Index
A
Abuse-of-discretion standard, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 35-36, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 308 n.18, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83
Academy of Toxicological Sciences (ATS), 677
Accreditation
engineering education, 931
laboratories, 28, 62 n.30, 66, 68-69, 70 n.83, 98, 154, 156, 171 n.98, 538
medical education, 695, 696, 697, 700, 701, 822, 823 n.49, 824, 873
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), 931
Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), 700
Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), 696, 697
Acute myelogenous leukemia, 20 n.51, 26, 505, 655, 656 n.65, 663 n.81, 668-669, 670 n.97
Additive effects, 615 n.200, 673, 680
Admissibility of expert testimony, generally (see also individual disciplines)
applying Daubert, 22-26, 63 n.39
class certification proceedings, 30-32, 307 n.7, 365, 463, 489
credibility issues, 21-22, 36, 99, 318 n.41, 376 n.75, 741, 781-782, 789-790 n.24, 794, 806, 807, 875 n.347, 879
Daubert hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122
discovery, 32-35
Frye test, 12, 53, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 806-807, 866, 867, 949
interpreting Daubert, 19-22
procedural issues, 30-36
qualifications of expert witness, 22-23
relevancy standard, 13
reliability standard, 13
scientific foundation of studies, 23-25
standard of review, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83
sufficiency conflated with, 20-21
Supreme Court cases, 12-19 (see also Daubert; General Electric; Kumho; Weisgram)
synthesizing multiple studies vs.
piecemeal examination, 19-20, 21, 23-24
technical and other specialized knowledge, 16-18
Advertising
deceptive, 224, 231-233, 363 n.10, 366, 398-399, 400, 403-404, 410, 441
Advisory Committee on Civil Rules, 33
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 701, 723, 728 n.174
Agent Orange litigation, 507 n.8, 520 n.38, 565 n.48, 583 n.100, 592 n.130, 609 n.179
Alcohol, blood levels, 228, 373 n.64, 791, 913
Alleles
binning, 200
drop in, drop out, 151, 152, 153, 160
electropherogram, 144, 145-146, 182-183
genetic typing, 139-140, 152, 159, 182, 196 n.185
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 165, 166, 204, 207
heterozygosity, 139, 140, 147, 183 n.139, 199, 204
homozygosity, 139, 140, 183 n.139, 199, 204
linkage equilibrium, 166, 205, 207
location description, 200
match, 205
mixtures of DNA, 182-183, 184-185
nonhuman DNA, 195, 196, 197, 198
null, 144
population frequencies, 148, 155, 163, 164-165, 166, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207
preferential amplification, 144
randomly mating population, 165, 198, 204, 208
sex-typing test, 146-147
single-locus genotype, 204
size considerations, 153
at STR loci, 141-143, 144, 145-147, 153, 159, 182-183
variation, 142-143
at VNTR loci, 142, 199, 200, 202
Alternative hypotheses
beta error calculation in epidemiology, 582
DNA profiling, 205
hypothesis testing, 205, 254 n.106, 255 n.110, 257, 276, 278, 283, 297, 299, 300, 319-321, 353
multiple regression models, 319-321, 353
American Academy of Clinical Toxicologists, 678
American Academy of Environmental Medicine, 677 n.115
American Academy of Family Physicians, 735
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 125
American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 823 n.52, 875
American Association for Public Opinion Research, 417
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 8, 39 n.3, 46
American Association on Mental Retardation, 371
American Bar Association, 8, 869
American Board of Bariatric Medicine, 699
American Board of Criminalistics, 156 n.52
American Board of Emergency Medicine, 676-677 n.114
American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO), 107
American Board of Forensic Psychology, 825 n.65
American Board of Forensic Toxicology, 69 n.78
American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS), 676, 677 n.114, 698, 699
American Board of Medical Toxicology, 676 n.114
American Board of Pediatrics, 677 n.114, 697 n.42
American Board of Preventive Medicine, 677 n.114
American Board of Professional Psychology, 874
American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, 697 n.42, 822, 823 n.52
American Board of Toxicology, 677, 678
American Cancer Association, 735
American Chemical Society, 46
American College of Medical Toxicology, 678
American College of Physicians, 735
American College of Radiology, 727
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 529 n.65
American Honda Motor Co. v. Allen, 31
American Industrial Hygiene Association, 539, 540
American Law Institute, 890 n.30
American Lift Institute (ALI), 924
American Medical Association, 677 n.115, 735
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 906, 924
American Osteopathic Association (AOA), 697-698, 699, 700
American paddlefish, 194
American Petroleum Institute, 678
American Physical Society, 46
American Psychiatric Association, 828, 830, 831, 869, 879 n.358
American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 826 n.69
American Psychological Association, 367, 824 nn.54, 57, & 59, 875
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 906
American Society of Crime Lab Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), 68, 69 nn.76 & 78, 154 n.48, 156 n.52
American Society of Internal Medicine, 735
American Urological Association, 727, 735
Americans with Disabilities Act, 816, 833 n.105
Ames, Aldrich, 805
Amicus curiae briefs, 5, 30, 371, 797-798
Anecdotal evidence, 59 n.17, 85, 217, 218, 220, 310, 677 n.115, 809
Antibodies, 199
Antitrust litigation, 22, 31 n.90, 213, 226 n.36, 260, 305, 306, 307 n.7, 313, 320, 321 n.48, 326, 328, 348 n.90, 365, 366 n.25, 373, 429 n.1, 431, 439, 475, 491 n.89, 498, 728
Aplastic anemia, 561, 724, 731
Appraisal approaches, 242-244, 248-249, 278, 444, 445-446, 447, 501
Asbestos, 248 n.93, 489, 519 n.36, 523, 532 n.67, 551 n.3, 573 n.68, 585 n.104, 587, 588 n.114, 606, 607 n.171, 609 n.178, 614, 615, 626, 627, 635, 640, 643-644 n.28, 652, 653, 669, 672, 676, 694, 724, 920
Association of American Medical Colleges, 695, 696 n.34
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE), 93, 94, 95, 97 n.258, 100 n.273
Association of Social Work Boards, 826 n.67
Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, 873
Associations (see also Causation)
aggregation of data from multiple sources and, 235
biological plausibility, 20, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620, 664-665
causation and, 20, 218, 221, 222, 262, 264, 552-553, 559, 562, 566, 567, 570, 571, 574, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 584, 591, 592-593, 604-605, 610 n.184, 664-665
confounders, 262-264
correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333
ecological correlations, 266, 267
exposure–disease, 552-553, 554, 555-556, 557, 559, 561, 566, 567-568, 570, 572, 573, 574-575, 576, 577, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586 nn.107 & 108, 588 n.115, 589, 590, 591-593, 595, 597-606, 610 n.184, 611-612, 613, 622
income–education, 219, 260-262, 264-266, 312
linear, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352
statistical, between variables, 213, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 230, 233-235, 252 n.103, 253, 254, 260-263, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 285, 286, 291, 295, 298, 312, 321, 352, 356
true or real, 559, 568, 572, 574, 575, 581-582, 590, 591, 592 n.126, 625, 627, 629
Atkins v. Virginia, 369-371, 815 n.5, 833 n.105
Attributable risk, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619
B
Bacon, Francis, 39-40, 42, 43, 45, 50
Ballistics evidence
ammunition, 92, 93, 99, 120-121, 125-126
automated identification systems, 95-96
cartridge identification, 27 n.79, 92, 94-95, 98
case law development, 58, 91, 100-103
clarity of testimony, 120-121
class characteristics, 72 n.93, 92, 97, 100-101
computer imaging of bullets, 99
consecutive matching striae, 94
Daubert and, 101
empirical record, 61, 65, 97-100, 121
individual characteristics, 72 n.93, 93-94, 97, 99
inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry, 120 n.415
Integrated Ballistics Information System (IBIS), 95
lands and grooves, 91-92
limits on testimony, 27 n.79, 101-102, 122, 123 n.440
neutron activation analysis, 120 n.415, 123 n.440, 126
pretrial discovery, 125-126
proficiency testing, 97-98
subclass charateristics, 93
toolmarks, 72 n.93, 93 n.241, 96-97, 98, 99, 103 n.300
Bayesian approach (Bayes’ theorem; subjectivist approach)
to conditional probabilities of related events, 259 n.122, 274
to DNA matches, 173, 174, 188, 189, 190-191, 200, 209
to empirical distributions, 259 n.123
to error rates, 259 n.122, 282
frequentists compared with, 273-275
inference writ large, 242 n.84
limitations, 174
medical decisionmaking, 259 n.122, 706 n.78, 707-714, 725, 742
“objective,” 259 n.123
to posterior probabilities, 241, 242, 258, 259
to prior probabilities, 259, 283
to statistical inference, 173, 174, 242 n.48, 273-275
Bayh-Dole Act, 48
Bendectin litigation, 13-14, 562 n.38, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 579 n.86, 604 n.164, 638
Benzalkonium chloride, 507 n.8
Benzene, 20 n.51, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506, 514, 526 n.27, 532, 539, 543, 587 n.112, 606 n.169, 617-618 n.214, 646 nn.34 & 35, 649 n.44, 653, 655, 656 n.65, 657 n.67, 663-664 nn.81 & 82, 668-669, 670 n.97
Bias (see also Confounding factors; individual disciplines)
aggregation, 623
ascertainment, 187
cognitive, 29, 79-80, 169 n.89, 706, 743
conceptual errors, 590
contextual (expectation), 29, 67 n.63, 80
controlling for/minimizing, 68 n.70, 225, 246, 573-575
expectation, 411
misclassification, 588 n.115, 589-590, 622, 624, 625
nonresponse, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362 n.8, 383-385, 407, 408, 416
order effects, 395-396
publication, 590
selection, 98, 187, 224-225, 226 n.36, 249, 290, 293, 296, 370, 386, 408, 512 n.22, 583-585, 591, 627
systematic, 394, 572 n.67, 573
Biomarkers, 509, 536 n.76, 586 n.110
Bipolar disorder, 832, 833 n.105, 839, 847, 853, 854 n.236, 855, 859, 881 n.366
Birth defects, 13-14, 249, 552 n.4, 562, 563, 570 n.63, 578 n.85, 579 n.86, 585 n.106, 587 n.112, 590, 614, 618, 620, 638, 984
Bite mark evidence
case law development, 105, 110-112
comparison methods, 106-107
computer-generated overlays, 106 n.317
crimes involving, 103-104
Daubert and, 112
DNA exonerations, 62 n.32, 109-110
empirical record, 61, 65, 108-111
proficiency testing, 109
specificity of expert’s opinion, 111, 123, 215
uniqueness of dentition, 105-106
Blood bank samples, 164
Blood evidence
alcohol levels, 228, 373 n.64, 791, 913
animal, 197
DNA analysis, 143, 151, 155, 156, 158, 160 n.60, 164, 169 n.89, 173 n.103, 182, 197
exposure, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 656, 657, 672
preservative for, 202
serology analysis, 58, 62 n.32, 132 n.3
toxicology, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 635, 636, 637 n.8, 653, 656, 657, 662, 667, 672
Bootstrap simulation, 284, 469
Brain (see also Neuroimaging; Neuroscience evidence)
brain stem, 755
cellular structure, 750-754
deep brain stimulation, 773, 775, 862
frontal lobe, 755, 756, 757, 759, 763, 771, 893
functional aspects, 759-760
implanted microelectrode arrays, 775-776
lesion studies, 774
neurons, 750-754, 755, 757, 758-759, 760, 768, 770, 772, 774, 775-776, 778, 808-809, 854
neurotransmitters, 751, 752, 753, 755, 763, 764, 833, 854
structure, 754-759
transcranial magnetic stimulation, 773-774
Breach of contract, 433, 434, 436, 437, 461 n.54, 466 n.68, 797
Breach-of-warranty action, 31
Breast cancer, 259 n.122, 562, 607 n.170, 617 n.211, 704-705, 708, 710, 711-712, 719, 721, 727, 733-734, 736-737, 738-739
Bundy, Ted, 112
Bureau of Economic Analysis, 484
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 471, 484
Burke v. Town of Walpole, 110, 123
C
California Public Utilities Commission v. California Energy Resources Conservation & Development Commission, 947-948
Canadian General Social Survey, 408 n.212
Cancer risk, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683
Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 459, 469
Capital punishment (see Death penalty)
Carbon monoxide, 513 n.27, 540 n.88, 587 n.111, 635-636, 637 n.8, 651 n.52, 652 n.56, 672, 681
Carbon tetrachloride, 543, 544, 653, 662
Carcinogens/carcinogenicity, 643 n.29, 644, 645, 647 nn.37 & 38, 649 n.44, 650 n.49, 651, 655-656, 658 n.70, 659, 660 n.74, 670 n.97, 673 n.105, 680
Carcinogenicity bioassay, 644, 654-655, 680
Case management (see also Disclosures to opposing parties; Discovery)
amicus curiae briefs, 5, 30, 371, 797-798
bifurcation, 476
closing arguments, restriction on, 124
court-appointed experts, 6-8, 14, 35, 311, 329, 489, 599 nn.141 & 143
Daubert hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122
in limine motions, 14, 22, 414 n.213
jury instructions, 29, 168 n.84, 170 n.95, 383 n.104, 455, 943
pretrial Daubert hearings, 6, 18, 30, 311, 362
pretrial lie detection, 807
protective orders, 487
special masters or expert assistants, 6, 7, 35, 135, 488, 489
structuring expert testimony, 23-24
survey uses, 366-367
videotaped testimony, 7, 880-881
Case reports, 23 n.59, 25 n.69, 108 n.329, 217 n.14, 639, 714, 724
Case-control studies, 556, 557, 558, 559-560, 568, 569, 583-584, 585-586, 587 n.112, 588 n.115, 589-590, 591 n.122, 607, 620, 625
Causation (see also specific disciplines)
abuse-of-discretion standard and, 24
alternative explanations, 552-553 n.7, 570 n.63, 582, 595, 598, 600, 605, 672-673
anecdotal evidence, 217, 218, 220
association and, 20, 218, 221, 222, 262, 264, 552-553, 559, 562, 566, 567, 570, 571, 574, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 584, 591, 592-593, 604-605, 610 n.184, 664-665
biodistribution of toxic agents, 667-668
biological plausibility of associations, 20, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620, 664-665
but-for analysis and, 429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 438-439, 440-443, 449-450, 455, 460, 461, 470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 476-477, 491, 492, 493-494, 496-497, 498, 501, 597, 598 n.136
cessation of exposure and, 605
conflicting research, 606, 674-675
confounding factors, 218, 220, 221, 222, 591, 592-593, 598, 672-673
consistency of trends, 606
correlation and, 309
Daubert trilogy and, 12
differential diagnosis, 217 n.14, 512 n.21
direction of, 322-323
dose–response relationship, 603
ecological studies, 561 n.34, 562
epidemiological studies, 23, 217 n.14, 218, 597-606
excretion routes for toxic agents and, 668
exposure evidence, 25-26, 558, 587 n.111, 588, 597-606, 666-667
extrapolation issues, 23, 222, 223, 563-565, 661-662, 664
general, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 597-606, 637 n.7, 638, 657 n.87, 659, 660-665
generalizability of studies, 222, 564, 595 n.133, 623
guidelines for assessing, 599-600
latency period for disease and, 668-669
level of exposure and, 669-670
medical evidence, 217 n.14, 438, 670-671
metabolism of toxic agents and, 668
observational studies, 215-216, 218, 220-222
preponderance of the evidence standard, 565 n.48, 610 n.182
randomized controlled experiments, 218, 220, 221, 222
replication of results, 604
specific, 24, 25-26, 551 n.2, 552, 608-618, 637 n.7, 638, 645 n.31, 659 n.72, 665-666, 669-670 n.95
specificity of association, 605-606
statistical studies, 213, 216-223, 249, 260-272, 288
strength of association, 602
structure–activity relationships, 663
subsequent unexpected events and, 438, 480-481, 495, 500
synthesizing multiple studies, 19-20, 21, 23-24, 217 n.14
target organ specificity, 662-663
temporal relationship, 217 n.14, 323 n.52, 558, 560-561, 562-563, 587 n.111, 600-601, 606, 669 n.94, 714 n.100
“weight-of-the-evidence” methodology, 565 n.48
Censuses, undercount litigation, 2-3, 213, 223-224, 247 n.90, 268, 275 n.149, 307, 308
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 418 n.246, 536-537, 561-562 n.36, 672
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, 862 n.290
Central Intelligence Agency, 805
Charter on Medical Professionalism, 703
Chromosomes (see also Genes)
allele variations on, 142
cytogenetic analysis, 655
defined, 201
haploid number, 204
homologous, 204
inheritance, 137-138, 142, 183 n.139
loci used for profiling, 142-143, 144, 145-146, 147, 148, 151, 153, 155, 159, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 175-176, 182, 183, 188 n.157, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209
monomorphic loci, 139
recombination, 138
reduction process, 137-138
Chronic Lyme disease (CLD), 728
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 505 n.4
Class-action cases, 7, 238 n.72, 247 n.90, 248 n.93, 429, 462, 463, 483, 486, 489-491, 649 n.47
Class certification proceedings, 30-32, 307 n.7, 365, 463, 489
Classification of Violence Risk (COVR), 848
Clean Air Act, 666
Clinical studies, 510, 555, 556, 575, 590, 607, 621, 640, 648 n.42, 656 n.64, 658, 659, 661
Cocaine, 126, 536 n.76, 760, 789
Cohort studies, 556, 557-559, 560, 567, 568, 573, 583, 584, 585 n.104, 589, 590, 592, 593, 594, 607, 621, 624, 625, 626, 628, 657, 658-659, 716
Coker v. Georgia, 370
Collaborative Testing Services, Inc., 69 n.82, 78, 85, 87, 88, 98
Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation, 696
Common-law fraud action, 31
Commonwealth v. Patterson, 81-82
Competency
confinement based on, 852
to consent to treatment and research, 844, 845
to enter into contracts or make wills, 816, 817, 820, 867
evaluations, 817-819, 820-821, 823, 844 n.167, 872, 880, 884, 885, 889, 890
to manage one’s affairs, 816, 844, 867
to marry or to vote, 816
of medical patients, 735
neuroscience applications, 796, 799
parenting capacity, 820, 844, 867
to represent oneself, 3, 799, 815, 818
to stand trial, 3, 785, 799, 815, 818, 820, 821 n.37, 823, 844, 852, 861, 863, 867, 872, 885 n.377, 889
to waive rights, 815, 817, 844
Computer assisted tomography (CAT scan), 718 n.117, 719, 720, 762-763, 837-838, 893
Confidence intervals (see specific disciplines)
Conflicts of interest, 8, 21-22, 48-49, 590, 728, 875
Confounding factors (see also specific disciplines)
controlling for, 596-597
identifying, 595
lurking variables, 262-264
preventing or limiting, 595
Confrontation Clause, 26-27, 30, 789
“Consistent with” testimony, 70, 104 n.302, 111, 113, 116, 120, 121, 160 n.60, 184, 604-605, 606, 927
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), 650, 909, 911, 920
Convenience samples, 164, 224-225, 248, 285, 287
Costs of expert testimony, 19
Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 382 n.102, 416 n.240
Council on Continuing Medical Education, 700
Coupon settlements, 491
Credibility issues (see also Conflicts of interest)
Daubert and, 21-22
Crime Laboratory Proficiency Testing Program, 97
Criminal Justice Act of 1964, 127
Cross-sectional studies, 319, 345, 352, 556, 560-561, 621-622, 716, 736-737
Cruel and unusual punishment, 3, 369, 815 n.5
Current Population Survey, 260 n.125, 266
Cyanide, 651-652
D
Damages (see Economic damages)
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (see also individual disciplines)
admissibilty conflated with sufficiency, 20-21
application issues, 22-26
atomization, 19-20
characteristics of scientific knowledge, 49 n.16 (see also Reliability of scientific testimony)
and civil cases, 63
and class certification proceedings, 30-32
credibility issues, 21-22
and empirical testing, 62-64
evidentiary (Daubert) hearings on admissibility, 6, 14, 18, 30, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122, 125-126, 216, 362
exposure assessment, 22, 25-26
and Fed. R. Evid. 702, 12
and forensic identification evidence, 62-64, 101, 112
and Frye test, 12
gatekeeping function of trial judges, 6, 12-13, 16, 17, 102 n.291, 866 n.309, 901, 933, 956
and in limine motions, 14
interpretive issues, 19-22
overview and impact, 12-14
pretrial hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122
qualifications of expert witness, 22-23
and scientific foundation of studies, 23-25
scientist’s view of, 52-54
sufficiency conflated with admissibility, 20-21
Death penalty, 3, 27 n.78, 126, 216, 220, 221, 223, 307, 308, 369 n.45, 370-371, 797, 800 n.51, 851, 877
DeLuca v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 247 n.92, 551 n.2, 553, 567 n.55, 572 n.67, 575 nn.73 & 75, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 579-580 n.88, 582 n.91, 599 n.143, 609 n.178, 610 n.184
Department of Commerce v. United States House of Representatives, 2-3
Department of Defense, 46
Department of Energy, 46
Department of Health and Human Services, 46
Department of Justice, 80, 117, 411, 491
Department of Labor, 793
Department of Veterans Affairs, 696 n.33, 892
Diagnosis of mental disorders
accuracy, 839-840
approaches, 834-839
clinical examination, 834-835
functional impairment vs., 819-821
laboratory tests, 838-839, 883
major diagnostic categories, 831-834
malingering detection, 840-841
neuroimaging studies, 837-838
nomenclature and typology (DSM-IV-TR and DSM-V), 828-831
psychological and neuropsychological tests, 836-837
records of previous assessments, 839
structured interviews, 835-836
Dioxins, 522, 536 n.76, 545, 643 n.28, 652, 653, 667 n.92
Disclosures to opposing parties (see also Discovery)
analytical methods and nonsupporting analyses, 216
damages data, 486-488
data dictionaries, 487-488
database information and analytical procedures, 331-332
dispute resolution, 488
drafts and communications, 33
format standardization, 487
Discovery (see also Disclosures to opposing parties)
amended rules, 32-34
“assumptions” provision, 34
e-discovery, 34-35
improving the process, 330-331
laboratory reports, 125
mass torts litigation, 366-367
motions to compel, 34-35, 373 n.62
pretrial, 57, 125-126, 216, 310 n.24
procedural issues, 32-35, 125-126
statistical evidence, 310 n.24, 330-331
of summary of expert’s opinion, 125
Discrimination (see Racial discrimination; Sex discrimination)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) (see also Alleles; Chromosomes; Genes; Genome)
base pairs, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 149, 152, 153, 176, 177, 180, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209
chemical structure, 131, 136-139, 202
complementary sequences, 143, 150, 201, 204, 207, 208
damage from toxic chemicals, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 682
defined, 202
environmental insult, 153 n.44, 202-203
individual variation, 135-136, 137
mitochondrial, 143 n.23, 202, 206, 651
polymorphisms, 139-143, 148, 177, 182, 197, 199, 207, 208, 209
repetitive sequences, 141, 142-143 (see also STR under DNA sequencing and testing)
DNA Advisory Board (DAB), 61-62, 154 n.46, 187
DNA databases and database searches
all-pairs matching, 191-192
Arizona offender database, 191-192
Australian offender database, 192
British National DNA Database, 144-145
CODIS (Combined DNA Index System), 61, 62 n.30, 145, 201
comprehensive population-wide database, 163 n.73
disclosure of trawling to juries, 189-190 n.164
judicial opinions on adjustment, 189
laboratory quality assurance requirements, 154
mitochondrial DNA, 178-180, 190
near-miss (familial) searching, 189-191
New Zealand offender database, 191, 192
population databases for validation of new loci, 148, 155, 163-164, 197-198, 199
probative value of matches, 165 n.76, 186-189, 190
proficiency testing for participants, 69-70, 156
representativeness of populations, 179
sampling error, 178
selection effects, 187
statistical analyses of adjustments, 165 n.76, 179, 186, 187-188
verification of random-match probabilities, 191-192
DNA Identification Act of 1994, 61, 69, 70 n.83, 154 n.46, 156
DNA identification evidence
admissibility, 131, 132-133, 140, 166, 173 n.102, 181 n.134, 182, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197
Bayesian approach to matches, 173, 174, 188, 189, 190-191, 200, 209
bite marks, 62 n.32, 109-110, 151
blood, 143, 151, 155, 156, 158, 160 n.60, 164, 169 n.89, 173 n.103, 182, 197
case law development, 131, 132-133
ceiling principles, 167 n.80, 200, 204-205
coincidence hypothesis, 161, 163-167, 172, 173 n.106
contact, 151
database matches, 165 n.76, 179, 186-189, 190, 191-192
Daubert and, 166, 167, 171 n.98, 173 n.102, 181, 186, 189, 194 n.176
defense experts, 127, 162, 168 n.84
empirical testing, 60-62, 66, 148
error rates, 162, 170, 171 nn.96-98
exclusions, 116, 133, 135, 144 n.25, 156, 158 n.56, 159-160, 167-168, 169, 171, 173, 175 n.111, 177-178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190 n.164, 196 n.185
exonerations, 27, 62, 109-110, 116, 117, 119, 124, 125 n.450, 134, 157 n.55
Frye (general acceptance) test, 133 n.7, 166, 167, 173 n.102, 181, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197
hair, 113, 116, 143, 149 n.133, 151, 155, 170, 177, 178 n.123, 179, 180, 181 n.134
history, 132-134
hypotheses for matching profiles, 160-161
jury comprehension of, 167-171, 175 n.111, 189-190 n.164
laboratory errors, 160-162
likelihood ratios, 169 n.89, 172-173, 174, 175, 177-178, 185-186, 205, 206
matches/inclusions, 74 n.107, 159-160
mishandling or mislabeling, 156-158, 175
multilocus profile frequency, 164, 166, 202, 204
NRC reports, 60-61, 125, 127, 133, 134 n.12, 141 n.19, 143, 161, 162, 163 n.72, 164 n.75, 166-167, 168 n.84, 169 n.89, 170 n.95, 174 n.110, 175, 176 n.114, 185, 187-188, 192 n.170
objections to, 135
population frequencies, 134 n.12, 148, 155, 163-165, 166, 178, 182, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207
population structure adjustments, 166-167, 179, 182, 192, 207
posterior probabilities, 172, 173-174
prejudicial testimony, 167-170, 171 n.97, 181 n.136, 185-186, 189, 190 n.164
pretrial discovery, 125-126
probability sampling, 184
product rule, 165-167, 198, 199, 204-205, 207
qualifications of experts, 134-135, 156 n.52
random match probabilities, 60, 135, 155, 164, 165, 167-171, 172, 173, 175-176, 181 n.34, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191-192, 196, 197, 198 n.194, 205, 208, 251 n.99
random sample/sampling, 164-165, 178
in randomly mating populations, 165-166, 179, 198, 204, 208
“rarity” or “strength” testimony, 175
reappraisal of, 60-62
relatives as sources (kinship hypothesis), 161, 162-163, 170, 172, 173 n.105, 174, 175-176, 184 n.143, 190, 192, 202
reliability, 60, 62 n.32, 73, 227
statistical conclusions, 131, 133, 134, 135, 155, 160, 163, 166, 167, 168 n.85, 169 n.91, 171, 172, 174, 178, 179, 181, 182-183, 185, 186-189, 193, 197
transposition fallacy, 168-169, 170 n.92, 173, 209
“uniqueness” testimony, 175-176
unrelated person as source, 163-167
vaginal swabs, 147, 151, 158, 182, 183
verbal expressions of probative value, 174-176, 182
wrongful convictions on, 62 n.32, 141 n.18
DNA laboratories
accreditation, 62, 154, 156, 171 n.98
documentation requirements, 154-155
errors in matches, 160-162, 171
performance standards, 153-159
population genetics research, 192
profìciency testing, 60-62, 69-70, 148, 154, 155-156, 160-161, 162, 171, 196, 207
quality assurance and quality control, 61-62, 143-144, 153-156
retention of samples, 157
sample handling, 156-159
validation of procedures, 155
DNA sequencing and testing (see also Nonhuman DNA testing)
allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes, 140, 207, 209
amplification, 142, 143-144, 148, 151, 152 n.41, 153, 158, 182, 183, 196, 199, 205, 208
amplified fragment length polymorphism, 199
autoradiography, 141 n.17, 199
capillary electrophoresis, 144-147, 200, 202
contaminated samples, 143-144, 153, 155, 156-157, 158, 160-161, 170, 181 n.134
degraded samples, 147, 149, 151, 152-153, 155, 157 n.55, 158, 160, 177, 201
electropherograms, 144, 145, 146, 147, 182-183, 184, 199, 202, 208
emerging (next-generation) technologies, 140, 148-150
extraction, 132, 143-144, 148, 151, 153 n.44, 177, 183
false-negative rates, 115-116, 162
false-positive rates, 161-162, 170-171
gel electrophoresis, 141, 200, 203, 209
heteroplasmy and, 177, 179, 180, 181, 204
high-throughput sequencing, 149-150
“lab-on-a-chip” devices, 148-149, 200-201
limitations, 141
low copy number (LCN) or low template (LT), 151-152
microarrays, 150
mitochondrial DNA, 71, 113, 116, 140, 150, 176-181, 201, 204
mixtures of DNA, 155, 158, 172-173, 182-186
multiplexing, 142, 144, 145-146, 206
phylogenetic analysis, 193, 194, 195
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 133, 140, 142, 143-144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152 n.41, 153, 158, 177, 182, 196, 199, 202, 205, 206, 207, 209
population genetics, 133, 135, 148, 164, 181, 182, 191, 192, 198, 207
primers, 143, 144, 153, 182, 196, 204, 206, 207
quality of sample and, 152-153
quantity of DNA in sample and, 151-152
random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, 196
regions for forensic sequencing, 139
sample collection and preservation, 151-153
sequence-specific oligonucleotide (SSO) probes, 140, 209
sex-typing test, 146-147
SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), 139, 140, 142, 148, 149 n.33, 150, 181, 182-183 n.138, 197, 201, 206, 208, 209
Southern blotting, 141 n.17, 209
STR (short tandem repeat or microsatellite) profiling, 132, 133, 134, 141-142, 143, 144-147, 148, 149, 151-152, 153, 159, 160, 164, 170, 175, 176 n.115, 181-182, 183, 184 n.143, 189, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 205, 209, 210
validation of methods and procedures, 133, 134, 148, 150, 153, 154, 155, 185, 193, 195
VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) testing, 140-143, 147, 166, 199, 200, 202, 205, 209-210
Y chromosomes (Y-STRs and Y-SNPs), 132, 160 n.60, 181-182, 184 n.143, 190
Dogs
bite marks, 104
DNA profiling, 193, 197, 198 n.193
extrapolation of studies to humans, 535 n.75, 662 n.78
Dose, dosage
exposure, 507, 508, 509, 513 n.26, 518-520, 525-528, 529, 531 n.67, 533-534, 535, 536, 538, 539, 541, 544, 545, 546, 547
extrapolation, 4-5, 603 n.160, 636, 641, 645, 648, 651
lethal dose 50 (LD50), 641, 682
limits, 512 n.22, 521 n.43, 528-529, 536
low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107
maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 644-645, 682
target site/organ, 507, 519, 535, 536, 547, 636, 646
toxicology, 525, 636-637, 638, 641, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648, 651, 657 n.67, 658-659, 660, 661, 664, 665, 667 n.91, 668, 670 n.96, 673 n.107, 674, 677 n.115, 680, 681, 682, 684
Dose-response curve, 646, 651, 673 n.107, 681
Dose-response relationships, 4-5, 563, 565, 585, 600, 603, 613, 616 n.204, 622, 635, 636, 639, 641, 642-643, 645, 646, 648, 649, 651, 658, 663 n.82, 669, 670, 676, 680, 681
Drugs, illegal, 59
Due process, 44 n.10, 59 n.16, 104 n.306, 119, 127, 134 n.10, 157 n.55, 170 n.92, 171 n.97, 186 n.151, 226 n.35, 792, 815 n.3
Duke University Private Adjudication Center, 8
E
Ecological fallacy, 623
Ecological studies, 556-557, 561-563, 623
Economic damages
actual earnings of plaintiff after harmful event, 450-451, 493
antitrust, 22, 260, 305, 320, 328, 348 n.90, 365, 366 n.25, 373, 429 n.1, 431, 439, 475, 491 n.89, 498
apportionment, 477, 479-480, 617 n.209
appraisal approaches, 444, 445-446, 447, 501
avoided losses, 449, 464-465, 466-467, 478
but-for analysis, 311, 319, 429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 438-439, 440-443, 449-450, 455, 460, 461, 470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 476-477, 491, 492, 493-494, 496-497, 498, 501
capitalization factor, 444, 459-460, 469, 501
causation, 22, 438, 463-464, 480-481, 495, 500, 942-943
class actions, 7, 238 n.72, 247 n.90, 248 n.93, 429, 462, 463, 483, 486, 489-491
class certification and, 30-31, 32 n.95, 463, 489
compensatory, 238 n.71, 239-240, 388, 433, 434 n.10, 437, 455
compound interest, 457, 458, 501
constant dollars, 451, 452, 453, 454, 495, 501
court-appointed experts and special masters, 7, 488, 489
data used to measure damages, 482-486
Daubert and, 22, 30-31, 32 n.95, 431-432, 461, 462
defined benefit plan, 472-473
defined contribution plan, 472, 473
disaggregation, 429, 438, 475-477, 479
disclosure standards, 429, 481, 486-488
discount rates, 452-454, 459, 471, 493, 495
discounted lost cash flows, 429, 430, 443, 444, 448-460, 469, 471, 500
double-counting, 442, 443 n.29
earnings losses, 429, 431, 443, 453-454, 455 n.44, 458, 460, 465, 472, 490, 491-497, 501
earnings projections, 430, 438, 439-440, 454 n.40, 470-471, 492, 496-499
electronic data, 482, 486, 487, 488
employment cases, 434 n.11, 457, 478
engineering testimony, 942-943
escalation, 451, 452, 453, 454, 495, 501
examples of calculations, 491-500, 893-894
exclusionary conduct, 441-442, 476
expectation damages, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 442-443, 449, 467, 497, 501
expected value approach, 437, 459, 462, 463, 468-469
fairness of settlement, 490-491
fixed cost, 446, 450, 499, 502
fringe benefits, 455, 470, 471-473, 492-494
general approach to quantification, 432-443
harmful act/event analyzed, 432, 439, 440, 442
hypothetical acts of defendant, 439-440
hypothetical property, 447-448
individual class members, 490
inflation, 429, 444, 451-454, 469, 495, 499, 501, 502
intellectual property damages, 307, 311, 429 n.1, 439, 440, 441, 498-499, 501, 502, 932-933, 938, 945-946
interest for losses, 429, 430, 436 n.19, 441 n.26, 444, 452-453, 454, 457-459, 460, 490, 495, 500, 501, 502
life expectancy, 471, 472, 473, 474, 492, 493, 495-496
lifetime income calculations, 470-471, 474, 493, 495-496
limitations on recoverable damages, 461-467
liquidated damages, 429, 461, 467, 476
market approach based on prices and values, 429, 431, 440, 443, 444-448, 459-460, 469, 481, 498, 501
market effect of adverse information, 448
market friction adjustments, 446-447
mean vs. median awards, 238
measures of losses, legally prescribed, 433-439
medical expenses, 472, 474, 505 n.3
medical insurance benefits, 471-472
medical malpractice, 474
mitigation of losses, 450-451, 461, 464-466, 470, 481, 496, 497, 498, 499-500, 502
multiple challenged acts, 429, 438, 475-477, 479
nominal (ordinary) interest rate, 453, 495, 502
offsets, 443, 448, 451, 453-454, 465, 471, 474, 475
pain and suffering, 429 n.2, 434, 475
partial losses, 445-446, 477-478
patent infringement cases, 311, 319, 440 n.24, 441
personal income losses, 470-475, 491-497
prejudgment interest, 430, 441 n.26, 444, 454 n.42, 457-458, 459, 502
present value, 443, 444, 448-449, 452, 455, 469, 472, 473, 474, 475, 495, 500, 502
profit losses, 429, 439, 440 n.24, 441, 443, 453-456, 459, 461 n.64, 464, 466, 468, 469, 478, 491, 497-500
profìtability of business, 326, 442-443, 444, 449, 460, 461 n.64, 462, 468-470
proximate cause (remoteness of damages), 463-464
punitive, 239-240, 433, 436, 437
qualifications of experts, 431-432
real interest rate, 444, 453, 495, 502
reasonable certainty standard, 434 n.11, 461-463, 468
regression analysis, 305-306, 308 n.12, 311, 319, 326, 348, 431, 446, 450, 481, 499, 502
reliance damages, 433, 434, 435, 436 n.18, 437, 442-443, 449, 497, 502
restitution, 433, 435, 497, 502
retirement issues and benefits, 465, 470, 471, 472-473, 492, 493, 495-496
sampling data, 482-483, 485, 486
securities litigation, 429 n.1, 431, 448
services lost, 474
speculative, 454 nn.40 & 43, 461-463, 468
startup businesses, 447, 449, 456, 465-466, 468-470
statutory damages, 433, 457, 500
subsequent unexpected events, 438, 451, 480-481, 495, 500
supervening events, 480-481
survey and market research data, 389, 431, 469-470, 482, 483, 484, 486
taxes, 429, 447, 454-456, 458, 459, 460, 470, 500
unjust enrichment, 433
validity of data, 449, 469-470, 483-485
wrongful death, 238 n.71, 470, 471, 473-474, 475 n.77
wrongful termination, 470, 471, 475, 491
zero damages, 438-439, 460, 461, 463, 468, 476, 477, 479
Economic loss rule, 435, 436, 437 n.22
Education Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, 696
EEOC v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 257 n.115, 308, 313 n.36, 365 n.20
Eighth Amendment cases, 3, 369-370, 795, 815 n.5, 816 n.12, 833 n.105
Eisen v. Carlisle & Jacquelin, 31-32
Electric Power Research Institute, 678
Electroencephalography (EEG), 761, 766, 772-773, 791-792, 796, 803, 838-839
Empirical testing (see also specific disciplines) Daubert and, 62-64
Engineering evidence
accelerated testing, 905-906, 944
acceptable risk, 908, 909-910, 915-920
accreditation, 931-932
administrative hearings, 947-948, 953
admissibility, 899, 932-933, 943, 944 n.72, 952 n.93, 955, 958 n.106
air cooler flaws, 922
Air France 4590 disaster, 928-929
animated presentations, 956-958
approximations, 903, 913, 919, 936
assumptions, 903, 912-913, 935, 936, 950
automotive lift design, 924-925
best practice, 950-951
certification, 932
Challenger space shuttle disaster, 926-928
computer simulation and digital displays, 901, 936-937, 956-958
Concorde design flaws, 928-929
cross-disciplinary domains, 900-902
dam collapse, 925-926
Daubert and, 899, 932-933, 945, 946, 949, 958 n.106
“defect” testimony, 907, 908, 934, 937, 939-944, 947 n.84, 951 n.92, 952, 953
design issues, 920-929, 939-940, 948
design process, 904-929
disciplines and fields of practice, 900
disputed issues commonly occurring, 948-956
education and training, 929-930, 931
end use testing, 905-906, 923, 924, 925, 944
engineering calculations, 936-937, 938, 957
engineering interns, 931
engineers in training, 931
environmental disputes, 906, 916, 947, 954-955
examples of flawed design processes, 920-929
experience, 901, 902, 903, 904, 906, 922, 928-929, 930
experiment-based evidence, 933, 934-936, 938, 944
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS), 917-918
finite element modeling (FEM), 937, 957
formulation of products and materials, 907, 922, 923, 929
Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, 931
gatekeeping role of judges, 901, 933, 956
intellectual property disputes, 932-933, 938, 945-946
internal documents, 938-939
intrauterine device (IUD) flaws, 920-921
issues for litigation, 939-948
Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel disaster, 389, 923-924
literature analysis, 938
manufacturing issues, 906, 907, 918, 920-921, 923, 925, 927, 928-929, 934, 937, 939, 940, 941, 943 n.70, 947 n.84, 952
modeling, mathematical and computational, 901, 936-938, 957
observational evidence, 933-936, 952, 955-956
obsolescence, 907
opinion testimony, 901, 933-939, 940 n.62, 941-942, 943, 944, 952, 956-957, 958
other similar incidents (OSIs) concept, 952-956
personal injury cases, 942, 947
presentation of evidence, 901, 936-937, 956-958
problem identification, 902-903
product defects, 907, 908, 934, 937, 939-944, 947 n.84, 951 n.92, 952, 953
product liability litigation, 901, 938, 939-943, 947
professional engineers (PEs), 931, 932
qualifications of experts, 831, 901, 932-939, 949
radiant heating hose flaws, 922-923
reasoning processes, 902-904
regulatory context, 919, 947-948, 951-952, 953
reliability of evidence, 900, 906, 933, 935, 940 n.62, 945, 946, 947, 958 n.106
retrospective product modification, 907
risk calculations, 911-912, 918
“safe” products, 908-909
safety considerations, 908-910
severity of injury, 910, 911-912
solution paradigms, 902-903
standard of care, 949-950
standards and codes, 924-925, 947-948, 951-952
state of the art, 950
Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse, 924
testing-related evidence, 934-936
toxic waste site design, 921-922
trade secret disputes, 946
uncertainty, 903
validation, 904, 906, 907, 922-925, 927-928, 929, 936, 937-938, 944 n.72, 958
vehicle-miles-traveled (VMT), 912, 913-914, 916, 919
warning issues, 904, 938, 939, 941-942, 943-944 n.70
Environmental Defense Fund, 678
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 506, 530 n.66, 532, 577-578, 640, 648, 649 n.46, 650, 656 n.64, 663, 665 n.88, 673 n.108, 679, 920
Ephedra litigation, 23-24 n.61, 25 n.67, 577 n.81, 579 n.85, 617 n.212, 664 n.84, 669 n.94, 676 n.113
Epidemiology
adjustments for noncomparable study groups, 571-572
admissibility of evidence, 551 n.2, 553, 555 n.14, 562 n.38, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 581 n.89, 583 n.100, 601 n.153, 606 n.169, 609 n.181, 610, 618 nn.213 & 214
alpha, 576, 577, 578 n.84, 579-581, 582, 619
alternative explanations, 552-553 n.7, 582, 595, 598, 600, 605
animal studies of toxicity, 563-565, 603 n.160, 625
association (exposure–disease), 552-553, 554, 555-556, 557, 559, 561, 566, 567-568, 570, 572, 573, 574-575, 576, 577, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586 nn.107 & 108, 588 n.115, 589, 590, 591-593, 595, 597-606, 610 n.184, 611-612, 613, 622
attributable risk, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619
biases, 24, 553 n.9, 554, 567-568, 572, 573-574, 575 n.74, 583-591, 592 n.127, 595 n.133, 598, 602, 605, 610 n.184, 612-613, 615, 620, 622, 624, 625, 626, 627
biological plausibility of association, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620
case-control studies, 556, 557, 558, 559-560, 568, 569, 583-584, 585-586, 587 n.112, 588 n.115, 589-590, 591 n.122, 597-606, 607, 620, 625
causation, 23, 24, 217 n.14, 218, 551-552, 553, 554, 558, 559, 560-563, 564 n.48, 566, 570, 574, 577 n.81, 579 n.85, 584, 585-586, 587 n.111, 588, 591, 592-593, 597-618
cohort study, 556, 557-559, 560, 567, 568, 573, 583, 584, 585 n.104, 589, 590, 592, 593, 594, 607, 621, 624, 625, 626, 628, 657, 658-659, 716
conceptualization problems, 589-590
confidence intervals, 573, 578 n.85, 579-580, 581, 582 n.94, 585 n.106, 608, 621, 628
confounding factors, 24, 554, 563, 567-568, 572, 574, 575 n.74, 584 n.103, 585, 591-597, 598, 602, 605, 612-613, 621, 622, 628, 657 n.67
cross-sectional studies, 556, 560-561, 621-622
Daubert and, 551 n.2, 574 n.72, 575 n.74, 576 n.77, 578-579 n.85, 581 n.89, 610-611 n.185, 617 n.212
design of studies, 556-563, 589-590
differential diagnosis/etiology, 217 n.14, 512 n.21, 589-590, 591, 610 n.183, 613 n.193, 617-618
dose–response relationship, 563, 565, 585, 600, 603, 613, 616 n.204, 622
ecological fallacy, 623
ecological studies, 556-557, 561-563, 623
error sources, 556 n.19, 572-597, 612-613, 619, 620, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628, 629
experimentaI studies, 555-556
and exposure science, 505, 506, 508, 509, 512, 518, 519, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 540, 547
extrapolation, 535 n.75, 563, 565, 603 n.160, 613
false negatives (beta errors or Type II errors), 577 n.81, 581-582, 620, 629
false positives (alpha errors or Type I errors), 575-581, 589, 619, 627, 628, 629
false results (erroneous association), 572-597
general causation, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 597-606
generalizability of studies, 564, 595 n.133, 623
hospital-based studies, 584
human (in vitro) studies, 555-556, 564, 623
incidence of disease, 551, 557, 558, 560, 561 n.34, 562, 566, 567, 568 n.58, 569 n.61, 570, 571, 577 n.83, 582, 592, 594, 595, 598, 603, 605, 608 612, 613, 615, 616, 619, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 628
information bias, 585-590, 624
interpretation of study results, 566-572
meta-analysis, 15, 19-20, 23, 579, 581 n.89, 606-608, 624
misclassification bias, 588 n.115, 589-590, 622, 624, 625
missing data, 595-596
multivariate analysis, 596, 597, 625
null hypothesis, 574, 575, 576 n.78, 577 nn.81 & 82, 579, 581-582, 619, 620, 625, 626, 628, 629
observational studies, 555-563, 566, 581, 590, 592, 593, 607, 608, 624, 625, 627
odds ratio, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625
power of hypothesis tests, 580 n.88, 582-583, 607
prevalence, 560, 567 n.54, 602 n.157, 622, 625, 626
publication bias, 590
p-values, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-580, 626, 628
random assignment, 555, 556 n.15, 592, 607, 623, 626
random error, 556 n.19, 572 n.67, 573, 574-582, 585 n.106, 589, 612-613, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628
random sample/sampling, 572 n.67
randomized controlled studies, 398, 555, 556, 581 n.89, 592, 607, 621
randomness, generally, 555, 626
relative risk (RR), 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 592, 594, 602, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 626, 627
replication of results, 604
selection bias, 583-585, 591, 627
specific causation, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 606-618
specificity of association, 605-606
standardized mortality (or morbidity) ratio (SMR), 572, 607 n.171, 624, 628
statistical significance, 24, 573, 575-581, 582, 585 n.106, 607 n.171, 619, 620, 631, 626, 628
strength of association, 557, 566, 600, 602, 611 n.186, 626
suffìciency of evidence, 552-553 nn.7 & 9, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 600 n.146, 604 n.164, 605 n.167, 610, 611, 612, 616-617
temporal relationships, 601-602, 606
time-line (secular trend) studies, 562-563, 627
toxic agents, 555-556, 563-565
toxicology studies compared, 563-565, 603 n.160, 628, 636, 639, 644 n.29, 645-646 n.33, 647, 650-651, 655, 656, 657-660, 664-665, 674, 681
true association, 559, 568, 572, 574, 575, 581-582, 590, 591, 592 n.126, 625, 627, 629
types of studies, 555-565
Equal Protection Clause, 2, 816 n.11
Error, defined, 51-52
Error rates (see also specific disciplines)
and reliability of methodology, 13, 29, 49 n.16, 64, 65, 69 n.80, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88-89, 97, 99, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 122, 162, 171 nn.96-98, 214, 217, 259 n.122, 628, 724-725, 787, 806, 890, 903
zero, 29, 79, 99, 122, 171 n.97
European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 906, 936, 956-957
European Union Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), 648, 649
Evidence, defined, 51
Evolution, theory of, 50
Ex parte contact, 329-330
ExperimentaI studies, 555-556
Experts/expertise (see also individual disciplines)
consulting vs. testifying, 33
court-appointed, 6-8, 14, 35, 311, 329-330, 489, 599 nn.141 & 143
defense due process rights to, 29, 127
ethical responsibilities, 125
examiners and witnesses, 30, 86, 369, 672-673, 693 n.26, 823 n.51, 827 n.73, 890
national register of, 8
resources for identifying, 8
secondary experts, 375-376
of survey interviewers, 409
Exposure science (see also Epidemiology; Toxicology; specific substances)
absorption, 518, 523, 524, 526, 532, 534, 535, 543, 544, 545, 547
acute exposure, 545, 657 n.66, 671
admissibility of evidence, 25-26, 506 n.5, 512 n.22
analytical chemistry (direct measurement), 528-530, 535, 540
analytical detection limits, 530
assessment of exposure, 510, 511, 512, 513 n.26, 519, 529, 531 n.66, 533-534, 539, 543-544, 656-657
biomonitoring, 505 n.3, 535-537, 559, 587, 649 n.47, 657, 667, 680
blood evidence, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 656, 657, 672
blood lead levels (BPb), 536-537, 662, 667, 672
body burdens, 534-535, 537, 538, 545
causation analysis, 22, 25-26, 505, 509, 511-513, 518, 519 n.35, 525 n.53, 528 n.63, 534, 535, 538, 539, 543-544, 597-606
certification programs, 540
children and infants, 518, 521 n.40, 524 n.49, 527, 531 n.67, 536-537, 544, 552 n.4
concentration, 506 n.5, 519 n.35, 525, 527-529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 540 n.88, 541-542, 543, 544, 546
consumer products, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546
contexts for, 509-512
Daubert and, 25-26
distribution, 511, 518, 532, 534, 535, 546
dose, 507, 508, 509, 513 n.26, 518-520, 525-528, 529, 531 n.67, 533-534, 535, 536, 538, 539, 541, 544, 545, 546, 547
duration of exposure, 518, 519, 525, 526
environmental contaminants, 25, 508, 509, 510-511, 515-516, 520-522, 536, 537
environmental degradation, 521-522, 524, 531, 532
environmental media, 507, 508, 509, 510, 518, 521-522, 524, 527-528, 530, 533, 541, 546
environmental models, 530-533
environmental sampling, 528, 529, 530, 533, 538, 541
epidemiology and, 505, 506, 508, 509, 512, 518, 519, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 540, 547
excretion, 518, 523, 527, 532, 534-535
fate and transport, 507, 521, 532
gastrointestinal (GI) tract/ingestion, 518, 523-524, 525, 526, 531 n.67, 534, 546
general causation, 26
goal of, 318-319
hazardous waste sites, 528, 531, 536 n.78, 543-544, 546
indirect pathways, 512 n.26, 517, 518, 520, 527-528, 533, 546
industrial chemistry/chemicals, 507, 510, 511, 514-516, 521
inorganic chemicals, 513-514, 515, 520, 522
laboratory certification, 529-530
lungs/respiratory tract/inhalation, 507, 509, 516, 517, 518, 519 n.36, 520, 522-523, 524, 526, 534, 544, 545, 546, 547
metabolism/metabolites, 518, 527 n.62, 534-535
modeling, 508, 521, 528, 530-533, 538, 544, 546
occupational exposures, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506 n.5, 511, 516, 517, 526, 529, 536, 539, 540, 652 n.54, 663 n.81
organic chemicals, 508-509, 513-514, 515, 520-521, 522, 528 n.63, 537
overview, 506-507
particulate matter (PM), 511 n.17, 512 n.22, 515, 523-524, 528 n.63, 532, 533 n.72
pathways of exposure, 512 n.26, 517, 518, 519-523, 524, 527-528, 531, 532, 533, 536, 538, 543, 544, 546
persistance, 521-522, 353-536, 537
presentation of data, 541-542
processes of human exposure, 516-525
product contaminants, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546
qualifications of experts, 508, 539-540
quality of assessment, 537-539
quantification of exposure, 525-534
reconstruction of exposure, 512, 513 n.26, 529, 531 n.66, 539, 657 n.57
regulatory context, 505, 506, 509-511, 517 n.31, 528-529, 534
risk assessment, 505, 506, 507, 510-511, 525, 526, 528, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538 n.84, 547
routes of exposure, 507, 509, 518, 519, 520, 522-524, 526, 533, 536, 537 n.80, 538, 547, 588, 650 n.48, 682
scope of, 507-508
skin (dermal exposure), 507, 509, 516, 517, 518, 520, 523, 524, 526, 534, 536 n.76, 543, 544, 546, 547, 650, 660, 682
sources of exposure, generally, 516-517
specific causation, 26
standards for dose limits, 512 n.22, 521 n.43, 528-529, 536
target site (systemic) dose, 507, 519, 535, 536, 547
toxicology and, 505, 506, 508, 509, 518, 159, 533, 535, 537, 538, 540, 547
units of concentration, 525, 541-542
volatile chemicals, 514, 520, 521, 531, 650 n.48, 657 n.66, 668
Extrapolation
animals to humans, 4-5, 15, 23, 223 n.26, 535 n.75, 563, 565, 636, 641, 645, 646-647, 648, 658, 661-662, 669-670, 692 n.21
of damages from past earnings, 438
defined, 682
dose–response relationships, 4-5, 603 n.160, 636, 641, 645, 648, 651
exclusion of evidence, 23, 692 n.21
representativeness of populations for, 613, 727
in risk assessment, 547, 603 n.160, 651, 661-662
from samples to populations, 226, 238 n.72, 244, 299, 909
from short exposures to multiyear estimates, 648
statistical models, 222, 223, 226, 238, 244, 645 n.31
from tissue or cell cultures to humans, 564, 646-647, 652, 664
Exxon Shipping Co. v. Baker, 239
Eyewitness testimony, 13 n.10, 59, 62, 72 n.95, 328-329, 365 n.22, 384, 958
F
Federal Bureau of Investigation
anthrax investigation, 194
Automated Fingerprint Identification System, 77
ballistics analysis, 120 n.415
crime laboratory, 58
DNA analysis, 61-62, 69-70, 116, 145, 154, 156, 157, 178, 179 n.128, 180, 187, 194
fingerprint analysis, 67 n.66, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79-80, 81, 83 n.175
toolmark identification, 203 n.300
Uniform Crime Reports, 231
Federal Communications Commission, 378
Federal Employees Liability Act, 947
Federal Highway Administration, 916
Federal Insanity Defense Reform Act, 868
Federal Judicial Center, 8-9, 63 n.39
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
Rule 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, 374, 414, 417-418 n.246, 486-487, 696 n.33
Rule 53, 35
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
Rule 16, 125
Federal Rules of Evidence
Rule 104(a), 12
Rule 401, 27 n.79, 101 n.281, 123, 785, 952 n.93
Rule 403, 29, 121, 167, 174, 181, 214, 610 n.185, 788-789, 806, 952 n.93
Rule 404, 171 n.96, 189-190 n.164, 789
Rule 406, 790
Rule 702, 12-13, 16, 17, 18, 22-23, 34-35, 63, 82 n.169, 90 n.221, 101, 102 n.291, 121 n.426, 122, 167, 174, 181, 214, 551 n.2, 579 n.85, 696 n.33, 776, 785-788, 806, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 871 n.333, 939
Rule 703, 214, 361, 363-364, 610 n.184
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 46
Federation of State Medical Boards, 698
Fiber analysis, 57, 61, 62 n.32, 71 n.88, 112, 119 n.409
Fifth Amendment, 790-792
Fingerprint evidence
admissibility, 27 n.78, 73, 81-83
analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V), 75, 76, 79, 81, 82-83
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), 65, 77
“black box” approach, 81
case law development, 58, 71, 73, 81-83
confirmation bias, 67 n.66, 79-80
Daubert and, 74 n.105, 82, 122
DNA profiling compared, 60 n.23, 61, 73, 74 n.107
empirical record, 59 n.17, 61 n.25, 76-81, 109 n.331
expectation (context) bias, 80
FBI examiners, 28 n.82, 67 n.66, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79-80, 81, 83 n.175
Frye test, 82-83
history, 72-73
individuation, 57 n.1, 72, 73, 82, 84, 117 n.393
latent prints, 74, 75-77, 78 n.143, 79, 80 n.156, 81, 82 n.169, 109 n.331
“match” opinions, 73-74, 75-76, 81 n.167, 82 n.169, 84, 175
Mayfield case, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81
minimum threshold approach, 80
observer bias, 67
“one-discrepancy” rule, 75 n.111
population frequency data, 73
proficiency testing, 27 n.78, 67-68, 76-77, 78-79, 78 n.143
simultaneous impressions, 83
technique, 71, 73-76, 575 n.74
validity, 76-77
Firearms identification (see Ballistics evidence)
First Amendment, 792
Food additives, 5, 216, 510, 515, 517, 525 n.56, 919
Food and Drug Administration, 25, 217 n.14, 461-462, 525, 581 n.89, 640, 644 n.29, 647-648, 650, 670 n.97, 678, 696 n.33, 720, 728, 730, 731, 774, 775, 854, 856, 858, 862, 907, 921, 941 n.65
Food Safety Risk Analysis Clearinghouse, 910
Forensic dentistry, 57, 101-102, 105 (see also Bite mark evidence)
Forensic identification expertise, 55-127 (see also Bite mark evidence; DNA; Fingerprint evidence; Handwriting evidence; Microscopic hair evidence; other specific disciplines)
accreditation of crime laboratories, 28, 66, 68-69, 98, 154 n.48
admissibility of, 26-30, 57, 59-60, 61, 62-64, 65, 71, 72, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82, 85-86, 89-90, 101, 102, 103, 110-111, 112, 117, 118-119, 121 n.426, 122, 123, 124, 127
certification of examiners, 28, 66, 68-69, 79, 80 n.157, 89
clarity of testimony, 70, 120-121
class characteristics, 57, 72, 84, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 101, 114
closing arguments, 124
confirmation bias, 67 n.66, 80
Confrontation Clause and, 26-27, 30
contextual (expectation) bias, 29, 67 n.63, 80
court-appointed experts, 29-30
cross-examination, 30
Daubert and, 26-30, 57, 60, 62-64, 72, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82, 85-86, 89, 90 n.220, 101, 112, 118-119, 122, 124
defense experts, 80 n.157, 111 n.351, 124, 125 nn.450 & 454, 127
development of techniques, 58-60
DNA exonerations, 27, 62, 109-110, 116, 117, 119, 125 n.450, 134
drug analysis, 59
empirical testing, 60-64, 66 n.62
ethical responsibilities of experts, 125
false-positive errors, 77, 78, 100, 109, 115
Fed. R. Evid. 401 and, 101 n.281, 123
Fed. R. Evid. 702 and, 12-13, 16, 17, 18, 22-23, 34-35, 63, 82 n.169, 90 n.221, 101, 102 n.291, 121 n.426, 122
Frye and, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343
individual characteristics, 57, 72, 73, 84, 92, 93-94, 96, 97, 99, 113
individuation opinions, 57, 59 n.12, 60, 66, 71 n.91, 72, 74, 82, 84, 89, 90, 94, 106, 113, 114
interpretation of evidence, 27, 29
Kumho Tire and, 62-63, 89 n.214
laboratories, 28-29, 58-59, 66
laboratory report format, 28-29, 70
limitations on testimony, 121-124, 126-127
match probability, 72
NRC Forensic Science Report, 27, 30, 60 n.23, 64-70, 71, 74 n.106, 75-76, 77-78, 79, 82 n.171, 84, 85, 97, 100, 105 n.314, 108, 113-114, 115-116, 119-120, 121, 122, 126
objectionable testimony, 29
observer effects, 67-68
prejudicial, 29
pretrial discovery, 125-126
procedural issues, 124-127
proficiency of experts, 28, 61, 62 n.30, 68, 69-70, 76, 78-79, 85, 87-89, 97-98, 116
reappraisal of, 60-64
recurrent problems, 120-124
reliability, 71-72
research recommendations, 66
testifying beyond the report, 126-127
wood evidence, 58
Forensic Science Service (UK), 144
Forensic Sciences Foundation, 69 n.82
Formaldehyde, 522 n.47, 528 n.64, 653, 656 n.65, 658 n.70, 673 n.107, 674 n.110
Fourteenth Amendment, 792
Fourth Amendment, 796
Framingham Study, 708
Freud, Sigmund, 858
Frye (general acceptance) test, 12, 53, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 806-807, 866, 867, 949
Functional impairments
assessment, 842-846
clinical examination, 843-844
diagnosis of mental disorders vs., 819-821
from mental disorders and, 841-846, 851-852, 860-861
predictive assessments, 851-852
structured assessment techniques, 844-846
treatment of, 860-861
Functional MRI (fMRI), 765, 766, 768-772, 773, 775, 776-777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782-783, 786, 787-788, 791, 796, 797-798, 800, 803-807, 809, 810-811, 838
Furman v. Georgia, 370
G
Gatekeeping role of judges, 6, 12-13, 16, 17, 102 n.291, 866 n.309, 901, 933, 956 (see also Case management)
Gender discrimination (see Sex discrimination)
General Electric v. Joiner, 14-16, 17, 18, 19-20, 24 n.65, 53, 82-83, 364 n.17, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 638 n.9, 661 n.77, 692-693, 932 n.56
Genes (see also Alleles; Chromosomes; DNA)
coding and noncoding sequences, 138, 139, 177, 201
DQA, 202
Genome (see also Chromosomes; DNA)
Alu sequences, 199
defined, 203
environmental impacts, 663
Human Genome Project, 144, 149
mitochondrial, 150, 176, 177-178, 202
nuclear, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 148, 149-150, 176, 177, 204
Genome-wide association studies, 581 n.90
Glass analysis, 57, 69 n.81, 116 n.383
Global Utilization of Streptokinase and tPA for Occluded Coronary Arteries Trial, 732
Gregg v. Georgia, 307 n.10, 370
H
Habeas corpus proceedings, 118, 119, 126, 170 n.92, 795, 815 n.5
Hair (see Microscopic hair evidence)
Handwriting evidence
case law development, 58, 63 n.41, 83, 89-90, 101 n.284
class characteristics, 84
Daubert and, 63 n.41, 85-86, 89, 90 n.220
empirical record, 59 n.17, 85-89
experts compared to laypersons, 86-87
Fed. R. Evid. 901(b)(3), 89
individual characteristics, 84
individuation opinions, 84
limits on testimony, 27 n.79, 89-90, 101 n.284, 121 n.426, 123 n.440
observer effects, 67
proficiency studies, 85-89
technique, 83-84
Haplotypes, 178, 181, 182, 204
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 165, 166, 204, 207
Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 910
Harvard Medical Practice Study, 700-701
HCR-20, 848
Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program (HFAP), 700
Healthcare Research and Quality Act of 1999, 701
Hearsay, 214, 225 n.32, 227 n.37, 363-364, 610 n.184, 956
Hemangiosarcoma, 672
Henricksen v. ConocoPhilips Co., 26
Heterozygosity, 139, 140, 147, 183 n.139, 199, 204
Hinkley, John, 800
HIV, 194, 195 n.181, 385, 402, 635 n.1, 713, 720, 730, 838
Homozygosity, 139, 140, 183 n.139, 199, 204
Hughes, Howard, will dispute, 83
Hunt v. Cromartie, 2
I
Impeachment by bias, 21
Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA), 728
Informed consent (see Medical informed consent)
Insanity defense, 29 n.85, 222, 749, 763, 785, 786, 799, 800, 815 n.1, 817, 819-820, 865-866, 867, 868, 869
Institute of Healthcare Improvement, 701
Institute of Medicine, 20, 46, 49, 701, 702, 723, 728
Integrated Ballistics Information System (IBIS), 95
Intellectual property litigation, 307, 311, 429 n.1, 439, 440, 441, 498-499, 501, 502, 932-933, 938, 945-946 (see also Patents)
“Intelligent Design” litigation, 50
International Academy of Forensic Toxicology, 678
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 20, 564 n.46, 646, 656 nn.64 & 65, 660 n.75, 665, 678
International Association of Identification, 80 n.187
International Organization for Standardization, 68
International Society of Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 678
Intrauterine device (IUD) litigation, 574 n.70, 920-921
J
Joint Commission, 701
Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. v. Pfeifer, 454
Jury
change-of-venue surveys, 376-377, 403
comprehension of evidence, 5, 29, 91 n.226, 118 n.400, 124, 126, 134, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 175 n.111, 189-190 n.164, 329, 463, 475, 693 n.26, 788, 868, 901, 937, 939, 947, 951, 956
damage awards, 238-239, 240 n.82, 475
death penalty cases, 370
decisions as indicators of national opinion, 370
discrimination in composition, 7, 234, 249-250, 253 nn.104 & 105, 275-278, 365
impartiality, 223 n.27, 224, 365, 370, 376-377, 403
instructions to, 29, 168 n.84, 383 n.104, 455, 943
law enforcement officers excluded from, 252 n.102
right to a trial by, 5, 21, 226 n.35, 794-795
selection, 225, 226 n.36, 249, 253 n.104
Jury Selection and Service Act, 226 n.36, 252 n.102
Justice for All Act, 62 n.30, 154 n.48
K
Knoll v. State, 112
Kochert v. Greater Lafayette Health Serv. Inc., 22
KSR International Co. v. Teleflex, Inc., 945-946
Kuhn, Thomas, 41-43, 44-45, 49, 50
Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 16-18, 35, 53, 62, 63, 89 n.214, 214 n.4, 308, 431, 575 n.74, 692-693, 866, 891, 899, 932 n.56, 933, 951
L
Laboratories (see also DNA laboratories; Laboratory reports)
accreditation, 28, 62 n.30, 66, 68-69, 70 n.83, 98, 154, 156, 171 n.98, 538
growth in number of, 58-59
practices, 28-29
quality assurance and quality control, 68, 529-530
Laboratory Proficiency Testing Program, 69, 97, 116
Laboratory reports
format standardization, 70
jury comprehension, 126
pretrial discovery, 125-126
testifying beyond the report, 126-127
Lanham Act, 363 n.10, 366, 382, 400, 422
Law, language of science compared, 51-52
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA), 69, 97 n.262, 116
Lead exposure, 510 n.15, 521 n.41, 522, 524 n.49, 531 n.67, 536-537, 640, 653, 654, 662, 667, 870 n.332
Leapfrog Group, 701
Lethal injection, 3
Lie detection (see also Polygraph evidence)
fMRI, 801-807
nonlitigation applications, 807
Life expectancy, 365, 471, 472, 473, 474, 492, 493, 495-496, 702, 719, 727, 733
Likelihood ratios, 169 n.89, 172-173, 174, 175, 177-178, 185-186, 205, 206, 710-711
Lindbergh kidnapping trial, 58, 83, 89
Linear
associations, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352, 603 n.160
combinations, 271 n.139, 280, 287, 289, 290, 298
low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107
no-threshold model, 642-643 n.28
regression, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316, 317 n.36, 336-339, 347, 353, 354
Linkage equilibrium, 166, 205, 207
Lockett v. Ohio, 795
Lockheed-Martin, 77-78
Lung cancer, 14, 15 n.26, 218, 219, 221, 552, 558-559, 570 n.63, 578 n.85, 585 n.104, 593, 597, 600, 602, 605, 606, 613, 615, 620, 635, 718-719, 724, 733
M
Madrid terrorist train bombing, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 720, 761, 763, 766-772, 773, 777-778, 781, 797, 800 n.52, 837-838
Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 761, 772-773
Major depressive disorder, 828 n.76, 829, 830, 832, 838, 839, 863 n.297, 879 n.357
Mammography, 259 n.122, 708, 710, 711-712, 726-727, 738-739
Management of expert evidence (see Case management)
Manganese, 505 n.3, 515, 522 n.47, 528 n.64, 529 n.65, 653, 670 n.95
Mapes Casino, Inc. v. Maryland Casualty Co., 257
Mass torts litigation, 366-367
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs), 528-529
Mayfield, Brandon, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81
Mayo Lung Project, 718
McNeilab, Inc. v. American Home Products Corp., 392 n.146, 415
Medical education and training
accreditation, 695, 696, 697, 700, 701, 822, 823 n.49, 824, 873
continuing medical education, 700
licensure and credentialing, 695, 696 n.33, 697, 698-699
medical school, 695-696, 821, 822 n.44, 873
postgraduate training, 697-698, 824
Medical history
consistency with toxicology expert’s opinion, 670-671
differential diagnosis, 672-673
disclosure of contradictory data, 674-675
interaction of chemicals, 673
laboratory tests, 672
susceptibility to environmental agents, 674
symptoms of toxic exposure, 671-672
Medical informed consent
principles and standards, 734-737
risk communication, 737-739
shared decisionmaking, 739-740
Medical malpractice litigation, 474, 689, 692, 694 n.27, 695, 698, 816-817, 852, 877, 878, 951
Medical practice
delivery of care, 700-701, 721-722
education and training for, 695-700
outcome goals, 702-703
patient–physician encounters, 703-704
quality of care, 702-704, 721-722
Medical Practice Acts, 698
Medical testimony
absolute risk, 738
Bayes’ rule, 259 n.122, 706 n.78, 707-714, 725, 742
causal reasoning, 23, 714-717, 742
clinical practice guidelines, 726-728
clinical reasoning process, 689, 705-707, 741
conditional probability, 710, 712, 714, 737, 742
cross-sectional studies, 716, 736-737
Daubert and, 690, 692-693, 696 n.33
diagnostic reasoning, 689, 693, 704-717, 719, 741
diagnostic testing, 704, 717, 719-720, 724, 742
diagnostic verification, 706, 715, 719, 742, 743, 744
differential etiology, 690-691, 741, 742-743
evidence-based medicine, 722-723, 726, 733, 738
false-negative test, 708, 711, 724
false-positive test, 708, 710-711, 713, 714, 717-718, 720, 724, 725, 735
General Electric Co. v. Joiner, 692-693
hierarchy of evidence, 723-725
hypothesis generation, 705, 715, 742, 743
hypothesis modification, 706, 742, 743
hypothesis refinement, 706, 742, 743
hypothesis testing, 724-725
hypothetico-deductive approaches, 705, 707, 743
judgment and uncertainty in, 693-694, 721-734
Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 692-693
likelihood ratios, 711
malpractice litigation, 474, 689, 692, 694 n.27, 695, 698, 816-817, 852, 877, 878, 951
medical decisionmaking, 704-740
medical reasoning, 693-695
meta-analysis, 722-723, 724, 725
natural frequency statements, 712, 737
negative predictive value, 710, 711, 744
odds ratio, 738
pathophysiological reasoning, 715
personal injury cases, 689, 690 n.8
positive predictive value, 710, 711, 712, 744, 781
posterior probabilities, 710, 742
posttest probability, 742, 744
predictive value, 710, 711, 712, 744, 781
pretest probability, 710-711, 742, 744
prior probability, 708, 710-711
probabilistic reasoning, 707-714, 715
product liability cases, 22, 689, 693, 703, 731 n.189
prognostic testing, 721
prosecutor’s fallacy, 712
p-value, 724
qualifications of experts, 698, 700, 729
randomized controlled studies, 716, 718, 722-723, 724, 725, 729, 730-731, 732, 736
“reasonable medical certainty/probability,” 123, 691-692, 693, 694 n.27, 716
screening tests, 708, 712-713, 714, 717-719, 726-727, 735, 736-737, 738-739, 743, 744
sensitivity of tests, 706 n.78, 708, 709, 710-711, 712, 713, 714, 719-720, 737, 742, 744
single event probability, 737
specificity of tests, 706 n.78, 708, 709, 710-711, 712, 713, 714, 719-720, 737, 742, 744
terminology, 689-692
testing, 717-721
treatment-related, 728-734
true-negative test, 708, 710, 711, 724
true-positive test, 708, 711, 712-713, 717, 724
variations in care, 721-722
Medications for mental disorders (see also specific medications)
categories of, 855-856
efficacy and effectiveness, 858
polypharmacy, 856-857
side effects, 857
targets of treatment, 853-855
Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts, 30, 62 n.33, 64 n.48, 71 n.88, 126, 789
Mental health assessment (see also Competency; Diagnosis of mental disorders)
adequacy of circumstances for, 880-881
collateral informants, interviews with, 835, 841, 843, 844, 847-848, 872, 876, 882-883, 894
conduct of, 877-885
contemporaneous, 817-818, 865, 881
cooperativeness of evaluee, 834, 849, 879-880, 881, 890
disclosure of limitations, 890-891
functional impairments, 817, 838, 842-846, 851-852, 864, 865, 882, 884, 885-886, 889-890
in-person examination, 851, 877-879, 884
malingering considerations, 839, 840-841, 843, 881-882, 884-885, 894
predictive assessment, 818-819, 846-852, 858, 863-864, 865, 881-882, 885-886, 887, 890
process of expert in reaching conclusions, 889-891
records review, 817-818, 834-835, 839, 841, 843-844, 847-848, 878, 879, 881-882, 888, 890, 893
retrospective, 817, 818 n.18, 865, 881
structured instruments, 835, 836, 840 n.144, 841, 844, 845-846, 848, 849, 850, 851-852, 885-889, 893
Mental health evidence (see also Mental health assessment; Competency; Diagnosis of mental disorders; Treatment of mental disorders)
admissibility of, 815-821, 827, 846 n.179, 866, 867, 869 n.328, 886, 894
board certification of experts, 822-823, 825, 826 n.68, 827, 874, 893
case example, 892-894
criminal responsibility, 815, 819 n.30, 844, 868, 869
damages assessments, 816 n.7, 819, 851, 863, 892, 893-894
Daubert and, 866, 886, 891 n.396
diagnostic vs. functional issues, 889-890
disability, 816 nn.11 & 12, 818, 819-820, 831 n.87, 837, 851, 882, 894
disclosures, 890-891
emotional harm or distress, 432 n.22, 496, 810, 816, 818, 819, 820-821, 823, 851, 852, 863, 866
empirical support, 846, 847, 865, 866, 867, 868, 880-881, 891
experience of experts, 818, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 841, 846, 848, 854, 871-873, 881, 889, 890
functional impairments, 3, 819-821, 832, 840, 841-842, 883 n.373
legal cases involving, 815-821
licensure of experts, 824, 825, 826, 827 n.73, 873-874
limitations of, 818, 836, 849-851, 859, 865-869
negligence actions, 816 n.7, 818, 827 n.73, 877 n.351, 892, 893
overview, 815-869
prior professional relationship, 875-877, 893-894
psychiatric nurses, 826, 870-871
psychiatric social workers, 826, 870-871
psychiatrists, 821-823, 827, 834, 841, 847, 849, 853, 865, 870, 872-873, 874, 875, 876-877 n.349, 878, 879 n.358, 893
psychodynamic theory, 859, 865-867, 891
psychology/psychologists, 822, 823 n.51, 824-825, 826-827, 847, 849, 865, 869, 870-871, 872, 873-874, 875, 876 n.349, 878, 888, 893-894
psychopharmacology (see Medications for mental disorders)
psychotherapists/psychotherapy, 822, 825, 826-827, 858-859, 870, 873-874, 876 n.349, 882, 891
qualifications of experts, 821-829, 869-877
social workers, 826
structured instrument reliability and validity, 885-889
theoretical basis, 865, 885, 891
training of expert witnesses, 870-871
ultimate issue testimony, 867-869
violence risk (future dangerousness), 3, 819, 846-851, 878 n.354, 893
Mental retardation, 369-371, 815 n.5, 819, 829, 833, 836, 874 n.343 (see also Competency)
Mercury, 515, 536 n.76, 642 n.27, 646, 653
Mesothelioma, 585 n.104, 588 n.114, 606, 635, 672
Meta-analysis, 217 n.14, 254 n.107, 289, 579, 581 n.89, 606-608, 624, 657 n.67, 722-723, 724, 725
Meyers v. Arcudi, 367 n.32, 368
Microscopic hair evidence (see also Fiber analysis)
admissibility, 118-119, 178 n.123, 181 n.134
bias, 67
case law development, 112, 117-119
class characteristics, 114
Daubert and, 118-119
DNA analysis, 116, 143, 149 n.133, 151, 155, 170, 177, 178 n.123, 179, 180, 181 n.134
DNA exonerations, 62 n.32, 116, 117, 124
individual characteristics, 113, 114-115
neutron activation analysis, 114, 123 n.437
proficiency testing, 69 n.81, 116
random-match probability, 118 n.401
technique, 112-113
Military Rules of Evidence, 794
Military Service Act, 249
Millsap v. McDonnell-Douglas, 490
Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE), 837
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 836, 841, 886
Monte Carlo simulations, 284, 469
“More likely than not” standard, 27 n.79, 102, 123, 463, 577 n.81, 612, 613 n.194, 617
Morton Thiokol, 927
Multiple regression
admissibility, 308-309, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 324 n.54, 330-332
antitrust litigation, 305, 306, 307 n.7, 313, 320, 321 n.48, 326, 328, 348 n.90
basics of, 333-351
bias, 312, 314, 315, 322 n.50, 325, 327, 352
causality, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 321 n.48, 322-324, 327, 353
census undercountng litigation, 307, 308
class certifications, 306-307
computer output interpretation, 346-348
confidence intervals, 321, 332 n.69, 342-343, 352
correlation, 309, 310, 311, 314, 315, 322, 324-325, 333-334, 342 n.79, 352, 354, 355, 356
court-appointed neutral experts, 329-330
covariates, 311-312, 322, 336-337, 350, 351, 352
cross-sectional analysis, 319, 345, 352
database information and analytical procedures, 331-332
Daubert and, 308-309
death penalty deterrence analysis, 307, 308
dependent variable, 305, 308, 311-313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 321, 322-324, 325 n.55, 326, 327, 332, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 345, 347, 348, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356
design of research, 308-309, 310, 311-317
discovery process, 330-331
discrimination cases, 305, 306, 309-310, 312-314, 315-317, 318-320, 323-324, 336-347, 350-351
dispute resolution over statistical studies, 331-332
economic damages, 305-306, 308 n.12, 311, 319, 328, 348, 431, 446, 450, 481, 499, 502
errors in modeling, 325-326
error terms, 325, 326, 336, 337, 339, 342, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 355
explanatory (independent) variable(s), 305, 308, 310, 311-312, 313-316, 317 n.36, 322-325, 326, 327, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339-340, 341, 342, 345, 346 n.88, 348, 349, 350-352, 353, 354, 355, 356
fitted values, 270, 295, 298, 337, 338, 339, 353
forecasting, 348-349
formulation of research question, 311
functional form of model, 316-317
goodness of fit, 338, 340, 344-345, 347, 355
heteroscedasticity, 296, 326 nn.56 & 57, 353
hypothesis tests, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356
hypothetical example, 350-351
influential data points, 327, 345, 346, 353
interaction variables, 316-317, 339 n.79, 351, 353
intercepts, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354
interpreting results, 318-328, 339-340
job aptitude test–performance correlation, 333-336
justifying choice of model, 317
least squares method, 326-327, 335, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 345-346, 347, 354, 355
linear associations, 321, 348, 352
linear regression model, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316-317, 336-339, 347, 353, 354
mean, 332, 341, 342, 343, 350, 351, 354, 356
mean squared error (MSE), 344, 347, 354
measurement error, 327-328
misleading data, 349
model specification (research design), 311-317, 337
multicollinearity, 324-325, 354
nonlinearities, 339
nonprobability sampling, 332 n.68
normal curve, 342
normal distribution, 343 n.82, 354
null hypothesis, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356
observational studies, 312, 318, 332, 340, 342, 347
outlier, 327 n.58, 345, 346, 354, 355
overview, 305-311
parameters, 312, 314 n.32, 315, 316-317, 320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340-341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356
patent infringement cases, 306, 307 n.12, 309, 311, 319, 321
percentages, 318 n.40, 320, 341, 345, 355
perfect collinearity, 324
practical significance of results 318-321, 355
precision of results, 340-346
presentation of statistical evidence, 330-332
p-values, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356
qualifications of experts, 328-329
random (sampling) error, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355
ranges, 312 n.26, 333, 343, 345, 353
rate regulation cases, 307
regression line, 337-339
regression residuals, 336, 339, 344, 347, 354, 355, 356
robustness of results, 310-311, 322-328, 346, 355
R-squared statistic, 314 n.31, 345, 347, 348, 350, 351, 353, 355
scatterplots, 333, 335, 337, 355
sensitivity to individual data points, 326-327, 345-346
serial correlation, 326 nn.56 & 57, 355
significance levels, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356
spurious correlations, 309, 310 n.24, 311, 322, 356
standard deviation (SD), 341, 343 n.83, 344, 348, 354, 356
standard errors (SE), 316 n.35, 326, 340-344, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 356
statistical significance, 318-319, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356
t-statistics, 320, 340-344, 347, 356
theory development, 311-317
time-series analysis, 317 n.37, 319, 323 n.52, 326, 345, 356
trends, 345
two-tailed tests, 321, 356, 577 n.83
voting rights cases, 307
N
National Academy of Engineering, 46
National Academy of Sciences, 46, 47, 649
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 927
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 529, 666
National Cancer Institute, 564 n.48
National Conference of Lawyers and Scientists, 8
National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, 909
National Fire Protection Association, 933-934
National Forensic DNA Review Panel, 156 n.53
National Geographic Society, 408 n.212
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 536-537
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 910-911, 920
National Human Genome Research Institute, 149
National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences, 20
National Institute of Forensic Sciences (proposed), 66
National Institute of Justice, 156 n.53
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 81
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 45, 646, 678, 733
National Quality Forum, 701
National Research Council, 20, 46
Ballistic imaging report, 99
DNA reports, 60-61, 125, 127, 133, 134 n.12, 141 n.19, 143, 161, 162, 163 n.72, 164 n.75, 166-167, 168 n.84, 169 n.89, 170 n.95, 174 n.110, 175, 176 n.114, 185, 187-188, 192 n.170
Forensic Science Report, 27, 30, 60 n.23, 64-70, 71, 74 n.106, 75, 76, 77-78, 79, 82 n.171, 84, 85, 97, 100, 105 n.314, 108, 113-114, 115-116, 119-120, 121, 122, 126
National Rifle Association, 411
National Science Foundation, 45
National Toxicology Program (NTP), 655, 656 n.64
Natural experiments, 290, 312, 355
Natural Resources Defense Council, 678
Negligence, 893
Neuroimaging
accuracy and robustness of results, 781-782
computer assisted tomography (CAT), 762-763, 837-838, 893
countermeasures, 776, 783-784, 801, 805, 810
diffusion tensor imaging, 768
electroencephalography (EEG), 761, 766, 772-773, 791-792, 796, 803, 838-839
false negatives, 780, 782-783, 788
false positives, 780-781, 782-783, 788
functional MRI (fMRI), 765, 766, 768-772, 773, 775, 776-777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782-783, 786, 787-788, 791, 796, 797-798, 800, 803-807, 809, 810-811, 838
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 761, 763, 766-772, 773, 777-778, 781, 797, 800 n.52, 837-838
magnetoencephalography (MEG), 761, 772-773
positron emission tomography (PET), 761, 763-765, 766, 773, 776, 785, 800 n.52, 838
single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 761, 765-766, 838
Neuroscience evidence (see also Brain)
admissibility issues, 784-796
blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response, 768, 770, 771, 782, 783, 787-788, 804
character evidence, 789-790
Confrontation Clause and, 789
criminal responsibility (culpability) determinations, 749, 772, 798, 799-801
Due Process Clause and, 792
Eighth Amendment and, 795
Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 792-794
examples of uses in litigation, 796-811
experimental design issues, 777-779
Fed. R. Evid. 403 and, 788-789, 806
Fed. R. Evid. 406 and, 790
Fed. R. Evid. 702 and, 776, 785-788, 806
Fifth Amendment and, 790-792
First Amendment and, 792
Fourteenth Amendment and, 792
Fourth Amendment and, 796
Frye, 806-807
group averages applied to individuals, 780-781
“habits of mind,” 788-789
insanity defense, 749, 763, 785, 786, 799, 800
interpreting study results, 776-784
lie detection, 772, 773, 776-777, 778-779, 784, 787, 789 n.24, 790-791, 792-795, 797, 799, 801-807
mitigation in capital cases, 785, 795, 798, 799, 800
pain detection and management, 749, 753, 775, 778, 780-781, 799, 807-811
predisposition evidence, 789-790, 801
privacy rights, 792, 793-794, 796
privilege against self-incrimination, 790-792
relevance, 749, 773, 776, 777-778, 779, 785, 786, 788, 789-790, 792, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 810
replication of finding, 776, 777, 804, 810
representativeness of studies, 779
Seventh Amendment and, 794-795, 805
Sixth Amendment and, 794-796
statistical issues, 770, 776, 777, 780, 782-783, 787, 801, 803, 804, 805, 809, 810
techniques, 760-776 (see also Neuroimaging)
Neutron activation analysis, 120 n.415, 123 n.440, 126
New Scotland Yard, 73, 78 n.143
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 552 n.4, 740-741
Nonhuman DNA testing
individual organisms, 195-198
microbial bioterrorism agents, 149, 194
mitochondrial, 193, 194, 195 n.180
phylogenetic analysis, 193, 194-195
sequencing/profiling methods, 196, 197-198
species and subspecies, 193-195
Nurses’ Health Study, 717
O
Objections to expert testimony, 29 (see also Daubert)
Observational studies
causation, 215-216, 218, 220-222
epidemiology, 555-563, 566, 581, 590, 592, 593, 607, 608, 624, 625, 627
natural experiments, 312
Observer effects, 67-68
Occupational exposures, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506 n.5, 511, 516, 517, 526, 529, 536, 539, 540, 663 n.81
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), 528 n.64, 529 n.65, 649 n.44, 650, 658 n.70, 666 n.88, 670 n.97, 672, 673 n.107, 920
Odds ratio, 235, 289, 291, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625, 738
Oklahoma City bombing, 949-950
Otero v. Warnick, 109-110
P
Paradigm, defined, 41-42
Parlodel litigation, 25 n.69, 562 n.38, 564 n.47, 591 n.122
Partial-birth abortion cases, 7
Patents
assessment of claims in, 935, 946
conflicts of interest, 48-49
drugs, 854
expert testimony, 933, 945-946
infringement cases, 3-4, 6, 193, 306, 307 n.12, 309, 311, 319, 321, 440 n.24, 441, 945-946
Paternity cases, 132, 158 n.56, 164, 172, 174, 206
Peer review, 13, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53, 64, 66, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 108, 328, 375, 508 n.11, 608, 617-618 n.212, 677, 678, 679, 776-777, 786, 787, 803, 806, 866 nn.306 & 309, 886, 901, 931, 935, 938, 958 n.106
People v. Collins, 712
People v. Jennings, 58, 73, 81-82
People v. Linscott, 117 n.387, 124
People v. Marx, 110
People v. Pizarro, 147, 183, 184
Perfluoroctanoic acid, 505 n.3
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), 529
Personal injury cases, 435, 455, 470, 475, 665, 689, 690 n.8, 816, 901, 938, 942, 947
Pesticides, 4, 510, 516, 517, 520, 522, 527 n.60, 528-529, 530 n.66, 537, 543, 546, 586, 643 n.28, 648 n.42, 650 n.48, 652, 662 n.78, 671-672 n.102
Pfizer, Inc. v. Astra Pharmaceutical Products, Inc., 387
Pheochromocytoma, 706
Philip Morris, Inc. v. Loew’s Theatres, Inc., 231
Physician-assisted suicide, 3
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 14, 15, 522, 545, 565 n.48, 581 n.89, 586 n.109, 640, 652, 661 n.77, 665 n.88, 668
Polygraph evidence (see also Lie detection)
admissibility of, 60, 790, 794, 795-796
as character evidence, 789 n.24
countermeasures, 783-784
Frye test, 60
history, 802
for mitigation in sentencing, 795
pretrial uses, 807
Sixth Amendment and, 794
statutory protections, 792-793, 807
surveys of general acceptance, 365 n.22, 367-368, 369
validity, 228
Popper, Karl, 40-41, 43, 44, 49, 50, 53, 64
Population
frequency data, 74, 85, 113, 119, 148, 155, 163, 164-165, 166, 178-179, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207, 275
randomly mating, 165, 198, 204, 208
statistics, 217, 221 n.23, 223-225, 226-227, 241-250, 275-277, 278-279, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301
Positron emission tomography (PET), 718 n.117, 761, 763-765, 766, 773, 776, 785, 800 n.52, 838
Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy, 217 n.14, 669 n.94
Preponderance of the evidence standard, 32 n.95, 252 n.103, 271 n.138, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 565 n.48, 577, 610 n.182, 611 n.187, 659 n.72, 665, 692, 714
Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974, 242
Price fixing, 31 n.91, 306 n.6, 321 n.48, 322 n.50, 349 n.90, 491
Probabilty
conditional, 205, 209, 259 n.122, 273-274, 284, 710, 712, 742
expressing testimony as, 123
forensic evidence match, 72, 118 n.401
medical probabilistic reasoning, 707-714
posterior, 172, 173-174, 241-242, 258-259, 274, 275, 283, 710, 742
prior, 173, 174, 241-242, 258, 259, 274, 275, 282, 283, 710, 711, 744
random-match, 60, 118 n.401, 135, 155, 164, 165, 167-171, 172, 173, 175-176, 181 n.34, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191-192, 196, 197, 198 n.194, 205, 208, 251 n.99
sampling, 184, 226, 230, 238 n.71, 241, 246, 248, 283, 293, 295, 299, 332, 355, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421
theory, 173, 214, 258 (see also Bayesian approach)
Product liability
conflicts of interest, 21
design disputes, 939-940
engineering testimony, 939-943, 947
exposure to contaminants, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546
manufacturing issues, 941
medical testimony, 22, 689, 693, 703, 731 n.189
proof of defect, 943-944
sale and marketing concerns, 942-943
warning issues, 941-942
Proficiency testing (see also individual disciplines)
blind, 61, 68, 69, 70 n.83, 80, 81, 98, 156, 160-161, 162, 171 n.98, 196, 207
and error rate, 69 n.80, 161-162, 171-172
external, 156
internal, 155-156
obstacles to, 28
mandatory, 69-70
quality of tests, 78-79, 86-87, 98
reporting results in court, 171
types, 69
Proof (see Causation; Standard of Proof)
Prosecutor’s fallacy, 712
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, 735-736
Publication of research, 13, 45 n.11, 50, 64, 155, 328, 375, 384 n.108, 431, 590, 617 n.211, 678, 776-777, 786, 787, 806, 827 n.23, 870 n.332, 886, 901
p-value (see individual disciplines)
Q
Qualifications of experts (see also Proficiency testing; individual disciplines)
advisory panel memberships, 678-679
certification, 68-69, 677-678, 874
conflicts of interest, 8, 21-22, 875
consideration of contrary conclusions, 22-23
discretion of judges in evaluating, 135
education and training, 328, 375, 431, 675-677, 870-871
experience, 431, 818, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 841, 846, 848, 854, 871-873, 881, 889, 890
Federal Rule of Evidence 22, 702
knowledge requirement, 22-23
licensure, 873-874
prior relationships, 875-877
professional autonomy, 215-216
professional memberships, 328, 677-678
research grants, 678
university appointments, 679
Questioned document examinations, 83-84, 85, 87 n.198, 88, 89 n.215, 90, 121-122 (see also Handwriting evidence)
R
R. v. Beamish, 196-197
Racial discrimination, 2, 7, 233, 267-268 n.133, 287, 306, 313, 314 n.33, 319, 324 n.53, 365 n.19
Radioactive iodine, 654, 662, 663, 666-667
Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study, 729-730
Randomly mating population, 165, 198, 204, 208
Rape cases, 104, 131, 132, 159 n.58, 183, 370, 689 n.6 (see also Sexual assault cases)
Rate regulation cases, 307
“Reasonable medical certainty” testimony, 123
“Reasonable scientific certainty” testimony, 122-124
Redistricting litigation, 2, 267-268 n.133, 307 n.9
Regulatory contexts
engineering evidence, 919, 947-948, 951-952, 953
exposure science and, 505, 506, 509-511, 517 n.31, 528-529, 534
presumptive validity of government testimony, 638 n,11
toxicology, 635, 636, 637, 638 n.10, 639, 640, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648 n.40, 649, 650-651, 654, 656 n.54, 657 n.67, 660, 665-666, 669 n.95, 670 n.96, 678
Reliability of scientific testimony (see also specific disciplines)
between-observer variability, 228
correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333
DNA identification, 60, 62 n.32, 73, 227
error rates and, 13, 29, 49 n.16, 53, 64, 65, 69 n.80, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88-89, 97, 99, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 122, 162, 171 nn.96-98, 214, 217, 259 n.122, 628, 724-725, 787, 806, 890, 903
falsifiability or testability, 13, 16, 40-41, 43-44, 48, 49, 53, 63, 64, 866 n.309
general acceptance of methodology, 12, 13, 52 n.20, 53, 59-60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 617 n.211, 806-807, 866, 867, 949
peer review of research and, 13, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53, 64, 66, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 108, 328, 375, 508 n.11, 608, 617 n.211, 677, 678, 679, 776-777, 786, 787, 803, 806, 866 nn.306 & 309, 886, 901, 931, 935, 938, 958 n.106
publication of research and, 13, 45 n.11, 50, 64, 155, 328, 375, 384 n.108, 431, 590, 617 n.211, 678, 776-777, 786, 787, 806, 827 n.23, 870 n.332, 886, 901
validity distinguished from, 13 n.11, 71-72
within-observer variability, 227-228
Reproducibility of research, 48
Rex v. Castleton, 73
Rhodes v. E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 31, 32, 505 n.3, 649 n.47
Risk
absolute, 738
acceptable, 908, 909-910, 915-920
assessment, 505, 506, 507, 510-511, 525, 526, 528, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538 n.84, 547, 603 n.160, 637, 642-643, 648-651, 657 n.67, 661-662, 663, 673 n.108, 678 n.116, 679, 683, 909, 910-914
attributable, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619
cancer, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683
characterization, 637, 638 n.12, 645 n.31, 659, 683
communication, 737-739
extrapolation, 547, 603 n.160, 651, 661-662
low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107
relative (RR), 234 n.62, 247 n.91, 295, 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 591, 594, 601, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 626, 627, 659, 737, 738, 851 n.214
violence (future dangerousness), 3, 819, 846-851, 878 n.354, 893
Risk World Web site, 910
R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. Loew’s Theatres, Inc., 231
Rochin v. California, 792
Rock v. Arkansas, 795
Rofecoxib (Vioxx), 731-732
Rorschach ink-blot test, 836, 886
Royal College of Physicians, 705
Rupe v. Wood, 795
S
Sacco and Vanzetti trial, 58, 91
Schizophrenia, 800, 832, 839, 842, 847, 853, 858, 859, 860, 863, 864, 872, 877 n.351, 893
Science and scientists
evidence defined, 51
“good science,” 64 n.45
historical background, 38-39, 42
honesty and integrity, 43, 45, 50
importance in litigation, 3-4
indicators of good science, 13, 49 n.16
institutions, 45-46
language of, 51-52
law compared with, 51-52
legal training and education, 9
myths and facts about, 47-50
objectives, 52
peer review and, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53
as profession or career, 45-47
reward system and authority structure, 46-47
view of Daubert, 52-54
Science, State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 64
Scientific method
criteria for judging, 53 (see also Reliability of scientific testimony)
Francis Bacon and, 39-40, 42, 43, 50
Kuhn’s paradigm shifts, 41-43
Popper’s falsification theory, 40-41
synthesis of multiple studies, 20, 23
Scientific revolutions, 41-43
Scientific Working Group for Firearms and Toolmarks, 93 n.236, 154 n.46, 156, 157 n.54, 159
Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM), 62 n.29
Scotland Yard, 73
Securities and Exchange Commission, 484
Securities litigation, 429 n.1, 431, 448
Semen evidence, 58, 62 n.32, 143, 151, 155, 159 n.58, 169 n.89
Seventh Amendment rights, 5, 21, 794-795, 805
Sex discrimination, 233, 234-235, 257 n.115, 270-271, 272, 279-282, 305-306, 313, 315-317, 318 n.42, 319-320, 323-324, 336-347, 350-351, 365-366
Sex offenders, 819, 849, 859-860
Sex-typing test, 146-147
Sexual assault cases, 104, 147, 158, 182, 184, 689 n.86, 800, 871 n.332
Shoe print evidence, 57, 62 n.32
Silicone gel breast implant litigation, 6, 7, 247 n.91, 589 n.117, 638
Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 761, 765-766, 838
Sixth Amendment, 794-796
Society for Neuroscience, 750 n.2
Society for Psychophysiological Research, 367
Society of Breast Imaging, 727
Society of Occupational and Environmental Health, 678
Society of Toxicology (SOT), 678
Soil contaminants, 507, 510 n.15, 517, 524 n.49, 531, 532, 536 n.78, 537, 667, 669 n.95
Soil evidence, 57, 62 n.32, 669 n.95
St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, 91
Standard of proof
“more likely than not,” 27 n.79, 32 n.95, 102, 123, 463, 577 n.81, 611, 612, 616
preponderance of the evidence, 32 n.95, 252 n.103, 271 n.138, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 565 n.48, 610 n.182, 611 n.187, 659 n.72, 665, 692, 714
reasonable certainty, 123, 434 n.11, 461-463, 468, 691-692, 693, 694 n.27, 716
Standard of review, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83
Standard Table of Mortality, 365
Stanley v. Georgia, 792
State of Arizona v. Bogan, 195-196
State of Arizona v. Garrison, 107 n.319, 215
State of Arizona v. Krone, 109, 110 n.341
State of Connecticut v. Pappas, 178, 179, 180 n.133, 181 nn.135 & 136
State of Louisiana v. Schmidt, 194, 195
State of Washington v. Leuluaialii, 197
Statistics, 211-302 (see also Multiple regression)
admissibility and weight of studies, 214
alternative hypotheses, 205, 254 n.106, 255 n.110, 257, 276, 278, 283, 297, 299, 300, 319-321, 353, 582
anecdotal evidence, 217, 218, 220, 310
applied statistics, 214, 229, 328
appraisal approaches, 242-244, 248-249, 278
artifacts from multiple testing, 256
associations between variables, 213, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 230, 233-235, 252 n.103, 253, 254, 260-263, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 285, 286, 291, 295, 298, 312, 321, 352, 356
averages, 219, 226 n.35, 238 n.70, 241, 242-243, 244-245, 246, 248 n.95, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 269, 278-279, 284, 287, 289, 294, 298, 300
base of a percentage, 233
Bayesian approach (subjectivist), 173, 174, 242 n.48, 273-275
benchmarks, 230-231
bias, 220, 224-225, 226, 227, 240, 241, 246, 249, 256, 266 n.130, 283, 285, 290, 293, 296, 312, 314, 315, 322 n.50, 325, 327, 352
categories for comparison, 231-232
causality inferred from, 213, 216-223, 249, 260-272, 288
census undercount litigation, 2-3, 213, 223-224, 247 n.90, 268, 275 n.149, 307, 308
center-of-distribution measure, 238-239
central limit theorem, 276, 278, 279, 284, 285
changes in data collection, 232
coding reliability, 227-228
collection of data, 216-230, 231
comparisons, 233
conditional probability, 205, 209, 273-274, 284, 710, 712, 742
confidence intervals, 165 n.76, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 243-246, 247, 248, 249, 252-253, 255, 259 n.121, 284-285, 289, 321, 332 n.69, 342-343, 352
confounding variables, 219, 220, 221, 222, 240, 257 n.115, 262-264, 265, 266, 285, 286, 288, 289, 298-299
convenience sample, 224-225, 248, 285, 287
correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333
Daubert and, 214, 217 n.14, 227 n.37
dependent variables (outcome variable, response variable), 219, 264, 268, 270, 274, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 294, 295
design of research, 213, 214, 216-230, 231, 240, 243, 246, 279, 301, 308-309, 310, 311-317
disclosure of methods and nonsupporting analyses, 216
discovery process, 216, 217 n.14, 310 n.24, 330-332
discrimination cases, 213, 228, 233-234, 250, 253 n.105, 257 nn.115 & 116, 260, 270-271, 272, 275, 276, 279-282
distributions, 236-239, 248 n.95, 251, 259 n.123, 275, 276, 278, 279, 283-284, 286, 287, 288, 290-291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 300, 301
DNA profiling, 74 n.105, 134 n.12
ecological regression, 266, 267
enhancing statistical testimony, 215-216
epidemiological study analysis, 574-582
estimation/estimators, 213, 226 n.35, 228, 229, 230, 232 n.56, 241, 242-249, 252-253, 256-257, 258 n.117, 259 n.123, 260, 264, 265, 267, 269-270, 271, 273 n.146, 278, 279, 280, 281-282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 289, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299-300, 301
expertise/experts, 214, 215-216, 222, 248 nn.93 & 94, 251, 271, 272
false negatives, 115-116, 162, 232, 254 n.106, 259 n.122, 301, 577 n.81, 581-582, 620, 708, 711, 724, 780, 782-783, 788
false positives, 161-162, 170-171, 232, 251 n.100, 254 n.106, 575-581, 589, 619, 627, 708, 710-711, 713, 714, 717-718, 720, 724, 725, 735, 780-781, 782-783, 788
frequentist approach (objectivist), 187, 189, 190, 241-242, 247, 252, 254 n.106, 258, 259, 273, 275, 287, 611 n.188
gender discrimination, 233, 234-235, 257 n.115, 270-271, 272, 279-282
generalization of results, 222-223, 301
graphs, 213, 230, 236-237, 240 n.82, 260-261, 272 n.144, 276, 294, 296
histograms, 236-237, 276-279, 283, 284, 288
hypothesis (significance) tests, 40, 163, 213, 241, 249-253, 254, 255, 297, 319-320, 352, 353, 354, 356, 574-582, 626, 724, 725
income–education association, 219, 260-262, 264-266, 312
independence, 227, 228, 269, 275, 288, 325, 326, 353, 714
independent variables, 219, 221, 268, 285, 287, 288, 289, 290, 294, 295, 297, 305 n.2, 308, 353
individual measurements, 227-228
inferences drawn from data, 213, 217, 220, 221, 222, 227, 240-259, 264, 266, 270, 283
integrity of data, 229
intercept, 265-266, 267, 269-270 n.135, 280, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354
internal validity, 222, 228, 229, 288
interquartile range, 239
least squares method, 269-270, 271, 280, 289, 295
linear associations, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352
linear combinations, 271 n.139, 280, 287, 289, 290, 298
linear regression, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316, 317 n.36, 336-339, 347, 353, 354
mean, 213, 230, 238, 239, 240, 247 n.92, 269, 278, 279, 284, 286, 289, 290, 291, 293, 296, 297, 298, 332, 341, 342, 343, 350, 351, 354, 356
median, 213, 230, 238, 239, 240 n.82, 289, 292, 492
misleading data, 220, 230, 231, 247 n.92, 265, 349
missing data, 223-224, 229, 332
models and model development, 241, 253-257, 268-272, 279-281
multiple hypothesis tests, 256-257
Nixon papers valuation, 242-246, 247, 248-249, 278-279
nonresponse bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332
normal curve, 239 n.81, 244, 246, 255, 276, 277-278, 279, 284, 287, 298, 303, 342
normal distribution, 239 n.81, 284, 290, 292, 294, 298, 343 n.82, 354
null hypothesis, 241, 249-251, 252, 253-254, 257, 271 n.138, 275, 276, 278, 282, 283, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 296, 297, 299-301, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356, 574, 576, 577 nn.81 & 83, 579, 581-582, 619, 620, 625, 626, 628, 629, 724, 725
observational studies, 213, 217-218, 219, 220-222, 241, 248, 269, 285, 288, 290, 291, 312, 318, 332, 340, 342, 347
odds ratio, 235, 289, 291, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625, 738
one-tailed tests, 255-256, 291, 297, 321, 354, 577 n.83
outliers, 238, 239 n.76, 240, 262, 263, 291, 327 n.58, 345, 346, 354, 355
parameters, 241, 247, 248, 254 n.106, 255, 269-270, 271, 275, 280, 281-282, 283, 284, 287, 291, 292, 293, 295, 298, 299, 300, 312, 314 n.32, 315, 316-317, 320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340-341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356
percentages, 88-89, 213, 224 n.31, 230-232, 233-234, 247, 248 n.93, 249 n.96, 257, 267-268, 284, 293, 318 n.40, 320, 341, 345, 355, 381, 382-383, 499, 626, 781, 787
percentiles, 2, 239, 288, 289, 292, 293, 525
population, 217, 221 n.23, 223-225, 226-227, 241-250, 275-277, 278-279, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301
posterior probabilities, 172, 173-174, 241-242, 258-259, 274, 275, 283, 710, 742
power of statistical tests, 174, 181 n.136, 253-254, 255, 276-277, 283, 292, 296, 579 n.88, 581-582, 607, 626, 644, 645, 724, 730, 805 n.65, 848
practical significance of results, 252, 292, 318-321, 355
presentation and analysis of data, 230-240
prior probability, 173, 174, 241-242, 258, 259, 274, 275, 282, 283, 710, 711, 744
probability sampling, 184, 226, 230, 238 n.71, 241, 246, 248, 283, 293, 295, 299, 332, 355, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421
probability theory, 173, 214, 258 (see also Bayesian approach)
product rule, 165-167, 198, 199, 204-205, 207, 273-274
professional autonomy, 215-216
public school funding litigation, 2
p-values, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 249-256, 257, 258, 271 n.138, 281, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291-292, 296-297, 299, 300, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-579, 626, 628, 724
qualifications of statistical experts, 215-216, 275
random (sampling) error, 240, 241, 243, 244, 246, 248, 249 n.96, 252, 256, 257, 258, 269, 271, 280, 282, 287, 293, 295, 296, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355, 388, 556 n.19, 572 n.67, 573, 574-582, 585 n.106, 589, 612-613, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628
random sample/sampling, 164-165 nn.75 & 76, 178, 225-226 & nn.32-35, 230, 241, 242, 247, 248, 249, 250, 275, 276, 277, 278, 283, 284, 288, 290, 296, 297, 299, 332, 363 n.12, 380-382, 383, 385-386, 412, 420, 421
random-start systematic sample, 299
random variables, 288, 289, 293-294, 295, 355, 356
randomized controlled studies, 218, 220, 221, 222, 230, 241, 248, 285, 294, 301, 398, 555, 556, 580 n.89, 592, 607, 621, 648 n.42, 658, 716, 718, 722-723, 724, 725, 729, 730-731, 732, 736
randomness, generally, 222, 230, 240 n.83, 285, 290, 555, 626
ranges, 237, 239, 245, 247, 250, 253, 276, 284, 288, 292, 293, 294, 298, 299, 300, 312 n.26, 333, 343, 345, 353
rates, 218, 220, 221, 226, 230-233, 234, 235, 236, 243, 250, 253 n.105, 258 n.119, 259 n.122, 266, 267, 268, 275, 279, 284, 288, 290, 291, 294, 298
redistricting litigation, 2, 267-268 n.133, 307 n.9
regression lines, 213, 260, 264-268, 294
regression models/analysis, 213, 221 n.21, 248 n.94, 256, 257 n.115, 260-272, 279-282, 284, 285, 286, 288, 289, 293, 294-295, 298 (see also Multiple regression)
relative risk (RR), 234 n.62, 247 n.91, 295, 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 591, 594, 601, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 627, 659, 737, 738, 851 n.214
reliability of measurements, 217, 223, 227-229, 247 n.91, 248 n.94, 269, 270, 291, 295, 301, 340, 341
rival hypotheses, 163, 174, 257
sample size, 243, 246-247, 252-253, 254-255, 318-319
scatter diagrams, 213, 240 n.82, 260-262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 296, 333, 335, 337, 355
selection bias, 224-225, 226 n.36, 249, 290, 293, 296
selection ratio, 234, 235, 275
significance levels, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 249-256, 257, 258, 271 n.138, 281-282, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291-292, 296-297, 299, 300, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-579, 626, 628, 724
significance testing, 40, 163, 213, 220 n.19, 241, 249-253, 254, 255-256, 291, 297, 300, 319-320, 321, 352, 353, 354, 356, 574-582, 626, 724, 725
slopes and intercepts, 265-266, 267, 269-270 n.135, 280, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354
Spock jury example, 249-250, 275-278
standard deviation (SD), 126, 213, 230, 239, 240, 242, 243, 247 n.92, 248, 251-252 nn.101 & 103, 278, 179 n.153, 286, 293, 298, 301, 341, 343 n.83, 344, 348, 354, 356
standard error (SE), 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 243-246, 248, 249, 251, 255, 258, 276, 278, 279, 281-282, 284-285, 289, 290, 293, 294, 298, 300, 316 n.35, 326, 340-344, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 356
stratification, 221 n.23, 226, 288, 290, 299, 308
subfields, 214
surveys, 213, 214 nn.4 & 5, 223-227, 229 n.45, 257 n.115, 290, 307 n.8, 332
technical difficulties, 247-249
theoretical statistics, 214, 241-242, 247, 250, 255-256, 258, 270, 273-275, 277-278, 279, 284, 290 (see also Bayesian approach)
time-series analysis, 231, 317 n.37, 319, 323 n.52, 326, 345, 356
trademark infringement, 363 n.10, 366, 373, 376, 378, 379, 382 n.101, 387, 396 n.165, 397-398, 399-400, 401, 410, 413-414, 421
transposition fallacy, 250-251 n.100, 258 n.119, 259 n.122
trends, 233, 236, 264-265, 345
t-statistics, 281-282, 297, 299-300, 320, 340-344, 347, 356
two-tailed tests, 255-256, 297, 300, 321, 356, 577 n.83
Type I (alpha) error, 251 n.100, 283
Type II (beta) error, 254 n.106, 283, 301
units measured, 226-227
units of analysis, 217, 223-225, 266-268
validity of measurement process, 222-223, 228-229, 241, 288, 301
variability measures, 239-240
voting rights cases, 213, 266-268, 307
Statutes of limitations, 134
Stearns, Richard, 6
Structured instruments and tests
administration, 888
mental status assessment, 885-889
population appropriateness, 886-887
reliability and validity, 885-886
scoring, 888-889
training considerations, 887-888
Summary judgment, 3, 14, 16, 18, 24 n.64, 309 n.20, 315 n.33, 384 n.110, 547, 644 n.29, 669 n.95, 673 n.105, 817 n.12
Survey research
admissibility under Daubert, 214, 226 n.36, 361, 363-369, 410
Atkins v. Virginia, 369-371
attorney independence, 374
audio computer-assisted self-interviewing (ACASI), 402
bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362, 364 n.16, 373, 374, 379, 381 n.96, 383-386, 394, 395 n.160, 396, 407, 408, 410, 411-412, 416, 417
causal inferences, 398
causal propositions, 392, 397-401, 421
change of venue, 365, 376-377 n.76, 388, 403, 413 n.228
children and other special populations, 377
clarity of questions, 362, 387-388, 389, 402-403, 406, 410
closed-ended questions, 392-394, 395, 399, 419
community standards assessment, 224, 369-371
computer-assisted interview (CAI), 402, 412, 419
computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), 403, 405, 410, 419
computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATl), 402, 405, 410, 419
confidence interval, 380, 381, 383, 419
confìdentiality, 405, 417, 418
consumer impressions, 361, 366, 373, 377 n.79, 378, 386-387, 393, 397, 399-400, 410, 413 n.228
consumer preferences, 231-232, 365, 377, 382, 385-386, 396 n.166, 416, 470
control groups, 394, 397-401, 421
control questions, 368, 369, 394, 401
convenience sampling, 224-225, 285, 382, 383 n.104, 385, 398 n.175, 419, 420
coverage or noncoverage error, 362 n.8, 378, 407, 419, 420
on expert acceptance of, 63 n.39, 367-369
data entry, 229, 363, 405, 412-413
design of survey, 362, 363, 367, 373-376, 381 n.97, 384, 386, 389, 394, 396, 399, 400 n.185, 406, 409, 414 n.231, 415, 416, 420
disclosure of methodology and results, 362, 373 n.62, 389 n.132, 405, 410, 413-415, 416-417
“don’t know” or “no opinion” options, 362 n.7, 389-391, 421
economic damages determinations, 389, 431, 469-470, 482, 483, 484, 486
error and bias minimization, 362 n.7, 382, 406-407, 411-412
ethical obligations of survey research organization, 417
expertise in design, conduct, and analysis, 364 n.16, 372, 375, 385-386, 398, 399, 409
expertise in testimony, 362 n.8, 367, 372, 375-376, 381 n.96, 382, 383, 385, 408, 414, 416
extrapolation of data from, 226
filters to prevent guessing by respondents, 389-391, 420, 421
identifying the appropriate population, 367, 376-377, 379, 383-384
individual testimony compared to, 372
in-person (face-to-face) interviews, 363, 382, 383 n.106, 385 n.112, 392, 396, 401, 402-403, 404, 405, 419
instrument design and structure, 387-409
internet surveys, 382 n.102, 401, 403, 405, 406-408
interviewer errors and bias, 402, 406-407, 411
interviewer training and qualifications, 376, 386, 388 n.129, 389, 394, 395, 402-403, 409-410, 411
mall intercept surveys, 386, 398 n.175
mail surveys, 383 n.106, 384, 396, 401, 402 n.193, 403, 405-406
marketing, 364 n.13, 373 n.63, 382
measurement error, 362 n.8, 401, 420, 422
mixed-mode design, 409
monitoring administration, 411-412
nonprobability sampling, 361, 382, 383 n.104, 420
nonresponse bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362 n.8, 383-385, 407, 408, 416
objectivity in administration, 410-411
objectivity of, 362, 374, 387, 393
open-ended questions, 391-394, 406, 413, 420
order of questions, 395-396, 402, 403, 406-407, 408-409 n.217, 411, 420
pilot tests, 388, 389, 416-417
population definition and sampling, 223-225, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 383 n.104, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421
pretests, 388-389, 414 n.231, 430
probability sampling, 226, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421
probes to clarify ambiguous responses, 389, 394-395, 402-403, 406, 410, 421
professional standards for survey researchers, 371, 389 n.131, 417
public opinion, 369, 370-371, 403 n.195
purpose of survey, 373
qualifications of experts, 375-376, 381 n.96
questions, 368, 369, 373, 391-394, 395, 397-401, 419, 421
random error, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355, 388
random sample/sampling, 332, 363 n.12, 380-382, 383, 385-386, 412, 420, 421
random selection, 398 n.175, 408
random-digit dialing, 404, 408
randomized controlled studies, 398
relevance of survey, 362, 363, 367, 368, 370, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377-378, 379, 380-383, 386, 407, 413
report content, 362, 364 n.13, 371, 372, 373, 376 n.75, 377, 386, 401 n.186, 405, 413 n.228, 415-417
representativeness of respondents, 226, 362, 367, 370, 379, 380-383, 384, 405, 406, 407, 409, 417
response rates, 226, 362, 367-368, 383, 384-385, 390, 405-406, 407, 408, 409, 416
sample surveys, 223, 361-363, 365 n.18, 381, 382
sampling error, 362 n.8, 380-381, 382, 398, 416, 419, 421
sampling frame (or universe), 224, 225, 226, 267, 283, 292, 293, 296, 297, 377-379, 404 n.198, 406, 415, 419, 420, 421
screening respondents, 386-387, 401 n.188, 404, 415, 420, 421
selection bias, 226 n.36, 385-386, 408
self-selected pseudosurveys, 407-408
skip pattern, 402, 403, 406, 410, 421
sponsorship disclosure, 372, 374, 410-411
stratified sampling, 225, 299, 380, 381-382, 421
surveyor-respondent privilege, 417
target population, 362, 367, 371, 376, 377-378, 379, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 406, 407, 409, 415, 419, 420, 421
telephone surveys, 363, 371, 384, 396, 401, 402, 403-405, 407, 408, 410, 411, 412, 419
validation of interviews, 412
weight, evidentiary, 362-363, 368, 377-378, 379 n.89, 396 n.166, 399, 408, 413-414, 415
weights/weighting, statistical, 382, 384, 408, 416
T
Tarrance Group, 371
Technical Working Group on DNA Identification Methods (TWGDAM), 61-62 n.29, 154 n.46
Thematic Apperception Test, 886
Theory, law vs. science, 51
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), 529
Tissue plasminogen accelerator, 732-733
Toolmark evidence
ballistics, 72 n.93, 93 n.241, 96-97, 98, 99, 103 n.300
case law development, 102-103
class characteristics, 96
error rates, 98
identification testimony, 96-97
individual characteristics, 96
proficiency testing, 98
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 648 nn.41 & 42, 663, 666
Toxic tort cases, 19, 21, 25-26, 31 n.91, 213, 223, 238, 505, 512, 551 n.2, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 645, 649, 663, 665, 667 n.91, 669
Toxicology
absorption, 636, 640, 646-647, 661, 662-663, 666-667, 680, 682
acute toxicity, 641, 668, 671, 680
acute toxicity testing, 641
agents of concern, 652, 653-654
animal research, 510, 563-565, 603 n.160, 625, 636, 637, 639, 640-647, 648, 654, 655, 656, 658, 659, 660, 661-662, 663, 664, 669-670, 673, 674, 675 n.111, 677, 680, 682
benchmark dose, 642, 670 n.96, 680
bioassay, 644, 648, 664 n.83, 680
bioavailability of compounds, 545, 667
biodistribution of toxic agents, 636, 640, 646-647, 661, 662, 667-668, 681
biological monitoring, 639, 649 n.47, 657, 667, 680
biological plausiblility of associations, 644 n.29, 661, 664-665, 680
blood analysis, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 635, 636, 637 n.8, 653, 656, 657, 662, 667, 672
cancer risk, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683
carcinogenicity bioassay, 644, 654-655, 680
carcinogens/carcinogenicity, 643 n.29, 644, 645, 647 nn.37 & 38, 649 n.44, 650 n.49, 651, 655-656, 658 n.70, 659, 660 n.74, 670 n.97, 673 n.105, 680
chemical toxicology, 635, 636, 637-638, 639-640, 644, 645, 646, 647, 649, 654, 663, 673, 677, 681
chronic toxicity, 644, 652, 653, 672, 680
chronic toxicity tests, 644-645
clinical ecologists, 677 n.115, 680-681
clinical studies, 510, 640, 648 n.42, 656 n.64, 658, 659, 661
compounds, 640, 644, 648 n.42, 661-664, 667-669, 672, 674, 681
confounding factors, 657 n.67, 665, 672-673, 681
contact, 534
Daubert and, 638 n.9, 643 n.28, 664 n.84, 669 n.94
dermatotoxicology, 640, 641 n.24, 650 n.48, 653
design of studies, 639-646
differential diagnosis, 512 n.21, 672, 676 n.113, 681
direct-acting toxic agents, 636 n.2, 668, 681
DNA damage, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 682
dose, dosage, 525, 636-637, 638, 641, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648, 651, 657 n.67, 658-659, 660, 661, 664, 665, 667 n.91, 668, 670 n.96, 673 n.107, 674, 677 n.115, 680, 681, 682, 684
dose-response curve, 646, 651, 673 n.107, 681
dose-response relationships, 635, 639, 641, 642-643, 646, 649, 651, 658, 663 n.82, 669, 670, 676, 680, 681
end points, 641, 642, 652, 653-654, 666
epidemiology and, 563-565, 603 n.160, 628, 636, 639, 644 n.29, 645-646 n.33, 647, 650-651, 655, 656, 657-660, 664-665, 674, 681
etiology, 670-671, 676 n.113, 682
excretion of toxicants, 636, 640, 646, 647, 661, 662, 668, 682
exposure assessment, 510, 533-534, 543-544, 637, 638 n.13, 642, 649, 650, 651, 656-657, 658, 665, 671, 672, 674
exposure evidence, 636, 637-638, 640, 641-642 n.26, 643 n.28, 644 n.28, 645 n.31, 647 n.37, 658, 659, 660-670
and exposure science, 505, 506, 508, 509, 518, 519, 533, 535, 537, 538, 540, 547
extrapolation from animals and cell research to humans, 636, 641, 645, 646-647, 648, 651, 652, 658, 661-662, 664, 669-670
extrapolation from short exposures to multiyear estimates, 648
general causation, 637 n.7, 638, 657 n.87, 659, 660-665
good laboratory practice (GLP), 647-648, 682
hazard identification, 637 n.7, 649, 650 n.47, 651, 656 n.64, 682
hydrogeologists, hydrologists, 682
immunotoxicology, 640, 653, 677 n.115, 678 n.116, 680-681, 682
in vitro research, 639, 640, 645-646, 647, 648 n.42, 654, 658, 659, 664, 674, 682, 683
in vivo research, 639, 640-645, 646, 647, 654, 664, 682, 683
indirect-acting chemicals, 668, 682
inhalation toxicology, 640, 650 n.48, 651, 656 n.65, 657 n.66, 662, 667, 668, 670 n.97, 674, 678 n.116, 680, 682
laboratory tests, 671 n.102, 672
latency period for disease, 512, 660 n.74, 668-669
legal contexts for, 635, 637-638
lethal dose 50 (LD50), 641, 682
level of exposure and, 638 n.12, 641-642, 658 n.70, 660 n.74, 665, 667 n.91, 669-670, 673 n.107, 682, 683
medical history and, 645 n.31, 670-675, 676 n.113
molecular toxicology, 640, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 678 n.116, 682
multiple chemical hypersensitivity, 677 n.115, 680-682
mutagens and mutagenesis, 642, 643 n.28, 645, 654-655, 670, 683
neurotoxicology, 640, 647 n.38, 663-664 n.82, 670 n.95, 678 n.116, 683
no observable effect level (NOEL), 641-642, 669-670
no threshold model, 642-643, 669-670
one-hit theory, 642, 643, 651, 683
pharmacokinetics, 646, 648, 674, 675, 683
premarket testing of drugs, 648
qualifications of experts, 646 n.33, 660-661, 675-679
randomized controlled studies, 648 n.42, 658
regulatory context, 635, 636, 637, 638 nn.10 & 12, 639, 640, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648 n.40, 649, 650-651, 654, 656 n.54, 657 n.67, 660, 665-666, 669 n.95, 670 n.96, 678
reproductive toxicology, 640, 653, 662, 666
risk assessment, 637, 642-643, 648-651, 657 n.67, 661-662, 663, 673 n.108, 678 n.116, 679, 683
risk characterization, 637, 638 n.12, 645 n.31, 659, 683
safety assessment, 640, 647-649, 683
scientific foundation of studies, 23
specific causation, 23, 637 n.7, 638, 645 n.31, 659 n.72, 665-666, 669-670 n.95
statistical evaluation, 640, 642, 644, 645, 658-659, 670 n.96, 676
structure–activity relationships (SAR), 647 n.37, 648 n.42, 663, 683
susceptibility/sensitivity differences, 527 n.61, 636, 641 n.25, 646 n.35, 650 n.48, 661 n.77, 662-663, 666, 674
symptoms of exposure, 637 n.5, 641-642 n.26, 657 n.66, 662, 667 n.91, 669 n.94, 671-672
systemic, 534-535
target organ specificity, 651-656, 662-663
temporal relationships, 636, 641 n.26, 664, 665, 668-669
teratogen and teratogenicity, 645 n.33, 684
threshold, 641-642, 643, 647 n.37, 650 n.49, 651, 657 n.66, 669-670, 683, 684
tort litigation, 635, 636-637, 638, 639, 645, 649, 663, 665, 667 n.91, 669
toxic agent defined, 684
Trademark infringement, 224, 308 n.12, 363 n.10, 366, 373, 376, 378, 379, 382 n.101, 387, 396 n.165, 397-398, 399-400, 401, 410, 413-414, 421
Transposition fallacy, 168, 169 n.91, 170 n.92, 173, 209, 250-251 n.100, 258 n.119, 259 n.122
Treatment of mental disorders (see also Medications for mental disorders)
cognitive behavioral and related therapies, 859-860
electroconvulsive and other brain stimulation therapies, 861-862
family and couples therapies, 860
functional impairments, 860-861
group therapies, 860
prediction of response to, 863-864
psychoanalysis, 858-859
psychodynamic psychotherapy, 859, 860, 865-866
psychosurgery, 863
supportive therapy, 860
talking therapies, 860
Trigon Ins. Co. v. United States, 33
Troedel v. Wainwright, 126
Trop v. Dulles, 369
Tsar Nicholas family identification, 152, 177
U
Uniform Commercial Code, 466
United States v. Cordoba, 368
United States v. Cyphers, 123
United States v. Diaz, 101
United States v. Glynn, 27 n.79, 101-102, 124 n.444
United States v. Green, 27 n.79, 101, 122 n.427
United States v. Llera Plaza, 28, 73, 74, 79, 82 n.169
United States v. Mitchell, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82 n.170, 122
United States v. Monteiro, 98 n.265, 101, 122 n.434
United States v. Nacchio, 35
United States v. Orians, 368
United States v. Scheffer, 365 n.22, 368 n.35, 794, 795-796
United States v. Semrau, 803, 805-806
United States v. Starzecpyzel, 63 n.42, 84 n.183, 86 n.190, 89, 122 n.435
United States v. Williams, 63 n.42, 102
United States v. Yazback, 193-194
U.S. Census Bureau, 260, 365 n.18, 383, 484
U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, 58 n.10
U.S. Geological Survey, 951, 958
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 726-727, 735, 738, 739
V
Vaginal
adenocarcinoma, 560, 609 n.178
DNA swabs, 147, 151, 158, 182, 183
Validity/validation
comparative measurements, 228
correlation coefficients, 228
criteria for determining, 484
damages data, 483-485
developmental, 155
DNA methods and procedures, 133, 134, 148, 150, 153, 154, 155, 185, 193, 195
forensic evidence, 27-28
quantitative methods, 485
reliability distinguished from, 71-72
test-retest correlations, 228-229
Vanasen v. Tradewinds, 922
Victor Shirley, Inc. v. Creative Pipe, Inc., 35
Videotaped testimony, 7, 880-881
Vinyl chloride (monochloroethylene), 522, 605-606 n.169, 653, 672
Violence Risk Assessment Guide (VRAG), 848
Voice stress analyzer, 792
Voiceprint evidence, 3, 62 n.32, 71 n.88, 73, 579 n.85
Volatile chemicals, 514, 520, 521, 531, 650 n.48, 657 n.66, 668
Voting Rights Act, 266-267 nn.131 & 133, 307 n.9
Voting rights cases, 213, 266-268, 307
W
Walker v. Soo Line Railroad Co., 947
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III), 836
Weight-of-the-evidence approach, 15, 16, 20
Weisgram v. Marley, 18-19, 22, 63
Wilhoite v. Olin Corp., 366-367, 392 n.144
Wilson v. Corestaff Services, L.P., 803, 806-807