Kiss 2019 - Bronze Age Anthropomorphic and Zoomorphic Representations in Hungary-1
Kiss 2019 - Bronze Age Anthropomorphic and Zoomorphic Representations in Hungary-1
PREHISTORIC RESEARCH
IN SOUTH-WESTERN HUNGARY (5500–500 BC)
Herausgegeben von
Eszter Bánffy und Judit P. Barna
„TRANS LACUM PELSONEM“
CASTELLUM PANNONICUM PELSONENSE
Vol. 7
Redigunt
Prähistorische Forschungen in
Südwestungarn (5500–500 v. Chr.)
Prehistoric Research
in South-Western Hungary (5500–500 BC)
Herausgegeben von
Eszter Bánffy, Judit P. Barna (Hrsg), „Trans Lacum Pelsonem”. Prähistorische Forschungen in
Südwestungarn (5500–500 v. Chr.) – Prehistoric Research in South-Western Hungary (5500–500 BC).
Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense, Bd. 7, hrsg. v. Archäologischen Institut des Geisteswissenschaftlichen
Forschungszentrums der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, dem Leibniz Institut für Geschichte
und Kultur des östlichen Europa (GWZO), dem Balatoni-Museum, der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission
des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts.
ISBN 978-3-89646-157-5
© 2019
ISBN 978-3-89646-157-5
ISSN 1869-9901
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Introduction
95 KATALIN T. BIRÓ
Lithic material from Keszthely-Fenékpuszta-Halászrét
117 JUDIT P. BARNA, GÁBOR SERLEGI, ZOLTÁN FULLÁR and ESZTER BÁNFFY
A circular enclosure and settlement from the mid-fifth millennium BC at
Balatonmagyaród-Hídvégpuszta
427 Bildnachweis
429 Autoren
Bronze Age anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
representations in Hungary
Viktória Kiss
1 2
0 5 cm
3 5
0 5 cm 0 5 cm
well as to the characteristic traits of these objects Pl. 19.1–2, 4) have a similar tail shape (Fig. 3.3–
during various phases and cultures of these two 5). On the testimony of the pottery from the Sze-
periods (MAKKAY 2005, 86–94; BONDÁR 2006; KA- remle grave, the fragment from Mucsfa can be
LICZ 2007, 8; BARNA/TÓTH 2007). dated to the later phase of the Encrusted Pottery
At present, the number of anthropomorphic culture, as can Grave 12 of the Királyszentistván
representations from the Bronze Age is consi- cemetery (RBr A2b–c; twentieth–seventeenth
derably smaller; certain zoomorphic (e.g. bird- centuries BC; BÓNA 1975, Pls 221-222; 223.1-6;
shaped) vessels, rattles and clay figurines seem 255,5–15; REICH 2006, Pls 56.5–11; 57.1–8; 58.1–2)6.
more characteristic for this period. The bird- A few human statuettes of the Vučedol,
shaped vessel from Grave 8 of the Szeremle Makó and Somogyvár-Vinkovci cultures can be
cemetery (Fig. 3.2) is perhaps the closest parallel mentioned from the Early Bronze Age (twenty-
to the fragment from Mucsfa (Fig. 3.1). The rat- eighth/twenty-sixth–twenty--third centuries-
tles from the cemeteries investigated at Király- BC) of the Carpathian Basin (Fig. 4.1–2; KALICZ
szentistván, Kaposvár-Road 61/Site 2 and Sió- 1968, Pl. CXIII.1–7; LETICA 1973, Pls I; BONDÁR
fok-Balatonszéplak (KOVÁCS 1972a; REICH 2006,
96–98; Fig. 45; GUBA/SZEVERÉNYI 2007; KISS 2012, 6
For further parallels, see KAPURAN/BULATOVIĆ 2013.
240 Viktória Kiss
1995, 218–220; Pls 120–121; KULCSÁR 2009, 164– first struck me during the assessment and inter-
166; 341–342; Fig. 38; 68). Regarding the Mid- pretation of the finds from Darda (HR), which
dle and the Late Bronze Age (twentieth–ninth can be dated to the younger phase of the En-
centuries BC), human figurines are known from crusted Pottery culture, and most probably rep-
eastern Hungary, Romania, and Serbia (Hatvan, resented the grave goods of a child’s cremation
Füzesabony/Otomani and Çehalut, Vattina, burial. This assemblage of miniature clay ob-
Felsőszőcs/Suciu de Sus, Wietenberg, Tei, Pi- jects (which included, among others, clay bas-
liny, Kyjatice, and Gáva cultures).7 A higher kets imitating birch-bark vessels and an object
number of anthropomorphic representations which can be described as the model of a sewn-
have been found in the archaeological legacy plank boat, possibly in imitation of an archetype
of the population groups hallmarked by the made from some kind of organic material) sug-
so-called Lower Danubian Encrusted, or Sze- gested to me that the period’s anthropomorphic
remle and Gârla Mare pottery8 (Fig. 4.3–13; KA- representations may have been made from or-
LICZ 1968, 159; LETICA 1973; KOVÁCS 1972b; 1977, ganic materials, and only in rare instances were
58–59; ŠIMIĆ 1989; MEDOVIĆ 1996; REICH 2006, they created from clay (KISS 2007a).
101–102; Fig. 47; DIETRICH 2011; HOLENWEGER In view of its flat body, the human figurine
2011; KIRÁLY/KOÓS/TARBAY 2014). In contrast, from Izmény (Fig. 2.1) can be regarded as a frag-
virtually nothing is known about the anthro- ment of the lower part of a statuette resembling
pomorphic plastic arts of the 600–800-year-long a figurine of the Vatin culture brought to light at
period in western Hungary (of the figurines of Vatin (LETICA 1973, Pl. VII.6), and the statuettes
the Kisapostag culture, the Transdanubian En- of the Hatvan and Füzesabony/Otomani culture
crusted Pottery culture, or of the Tumulus cul- from Szurdokpüspöki and Felsővadász (Fig.
ture; twenty-second–fourteenth centuries BC). 4.3–5; KALICZ 1968, 159; KOVÁCS 1977, Pls 8–9;
The striking absence of human clay figurines DIETRICH 2011, Pl. 2.2):9 a figurine with curved, in-
drawn waist and cylindrical head, which broke
7
The Middle Bronze Age dating of a few anthropo- along its waistline judging from the incised pat-
morphic statuettes of the Hatvan and Füzesabony/ tern of the horizontal belt around the waist. The
Otomani cultures, which were discovered as stray
patterns below the waist can be interpreted as
finds such as the exemplars found at Szurdok-
püspöki, has been challenged (KIRÁLY/KOÓS/TARBAY depicting a skirt or an apron decorated with so-
2014, 309–310) since their form bears a remarkable called swallowtail and disc pendants, and ad-
similarity to the Late Bronze Age human figurines ditional disc pendants (cp. Fig. 2.3) hanging on
from this area and also because finds from later peri-
ribbons on the side, of the type characteristic for
ods were unearthed at the sites in question too (e.g.
GUBA/BÁCSMEGI 2009). Tolnanémedi-type hoards (that are earlier than
8
Prehistorians from different countries designated the the above-cited Koszider-type hoards: HONTI/
communities producing and using encrusted pottery KISS 2000; KISS 2009; HONTI/KISS 2013). In view
that lived in Croatia, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria
of its parallels and its decoration, the figurine
with different names: Bijelo Brdo-Dalj, Dubovác-
Žuto Brdo, Gârla Mare-Cârna, and Balej-Orsoja cul- can be dated to the younger phase (Reinecke
tures (BUCHWALDEK/LIPPERT/KOSNAR 2007, Map 21a). Br A2b–c) of the Encrusted Pottery culture. Al-
T. Shalganova proposed that the entire archaeologi- though the ornamental motifs characteristic of
cal material east of the Iron Gate should be termed
the final phase (Koszider period, Reinecke Br B:
“Lower Danube Incrusted Pottery culture” (SHALGA-
NOVA 1995). In her overview of the find assemblages KISS 2012, 65–67; 2013, 62–63; Fig. 1) are well at-
from the region between the Hungarian and Bulgar- tested in the ceramic material from the site, they
ian section of the Danube River, Christine Reich too do not appear on the figurine fragment.
argued for a uniform designation: she discarded the
The portrayal of the arms and the narrow,
Bijelo Brdo–Dalj and Dubovac groups, and assigned
them to the Szeremle culture. She proposed that solid bell-shaped skirt of the Aparhant figurine
the groups distributed east of the Szeremle culture (Fig. 2.2), which barely differs from a cylindri-
be uniformly called the Gârla Mare group. She thus cal shape, are typical traits of the statuettes from
assigned the populations along the Lower Danube
a relatively small region (Fig. 5.1–3; Aljmaš
region hallmarked by encrusted pottery wares that
had been previously designated by various names to [HR], Dalj [HR], Karavukovo [SRB], Klisa [HR],
two, partly contemporaneous regional groups (REICH
2006). 9
See note 7.
Bronze Age anthropomorphic and zoomorphic representations in Hungary 241
1 2
0 5 cm
3 4
Odžaci I [SRB]: KARMANSKI 1969, Pl. III.1; LETICA bia. In a few cases, these figurines were found
1973, Pl. II.2; ŠIMIĆ 1989, Pl. 2.3; 3.2; 7.1; HOLEN- together with late Szeremle pottery (KARMANSKI
WEGER 2011, 87–91; Fig. 2; Pl. 20: Statuette 224, 1969, Pl. VI.1–2; REICH 2006, 316; Fig. 178; 181).
258, 334, Type D3), a no more than 20 km wide The incised and impressed patterns on the cited
zone along the Danube section between north- parallels similarly represent the garment, al-
eastern Croatia and neighbouring western Ser- though sometimes in even greater detail. One of
242 Viktória Kiss
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
8 9 10
11 12 13
the best-known figurines with solid skirt comes two similar figurines (Fig. 5.6–7) that had been
from the site of Dalj (Fig. 5.5): it has slightly deposited in a Belegiš-type vessel in Grave 28 of
differently modelled arms and a more realistic the Mošorin-Stubarlija cemetery (SRB: MEDOVIĆ
representation of the clothing, similarly to a few 1996; 1997; 2007).
other statuettes with hollow bell-shaped skirt A brief overview of previous research on
from the Bačka and Banat region (Mus. Osi- figurines with bell-shaped skirt seems in or-
jek, Bapska [HR], Gardinovci [SRB], Mostonga der at this point: Zagorka Letica distinguished
[SRB], Vatin [SRB]: LETICA 1973, Pl. VI.1–3; VII,3; three regional groups, namely a western group
HOLENWEGER 2011, Pl. 19). The relative date and (Dalj group), to which she assigned the sites of
possible original context of the latter figurines, Croatian Baranja and western Slavonia; a cen-
most of which are stray finds, is indicated by tral (Kličevac-Dubovác-Žuto Brdo) group, en-
Bronze Age anthropomorphic and zoomorphic representations in Hungary 243
1 2 3
4
5
0 5 cm 0 5 cm
0 5 cm
6
7
compassing the sites of eastern Slavonia, Bačka the eastern group. Although this regional typol-
and the middle Banat; and an eastern group ogy became widely accepted by later research
(Korbovo-Gârla Mare-Cârna group) made up (LETICA 1973, 60; 81–88; SCHUMACHER-MATTHÄUS
of the sites of the south-east Banat in Serbia 1985, 7; Table 2; Map 1), some scholars disa-
and Romania as well as the sites in Bulgaria greed with the proposed dating of the statuettes
(KOVÁCS 1972a; LETICA 1973). According to Let- from the turn of RBr A2/B to the turn of HaA/B
ica, the three, partly contemporaneous regional (MAJNARIĆ-PANDŽIĆ 1982; KOVÁCS 1988, 156–158;
groups reflect a chronological development as ŠIMIĆ 1989; MEDOVIĆ 1996, 335–340; KRSTIĆ 2003,
well: the middle group represents transitional 160–166; ŞANDOR-CHICIDEANU 2003, 206–213; 362).
forms between the western, earliest types and More recently, Christine Reich dated the
the eastern, more elaborate pieces. The variant lifespan of the populations producing encrust-
with solid bell-shaped skirt is more characteris- ed pottery and figurines with bell-shaped skirt
tic of the western region, that is, it occurs more who occupied the regions south of the Hunga-
often among the earlier pieces, while the hollow rian section of the Danube to a shorter period
bell-shaped skirt seems to be more frequent in (RBr B–C2). Within this period, the parallels
244 Viktória Kiss
from the Serbian Bačka and Banat can be dat- dren’s (cremation) graves or from double buri-
ed to the RBr B–BC1 phase, to the classical and als which contained the cremains of children as
late Szeremle phase (REICH 2002; 2006, 326; Fig. well. Taking this as his starting point, Vladimir
132; 177) and to the age of the Belegiš culture Dumitrescu interpreted the figurines as dei-
(MAJNARIĆ-PANDŽIĆ 1984; TASIĆ 2001; FISCHL/KISS ties who protected children in the otherworld,
2002; SZENTMIKLÓSI 2006).10 Predrag Medović while Gisela Schumacher-Matthäus considered
dated the two figurines recovered from Grave the figurines of the Lower Danubian burials as
28 of Mošorin-Štubarlija to the beginning of the representations of “Mother Earth” (DUMITRESCU
Belegiš II period, to the RBr C1 (MEDOVIĆ 2007, 1961; SCHUMACHER-MATTHÄUS 1985; KRSTIĆ 2003,
43–44; 81).11 Thus, in terms of Hungarian chro- 147). The formal similarities between the Lower
nology, the related anthropomorphic figurines Danubian figurines with bell-shaped skirt and
were produced and used from the Koszider the “tau” and “phi” statuettes of Mycenaean
period until the end of the first half of the Late graves was one argument for the dating and the
Bronze Age, before the latest (RBr D) phase of functional analysis of the Lower Danubian piec-
the Aparhant site.12 es.13 Anthropological studies indicated that the
A similar dress, decorated with impressed Mycenaean figurines were, as a rule, found in
dots, is worn by the figurine found at Košice- the burials of young girls (while the character-
Barca (SK: DIETRICH 2011, Pl. 2.5), a site of the istic grave goods of young boys were miniature
Füzesabony/Otomani culture, perhaps occu- weapons), and Georgios Mylonas contended
pied during its late phase (Fig. 4.7). that the female figurines were goddesses or
In the light of the above, anthropomorphic nurses who protected the children in the other-
representations were quite important to the world (MYLONAS 1966, 114–116; FRENCH 1972, 108;
populations living in various regions of the 1981). Following his lead, Monica Chicideanu-
Carpathian Basin during the entire span of the Şandor and Ion Chicideanu claimed that figu-
Bronze Age; aside from anthropomorphic figu- rines with bell-shaped skirt deposited as grave
rines, they also made anthropomorphic vessels. goods in the Lower Danube region could also be
The function of the figurines remains elusive: linked to a group of adolescent children (girls?)
they are generally interpreted either as ritual with a well-defined social status (CHICIDEANU-
devices (connected with rites of passage, or ŞANDOR/CHICIDEANU 1990). The Greek parallels
rites related to creation myths: MAKKAY 2005, 85; led to even more far-fetched suggestions in the
BONDÁR 2007), or as children’s toys, or objects as- archaeological literature: the Lower Danubian
sociated with the burial rites of children. figurines with bell-shaped skirt were associated
The cemeteries whose anthropological mate- not only with fertility cults, but even with Hera
rial has been analysed, e.g. Cârna (RO), Feudvar-
Štubarlija (SRB), Korbovo-Glamija (SRB), indi-
13
Previous research linked the emergence of the Lower
cated that the female figurines with bell-shaped
Danubian statuettes (which have more recently been
skirt of the Lower Danubian Gârla Mare cul- dated to Br B–C2 1600/1500–1300 BC) to the anthropo-
ture were, as a rule, brought to light from chil- morphic sculpture of the LH III phase (1400–1100 BC)
of the Mycenaean culture. The currently available
data, however, suggest the local, i.e. independent
10
For the problems of the phases of the Vatin and development of anthropomorphic figurines in both
Belegiš cultures, see FISCHL/KISS 2002. regions (cp. KALOGEROPOULOS 2007; KISS 2007a, 126–
11
The statuettes were discovered in a vessel closely as- 128; TZONOU-HERBST 2012). More recent studies have
sociated with the younger phase of the Vatin culture demonstrated that a part of the Mycenaean statuettes
(with decorated Pančevo-Omoljica phase material, were found in the sanctuaries uncovered on settle-
based on the ceramic typo-chronology of HÄNSEL/ ments (TZONOU-HERBST 2009, Pl. 1). We now also have
MEDOVIĆ 1991) that can be dated between 1520 BC a more detailed picture of their specific role in buri-
and 1420 BC on the testimony of the 14C dates for the als: they have been recovered from adult and child
younger layers of the Mošorin-Feudvar settlement burials alike, both from more humble and more lav-
(HÄNSEL 1992, 71–72; HÄNSEL/MEDOVIĆ 1994). ishly furnished graves, and their secondary use has
12
For the archaeological material from the contempo- also been attested (TZONOU-HERBST 2012). Neverthe-
raneous Kozármisleny settlement, which attests to less, it is still possible that the partly contemporane-
the contact between the Szeremle and the Tumulus ous figurines of the two regions were used in related
cultures, see MALI 2012. ritual practices.
Bronze Age anthropomorphic and zoomorphic representations in Hungary 245
herself, while the statuette with bell-shaped MANSKI 1969; MEDOVIĆ 1996) came from burials
skirt from Dupljaja, probably representing a or single-layer settlements. However, the good
man, riding on a chariot, that was earlier al- quality of the pottery fragments and the stone
ready linked to the Sun cult, was identified with and bone tools rather imply settlement features.
Apollo (MEDOVIĆ 2007; see also HOLENWEGER In a few instances, the anthropological assess-
2011, 223–224; 242–243, with further literature). ment confirmed that the miniature vessels
However, M. Chicideanu-Şandor and I. Chi- came from child burials of the Transdanubian
cideanu also noted that only about one-half of Encrusted Pottery culture, or from double buri-
the 172 statuettes discussed by them were found als that contained the cremains of both children
in cemeteries, while 20% were brought to light and adults, similarly as in the case of the Cârna
on settlements (the remaining 30% were stray cemetery (REICH 2002; KISS 2004; SZABÓ/HAJDU
finds; CHICIDEANU-ŞANDOR/CHICIDEANU 1990, 54; 2011, 89; 96–97; Fig. 1). The clay chair and boat
73–74). Mirjana Vukmanović and Petar Popović models from the Darda assemblage, as well as
interpreted the seventeen anthropomorphic the discovery of human figurines which were
statuettes found in the course of the rescue ex- previously unknown in the western Hungarian
cavations in the Iron Gate region along the same region during this period clearly reflect connec-
lines as nurses, although they also pointed out tions with the burials of the Lower Danubian
that over sixty female figurines had been found Gârla Mare culture (KISS 2007a).15 The anthropo-
on various settlements of the very same region, morphic figurines were probably ritual devices
which they linked to fertility cults (VUKMANOVIĆ/ both on settlements and in cemeteries during
POPOVIĆ 1995). More recently, Erika Holenweger the Middle and the Late Bronze Age of the Car-
listed 351 Lower Danubian anthropomorphic pathian Basin.
figurines, one-quarter of which (89 pieces) were
found in burial contexts (however, in the case of
76 figurines, the human remains had not been
submitted to anthropological analysis!), while
115 pieces (33%) come from settlements, and the
remaining 147 exemplars (42%) are stray finds.
The greater part of the anthropomorphic fig-
urines from the eastern part of the Carpathian
Basin (occupied by the Füzesabony/Otomani,
Çehalut, Felsőszőcs/Suciu de Sus, Wietenberg,
Tei, and Gáva cultures) were unearthed on set-
tlements (DIETRICH 2011, 92; Fig. 2; 4; KIRÁLY/
KOÓS/TARBAY 2014).14 The anthropomorphic
figurines recovered from these contexts were
variously interpreted as shamanistic devices or
as objects with a profane function (such as toys
or incense burners), but none of these supposi-
tions can be confirmed by the current evidence
(HOLENWEGER 2011, 237–241; DIETRICH 2011, 95;
Fig. 7).
It is uncertain whether the anthropomor-
phic figurines dating from the Middle and Late 15
The interpretation of miniature objects raises several
Bronze Age of western Hungary published questions: they have been variously interpreted as
here and their Slavonic parallels as well as the toys, functioning as the grave goods of deceased chil-
related pieces from the Bačka region (cf. KAR- dren, and as the objects of ritual scenes (Orsoja: BONEV
2000; HOLENWEGER 2011, 244–249). Recent studies on
the role of these objects and their creators based on
14
It must here be recalled that several settlement fea- the fingerprints observed on the figurines are of par-
tures also contained human remains, cp. KIRÁLY/ ticular interest (DIETRICH 2011, Fig. 8; KIRÁLY/KOÓS in
KOÓS/TARBAY 2014, 311–312. print).
246 Viktória Kiss
Summary
Art historical and archaeological research generally links the emergence of prehistoric art to ritu-
als. Thus, for instance, the role of Palaeolithic cave paintings is explained as purporting to influence
the success of hunting, while the function of the small clay figurines of the Neolithic during rituals
was probably to ensure the efficiency of arable farming and animal husbandry, and a possible link
between figurines and cosmogonic myths has also been suggested.
The interpretative possibilities of anthropomorphic representations can now be broadened follow-
ing the realisation of anthropologists that the human body has served, and still serves, as an important
source of metaphors. According to the embodiment hypothesis of the cognitive metaphor theory,
perception materialises itself through the existence and experience within the human body, by means
of which we interpret and conceptualise abstract notions.
During the past decades, numerous comprehensive studies have been devoted to the function of
the Neolithic and Copper Age anthropomorphic figurines and vessels from Hungary as well as to the
characteristic traits of these objects during various phases and cultures of these two periods.
At present, the number of anthropomorphic representations from the Bronze Age is considerably
low; certain zoomorphic (e.g. bird-shaped) vessels, rattles and clay figurines seem more characteristic
for this period. A few recently discovered clay objects offer new data regarding the interpretation of
previously unknown anthropomorphic clay figurines from the Middle and Late Bronze Age of west-
ern Hungary, as well as on various aspects of the history of Bronze Age clothing.
Zusammenfassung
Die Herausbildung der prähistorischen Kunst wurde von der archäologischen und kunsthis-
torischen Forschung mit Ritualen in Verbindung gebracht. Die neolithischen Tonfigürchen wurden
in Zusammenhang mit Ritualen gesehen, die den Erfolg des Ackerbaus und der Viehzucht gewähr-
leisten sollten. Außerdem wurde auf eine mögliche Verbindung der Figürchen mit Schöpfungsmy-
then verwiesen. Diese Erklärungsmöglichkeiten zu anthropomorphen Darstellungen wurden durch
die kulturanthropologische Ideen bereichert, demnach der menschliche Körper eine wichtige Quelle
für Metaphern sein kann. Nach der Inkarnationsthese (engl. embodiment hypothesis) der kognitiven
Metaphertheorie entsteht Bewusstsein durch das Leben und die Erfahrungen innerhalb des mensch-
lichen Körpers, indem abstrakte Ideen interpretiert und konzeptualisiert werden. In den letzten Jahr-
zehnten sind mehrere Zusammenfassungen über die Funktion der neolithischen und kupferzeitlichen
Figürchen und anthropomorphen Gefäße und ihre Charakteristiken in den verschiedenen Perioden
und Kulturen des Neolithikums und der Kupferzeit entstanden.
Aus der Bronzezeit sind bedeutend weniger anthropomorphe Darstellung bekannt. Zoomorphe
(z. B. vogelförmige) Gefäße, Rasseln und Tonstatuetten sind hingegen häufiger belegt. Einige neue
Tonobjekte liefern weitere Interpretationen zu anthropomorphen Tonfiguren der Mittel- und frühen
Spätbronzezeit in Westungarn sowie zur Geschichte bronzezeitlicher Bekleidung.
Bildnachweis / Sources of illustrations
9–72 Krisztián Oross/Lívia Simmer/Péter Straub: Fig. 1 Map: Zs. Réti, Cs. Peterdi, K. Oross after ZVELEBIL
2000. – Fig. 2 Map: Zs. Réti, Cs. Peterdi, K. Oross. – Fig. 3 Photo: K. Oross, Zs. Réti. – Fig. 4 Plan: L.
Simmer, P. Straub, Zs. Réti, K. Oross. – Fig. 5–7, 9, 13–15, 17, 26 Plan: L. Simmer, P. Straub, Zs. Réti, K.
Oross. – Fig. 8 Photo: L. Simmer, P. Straub, Zs. Réti. – Fig. 10 Figure: Zs. Réti, K. Oross. – Fig. 11–12,
28 3D reconstruction: Zs. Réti, K. Oross. – Fig. 16 Plan: Zs. Réti, K. Oross after ILON 2013. – Fig. 18–24
Drawings: M. Éber, Zs. Réti, T. Marton, K. Oross. – Fig. 25 Photo: L. Simmer, P. Straub, Zs. Réti. – Fig.
27 Map: B. Vágvölgyi, Zs. Réti, K. Oross, chart base Google Earth. – Fig. 29 Map: Zs. Réti, Cs. Peterdi,
K. Oross. – Table 1 K. Oross.
73–94 Judit P. Barna et al.: Fig. 1 After BARNA et al. 2012, Fig. 1.1. – Fig. 2 Map: I. Eke, chart base: Copernicus
Land Monitoring Service 2018. – Fig. 3 http://www.fentrol.hu/hu/legifoto (07.12.2015). – Fig. 4–5
Maps: S. Puszta. – Fig. 6 After BARNA et al. 2015, Fig. 10. – Fig. 7, 12 Map: S. Puszta, graphic: I. Eke. – Fig.
8–9 Data: B. Tóth, N. Kocsis; graphic: I. Eke. – Fig. 10–11 Data and graphs: B. Tóth, N. Kocsis. – Fig. 13
Photos: M. Tóth, B. Tugya, graphic: J., P. Barna, Z. M. Tokai. Design: Z. M. Tokai. – Fig. 14 After BARNA
et al. 2012, Fig. 2. – Fig. 15 Graphic: K., T. Biró. – Fig. 16 Data and map: K., T. Biró. – Table 1 B. Tóth. –
Table 2 B. Tugya. – Table 3 K., T. Biró.
95–116 Katalin T. Biró: Fig. 1a–b–2a–b, 9a–b, 13a–b Data and graphs: K., T. Biró. – Fig. 3–8 Drawings: K., T.
Biró. – Fig. 10–11 Photos: K. Dúzs, design: K., T. Biró. – Fig. 12a-b Map: K., T. Biró. – Appendix 1– 2 K.,
T. Biró.
117–160 Judit P. Barna et al.: Fig 1 Graphic: J., P. Barna. – Fig. 2 Data and graph: E. Bánffy; J., P. Barna. – Fig.
3 After SERLEGI 2014, Fig. 8.29. – Fig. 4 Map: L. Horváth, Z. Fullár. – Fig. 5 After BÁNFFY 1997, Cat. 43;
44, and 42. – Fig. 6 Photo: J. Bicskei. – Fig. 7, 11–20: Photos: K. Pálfay, drawings: E. Bánffy, design: J.,
P. Barna. – Fig. 8–9 Map: L. Horváth, Z. Fullár, design: J., P. Barna. – Fig. 10 Drawings: L. Horváth,
digitalisation: Z. Fullár. – Fig. 21–26 Photo: J. Bicskei, drawings and design: J., P. Barna.
161–186 Anna Szécsényi-Nagy et al.: Fig. 1 Map: A. Szécsényi-Nagy, P. Móricz, B. Havasi. – Fig. 2 Map: R. Mül-
ler, A. Gönye, P. Móricz, B. Havasi. – Fig 3.1 –2, 5 Drawings: J., P. Barna, B. Kámán. – Fig. 4, 6 Photo: J.,
P. Barna. –Figs 7–8 Photos: M. Tóth, drawings and design: J., P. Barna. – Fig. 9 Photos: M. Tóth. – Fig.10
Photos: A. Szécsényi-Nagy. – Figs 11–12 Graphic: A. Mörseburg. Table 1–2 A. Szécsényi-Nagy. – Tab-
les 3–4 A. Mörseburg.
187–216 Zsuzsanna M. Virág: Fig. 1.1 Map: Zs., M. Virág; 1.2 Map Zs., M. Virág, after VIRÁG 1996; 1.3 Map: Zs.,
M. Virág, basic map: mapire.eu. – Fig. 2.1a–b; 2.2–3 Drawings: Zs., M. Virág, photo: J. Bicskei. – Fig. 3
Map and drawings: Zs., M. Virág, E. Csernus. – Fig. 4.1a–c, 2a–b Figure: I. Gresits. – Fig. 5a–b, 6, 7a–b,
9, 11–12 Photos: J. Dobránszky. – Fig. 8, 10 Figure: J. Dobránszky. – Fig. 13 Photo: Zs. M. Virág.
217–236 Mária Bondár: Fig. 1 Map: After http://lhzk.hu/12-latnivalok/19-kis-balaton. – Fig. 2 After BONDÁR
1987, Fig. 2. – Fig. 3–5 Photo: P. Hámori; drawings and computer graphics: M. Éber. – Fig. 6 After
BÁNFFY/BONDÁR/VIRÁG 2003, Fig. 29. – Fig. 7 After BANNER 1956, Pl. LXXXVII. – Fig. 8 After NÉMETH et
al. 2010, 15; drawings: F. Gönczi, 1930. – Fig. 9 Map: M. Bondár, S. Ősi. – Fig. 10 Photo: T. Kádas, P.
Hámori. – Tables 1–5: M. Bondár.
236–252 Viktória Kiss: Fig. 1 Map: V. Kiss. – Fig. 2.1–2, 4–7 Photo: V. Kiss; 2.3 Photo: Cs. Tétényi. – Fig. 3.1
Photo: V. Kiss; 3.2 After KISS 2012, Fig. 18.2; 3.3–5 after KISS 2012, Fig. 19. – Fig. 4.1; 11–13 After GRÖMER
2010, Fig. 153; 164; 4.2 After BONDÁR 1995, Pl. 120,1; 4.3 After LETICA 1973, Pl. VII.6; 4.4 After KOVÁCS
1977, Pl. 9.5–6; 4.5–6 After MEDOVIĆ 1997, Abb. 4–5; 4.7 After SCHUMACHER-MATTHÄUS 1985, Pl. 16.2; 4.8
after DIETRICH 2011, Pl. 2.2, 4–5; 4.9–10 After KIRÁLY/KOÓS/TARBAY 2014, Pl. II.12, 23. – Fig 5.1–4 After
ŠIMIĆ 1989, Pl. 2.3; 5.5 After HOLENWEGER 2011, Pl. 19.333; 20.224; 258; 334; 5.6–7 After MEDOVIĆ 1997, Fig.
6–7.
253–328 Gábor Ilon: Abb. 1 Angefertigt von Gy. Isztin. – Abb. 2a–b Angefertigt von I. Eke. – Abb. 3–4 Angefer-
tigt von Gy. Isztin. – Abb. 5 Nach den Plänen des Verfassers, angefertigt von Gy. Isztin; 5.1 nach NAGY/
FIGLER 2009, Fig. 7.2; 5.2 nach NAGY 2013, Abb. 4.1; 5.3 nach KISS 2013, Fig. 2.15; 5.4 nach KISS 2013, Fig.
2.18; 5.5 nach ILON/NAGY 2013, Fig. 3.3; 5.6 nach NAGY 2013, Taf. 14.6; 5.7 nach ILON/NAGY 2013, Fig.
428 Bildnachweis / Sources of illustrations
3.1; 5.8 nach ILON/NAGY 2013, Fig. 2.1; 5.9 nach NAGY 2013, Fig. 14.3b; 5.10 nach NAGY 2013, Pl. 14.5;
5.11 nach ILON 2012, Pl. 5.1; 5.12 nach ILON 1999, Pl. 1.1; 5.13 nach ILON 1999, Pl. 6.1; 5.14 nach ILON 1999,
Pl. 4.1; 5.15 nach KOVÁCS 1997, Fig. 1.3; 5.16 unpubliziert; 5.17 nach ILON 2012, Fig. 7.8; 5.18 nach ILON
2012, Fig. 10.5; 5.19 nach ILON 1999, Pl. 6.2; 5.20 nach ILON 2012, Fig. 8.3; 5.21 nach EGRY 2004, Fig. 6.3;
5.22 nach EGRY 2004, Fig. 6.1; 5.23 unpubliziert; 5.24 nach ILON 2014a, Fig. 8.2; 5.25 nach ILON 2014a, Fig.
8.1; 5.26 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig. 2.8; 5.27 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig. 2.10; 5.28 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig.
2.1; 5.29 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig. 1.2; 5.30 nach NAGY 2007, Pl. 3.3; 5.31 unpubliziert; 5.32 nach KÁROLYI
1979/80, Fig. 11.2; 5.33–37 unpubliziert; 5.38 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig. 3.10; 5.39 unpubliziert; 5.40 nach
HORVÁTH 1994, Fig. 3.7; 5.41 unpubliziert; 5.42 nach ILON 2014b, Pl. 2.5; 5.43 nach HORVÁTH 1994, Fig.
12.1; 5.44 nach FEKETE 2004, Fig. 13.6; 5.45 nach HONTI 1996, Fig. 4.7; 5.46 nach HONTI 1996, Fig. 3.3; 5.47
unpubliziert; 5.48 nach EGRY 2010, Fig. 4.6; 5.49 nach ILON 2014b, Pl. 4.9; 5.50 nach ILON 2012, Pl. 16.2;
5.51 nach NÉMETH/TAKÁCS 2003, Fig. 4.1; 5.52 unpubliziert; 5.53 nach ILON 2014b, Pl. 14.14; 5.54 nach
ILON 2012, Pl. 2.2. – Abb. 6 Fotos: T. Tárczy. – Abb. 7.1 Zeichnung: Z. F. Tóth; 7.2–3, 5 Zeichnung: I.
Ughy; 7.4 Zeichnung: P. Skriba; 7.6 Foto: Zs. Oszkó. – Taf. 6, 26 Zeichnung: T. Csuti, H. Binder. – Taf.
7 Zeichnung: A. Radics.
329–366 Róbert Müller: Abb. 1 Magyar Királyi Honvéd Térképészeti Intézet, 1938. – Abb. 2–15 Grafik und Ta-
felzusammenstellung: R. Müller.
367–384 János Gábor Tarbay: Fig. 1–2; 3.1–2, 4.1–3, 5, 9 Photos: É. L. Horváth. – Fig. 3.3; 4.4 Drawings: J. G.
Tarbay. – Fig. 6 Map: J. G. Tarbay. – Fig. 7 Graph: J. G. Tarbay. – Fig. 8 Photos: J. G. Tarbay.
385–416 János Gábor Tarbay/Bálint Havasi: Fig. 1–3, 11–12, 14–15 Map, photos and drawings: B. Havasi. – Fig.
5, 7, 13 Photos: J. G. Tarbay. – Fig. 4, 6, 8–10 Photos: É. L. Horváth, drawing: E. Ambrus. – Fig. 16 Draw-
ing: J. G. Tarbay. – Fig. 7 Graph: J. G. Tarbay.
417–426 László Horváth: Abb. 1 Angefertigt von L. Horváth. – Abb. 2.1, 2a, 3a Grafik: L. Horváth. – Abb. 2.2b–c,
3b Fotoarchiv Balatoni Mus. Keszthely. – Abb. 3 Zusammengestellt von L. Horváth auf der Grundlage
der im Text erwähnten Daten.
429
Autoren / Authors
The Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense series was established in 2010, its aim being to
publish the results of archaeological investigations in and around the late antique fortification
of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, in the Little Balaton region and Southwest Hungary. This area
is home to a dense network of sites from the Neolithic through to the Iron Age, thereby
providing significant insights into occupation processes at a supra-regional comparative
scale.
Systematic research into the prehistoric settlement pattern of south-western Transdanubia
began in 1979. A large project with surveys and excavations was necessary before the re-
cultivation of the wetland area in the south-western part of Lake Balaton. This was followed
by project during the 1980s and 1990s in the Hahót and Kerka valleys, covering segments
of Western Transdanubia. Finally, the investigations conducted before the M7 motorway
was built in the 1990s along the southern shore of Lake Balaton and towards Croatia gave
the opportunity to investigate further sites. This volume contains results from the three large
projects and from recent fieldwork undertaken by contract archaeology. Completely new
natural scientific methods like ancient DNA research are applied; meanwhile, the long-
overdue publication of some old material has also been included.
ISBN 978-3-89646-157-5
ISSN 1869-9901