culmi-
of industrial and population centres (in which approxi- nating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops
mately one million were killed, and which included the and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8
atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki),[3] it re- May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Al-
sulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities.
lies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender
These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs
history.[4]
on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of
Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of ad-
in 1937,[5] but the world war is generally said to have be- ditional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union’s decla-
gun on 1 September 1939[6] with the invasion of Poland ration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan
by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Ger- surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in
many by France and the United Kingdom. From late Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.
1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, World War II altered the political alignment and social
Germany conquered or controlled much of continental structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was es-
Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and tablished to foster international co-operation and prevent
Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United
1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and an- States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and
nexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, France—became the permanent members of the United
Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war contin- Nations Security Council.[7] The Soviet Union and the
ued primarily between the European Axis powers and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the
coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Com- stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46
monwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great pow-
and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, ers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa
the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as began. Most countries whose industries had been dam-
well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June
aged moved towards economic recovery. Political inte-
1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of gration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end
the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war
pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.[8]
in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis’ mil-
itary forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941,
Japan attacked the United States and European territo-
ries in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of
1
2 2 BACKGROUND
3 Pre-war events
in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The 3.4 Soviet-Japanese border conflicts
bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in
April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next
major war would include extensive terror bombing at-
tacks on civilians.[35][36] The Nationalists won the civil
war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with
both sides during the Second World War, but never con-
cluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers to
fight on the Eastern Front under German command but
Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to
use its territory.[37]
4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–40) On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with
Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east.[65] The
Main articles: Invasion of Poland, Occupation of Poland Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the
(1939–45), Nazi crimes against the Polish nation, Soviet Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resis-
invasion of Poland and Soviet repressions of Polish citi- tance surrendering on 6 October. Poland’s territory was
zens (1939–46) divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland un- Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. Af-
ter the defeat of Poland’s armed forces, the Polish re-
sistance established an Underground State and a partisan
Home Army.[66] About 100,000 Polish military person-
nel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries;
many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in
other theatres of the war.[67] Poland’s Enigma codebreak-
ers were also evacuated to France.[68]
On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to
Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland
was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the
Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 Oc-
tober, saying “Past experience has shown that no re-
liance can be placed upon the promises of the present
German Government.”[59] After this rejection Hitler or-
Soldiers of the German Wehrmacht tearing down the border
dered an immediate offensive against France,[69] but bad
crossing between Poland and the Free City of Danzig, 1 Septem-
ber 1939
weather forced repeated postponements until the spring
of 1940.[70][71][72]
der the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a se-
ries of sabotage operations against German targets near
the border.[60] Two days later, on 3 September, after
a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military op-
erations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by
the fully independent Dominions[61] of the British Com-
monwealth[62] —Australia (3 September), Canada (10
September), New Zealand (3 September), and South
Africa (6 September)—declared war on Germany. How-
ever, initially the alliance provided limited direct military
support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted
French probe into the Saarland.[63] The Western Allies
also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed
to damage the country’s economy and war effort.[64] Ger-
many responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Al- German and Soviet army officers pictured shaking hands—
lied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate after Nazi Germany and Soviet Union annexed new territories
into the Battle of the Atlantic. in Eastern Europe, 1939
4.2 Western Europe (1940–41) 7
After signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, protect Greenland, laying the political framework for
Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The
the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—to Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg
allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries un- tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively.[88] The
der pacts of “mutual assistance”.[73][74][75] Finland re- French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the
jected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were cir-
in November 1939.[76] The resulting Winter War ended cumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly
in March 1940 with Finnish concessions.[77] Britain and wooded Ardennes region,[89] mistakenly perceived by Al-
France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tanta- lied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against
mount to its entering the war on the side of the Ger- armoured vehicles.[90][91] As a result, the bulk of the Al-
mans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the lied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement
USSR’s expulsion from the League of Nations.[75] and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner,
whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania, [74]
and the disputed Romanian evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early [92] June,
regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. although abandoning almost all of their equipment.
Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both
economic co-operation[78][79] gradually stalled,[80][81] and France and the United Kingdom.[93] Paris fell to the
both states began preparations for war.[82] Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed
an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into
German and Italian occupation zones,[94] and an unoccu-
4.2 Western Europe (1940–41) pied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though
officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany.
France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans
Dover
Antwerp Essen
would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.[95]
B e l g i u m
Brussels Cologne
Maastricht
Lille G e r m a n y
Liege
Namur
Frankfurt
L u x e m -
F r a n c e
b o u r g
Paris
Strasbourg
N
NW NE
Weak fortifications
W E
Strong fortifications
SW SE
Basel
bution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR,
partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, par-
tially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to com-
bat communism.[108]
prise offensive[123] were the Baltic region, Moscow and 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)
Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 cam-
paign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the
Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler’s objectives were
to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, ex-
terminate Communism, generate Lebensraum (“living
space”)[124] by dispossessing the native population[125]
and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to
defeat Germany’s remaining rivals.[126]
Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic
counter-offensives before the war,[127] Barbarossa forced
the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence.
During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into
Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both person-
nel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the
German Army High Command decided to suspend the
offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre,
and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops ad- Mitsubishi A6M2 “Zero” fighters on the Imperial Japanese Navy
vancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.[128] The aircraft carrier Shōkaku, just before the attack on Pearl Harbor
Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting
in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, In 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty
and made further advance into Crimea and industrially with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban
developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing eco-
possible.[129] nomic pressure.[98] During this time, Japan launched its
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the first attack against Changsha, a strategically important
majority of their air forces from France and the central Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September.[144] De-
Mediterranean to the Eastern Front[130] prompted Britain spite several offensives by both sides, the war between
to reconsider its grand strategy.[131] In July, the UK and China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase
the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Ger- pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to bet-
many[132] The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure ter position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the
the Persian Corridor and Iran’s oil fields.[133] In August, Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern
the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued Indochina.[145] Afterwards, the United States embargoed
the Atlantic Charter.[134] iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan.[146] Other
sanctions soon followed.
By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and
the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of In August of that year, Chinese communists launched
Leningrad[135] and Sevastopol continuing.[136] A major an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan insti-
offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months tuted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human
of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the Ger- and material resources for the communists.[147] Contin-
man army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, ued antipathy between Chinese communist and national-
where the exhausted troops[137] were forced to suspend ist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941,
their offensive.[138] Large territorial gains were made by effectively ending their co-operation.[148] In March, the
Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chi-
main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, nese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shang-
the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the So- gao.[149] In September, Japan attempted to take the city
viet Union retained a considerable part of its military po- of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist
tential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had forces.[150]
ended.[139] German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to in-
By early December, freshly mobilised reserves[140] al- crease pressure on European governments in Southeast
lowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan
troops.[141] This, as well as intelligence data which es- some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but nego-
tablished that a minimal number of Soviet troops in tiations for additional access to their resources ended in
the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the failure in June 1941.[151] In July 1941 Japan sent troops
Japanese Kwantung Army,[142] allowed the Soviets to be- to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch
gin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 Decem- possessions in the Far East. The United States, United
ber all along the front and pushed German troops 100– Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this
250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west.[143] move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil
embargo.[152][153]
4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–43) 11
Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British
engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives
strained relations and end the war in China. Dur- against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.[161] These
ing these negotiations Japan advanced a number of included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor,
proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya[161] and
inadequate.[154] At the same time the US, Britain, and the the battle of Hong Kong.
Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Aus-
defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese tralia and several other states to formally declare war on
attack against any of them.[155] Roosevelt reinforced the
Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved
Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for in- in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries,
dependence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US
maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.[162] Ger-
would react to Japanese attacks against any “neighboring many, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on
countries”.[155]
the United States[163] in solidarity with Japan, citing as
justification the American attacks on German war vessels
that had been ordered by Roosevelt.[122][164]
in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead riers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle
focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.[167] of the Coral Sea.[176] Japan’s next plan, motivated by the
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure
reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diver-
by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional sion, Japan would also[177] send forces to occupy the Aleu-
surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans tian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its
agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediter- operations into action but the Americans, having broken
ranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediter- Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the
[168] plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to
ranean supply routes. Although the British argued for
further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial
Japanese Navy.[178]
the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British
commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediter-
ranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to in-
vade France in 1944.[169]
Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and American 8th Air Force Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombing
its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and raid on the Focke-Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943
southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had
achieved during the previous year.[185] In May the Ger-
mans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula offensives.[195] Concerns the Japanese might use bases
and at Kharkiv,[186] and then launched their main summer in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade
offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the island in early May 1942.[196] An Axis offensive in
the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until
while maintaining positions on the northern and central Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[197] On the Con-
areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South tinent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets,
into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,[198] demon-
Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while strated the Western Allies’ inability to launch an invasion
Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The of continental Europe without much better preparation,
Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the equipment, and operational security.[199]
Volga.[187] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a
By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stal- second attack against El Alamein[200] and, at a high
ingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to
their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an the besieged Malta.[201] A few months later, the Allies
encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad[188] and an commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodg-
assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the lat- ing the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across
ter failed disastrously.[189] By early February 1943, the Libya.[202] This attack was followed up shortly after by
German Army had taken tremendous losses; German Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which
troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender,[190] and resulted in the region joining the Allies.[203] Hitler re-
the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position sponded to the French colony’s defection by ordering the
before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the occupation of Vichy France;[203] although Vichy forces
Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched an- did not resist this violation of the armistice, they man-
other attack on Kharkiv, creating a salient in their front aged to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German
line around the Russian city of Kursk.[191] forces.[204] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa with-
drew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in
May 1943.[205]
4.6.3 Western Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean In early 1943 the British and Americans began the
(1942–43) Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing cam-
paign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the
Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German war economy, reduce German morale, and "de-
German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American house" the civilian population.[206]
Atlantic coast.[192] By November 1941, Commonwealth
forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Cru-
sader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the 4.7 Allies gain momentum (1943–44)
Germans and Italians had made.[193] In North Africa,
the Germans launched an offensive in January, push- After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated sev-
ing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by eral operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943,
early February,[194] followed by a temporary lull in com- Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese
bat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming forces from the Aleutians.[207] Soon after, the U.S. with
14 4 COURSE OF THE WAR
siege in history.
a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed.[242]
The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-
After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Ger-
war Estonian border by the German Army Group North
many, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive.
aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national inde-
In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major
pendence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet oper-
German defensive line.[243]
ations in the Baltic Sea region.[231] By late May 1944,
the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in
forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, Belarus ("Operation Bagration") that destroyed the Ger-
which were repulsed by the Axis troops.[232] The Allied man Army Group Centre almost completely.[244] Soon af-
offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of ter that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German
allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The
Rome was captured.[233] Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to
initiate several uprisings against the German occupation.
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In
However, the largest of these in Warsaw where German
March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two in-
soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians and a national up-
vasions, an operation against British positions in Assam,
rising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and were
India,[234] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions
subsequently suppressed by the Germans.[245] The Red
at Imphal and Kohima.[235] In May 1944, British forces
Army’s strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and
mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops
destroyed the considerable German troops there and trig-
back to Burma,[235] and Chinese forces that had invaded
gered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria,
northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in
followed by those countries’ shift to the Allied side.[246]
Myitkyina.[236] The second Japanese invasion of China
aimed to destroy China’s main fighting forces, secure rail-
ways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied
airfields.[237] By June, the Japanese had conquered the
province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha
in the Hunan province.[238]
5 Aftermath
Main articles: Aftermath of World War II and
Consequences of Nazism
The Allies established occupation administrations in
other powers and it dominated the world economy.[300] cause of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass-bombings,
The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarma- disease, and starvation.
ment in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.[301] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during
Because of international trade interdependencies this led the war,[318] including 8.7 million military and 19 million
to European economic stagnation and delayed European civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were
recovery for several years.[302][303] 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million eth-
Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in nic Ukrainians.[319] A quarter of the people in the Soviet
Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisa- Union were wounded or killed.[320] Germany sustained
tion of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front
(1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.[304][305] and during the final battles in Germany.[321]
The post-1948 West German recovery has been called Of the total number of deaths in World War II, ap-
the German economic miracle.[306] Italy also experienced proximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—
an economic boom[307] and the French economy re- were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the Axis
bounded.[308] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes
a state of economic ruin,[309] and although it received a committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied
quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than territories. An estimated 11[322] to 17 million[323] civil-
any other European country,[310] continued relative eco- ians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of
nomic decline for decades.[311] Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic geno-
The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and mate- cide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust,
rial losses, also experienced rapid increase in production along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and
in the immediate post-war era.[312] Japan experienced other Slavs (including Ukrainians and Belarusians)[324] —
incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority
most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[313] groups.[323] Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of
China returned to its pre-war industrial production by ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered
1952.[314] by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia,[325]
and retribution-related killings were committed just after
the war ended.
6 Impact
India
Yugoslavia
French Indochina
France
United Kingdom Axis Military Axis Civilians 4%
13%
United States
Lithuania Chinese civilians being buried alive by soldiers of the Imperial
Czechoslovakia
Greece
Allied Military
Japanese Army, during the Nanking Massacre, December 1937
Burma
25%
Latvia
Germany
Japan
Axis
Allied Civilians
Romania
Hungary
58% In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more
Italy
Other
0 12 24
than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated
Military deaths (millions)
Civilian deaths (millions)
Total deaths (millions)
Total deaths as % of 1939 population at 7.5 million[326] ), were killed by the Japanese oc-
cupation forces.[327] The best-known Japanese atroc-
World War II deaths ity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three
hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and
vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most sug- murdered.[328] Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 mil-
gest that some 75 million people died in the war, in- lion casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. Gen-
cluding about 20 million military personnel and 40 mil- eral Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei
lion civilians.[315][316][317] Many of the civilians died be- and Shantung.[329]
20 6 IMPACT
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million
The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such ethnic Poles,[340] and 4 million others who were deemed
weapons during its invasion and occupation of China "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally
(see Unit 731)[330][331] and in early conflicts against ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons,
the Soviets.[332] Both the Germans and Japanese tested Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a pro-
such weapons against civilians[333] and, sometimes on gramme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million,
prisoners of war.[334] most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed
[341]
The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn mas- in the German war economy as forced labourers.
sacre of 22,000 Polish officers,[335] and the imprisonment In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet
or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of oc-
NKVD,[336] in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland an- cupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and
nexed by the Red Army. Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and
The mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to
[342]
of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial be supporters of the Nazis. Sixty percent of Soviet
targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees [337]
by the POWs of the Germans died during the war.[343] Richard
German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo, Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs.
and German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6
[344]
by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes. million. Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians
The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collab-
cities and the death of more than 600,000 German orators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon
civilians.[338]
However, no positive or specific customary being checked by the NKVD.[345]
international humanitarian law with respect to aerial war-
fare existed before or during World War II.[339]
4.00
products, military equipment, raw materials and other
goods.[356] Thus, the income from occupied nations was 3.00
2.86
over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from 2.38 2.31
2.00
taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of 2.15
1.75
2.06
in GDP.[364] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval war-
six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent fare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines.
higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success
and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor,
are included.[364] and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant
[374][375][376]
Though the Allies’ economic and population advantages capital ship in place of the battleship.
were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part
attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the deci- of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection ra-
sive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet dius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.[377] Car-
Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one riers were also more economical than battleships because
of attrition.[365] While the Allies’ ability to out-produce of the relatively low cost of aircraft[378] and their not re-
the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more ac- quiring to be as heavily armoured.[379] Submarines, which
cess to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany had proved to be an effective weapon during the First
and Japan’s reluctance to employ women in the labour World War,[380] were anticipated by all sides to be im-
force,[366] Allied strategic bombing,[367] and Germany’s portant in the second. The British focused development
late shift to a war economy[368] contributed significantly. on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar
Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its
a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.[369] offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII
To improve their production, Germany and Japan used submarine and wolfpack tactics.[381] Gradually, improv-
millions of slave labourers;[370] Germany used about 12 ing Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog,
million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[341] while squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.
Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East
Asia.[349][350]
specifications.[384] This idea was challenged by the poor bours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[393]
performance of the relatively light early tank guns against
armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-
tank combat. This, along with Germany’s use of com-
bined arms, were among the key elements of their 7 See also
highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and
France.[382] Many means of destroying tanks, includ- • Air warfare of World War II
ing indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and
self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank • Bibliography of World War II
weapons, and other tanks were utilised.[384] Even with
large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the back- • Declarations of war during World War II
bone of all forces,[385] and throughout the war, most in-
fantry were equipped similarly to World War I.[386] • Historiography of World War II
[2] Upon his death in 1989, Emperor Hirohito was posthu- [18] Ingram 2006, pp. 76–8
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[19] Kantowicz 1999, p. 149
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[21] Brody 1999, p. 4.
[5] Barrett & Shyu 2001, p. 6. [29] Smith & Steadman 2004, p. 28.
[6] Axelrod, Alan (2007) Encyclopedia of World War II, Vol- [30] Coogan 1993: “Although some Chinese troops in the
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few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the
[8] Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council;
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José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European
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[12] Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan’s World War Two out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in East-
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[37] Payne 2008.
[14] Ben-Horin 1943, p. 169; Taylor 1979, p. 124; Yisreelit,
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[46] Timothy Neeno. “Nomonhan: The Second Russo-
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[47] Collier & Pedley 2000, p. 144. before it finally took place.”
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[84] Commager 2004, p. 9.
[57] http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162
[85] Reynolds 2006, p. 76.
[58] http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162
[86] Evans 2008, pp. 122–3.
[59] “Major international events of 1939, with explanation”.
[87] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 436.
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The Americans later relieved the British, with marines ar-
[60] Evans 2008, pp. 1–2. riving in Reykjavik on 7 July 1941 (Schofield 1981, p.
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[61] Jackson 2006, p. 58.
[88] Shirer 1990, pp. 721–3.
[62] Weinberg 2005, pp. 64–5.
[89] Keegan 1997, pp. 59–60.
[63] Keegan 1997, p. 35.
Cienciala 2010, p. 128, observes that, while it is true that [90] Regan 2004, p. 152.
Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French
and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians [91] Liddell Hart 1977, p. 48
of World War II ... know that the British had committed [92] Keegan 1997, pp. 66–7.
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except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The [93] Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 207.
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[64] Beevor 2012, p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 248–9; [95] Brown 2004, p. xxx.
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[96] Keegan 1997, p. 72
[65] Zaloga 2002, pp. 80, 83.
[97] Murray 1983, The Battle of Britain
[66] Hempel 2005, p. 24.
[98] “Major international events of 1940, with explanation”.
[67] Zaloga 2002, pp. 88–9. ibiblio.org. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
[101] Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 108–9. [134] Beevor 2012, p. 220.
[102] Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, pp. 328–30. [135] Kleinfeld 1983.
[104] Cantril 1940, p. 390. [137] Glantz 2001, p. 26: “By 1 November [the Wehrmacht]
had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000
[105] Coordination With Britain Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans men), up to 2/3 of its ½-million motor vehicles, and 65
and Operations percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command
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[106] Bilhartz & Elliott 2007, p. 179.
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[107] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 877.
[138] Reinhardt 1992, p. 227.
[108] Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 745–6.
[139] Milward 1964.
[109] Clogg 2002, p. 118.
[140] Rotundo 1986.
[110] Evans 2008, pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986, pp. 4–6
[141] Glantz 2001, p. 26.
[111] Jowett 2001, pp. 9–10. [142] Garthoff 1969.
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[114] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 263–7. launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only
Stalin’s decision to attack all along the front instead of
[115] Macksey 1997, pp. 61–3. pushing home the advantage by concentrating his forces
in an all-out assault against the retreating Germany Army
[116] Weinberg 2005, p. 229.
Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even
[117] Watson 2003, p. 80. worse.”
[118] Jackson 2006, p. 154. [144] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 14.
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[124] Kershaw 2007, pp. 66–9. [153] Evans & Peattie 2012, p. 456.
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[126] Hauner 1978.
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[127] Roberts 1995. Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942
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[129] Erickson 2003, pp. 114–37.
[157] Painter 2012, p. 26: “The United States cut off oil exports
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[131] Farrell 1993.
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[132] Keeble 1990, p. 29. Wood 2007, p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic
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27
[161] Wohlstetter 1962, pp. 341–3. [190] Beevor 1998, pp. 383–91.
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48 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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12.1 Text 49
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TrebleSeven, TClapton, Soerfm, Jeancey, Pakon111, Ernio48, Zedshort, Hamish59, Gaylencrufts, Edthed, Jmccormick927, Gillette.ben,
Sprutt, Abootmoose, Matthew David González, Loriendrew, Findblogging, Mumbai0618, Jason from nyc, Wheeke, Rwenonah, Aqua Re-
gia72, Boeing720, Bakkedal, HueSatLum, Kata89, Cyberbot II, The Elixir Of Life, ChrisGualtieri, Archchinook, Liamcop, Nick.mon,
Adnan bogi, Khazar2, Esszet, 23 editor, Stumink, JYBot, AsadUK200, DylanLacey, Fun & helpful, Dexbot, Dissident93, Irondome,
Einstein2, Rothbardanswer, ASA1234, Br'er Rabbit, LightandDark2000, Mogism, Mannat (Mannot), AJWpreposter, Mxheil, XXzoon-
amiXX, Acoma Magic, Afrasclient, Pokajanje, Bluebasket, NAKFANS, NightShadow23, Buuhai, Srorourke, Tonimicho, MarsBarLover,
Buddy777, Roberthistoria, Blaue Max, HarveyHenkelmann, Faizan, Epicgenius, FallingGravity, General1962, Oreotoast, BreakfastJr,
Kiwi228, Michipedian, Kazim5294, Melonkelon, Govgovgov, Inglok, Hardcoreromancatholic, Alex Khan93, Dustin V. S., Supersaiyen312,
Lindenhurst Liberty, LudicrousTripe, ElHef, AcidSnow, Robert4565, Rocknrollman123, Jerryntcjc, Varixai, Sam Sailor, W. P. Uzer,
Whizz40, FirdausGupte, Muhammad Pasha Chohan, UnbiasedVictory, Montehurd, Owain Knight, Geitthegreat, Hogwild13, Kinglycitrus,
Barjimoa, Factor01, Lorda12, Apleat6326, Globetrotter1918, Nahnah4, Argovian, Doctor Papa Jones, CatcherStorm, Empire of War,
Monkbot, JarodDT, Fishnagles, Lwp2004, Matiec2014, Lucasjohansson, COD T 3, Gdeblois19, Int0002, Steverci, Trackteur, ♥Golf, Mil-
itaryhistory341, Monopoly31121993, Keiiri, Biblioworm, Gog the Mild, Picapicacuckoo, Vanisheduser00348374562342, Joseph Prasad,
JuanRiley, Sterndmitri, Garfield Garfield, Colonialmarine9, Mitzi.humphrey, MRD2014, Aethyta, Krishnachaitan, E-960, SA 13 Bro,
50 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
K.e.coffman, Embu wiki, Skm989898, Joshualoewen1, Wolfffsss, HoustonJackson, Илья Драконов, Kimdan014, SS Aduka, Jason.nlw,
Subeer rtz, Vivexdino, FilBox101, Hashi0707, FunPie, Julen.ibarrondo, Denniscabrams, KasparBot, Berserker276, T-Bends, Fisch1234,
Kiwifist, Sweepy, Aardwolf A380, Dallas S12345, Amerijuanican, CAPTAIN RAJU, LelouchEdward, Lexi sioz, Versus001, Matterington,
Pedro8790, South Nashua, Mahia Zatrung, GizzyCatBella, Huritisho, Maxaxax, Aaaagh, FDHLWP, Romanian-and-proud, Kirk Leonard,
Colonel Wilhelm Klink, Daniel Jackson 2001 and Anonymous: 3508
12.2 Images
• File:8th_AF_Bombing_Marienburg.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/8th_AF_
Bombing_Marienburg.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: NARA FILE #: 208-YE-7 Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:9_Div_Tobruk(AWM_020779).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/9_Div_Tobruk%28AWM_
020779%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War
Memorial under the ID Number: 020779
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Not stated at source
• File:Approaching_Omaha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Approaching_Omaha.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: The original uploader was Taak at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Raul654,
Nauticashades at en.wikipedia.
• File:Battle_of_Lake_Khasan-Red_Army_gunners_in_the_interval.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
b/b6/Battle_of_Lake_Khasan-Red_Army_gunners_in_the_interval.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1941-1945 Pobeda Original
artist: Viktor Antonovich Tyomin
• File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
• File:Boeing-Whichata_B-29_Assembly_Line_-_1944.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/
Boeing-Whichata_B-29_Assembly_Line_-_1944.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: United States Air Force Historical Re-
search Agency - Maxwell AFB, Alabama from “History and Units of the United States Air Force”, G H J Sharrings, European Aviation
Historical Society, 2004. Photo credit given as from USAFHRA. Original artist: United States Army Air Forces
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-03A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen_retouched.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-03A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_
Partisanen_retouched.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German
Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
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Archive. Original artist: Koch
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09042,_Genf,_Völkerbund,_Sitzungssaal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/60/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09042%2C_Genf%2C_V%C3%B6lkerbund%2C_Sitzungssaal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10541,_Weimar,_Aufmarsch_der_Nationalsozialisten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10541%2C_Weimar%2C_Aufmarsch_der_Nationalsozialisten.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880,_Peenemünde,_Start_einer_V2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This im-
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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-071-36,_Polen,_an_der_Brahe,_deutsche_Panzer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-071-36%2C_Polen%2C_an_der_Brahe%2C_deutsche_Panzer.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bunde-
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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-97906,_Warschauer_Aufstand,_Straßenkampf.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/95/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-97906%2C_Warschauer_Aufstand%2C_Stra%C3%9Fenkampf.jpg License: ? Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224,_Guernica,_Ruinen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
c/ca/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224%2C_Guernica%2C_Ruinen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This im-
age was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (neg-
ative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original
12.2 Images 51