Chapter 1. Fundamental Topics on EV Charging
This chapter provides foundational concepts related to EVs and charging infrastructure. While the information presented in this chapter is primarily focused on light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles, most information is applicable to other types of EVs including specialty vehicles and aircraft. Chapter 2 provides information on more advanced topics.
What are electric vehicles?
EVs use electrical energy, stored in batteries inside the vehicle, for propulsion via an electric motor. There are two primary types of EV powertrains (Figure 4): plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Collectively these two vehicle types are referred to as EVs.
Figure 4. Electric Vehicle Power and Fueling Systems
Source: Consultant Team & United States Department of Transportation
- PHEVs are powered by both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor with a battery. Unlike conventional hybrid vehicles, PHEVs can recharge their batteries using an EVSE port.9
- BEVs are powered by an electric motor and use a battery that is recharged using an EVSE port and electrical outlet or hardwired EVSE.10
Today’s PHEVs have an all-electric range of 20 miles to over 100 miles. There are currently 33 light-duty PHEV models available in the United States. BEVs have a range of 80 miles to more than 500 miles, depending on the model. There are currently 40 BEV models available in the United States, and this number is expected to increase to over 100 by 2025.11
Between 2011 and 2023, sales of EVs rose from 0.2% to 8% of new LDVs nationally. A 2021 federal Executive Order has a target of 50% of U.S. passenger car and light truck sales as ZEVs by 2030.12 Vehicle and battery manufacturers plan to invest $860 billion globally in EVs between 2023 and 2030, with $210 billion targeted for the United States.13 Through the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) and Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), the U.S. government has made upward of $83 billion in funding available to support the roll out of EVs. Moreover. the average price of a light-duty EV fell by 20% between 2022 and 2023, down to $53,000 compared with $48,000 for an ICE vehicle,14 and average EV range has increased from 84 miles to 275 miles in the past decade.15
While LDVs are the most common EVs available today, there are applications across all vehicle segments, including both on-road and off-road vehicles (Figure 5). In recent years, electric school and transit buses have begun to achieve widespread adoption.
Figure 5. Examples of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles Available Today
Source: Consultant Team
What are the elements of charging infrastructure?
Charging infrastructure is a broad term and typically refers to the structures and equipment necessary to support an EV, including the connector, cable, pedestal, wiring, conduits, substations, and transformers that provide electricity to the vehicle. Electric utilities often define charging infrastructure in two parts: to-the-meter (TTM) infrastructure and behind-the-meter (BTM) infrastructure (Figure 6).
As shown in the bottom row of Figure 6, the electric utility owns and operates infrastructure to the meter. This means upgrades for TTM infrastructure require coordination with the electric utility and in some cases co-payment by the installer of the EVSE port. However, in a growing number of regions, costs for upgrades of TTM are born solely by the electric utility.16 The BTM infrastructure is all structures and equipment between the electric meter and EVSE port. Ownership, operation, and funding for BTM infrastructure varies and can include the site host, tenant, third party, or utility.
Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) comprises the electrical conductors and equipment external to an EV that provides a connection between an EV and a power source to enable charging. Because it is only the hardware and enclosure to bring power from the grid to the vehicle (like a gas pump for a vehicle with an ICE), EVSE is only one component of a charging infrastructure project.
An Electric Vehicle Service Provider (EVSP), also called a Network Service Provider (NSP) is an entity responsible for operating networked or non-networked EVSE, which may include communications systems, billing, maintenance, load management, and other processes. Examples of EVSPs or NSPs in the United States are ChargePoint, Electrify America, and EVgo.
Figure 6. Elements of Charging Infrastructure. The Bottom Row is the Owner-Operator.
Source: Consultant Team
The Federal Highway Administration and Department of Energy have defined additional infrastructure terminology that aligns with the Open Charge Point Interface (OCPI) adopted by the charging infrastructure industry to describe a charging site:17 These components are shown in Figure 7.
- Charging station (or station location): Site with one or more EVSE ports at the same address. Charging stations can be found in parking garages, highway rest areas, parking lots and other sites.
- Charging pedestal (also called a charging post or charging point): The unit that houses all equipment such as EVSE ports, user display screen, payment system, and electronic hardware. A pedestal with two EVSE ports can charge two vehicles at the same time. Charging pedestals are sometimes referred to as EVSE.
- EVSE port: Unit that provides power to charge one vehicle at a time. The number of ports on a charging pedestal is equal to the number of vehicles that can concurrently charge at that pedestal. This piece of infrastructure is commonly referred to as a charger.
- Connector: Physical attachment at the end of the cable that links the EVSE to the vehicle. Multiple connectors and connector types (e.g., J1772, CCS, CHAdeMO) can be available on a charging pedestal to serve different EV types.
Like a gas station dispenser, only one EVSE port on a given charging pedestal can be used at a time. Importantly, when government websites and documents report statistics like “number of ports,” they are referring to EVSE ports, so a two-connector pedestal would count as a single port, but a dual port pedestal would count as two. Public charging station locations, EVSE ports and EVSE characteristics (such as power rating) are tracked by data aggregators like the U.S. DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center18 and Plugshare.com.19 Data on private EVSE installations is not available at a national level.
Figure 7. Select Elements of BTM Charging Infrastructure
Source: Alternative Fuels Data Center & Cadmus
What types of connectors are used for EV charging?
EV charging connector types have evolved over the past decade, and there is currently no national standard for the connectors used for charging EVs. However, all EVs in the United States can use the standard Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1772 connector shown in Figure 8. This type of connector is used only for Level 1 and Level 2 charging with AC power and is the most common connector for most EV chargers today. Tesla vehicles require an adapter to use this kind of connector.
The standardization of connectors is an ongoing topic for DCFC. There are three types of connectors used today. CHAdeMo was the first type of DCFC connector developed and is used by Japanese- and Korean-made EVs. While this type of connector can still be found at many public DCFC stations, it is no longer used for new EVs in the United States.
The Combined Charging System (CSS), shown in Figure 8, accounts for roughly one-third of DCFC EVSE ports in the United States. The CCS connector uses the SAE J1772 connector and incorporates two high-speed DCFC pins. The majority of EVs in the United States today have a connector that is compatible
with the CCS connector. Currently federal regulations require all DCFC stations constructed using federal funds to include the CCS connector.
Figure 8. EVSE Connector Types
Source: Consultant Team
At the time of this writing, all federally funded DCFC charging sites are required to have the CCS connector, while the NACS connector can also be offered but is not required. In June 2023, SAE announced intentions to standardize the NACS connector.20 It is likely that both L2 and DCFC chargers will continue to use both CCS and NACS connectors and that the LDV market will shift to the NACS standard in the coming years, though it is unclear which connector type MDHD Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) will adopt.
Figure 9. Example of MCS Connector
Source: Stäubli
Another type of connector that may be desirable for airports in the future is the Megawatt Charging Standard (MCS), which is intended for charging vehicles with very large batteries, such as long-haul freight trucks and aircraft (Figure 9). These vehicle types can require faster charging speeds and power delivery than are available with CCS or CHAdeMO. The MCS is in development and may be commercially available in 2024. It is modeled on the CCS connector and is expected to charge up to 1,250V.
Figure 10. eGSE Connector
Source: Consultant Team
Many aircraft and equipment manufacturers use non-standardized EVSE and connectors (such as the connector in Figure 10). This
allows the manufacturer to manage design requirements and charging needs of the specific vehicle. However, non-standard connectors create interoperability challenges, which limit the usefulness of the chargers for a select vehicle, aircraft, or equipment type.21 The push for interoperability standards for electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) charging systems is ongoing.22
What are the types of EVSE and when is each used?
EVSE is classified by the rate at which they deliver power to recharge an EV battery. There are three primary categories of EVSE, as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. EVSE Charging Levels
Source: Consultant Team
Below is a summary of the three primary types of EVSE, charger characteristics, considerations for EVSE selection, and likely use cases at airports.
Level 1 Charging
L1 charging, which uses a standard 120V alternating current (AC) electrical outlet, is the slowest and lowest-cost type of charging available. An L1 charger will provide approximately three to six miles of range per hour of charge for an LDV. Because of its slow charging speed, L1 is typically limited to LDVs that have long dwell times (i.e., the amount of time an EV is parked at a charger). The majority of L1
charging takes place in residential applications for overnight charging of vehicles that travel less than 40 miles per day.
For L1 charging, typically only a power outlet is provided at the location, with the user providing the EVSE charging cable that connects to the vehicle (Figure 12). L1 charging presents the lowest-cost option for airports and is suitable for long-term parking areas where a vehicle may be left for a day or more. This option may also be suitable for charging employee EVs or airport fleet vehicles with very low daily use. L1 charging is often provided without a user fee. It can also be installed to operate through a charging network, allowing the site host to establish a user fee to collect revenue, though this option is infrequently employed. A summary of L1 EVSE attributes can be found in Table 1.
Figure 12. L1 EVSE port with J1772 Connector
Source: Consultant Team
Table 1. Level 1 EVSE Attribute Summary
| Description | Low-speed vehicle charging using a specified charging cable with standard electrical outlet. |
| Input Voltage | 120 volts (V) |
| Maximum Output | 12–16 amps (A) |
| Power Delivery | 1.2 to 1.9 kilowatts (kW) |
| Required Time to Fully Recharge LDV | 40+ hours |
| Installation Cost | Low (<$1,000 per charger) |
| Network/Fee | Typically, non-networked and offered for free to users, but can be networked and capable of charging user fees.23 |
| Pros | Low investment cost; can provide dedicated public charging that does not require daily vehicle turnover; can be provided to public as an amenity for free or at low cost with minimal infrastructure upgrades. |
| Cons | Slow power delivery and long charging times. Unsuitable for most use cases at airports; only relevant for LDV applications with low daily use or specialty equipment like forklifts. If L1 chargers are publicly available without user fees, airport electricity costs will rise as drivers seek free charging. |
| Decision-making | L1 is suitable as a low-cost option to rapidly make charging infrastructure available for public or employee use. L1 is best for high volume installations in parking facilities where user fees are not expected to be collected, vehicles that have very low utilization, or situations with budget constraints. |
Level 2 Charging
L2 charging provides higher-rate AC charging than L1 charging through 240V (residential) or 208V (commercial) electrical service (Figure 13). Level 2 chargers can use a 208V/240V outlet or can have a dedicated circuit. L2 chargers have a typical power output of 3 kW to 19 kW, which translates to 12 to 30 miles of range per hour of charge for a typical light-duty vehicle. Level 2 is the most used charging type for public charging locations, fleet vehicle charging or employee EV charging.
Figure 13. L2 EVSE port with J1772
Source: Consultant Team
The specific charging speed of an L2 charger is determined by the charger power rating and a vehicle’s ability to accept higher charging levels. Most L2 chargers pull 30 to 50 amps of current. These installations often require infrastructure upgrades that may include new electrical panels for small installations and transformer upgrades for larger installations, which can add significant project costs. Installation of L2 charging typically requires additional construction and infrastructure including trenching and laying of conduit, pads for charging pedestals or wall mounts, concrete bollards, and signage and other needs. However, federal, state, and utility incentive programs are often available to offset a portion of these costs.
Utilization is the fraction of time each day that an EVSE port is actively charging vehicles. In general, higher utilization leads to faster financial return for the EVSE. For fleets, some high-use vehicles may require a dedicated L2 charger, particularly for overnight charging. L2 charging installations often provide multiple EVSE ports at a single pedestal and can be installed to reach multiple parking spaces, increasing charger usage.
L2 chargers are typically classified as networked or non-networked. Non-networked chargers are typically selected for private charging with no public access and without charging fees. Networked chargers are more common than non-networked chargers in shared use locations and are typically operated by a third party. Networked stations often allow users to pay for charging sessions using a credit card, mobile device, key fob, or simply by plugging in. Additionally, in some instances network providers may cover some or all the construction and installation costs of public L2 charging infrastructure on airport property. Network providers can then recoup the installation cost through electricity sales and ongoing network fees charged to the site host.
Table 2. Level 2 EVSE Attribute Summary
| Description | Moderate-speed vehicle charging using a 240V/208V AC dedicated circuit using a hardwired connection or a NEMA 14-50 outlet. |
| Input Voltage | 208V or 240V |
| Maximum Output | 24–80 A |
| Power Delivery | 3–19 kW |
| Required Time to Fully Recharge LDV | 4–10 hours |
| Installation Cost | Moderate ($4,000 to $10,000 per EVSE port for hardware and installation with no electrical system upgrades). Federal, state and utility incentives are often available, or infrastructure costs are absorbed by network providers and recouped by electricity sales and network fees. More information available at the DOE’s Alternative Fuels Data Center.24 |
| Network/Fee | May be offered for private/fleet charging without setting fees; user fees may be set by site host or third party for public/private networked chargers. |
| Pros | Suitable for most LDV applications, specialty vehicles, and lower mileage or smaller MDHD vehicles. EVSE ports can be used to serve multiple vehicles on a daily or weekly basis. Networked stations allow airports to collect revenue from electricity sales and manage charging |
| Cons | Can require electrical infrastructure upgrades and construction/retrofits of existing parking areas, increasing capital costs. Conversion of grid AC power to DC power may require an additional transformer at the project site, and large installations may require significant time and capital resources for construction. Operations and maintenance and network fees (where applicable) generate ongoing costs. |
| Decision-Making | L2 will likely comprise most charging infrastructure at airports. L2 should be selected to serve fleet vehicles that have long dwell times and/or travel less than 60 miles per day. L2 the best option for publicly accessible charging and offers the airport the opportunity to collect revenue from user fees. |
DCFC Charging
DCFC (sometimes called Level 3) is the fastest type of charging. DCFC EVSE convert grid supplied AC power to direct current (DC) power to directly charge a vehicle battery (Figure 14). DCFC chargers supply a minimum of 50 kW of rated power and are commonly classified as 50 kW, 150 kW, and 350 kW. These chargers typically use a dedicated 480V AC circuit and require significant infrastructure upgrades and utility planning; however, new DCFC EVSE integrated with battery systems offer periodic high-speed charging at Level 2 power rates (208V/204V).25
Figure 14. DCFC EVSE Port with CCS Connector
Source: Consultant Team
DCFC chargers are suitable for high-use LDVs with short dwell times and for vehicles with large capacity batteries such as buses, MDHD vehicles, and aircraft. However, not every EV will be capable of charging at higher DCFC charging rates, such as 150 kW and
350 kW. A summary of DCFC EVSE attributes can be found in Table 3. Depending on its power rating (and other factors like outside temperature and battery health), a DCFC charger can fully recharge an average-size passenger vehicle in 20 minutes to one hour. There are also applications of higher power DCFC charging of more than 1MW capable of using 1000V DC power, though limited to date.
Because of the extremely high cost of DCFC ports, they are typically installed to serve many vehicles daily. For public charging at airports, DCFC chargers may be used by ride-hail vehicles, buses, drivers in waiting areas or for rental car customers in need of charging. For private charging, DCFC chargers are likely to be used in MDHD applications including transit buses, and in the future for charging of electric aircraft in greater numbers.
Because of the cost of infrastructure, increased power consumption, and demand charges levied by the electric utility, (see: What are demand charges and why are they important?) DCFC vehicle charging is significantly more expensive than L2. While public L2 charging may cost $.15-.35 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), DCFC charging may be $.40-.60/kWh or more.
Table 3. DCFC EVSE Attribute Summary
| Description | High-speed vehicle charging using a 480V AC dedicated circuit using a hardwired connection. |
| Input Voltage | 480V |
| Maximum Output | 100–500 A |
| Power Delivery | 50–350+ kW |
| Required Time to Fully Recharge LDV | 20 min – 1 hour |
| Installation Cost | High ($50,000 to $200,000+ per EVSE port for hardware and installation). Federal, state, and utility incentives are often available. |
| Network/Fee | May be offered for private/fleet charging without setting fees; user fees may be set by site host or third party for public/private networked chargers. |
| Pros | The only suitable option for many use cases that require short dwell times or have high demand for power. EVSE ports can be used to serve multiple vehicles daily and can operate similarly to traditional fueling infrastructure, limiting operational charges for vehicle use. Public stations allow airports to collect revenue from electricity sales. |
| Cons | The highest cost charging type and may produce significant peak demand charges levied by the utility. Projects require significant electrical infrastructure upgrades including new transformers. Projects will require substantial new construction and retrofits of existing parking areas and may result in loss of parking due to footprint of infrastructure. Operations and maintenance and network fees (where applicable) require ongoing investment. |
| Decision-Making | DCFC will likely be required for many airport use cases that require fast charging times, such as rental cars and for-hire vehicles, and large or high-use vehicles, such as buses, aircraft, or specialty equipment. Because of their cost, DCFC chargers require high utilization, and installation will be driven by customer/tenant demand. Will require significant utility engagement to ensure available capacity or capacity expansion. Project timelines can be one to two years or more. |
What are public and private chargers?
Access to a given EV charger at an airport depends on the charging use case. EVSE will generally operate as one of two types:
- Public chargers are accessible to all drivers and vehicles. At airports, this may include passengers, taxis, TNCs, and other vehicles and vehicle operators. These chargers will typically be networked to enable communication via an internet connection, which will allow for electronic payment, facilitate software updates, and provide other capabilities.
- Private (restricted access) chargers are not accessible to all drivers. These chargers typically serve a specific vehicle or a group of vehicles and have customer- or employee-restricted access. Private chargers at airports may be installed to serve both landside and airside operations, eGSE, airport fleet vehicles, buses, or future electric aircraft. While most private chargers will be networked to enable tracking of energy consumption, charge management, and software updates, non-networked chargers may be preferrable to reduce investment costs.
What are networked or smart chargers?
EVSE can be networked, with a connection to a central backend system via the internet, or they may be non-networked (not connected to an external system).
- Networked, or smart chargers (Figure 15), have communications systems that enable information to be transferred via Wi-Fi or cellular networks. Networked chargers typically require an ongoing monthly, per session, or annual networking fee for the user, the site host, or both. Despite the added costs, networked stations provide several benefits over non-networked stations. Networking allows the station operator to track use by time of day, enabling better management of the station compared with non-networked stations. Networking also allows for quicker identification of faults and defective equipment. Finally, certain networks enable advanced features such as charge management, decreased electricity bills, and power sharing between multiple chargers at a site.
- Non-networked chargers (Figure 16) act only to deliver power to a vehicle and do not have communications systems. These chargers do not require software and are a lower cost option for airport operators. Non-networked chargers may be suitable for situations that do not require payment or a specific use case without public access.
Figure 15. Networked L2 EVSE
Source: ChargePoint
All charger types can be networked or non-networked. L1 chargers are typically non-networked to reduce costs. Level 2 chargers are a mix of networked and non-networked chargers, depending on the use case. DCFC chargers are almost always networked because of their complex operation; to allow remote monitoring,
control of equipment, and collection of charging data, and to enable payment by users.
Figure 16. Non-Networked L2 EVSE
Source: Enphase
The charging protocol ISO 15118 is the international protocol that enables an EV to communicate with an EV charger and the grid. ISO 15118 is important for the widespread adoption of bidirectional charging, which will enable EVs to participate in demand response programs. ISO 15118 is also central to plug and charge systems, which allow a charger to automatically begin a charging session upon vehicle connection without the need for payment or other processes.
Several considerations determine which charger type should be installed at an airport:
- Does the airport want to set a user fee/collect revenue from the charger?
- Does that airport want to control who can use the charger?
- Does the airport want to run diagnostics and monitor charger health remotely?
- Does the airport want to track vehicle charging and other operational data?
- Does the airport want to implement load management or demand response programs?
- Does the airport want to have the ability to upgrade charging software in the future?
If the answer to any of these questions is yes, it is likely that a networked charger is the appropriate charging type.
What is mobile charging?
Mobile charging is an emerging EV charging process that can serve many of the same functions as traditional charging stations with several additional capabilities. Large mobile chargers can service entire vehicle fleets with reduced fixed infrastructure while smaller chargers can provide critical range for long trips or stranded EVs. Mobile chargers have the added benefit of acting as stored energy sources, offering similar grid resilience benefits as traditional energy storage systems. Both Level 2 and DCFC mobile stations are available for procurement on the market today.
Mobile chargers can range significantly in size, but all are designed to be deployed to sites where charging is needed on demand. For example, the Tesla Megapack Mobile Supercharger is a 3.9 MWh battery approximately the size of a shipping container that can provide DCFC charging, while the FreeWire Mobi charger (Figure 17) is 80 kWh and provides Level 2 charging capabilities. Mobile charging is particularly useful for applications that require an EVSE to come to the vehicle location. They can also serve as a short-term solution for EV charging needs during construction of permanent charging infrastructure. Because mobile charging may not require infrastructure upgrades
Figure 17. L2 Mobile Charger
Source: FreeWire
and does not require trenching or other construct, it can be a cost-effective option compared with typical EVSE installations. However, mobile charging is limited in ability to meet charging requirements at scale.
What are the use cases for charging infrastructure at airports?
In the development of this guide, the consultant team identified eight generic “use cases” of charging infrastructure at airports: Ground Support Equipment, Passenger & Employee Parking, Electric Aircraft, Non-Airport Owned Airside Vehicles, Airport Fleet Vehicles, For Hire Vehicles, Bus & Shuttlebus, and Rental Cars. Each use case represents a distinct vehicle-charger combination with unique operational and charging characteristics. Figure 18 shows where these eight use cases could be located throughout the airport. The following pages summarize key attributes of each use case.
Figure 18. Example Use Cases at Airports
Source: Consultant Team
Use Case 1: Ground Support Equipment
Description: This use case comprises electrified ground equipment and vehicles that support aircraft and other equipment (often referred to as eGSE). Services include refueling; towing aircraft or luggage/freight carts; loading luggage/freight, potable water, and food; transporting passengers; removing sewage; de-icing airplanes; and fighting fires. Approximately 10% of airport GSE is now electric,26 with major deployments at many large hub airports such as airports in Boston,27 San Francisco,28 Philadelphia,29 and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. An example of eGSE charging at SAN is shown in Figure 19.
Vehicle Types: Tugs, pushbacks, belt loaders, container loaders, luggage tugs, lavatory trucks, and water trucks.
Vehicle Duty Cycle: Most GSE duty cycles consist of short periods of high-load operation followed by periods of no activity.
Vehicle Owner: Airline, third-party operator, or airport operator.
EVSE Owner: Airport operator or tenant.
EVSE Type: Mix of L2 and DCFC.
Figure 19. eGSE Chargers
Source: Consultant Team
Use Case 2: Passenger and Employee Parking
Description: This use case includes chargers for passenger vehicles parked at hourly, daily, and long-term lots, as well as airport staff and tenant vehicles in employee lots and will consist almost exclusively of LDVs.
Vehicle Types: Passenger cars and light trucks; possibly motorcycles, mopeds, and electric bikes.
Duty Cycle: An estimated 60% of the U.S. population can reach a commercial hub airport in 30 minutes and 90% of the U.S. population can reach a regional airport within 30 minutes.30 These statistics suggest that most passengers who park at daily, hourly, or long-term lots do not require a full charge when they reach the airport.
Owner of the Vehicles: Private (passenger, employee, and third party).
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator.
Typical Charging Power: Mix of L1 and L2.
Use Case 3: Electric Aircraft
Description: This use case comprises all electrified aircraft, including fixed-wing aircraft and eVTOLs. Today, only a few electric aircraft models, such as the Pipistrel Velis Electro, which is a two-seater, fixed-wing aircraft used primarily for flight training (see Figure 20), are flying in the United States. Many new electric aircraft technologies associated with the Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) and Urban Air Mobility (UAM) industries are in development, and several are currently undergoing the FAA aircraft certification process.31 Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) operations in the near-term are expected to primarily use existing airports and heliports.32 The first electric aircraft in service will likely have small capacities and will target missions for private and freight delivery, recreational flights, training purposes, air taxi services, and regional aviation.33 Current charging standards for on-road transportation (up to 350 kW) align with multiple light electric aircraft currently applying for certification.34 A key consideration for integrating electric aircraft into airport systems is ground time needed for recharging without adversely affecting operations.
Figure 20. Examples of Electric Aircraft
Source: ACRP Research Report 236. Militky-Brditschka MB-E1, Pipistrel Velis, and magniX Cessna e-Caravan
Vehicle Types: Conventional takeoff and landing aircraft (flown horizontally), short takeoff and landing aircraft that can use a short runway, and eVTOL aircraft that can operate like helicopters.
Duty Cycle: Aircraft such as eVTOLs are expected to have a unique duty cycle characterized by high discharge currents at the beginning and end of travel (corresponding to the takeoff and landing profiles of aircraft) and a moderate power requirement between.35 Conventional aircraft are expected to require high battery capacities for local and regional travel.
Vehicle Owner: OEMs, private owners, flight schools, legacy airlines, and startup air taxi/cargo operators.
EVSE Owner: Airport operator, fixed-base operator (FBO), airport tenant (such as a flight school or air cargo operator), airline/flight operator, private owner, and/or specialized third party.
EVSE Type: High power DCFC.
Use Case 4: Non-Airport-Owned Airside Vehicles
Description: This use case includes vehicles that are operated by the airport or by tenants and that are driven exclusively behind the fence. These vehicles typically have very low daily mileage but may have high power demands for materials transport, frequent idling, and specialized service applications.
Vehicle Types: Light-, medium-, heavy-duty, and specialty vehicles.
Duty Cycle: These vehicles are characterized by long periods spent traveling routine paths and idling. Facility and maintenance vehicles have a wide range of duty cycles, from long periods of non-operation (snowplows or mowers) to regular daily use (forklifts).
Owner of the Vehicles: Airport operator or third party.
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator or third party.
Typical Charging Power: Primarily Level 2 chargers with infrequent DCFC for high-use, large vehicles.
Use Case 5: Airport-Owned Fleet Vehicles
Description: These are airport-owned and airport-operated vehicles on both the airside and landside (excluding buses and shuttle buses). Services include emergency response and security, facility and maintenance, and airport fleet vehicles.
Vehicle Types: Light-, medium-, heavy-duty, and specialty vehicles.
Duty Cycle: The duty cycles of emergency response and security vehicles are characterized by long frequent periods spent traveling routine pathways and idling, and far fewer periods of intensive driving, sometimes at high speeds. Facility and maintenance vehicles have a wide range of duty cycles, from long periods of non-operation to regular daily use.
Owner of the Vehicles: Airport operator or third party.
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator or third party.
Typical Charging Power: Given the duty cycle, most chargers for fleets are likely Level 2 EVSE with less frequent DCFC EVSE for high-use, large vehicles.
Use Case 6: For-Hire Vehicles
Description: This use case includes chargers for taxis, ride-hail services, TNCs, and other private vehicles transporting airport customers. Airports may become fast charging hubs for taxis and ride-hail services that are looking to extend their daily range and are willing to wait in hold lots between passengers. For drivers waiting to drop off or pick up airport passengers, some airports have deployed DCFC in cell phone lots, providing charging for vehicles on airport-related business and for the public. Beyond airport boundaries, some ride-hail companies rely on charging stations located near airports to support their electric fleet.
Vehicle Types: Light-duty passenger vehicles.
Duty Cycle: The duty cycle for vehicles at airports is characterized by extended periods of waiting for passengers paired with extended periods of highway driving.36 This pattern suggests that ride share vehicles can benefit from DCFC infrastructure at or near airports to obtain the necessary range to make repeated long-distance trips.
Owner of the Vehicles: Third party.
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator or third party.
Typical Charging Power: The vehicles require a mix of DCFC and Level 2 charging given the unpredictable daily mileage and refueling windows.
Use Case 7: Bus & Shuttle Bus
Description: This use case consists of chargers for airport and tenant owned and operated buses and shuttle buses. Buses and shuttle buses should be among the first set of vehicles to electrify at an airport because of the high levels of pollution near pedestrians, the vehicles’ predictable duty cycles, and the vehicles’ high public visibility.
Vehicle Types: Buses and shuttle buses.
Duty Cycle: Fixed-route operations, varied by vehicle owner and operator.
Owner of the Vehicles: Airport operator or third party.
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator or third party.
Typical Charging Power: Large passenger buses are expected to require DCFC charging. Depending upon duty cycle, some shuttle buses may use Level 2 charging.
Use Case 8: Rental Cars
Description: This use case includes chargers for vehicles rented to travelers by RACs or consolidated rent-a-car (ConRAC) operators. RACs including the Hertz group, Enterprise Holdings, and the Avis-Budget Group have announced commitments to transition to a zero emissions fleet. Hertz currently has 50,000 EVs in its fleet and plans to have 340,000 EVs by 2027. Because RAC typically operate as airport tenants, large-scale electrification of this use case poses significant challenges for airport operations. Electrification of this segment may require increased customer facility charges to be imposed on rental car companies to satisfy ongoing O&M expenses.
Vehicle Types: Light-duty passenger vehicles.
Duty Cycle: Customer use.
Owner of the Vehicles: Third party.
Owner of the Charger: Airport operator or third party.
Typical Charging Power: Given the high turnover of rental cars, it is likely that rental car agencies will require a mix of DCFC and Level 2 charging.
