Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of Mind and Meditation
By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal and Dalai Lama
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About this ebook
When it first appeared in 1986, Mahamudra: The Moonlight - Quintessence of Mind and Meditation was the first presentation in English of a major Tibetan Buddhist work on meditation. This classic guide was composed in the sixteenth century by an eminent lama of the Kagyu school and is so comprehensive and practical that it is still widely used today as a manual. Divided into two major sections, it presents first the common approach and then the mahamudra approach to tranquility (shamatha) and insight (vipashyana) meditation.
Dakpo Tashi Namgyal
Dakpo Tashi Namgyal (1511-87), a lineage holder of the Drukpa Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism who also trained in the Sakya school, was renowned as both a scholar and meditator. During his later years he served as chief abbot of Daklha Gampo in southern Tibet.
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- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Mahamudra (Great Seal) meditation is surprisingly relevant to our postmodern times, probably even more so than Vedanta, Theravada and Zen. Dakpo Tashi Namgyal (1513-1587 but come on, wikipedia is guessing, right?) is an acknowledged master in mahamudra. Watch out though since the translation is by Lobsang Lhalungpa and doesn't cleanly match up with the excerpted notes in Daniel Brown's "Pointing Out The Great Way" book. But that's half the fun: matching up the two increases your level of preparedness.
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Mahamudra - Dakpo Tashi Namgyal
"Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight has helped numerous serious Dharma students. It is excellent that the second edition is now being brought out."
—from the foreword by His Holiness the Dalai Lama
Mahāmudrā meditation is simultaneously the most profound of meditative disciplines and the most accessible for modern practitioners. Traditionally passed orally from teacher to disciple, mahāmudrā instructions point the meditator to the innate perfection of every experience.
When it first appeared in 1986, Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight of Quintessence of Mind and Meditation was the first presentation in English of a major Tibetan Buddhist work on meditation. This classic guide was composed in the sixteenth century by an eminent lama of the Kagyü school and is so comprehensive and practical that it is still widely used today as a manual. Divided into two major sections, it presents first the common approach and then the Mahāmudrā approach to tranquility (śamatha) and insight (vipaśyana) meditation.
DAKPO TASHI NAMGYAL (1511-87), a lineage holder of the Drukpa Kagyü school of Tibetan Buddhism who also trained in the Sakya school, was renowned as both a scholar and meditator. During his later years he served as chief abbot of Daklha Gampo in southern Tibet.
LOBSANG P. LHALUNGPA (1926-2008) was born in Lhasa, Tibet. From 1940 until 1952, he was a monk-official in the service of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government. He also translated The Life of Milarepa and wrote Tibet: The Sacred Realm, and his translations of Dharma verses appear in Sacred Traditions and Living Culture. He spent his last years in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
CONTENTS
Dedication
Foreword by His Holiness the Dalai Lama
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgements to the Second Edition
Translator’s Introduction
The Foundation of Buddhist Studies
The Contemplative Foundation
Tranquility and Insight: The Basic Stage of Mahāmudrā Meditation
Meditation on Tranquility
The role of mindfulness
Timely vigilance
The nine stages of tranquility
Meditation on Insight (into the True Reality)
Mahāmudrā, the Quintessence of Reality
The Four Yogas of Mahāmudrā
MAHĀMUDRĀ
Introduction by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal
Homage
The Resolution to Compose this Work
The Reasons Why the Meditation on the True Nature of Mind Is Essential
1.All Realities Are But Mental Phenomena
2.The Deficiencies Arising from Not Meditating on the True Nature of Mind
3.The Benefits Arising from Meditation
BOOK ONE
A Concise Elucidation of the Common System of Tranquil Equipoise
The Outline of Tranquil Equipoise in General and the Removal of Doubts
The Meditation on Tranquility and Insight
CHAPTER ONE
The Ordinary Meditation of Tranquility and Insight
1.The Cause of Tranquility and Insight
2.The Elimination of Hindrances to Tranquility and Insight
1.The Recognition of Hindrances
2.Instructions in the Remedies Necessary to Remove the Hindrances
1.The general elucidation of remedies for hindrances
2.The specific means for removing dullness and sensual incitement
1.Refraining from the causes of dullness and sensual incitement
2.The elimination of dullness and sensual incitement
3.Identification of the True Nature of Tranquility and Insight
4.Distinctions of Tranquility and Insight
5.Examination of the Stages of Tranquility and Insight
6.Meditation on Joint Tranquility and Insight
1.The Reason One Needs Both Tranquility and Insight
2.The Method of Combining These Two
7.The Result of Tranquility and Insight
CHAPTER TWO
The Stages of Tranquility and Insight: Part One, Tranquility
1.The Preparation for Achieving Tranquility
2.The Elucidation of Its Mental Images
1.Elucidation of General Concentration
1.Comprehensive visualization
2.Analytical meditation
3.Skillful investigation
4.Meditation on the elimination of mental defilements
2.Different Meditations to Meet Differing Needs
3.Visualization at the Initial Stages of Practice [Tranquility]
4.Maintaining a Visualized Image through Mindfulness and Vigilance
3.The Methods of Realizing Tranquility
1.The Eight Points of Mental Processes for Stability
2.The Nine Stages of Settling the Mind
3.The Six Powerful Methods for Achieving These Stages
4.The Four Mental Applications for These Principles
CHAPTER THREE
The Stages of Tranquility and Insight: Part Two, Insight
1.General Meditation on Insight
2.Developing the Perfect View of Insight
1.Establishing the Perfect View [of Selflessness]
2.The General Meditation on Selflessness
1.The reason for meditating on selflessness
2.Ways of meditating on the two kinds of selflessness
1.The negation of the self of personality
2.The negation of the self of phenomenal reality
3.Emergence of perfect view through meditating on selflessness
3.The Specific Methods of Meditating on the Perfect View of Ultimate Reality
1.Identification of the perfect view of reality
2.Meditation upon tranquil absorption
3.Achieving a postabsorptive perception
CHAPTER FOUR
The Stages of Tranquility and Insight: Part Three, Clearing Doubts Regarding the Methods for Maintaining the View of Reality and Meditative Absorption
1.Distinction Between Analytical Meditation and Concentrative Meditation [Fixed Attentiveness]
2.Application of Analysis and Concentration to Tranquility and Insight
3.Analysis and Concentration on the View of Reality
4.Elimination of Doubts About the Essential View of Reality
1.Review of Other Buddhist Schools
2.Establishing the Meditational System of Our School
BOOK TWO
An Extensive Elucidation of Mahāmudrā, The Uncommon Meditation
PART ONE: PRELIMINARY EXPOSITION
CHAPTER ONE
The Reasons for Engendering Trust
1.The Inherent Significance of the Teaching: Definition of Chakgya Chenpo [Mahāmudrā]
1.The Various Meanings of the Tibetan Term Chakgya Chenpo
2.The Substance and Distinction of Mahāmudrā’s Inherent Significance
3.The Benefits Derived from the Knowledge of Mahāmudrā and the Harm Ensuing from Ignorance of It
2.The Origin of Mahāmudrā According to the Sūtras
3.The Origin of Mahāmudrā According to the Tantras, Especially the Unsurpassed Link [Anuttara-tantra]
1.Exposition of the System of Three and Four Mudrās
2.Exposition of the Extraordinary Mahāmudrā
3.Clearing Away the Confusion of Other Schools
4.How Mahāmudrā Embodies the Deep Meaning of All the Sūtras and Tantras
1.Identifying the Essence of the Path
2.Condensing the Deep Meaning of the Sūtras and Tantras
5.The Great Qualities of the Mahāmudrā Practitioners
1.The Lineage of the Realized Ones in India
2.The Lineage of the Meditative System in Tibet
CHAPTER TWO
Preparatory Practices
1.Preparation
1.The Systematic Path of General Teachings
2.The Description of the Preparatory Exercises for this Meditative Path
2.The Relevant Preparatory Practices: The Elucidation of the Uncommon Preparations
1.Contemplation on Impermanence and the Like for Overcoming Laziness
2.Taking Refuge in the Three Jewels and Engendering an Enlightened Attitude for Clearing Impediments in the Practice
3.Making an Offering of the Cosmos [Maṇḍala] for Enhancing Personal Virtue
4.Meditation and Mantra Recitation for Purging Inner Defilements
5.Contemplative Harmonization with the Perfect State of the Guru for Drawing in Spiritual Blessings
3.The Practice Preceding the Meditational Stages
1.The Requirement to Understand the Definitive Precepts
2.How to Maintain Sessions for Meditation
PART TWO: THE MAIN MEDITATION OF MAHĀMUDRĀ
1.A [Brief] Differentiation of Mahāmudrā Meditation
2.Stages of the Actual Meditation
CHAPTER THREE
Guiding Meditators on the Path: Tranquility
1.The Means of Mastering Tranquility
2.Physical Conduct and Posture
3.The Method of Concentrating on an Object
4.Meditation for Attaining Settled Tranquility with and without a Mental Image of an Object
1.Meditation for Attaining Settled Tranquility with a Mental Image of an Object
1.The actual meditation
2.Identification with a tranquil state of mind
2.Meditation for Attaining Settled Tranquility without a Mental Image of an Object
1.Using the breathing and not using the breathing
1.Using the breathing
1.Focusing the mind on counting each breath rhythm
2.Focusing the mind on the breath’s inward retention
2.Not using the breathing
2.Achieving formless tranquility without a mental image
1.The methods for achieving flawless tranquility
1.The importance of knowing the vital point of balance between exertion and relaxation
2.The meditation with mental exertion
3.The relaxed meditation
2.Recognizing its absorptive state
5.How to Maintain the Tranquil State
6.The Stages of Realizing the Settled Mind
7.The Purpose of Realizing Tranquility
CHAPTER FOUR
Guiding Meditators on the Path: Insight
1.The Reason Why Meditation on Insight Is Necessary
2.The Preparatory Practice for Insight
3.The Systems of Meditation on Insight
4.The Relevant Meditation on Insight
1.Determining the Intrinsic Nature of Diverse Mental Perceptions
1.The reason why one achieves insight into the mind
2.The determination of the mind’s true nature as being the basis for everything
1.Which of the scriptures deal with this subject?
2.The actual stages of this meditation
3.How this meditation compares with the original exposition
4.How to determine the nature of the mind
3.The determination of the mind’s dynamic manifestations and dualistic appearances
1.The showing of all appearances to be the products of mind
2.The realization of mind, which will bring about an insight into all appearances
3.The actual stage of this meditation
2.Clearing Assumptions and Skepticism about the Basic Root [of Saṃsāra and Nirvāṇa]
1.The definite sense that thoughts and appearances are of mental origin
2.The attainment of certainty about the intrinsic nature of both tranquil and active states of mind
3.The sense of certainty that all appearances are only nonarising
5.The Characteristics of Emerging Insight
6.The Blending of Insight with Other Systems of Insight
CHAPTER FIVE
The Stages of Virtuous Practice
1.Understanding the System of Absorption at the Start
1.Determining the Abiding Nature of Mind
1.The Essence of Mind
2.The Nature of Mind
3.The Characteristics of Mind
2.Explaining the Definitive Meaning of Spontaneous Coemergence
1.The essence and terminology of spontaneous coemergence
2.The differentiations of coemergence and their identification
3.The significance of spontaneous coemergence
2.The Actual Identification of Spontaneous Coemergence
1.Identifying Coemergence of the Mind
2.Identifying Coemergence of Thought
3.Identifying Coemergence of Appearance
3.The Elimination of Flaws and the Appreciation of the Meaning of Meditation
1.The Areas of Erroneous Meditation
2.The Flaws of Partial Meditation
3.The Recognition of Flawless Meditation
1.The mind’s abiding nature is said to be identical with ordinary mind
2.The recognition of the distinctive characteristics of ordinary mind
3.The undistracted state [of ordinary mind] is shown to be meditation on Mahāmudrā
CHAPTER SIX
Consolidation of Experience in Meditation: How to Maintain Absorption and Postabsorption
1.The Reason for Maintaining the Meditation Even After Gaining Insight into the Identity of Virtuous Contemplation
1.The Reason for Maintaining the Meditation Even After Having Discovered Its Intrinsic State
2.In General, How to Maintain the Meditation with the Support of Mindfulness, Vigilance, and Self-Restraint
3.In Particular, How the Role of Mindfulness is Vital in Meditation
2.How Specifically to Maintain Absorption and Postabsorption
1.Identifying the Nature of Absorption and Postabsorption
2.The Methods of Maintaining a General Meditative State
3.The Method of Maintaining Absorption
1.Enumerating the methods for maintaining the mind’s intrinsic nature
1.The six methods for maintaining the absorptive state
2.The well-known methods of settling the mind
3.The other methods of settling the mind
2.The condensed elucidation of these methods
1.Meditating without intellectual effort
2.Maintaining an undistracted awareness of intrinsic reality
3.How these two methods contain the vital instructions on meditation
4.The Method of Maintaining Postabsorption
1.Recognition of mindfulness in postabsorption
2.The method of maintaining meditation through postabsorptive mindfulness
3.Sublimating discriminating thoughts
1.Recognizing the contemplative identity
2.Reviving the awareness of intrinsic reality
3.Sublimating recreated afflictions
4.Perceiving postabsorptive perceptions as being like a magical scene
1.The meaning of a magical scene and the rise of illusion
2.Perceiving postabsorption as being like an illusion
5.The Method of Blending Absorption and Postabsorption
CHAPTER SEVEN
Consolidation of Experience in Meditation: How to Get Rid of Meditative Deviation
1.The Elimination of Aberration and Deviation with Regard to Absorptive Equipoise
1.The Elimination of the Four Aberrations
1.The identification of the four aberrations
2.The methods of guarding against these aberrations
2.The Elimination of the Three Deviations
1.Particular experiences as a possible ground for aberrations
2.How the aberrations turn into deviations
3.Methods to prevent deviations from taking place
2.The Methods of Removing Obstacles to Meditation
1.Removing Obstacles to General Absorption
2.Removing other External or Internal Obstacles
CHAPTER EIGHT
Consolidation of Experience in Meditation: How to Determine the Mind as Nonarising [Emptiness] and Enhance Meditation
1.Determining the Mind to Be Expansive, Open, and Nonarising
1.The Epithet, Significance, and Time of Determining the Mind
2.Determining the Abiding Nature of the Mind
3.Watching the Mind’s Inner Face as the Basis of Determination
1.Watching the nature of mind and of appearances
2.The nature of meditation and meditator
4.Being Aware of the Mind’s Nonarising Openness
5.Remaining in the State of Determinate Awareness Throughout the Day and Night
2.Perfecting the Efficacy [of Awareness] through the Sublimation of the Path
1.The Ideal Time Conducive to the Practices
2.The Vital Significance of this Practice in General
3.The Six Ways of Sublimating the Practices
1.Elevating dualistic thoughts to the path by transforming any agonizing crisis into blessed conditions
2.Elevating crude emotions to the path through the spiritual process called Transforming Poison into Ambrosia
3.Elevating obstacles emanating from the superior and subordinate spiritual forces to the path
4.Elevating miseries to the path by transforming them into the spirit of enlightenment [bodhichitta]
5.Elevating the afflictions of disease to the path that harmonizes psychophysical elements into the even flavor of the elements
6.Elevating one’s dying to the path by unifying one’s primal consciousness and recollected contemplative awareness, the way a mother and her daughter are reunited
CHAPTER NINE
The Resultant Dawning of Realization
1.Differentiating the Ways of Realization
2.How Realization of the Four Stages of Yoga Takes Place
1.How the Sūtras and Tantras Show the Four Stages of Yoga
2.The General Meaning and the Essence of the Four Stages of Yoga
3.The General Meaning of the Distinct Nature of Each [of the Four Yoga Stages]
1.The difference in realization among the yoga stages
2.The somber realm of inner sensations
3.How postabsorption is maintained
4.How stains of the mind are purified
5.How postabsorption is pacified
6.The difference between absorption and postabsorption
7.The time of realization for each of the four yoga stages
8.Some other characteristics of these four stages
3.The Specific Elucidation of Each of the Four Yoga Stages of Mahāmudrā
1.Differentiating Each of the Four Yoga Stages
2.Differentiating Separately Each Level of the Four Yoga Stages
1.The one-pointed yoga
1.The differentiation of the one-pointed yoga
2How inner sensation and experience will dawn
3.How this yoga is maintained
2.The nondiscriminatory yoga
1.The differentiation of the nondiscriminatory yoga
2.How inner sensation and experience will dawn
3.How this yoga is maintained
3.The yoga of one flavor
1.The differentiation of the one-flavor yoga
2.How inner sensation and experience will dawn
3.How this yoga is maintained
4.The yoga of nonmeditation
1.The differentiation of the yoga of nonmeditation
2.How inner sensation and experience will dawn
3.How this yoga is maintained
5.The summary of their vital significance
[3.]How the Various Grounds and Paths [of Enlightenment] are Reached Through the Four Yogas
Dedication by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal
Colophon
Translator’s Notes
Sources Cited in Mahāmudrā
Suggested Reading
This great classic is dedicated
to all Buddhist masters and meditators.
LOBSANG PHUNTSHOG LHALUNGPA
FOREWORD
by His Holiness The Fourteenth Dalai Lama
Lobsang Phuntshog Lhalungpa translated Mahāmudrā, The Moonlight [Quintessence of Mind and Meditation] from the Tibetan text composed by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal [1511–1587]. During the many years since its publication, the English version has helped numerous serious Dharma students. It is excellent that the second edition is now being brought out.
It is my prayer and wish that, given the proper devotion to listening [to discourses], appreciation, and meditation, devotees may be able to arrive at the regal realm of permanent happiness.
Dalai Lama
September 3, 1998
Earth Tiger Year, 7th month, 12th lunar phase in the era of 17th sexagenarian cycle (rab-jung chu-dun-pa)
PREFACE
To the First Edition
Mahāmudrā: The Quintessence of Mind and Meditation was translated from 1976 to 1977. The finalization was done in stages, from 1981 to 1983, in between my other work. I paid special attention to the careful checking of the entire translation and editorial work, to the preparation of footnotes, to the bibliography of the Sanskrit and Tibetan titles of the Tibetan texts quoted in this treatise, and to the index.
For many years I have devoted myself to the translation of Tibetan literature – both secular and religious – into English, but have delayed publishing my translations of Buddhist texts in order to ensure their complete accuracy. None of us in the tradition has any illusions about being able to achieve the same high standard of writing and translating as that of the learned and enlightened Lama-Lotsavas of ancient Tibet, who translated Buddhist works from many other languages. Besides, the conditions for serious translators are not favorable in these modern times. Yet a series of significant events in my life finally brought about the translation of this great esoteric text.
Since 1959, when many thousands of Tibetans escaped to India and other neighboring countries, I had been asked to translate Buddhist texts by the highest authority within our tradition and by many of my Lamas. In 1969 the late Venerable Dukchen Thuksay Rinpoche, renowned master of the Drukpa Kagyü Order, presented me with a xylographed print of a Tibetan text during an assembly at Sangngak Chöling Monastery in Darjeeling (India). While blessing me, Rinpoche, in his gentle voice, said: This is the most important sacred text! I urge you to translate it.
When I opened the book and read the title, I was deeply moved. Here was the Mahāmudrā text, one of the great Buddhist classics that I had already been studying.
A few years later, His Holiness Karmapa Rigpei Dorje, the Sixteenth Karmapa, presented me with seven great commentaries on the sūtric and tantric teachings. He also handed me a certificate bearing his seal that assigned me the task of translating these texts. On the list of titles this Mahāmudrā text was especially marked for translation.
Finally, during a visit to New York in 1975, Dr. C. T. Shen, president of the Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions at Stonybrook, offered me a contract for translating the same Mahāmudrā text. Dr. Shen also invited the Venerable Dezhung Rinpoche to be adviser for this project. In addition to his generous financial support, Dr. Shen provided us with a lovely, quiet residence on his Long Island estate of Bodhifield. Throughout our two-year stay there, both Dr. and Mrs. Shen extended to us every possible courtesy and assistance. I personally and all of us in the Dharma are indeed deeply indebted to Dr. Shen, especially since his sponsorship represents only one of his many invaluable projects for the advancement of Buddhism. I here also express my deep respect and appreciation to the Venerable Dezhung Rinpoche, a great eclectic Lama and a teacher of the Sakyapa Order, for his advice and explanations of the difficult passages found in this text.
My sincere appreciation and thanks are due to my family for their encouragement and support: to my wife, Gisela Minke, for having enthusiastically and tirelessly typed and checked the English; to my son Samphe Dorje for his invaluable help in editing the first part of the translation; and to my younger son, Nawang Tenzin, for providing me with much practical help.
I wish to acknowledge with deep appreciation the advice and assistance given by a number of individuals: first and foremost my dear friends Mary Ann and Lawrence Tucker, who have consistently encouraged and supported me; my friend Ani Tsering Chodon (Martha Hamilton) for checking and typing the bilingual bibliography of the titles quoted in Mahāmudrā; the Venerable Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche, Dr. Herbert V. Guenther, and Dr. Garma C. C. Chang for reading my list of Buddhist technical terms in English and Tibetan; and also my friends Gene Smith, Hannah Robinson, Dr. Gloria Count-van Manen, and Elizabeth Dale for having read parts of the translation and for having encouraged me.
My sincere appreciation and thanks also go to the staff of the Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions at Stonybrook, Long Island, for making available to me many Tibetan texts and for allowing me to use the facilities of the institute.
I want to express special thanks to those institutions and individuals who have provided me with some of the funds required for the finalization. The major part of this expense and much voluntary assistance came from my own family. I am very grateful to Buddhayana Foundation in Massachusetts, to the Marsden Foundation in New York, and to Mr. Michael Wunmbrand for providing me with part of the funding.
Last but not least, I am very grateful indeed to my publisher, Mr. Samuel Bercholz, of Shambhala, who took a personal interest in this publication.
The xylographed text of Mahāmudrā used in this translation was printed on handmade Tibetan paper from carved woodblocks that had been preserved at Śrī Neuteng of Gyal, in Dingri, western Tibet, until the cultural revolution.
The folio numbers of this text appear in the left-hand margins of this English translation.
Since this text is an original Tibetan composition and contains numerous terms of distinct Tibetan character, I have included a limited list of Sanskrit equivalents.
The Tibetan script (which was adapted from an ancient Indian script) employs many silent letters. The recent practice of literally transcribing Tibetan words seems only to confuse foreign readers. I myself was surprised and amused when I first read my name in English as bLobzang Phuntshogs.
In this text I have deliberately adhered to the more practical phonetic rendering, which facilitates smooth reading.
Despite my dedicated efforts, there could still be errors and inaccuracies in this translation. If so, I sincerely apologize for these shortcomings.
I must confess that in both the translation and in my introduction I have addressed myself mainly to practicing Buddhists and only partly to the general readership. It is my sincere wish that this great text may serve practicing Buddhists as an illuminating guide while conveying the Buddha’s message of universal enlightenment, thus fulfilling the noble goal of the sponsor and of all others directly involved with this effort.
May this translation also be regarded as one of the worthy memorials in honor of over one million Tibetan Buddhists killed in Tibet during the last three decades.
Lobsang P. Lhalungpa
McLean, Virginia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the Second Edition
I am very pleased to see this second English edition of Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight – Quintessence of Mind and Meditation published. I especially thank His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama for his Foreword to this edition.
I am most grateful to Timothy McNeill, Publisher, David Kittelstrom, Editor, and the staff of Wisdom Publications; to the Zimmerman Family Collection for their permission to reproduce the thangka of the great Gampopa of the Kagyü lineage and to John Bigelow Taylor for the use of his photograph. The line drawing of Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, the author of this Tibetan treatise, was made by Dorje Gyaltsen of Santa Fe.
Some corrections were made to the text of the first edition as well as revisions of Sanskrit and Tibetan spellings. An effort has been made to further clarify the structure of the Tibetan text by numbering the many headings and subheadings; the contents pages serve as an outline of the topics discussed.
My Buddhist friend and book designer, Eleanor Caponigro, has worked in close collaboration with me to prepare this second edition. I am deeply grateful to her for her generous voluntary service done with such kindness and cooperation. I also wish to thank Andrea Hickman and Lee More for helping in the preparation of this edition. As the translator, I have checked the Tibetan text whenever we saw the need to verify phrases and passages in order to improve the English translation.
I was deeply touched when Richard Gere offered to help in my Dharma projects. We are very grateful to the Richard Gere Foundation for its generous grant for this second edition.
It is indeed gratifying that the English translation of this great classic for mastering mind and meditation is being used by Tibetan lamas as the teaching manual that was its original intention, and that it has been of benefit to practicing Western Buddhists.
Lobsang P. Lhalungpa
Santa Fe, New Mexico
The great Tibetan teacher Dakpo Tashi Namgyal
TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION
Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight – Quintessence of Mind and Meditation represents the advanced doctrine and practice as understood and realized by the Kagyüpa Order of Tibetan Buddhism.
The original Tibetan title of this sixteenth-century text is Ngedon chakgya chenpoi gomrim selvarjepai lekshey dawaiozer, which reads literally as The Perfect Description of Moonlight that Illuminates the Stages of Ultimate Mahāmudrā [The Great Seal].
The term Great Seal
(Mahāmudrā) contains many different meanings. Here it stands for the ultimate nature of mind and reality. Just as a royal seal wields unchallengeable authority, so the all-encompassing voidness of the ultimate reality prevails upon the cosmic phenomena. It also stands for the path of self-realization, which integrates authentic view, contemplation, and action into one perfect insight.
This extraordinary treatise provides not only a wealth of knowledge but also methods for realizing enlightenment. In writing this work the great Tibetan teacher Tashi Namgyal (1511–1587) made known many of the ancient secret oral teachings and published them as xylographic prints. Among other well-known treatises by the author are The Resplendent Jewel: An Elucidation of the Buddhist Tantra and The Sunlight: An Elucidation of Hevajra-tantra. In the course of his extensive studies and training, Tashi Namgyal studied with some Sakyapa teachers and even acted as the abbot of Nālandā Sakyapa Monastery, north of Lhasa. During his later years he functioned as Gampopa’s regent and as chief abbot of the monastery of Daklha Gampo, in South Tibet.
The Mahāmudrā is neither a students’ manual nor a self-explanatory book. Like other great Buddhist treatises it is studied under the guidance of a chosen teacher. The need for a tutor becomes apparent when one considers the magnitude of this very esoteric work, the profundity of the subject, its complex structure, its conceptual subtlety, and its technical intricacy. Among the problems untutored students would encounter are a certain (deliberate) vagueness, enigmatic quotations, allusions, and even some apparent contradictions.
This great Tibetan classic, which is widely recognized as an outstanding original work, reveals profound wisdom. The text draws systematically on the vital knowledge and the practical methods of the Buddhist sciences that form the major part of the monastic syllabus. From the sacred law (vinaya) comes the tenet of self-control, the conquest and transformation of the mind. From the essential aspects of logic (pramāṇa) come the methods of determining the nature of reality. From the psychological branch of the sublime doctrine (abhidharma) come the methods of identifying and eliminating the root of self-delusion. From the tenets of the Buddha’s transcendental wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) come the ways of achieving insight into the universal voidness (sarvadharma-śūnyatū) as the ultimate state. From the Mahāyāna system of self-realization comes the essential practice known as (the twin principles of) transcendental wisdom and infinite compassion. From this ideal emanate the psychological methods for reorienting self-centeredness to a definite concern and compassion for others. From the Buddhist tantric doctrine come the methods of transforming inner delusion and its manifestations into aspects of transcendental wisdom. The distinct Mahāmudrā meditation will then reveal the ways of achieving instantaneous insight into the innate perfection of every perception or thought.
The entire text is divided into two parts. The first part contains the principles and practices of tranquility and insight meditation according to the Hīnayāna (Little Vehicle) and Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) systems. The second part contains the advanced meditational system according to Mahāyāna followed by the higher system of Mahāmudrā (the Great Seal).
The intricate structure of this text is divided into many segments, which may appear confusing to those outside the Tibetan tradition, but it does not obscure the textual sequence or the thematic coherence. The divisions are designed to help teachers explain the text systematically and to enable the students to comprehend the complex doctrine and practice.
The elucidation is written in classical Tibetan prose and is illustrated by innumerable quotations, all drawn from the Buddha’s sūtras and tantras, from the exegetical treatises (śāstras) of the ancient Buddhist masters, and their mystical poems (dohās).
Before the actual text begins, there is the traditional homage by the author, Tashi Namgyal, to the lineage of the Mahāmudrā transmission: to his personal guru (unnamed), to the Indestructible Mind (vajramanas), and to the Buddha in his ultimate state (dharmakāya) and in his earthly manifestation (nirmāṇakāya). The principal masters duly venerated here are Saraha, Nāgārjuna, Marpa, Milarepa, and Gampopa (all of the Kagyüpa order). The author especially honors Gampopa as the second Buddha and the expounder of this unique Mahāmudrā system.
The text begins with a description of the two distinct insights and approaches originating from the Buddha’s teachings of the sūtras and tantras, that is, the common path of gradual self-realization and the uncommon path of instantaneous self-realization. The stages of the Mahāmudrā meditation embody these two paths systematically and coherently. The fundamental and advanced sūtric meditations on tranquility and insight represent the gradual path, while the actual Mahāmudrā tradition represents the instantaneous path. The sūtric meditations on the gradual path form the foundation, while the Mahāmudrā meditation represents the nonmystical, direct approach. However, Mahāmudrā meditation does not employ tantric methods per se. Even though the Buddhist tantra is looked upon as the rapid path of self-realization, it is generally considered to be an essential element of the gradual path.
The Foundation of Buddhist Studies
I am here incorporating a description of the fundamental religious training required of trainees before they start the Mahāmudrā meditation, in order to provide a complete panorama of Tibetan Buddhist practice. Such training generally consists of the study of both the fundamental and advanced sūtras and tantras. This can be achieved by taking either a comprehensive or a selective course in such traditional subjects as the moral canon (vinaya), logic (pramāṇa), the central philosophy (madhyamaka), the sciences of mind and materiality (abhidharma), and transcendental wisdom (prajñāpāramitā). Some of the Tibetan orders, such as the Kagyüpa, prefer to specify these courses in terms of thirteen main treatises. These texts are studied and tested daily in the form of debates. Individual students alternately take the role of challenger and defender. Each defender is questioned by a number of challengers, one-by-one. Instructors, scholars, and abbots witness the debates, especially during the major and minor public examinations. Among the topics chosen by individuals outside their formal courses could be Sanskritic semantics, linguistics and philology, the Tibetan poetics and prose composition, astrology, astronomy, holistic medicine, arts, architecture, and crafts.
One who cannot devote years to such comprehensive studies might take a condensed course. This could be done by studying either the broad outlines of certain texts or abridged versions of them. For every Buddhist order there is a popular and practical text that explains, in simpler language, the general teachings and which is studied by every meditator, student, and scholar. For the Kagyüpa practitioners there is Gampopa’s renowned text The Jewel Ornament of Liberation.
The selective course consists of texts on sūtric and tantric doctrines. Here individuals may choose some of the concise doctrinal treatises and meditational guides.
Buddhist studies represent a complete process of human and intellectual development as illustrated by the following maxim: Self-control, wisdom, and compassion are achieved only through listening, examining, and meditating.
The test of the training should be an immediate spiritual maturity resulting from the taming of the worldly mind through the elimination of some basic malaise like selfishness, greed, or hatred; a deepening insight into the true reality; and a growing concern for the well-being of others.
In the Buddhist tradition, scholarship is only a means to an end. Buddhism combines rationality and faith, knowledge and inner awakening, as a way to spiritual attainment. Knowledge is acquired through years of Buddhist textual studies and debates, and awakening through consistent meditational practices.
A trainee will begin by seeking the oral transmission of a chosen text from a teacher. This is regarded as a significant event, as the teacher bestows on him the energy-stream of the sacred words, along with the blessings of the lineage, both of which he himself received from his teachers. This empowers the student for tutorial studies. He will then receive the oral elucidation of the text, which may take weeks or months. There are various forms of explaining the texts: a simple literal explanation (tsigtri), a full explanation (dontri), and an experiential elucidation (nyamtri or martri) based on the teacher’s personal experience. The most important of all is the elucidation on each successive stage, which requires the student to meditate for a period of time and then to relate his experience to the teacher. This leads to regular discussions with the teacher in respect to the practice, its problems, and its progress. All the various orders of Tibetan Buddhism practice these oral transmissions.
This text presupposes that the trainee already has a good understanding of the gradual path to enlightenment as the essential religious foundation.
The Contemplative Foundation
The following will show how the student completes the entire contemplative course according to the tradition of the gradual path. The whole course is divided into three practices for three types of spiritual aspirants
: primary, average, and advanced. In the course of these practices the student develops a right view, right contemplation, and right actions. These practical principles represent wisdom, tranquility, and discipline. He learns how to harmonize his contemplative experience with his active life – how, for instance, to inspire and invigorate his daily life with contemplative insight and tranquility.
The student starts out by emulating a model of a lesser spiritual aspirant.
He appraises life with all its innate miseries. By examining the potential of his body and mind, he then recognizes them to be precious vehicles for reaching an ever-higher spiritual attainment. Next, he focuses on life’s impermanence and fragility and resolves that the selfish pursuit of material goals creates continuous negative karma with all its inevitable consequences for the here and hereafter.
He takes control over his own destiny by reorienting his life toward more meaningful pursuits and nobler goals and commitments, following the Buddha’s words: Spiritual sons, I have shown you the way to liberation. Understand that its achievement will depend on you!
Devoting himself to right thought, speech, action, and livelihood, he consciously avoids violence of any kind. He looks upon the Three Precious Jewels as the refuge from existential miseries. This means that in his daily practice he reverentially invokes the blessings of Buddha, as the teacher; the sacred doctrine, as the path to liberation; and the enlightened lineage, as inspiration and support.
As a result of this practice the student should accomplish the level of refinement, discrimination, and faith (in causality) of a lesser aspirant.
The student now moves on to the second level of training, that of an average aspirant.
Here he inculcates a spiritual motivation to achieve personal liberation (prātimokṣa) from the turbulent ocean of saṃsāra. He contemplates the Four Noble Truths: all existence is misery; the cause of misery is self-delusions; the elimination of these is possible; it is accomplished through the Path. The student devotes himself to the practical application of these by cultivating superior morality, contemplation, and wisdom in order to eliminate his existential miseries and their psychological causes. By developing a yearning for personal enlightenment, he conducts himself in accordance with a complex code of ethics. Then, with ever-present mindfulness and vigilance, he shields his whole stream-consciousness from selfish worldly ambitions and harmful thoughts and emotions while at the same time developing faith, honesty, tolerance, forbearance, and kindness. The moral purity achieved through this effort is a dependable foundation for contemplation. It is said that a person of enduring mindfulness and self-control will make a good meditator. The main purpose of this fundamental spiritual training is the taming of the mind and all its forces. Therefore, the test of the student’s immediate attainment must necessarily be seen in his morality, calmness, sensitivity, and insight. This inner transformation is marked by a new awakening into the voidness
(nonselfhood) of his stream-consciousness.
Having familiarized himself with the principles, techniques, and procedures, as well as with the oral instructions, the student now devotes himself to the mastery of the superior contemplation. He first works toward a concentrated tranquility and then toward a deeper insight. He will discover that such a state, with its wonderful ease, ecstasy, clarity, and nonduality, effectively pacifies all inner disquiet and afflictions. Yet the tranquility by itself does not completely eliminate the hidden psychological causes. Like a clear mirror, contemplative tranquility offers a perfect condition for penetrating analysis, one of the vital factors in insight meditation. Only perfect insight (in meditation) can bring about an awakened wisdom that perceives the falsity of the centralized self (or ego-entity) and at the same time the truth of the nonselfhood of personality as being the valid nature of man’s stream-consciousness.
The main purpose of this training is the development of superior wisdom. Liberation from inner delusions and their resulting miseries is achieved only by means of transcendental wisdom. This transcendental wisdom comes about through the perfection of insight meditation. Whereas listening, reading, and absorbing bring about conceptual knowledge, critical examination produces a determined view of reality. And even though this discrimination contains inherent limitations, such worldly
wisdom nonetheless serves as an avenue to deeper insight. The great Buddhist master Nāgārjuna expressed it in these words:
One cannot realize the ultimate reality without relying on conceptual knowledge; one cannot realize nirvanic enlightenment without realizing the ultimate reality.
The student is now prepared to embark upon the third level of training, that of the advanced aspirant,
by accepting the Bodhisattva precept known as bodhichitta (enlightened attitude) from a chosen master who embodies the essence of this unique spiritual discipline. Bodhichitta encompasses all aspects of the Mahāyāna path, from a perfect motivation and endeavor for universal enlightenment to a development of compassion and wisdom and finally to enlightenment (which is the ultimate bodhichitta).
Practical bodhichitta requires the mastery of the twin principles of enlightenment (skillful means and discerning wisdom). The devotee as an aspiring Bodhisattva inculcates kindness and compassion and in the process practices generosity, altruism, tolerance, striving, and inner quiet. In order to complete the enlightenment process he develops his intellectual power to its transcendental level, for wisdom opens up a revolutionary insight into the ultimate state (voidness) of mind and reality, on the one hand, and encompasses the wider dimension of reality: the imperceptible unity of material and mental phenomena and, indeed, the inseparability of existence and enlightenment (saṃsāra and nirvāṇa).
The significance of the all-encompassing bodhichitta must be clearly understood: One cannot achieve enlightenment without bodhichitta! This path – from the progressive nurturing of bodhichitta to its realization – is the path of the Bodhisattva, popularly called in Tibetan the way of the warrior,
since a practicing Bodhisattva conquers formidable enemies – his egoistic delusion and all its forces – and then seeks to liberate others enslaved by similar adversaries. The test for such a practitioner lies simply in his character and capacity to embody the wisdom/compassion ideal and to manifest it in all his thoughts and actions. This religious training will be greatly strengthened if the student, as a practicing Bodhisattva, pursues the Diamond Vehicle of the Buddhist tantra.
In summary: All students are required to apply the Buddha’s middle path in their life, that is, in their ethical conduct. This means avoiding the two extreme modes of living: uncontrolled sensuality and self-abnegation. In their metaphysical orientation it means steering clear of the two conflicting views of reality: the absolute substance (or self) and materialistic nihilism. In terms of meditation the middle path means elimination of the two extreme defects: dullness and sensory incitement.
Tranquility and Insight: The Basic Stage of Mahāmudrā Meditation
Building the aforementioned foundation will qualify a trainee for the meditational stages of Mahāmudrā. I shall give a short description of the meditation on tranquility and insight. (If my comments seem repetitive it is because the text deals with the subject of tranquility and insight in both Part I and Part II, but in different contexts.) The trainee usually begins with the common sūtric meditation on tranquility and insight, which forms the basis for the Mahāmudrā meditation. Only the mastery of these two distinct aspects of the sūtric meditation will enable a regular meditator to fully experience and appreciate the Mahāmudrā meditation. They are first mastered separately and then jointly so that the meditator can then practice the contemplative absorption, also called tranquil equipoise,
which represents the true meditation. Tranquility and insight encompass all forms of the Buddhist meditation. Even though tranquility is naturally quietening and insight analytical, the two not only complement each other but also blend harmoniously during each session, eventually culminating in the above-mentioned state. The significance of the two was emphasized by Buddha when he said: All meditators should consistently dwell in tranquility and insight, because all forms of meditation are embodied in these.
This text first provides detailed guidelines on how to master the concentrated tranquility. They deal with the fostering of the right attitude, the right motivation, the application of the principles and methods. The text elucidates the ways of maintaining the concentration: detecting, differentiating, and eliminating the defects, and enhancing the progress toward self-realization. Good results are achieved by developing a universal perspective, a skillful approach, and consistent application. The meditator’s self-appraisal of his progress or deterioration is an integral part of his training.
His rational view of life and reality, inculcated through these studies, is examined, tested, and then absorbed into a contemplative equipoise. Also, his meditative calmness and clarity are integrated into his daily life. The meditator will experience a progressive dawning of enlightenment in proportion to his elimination of the psychological causes of the existential miseries and to his achieving the transcendental qualities that constitute a perfect enlightenment (sambodhi).
The practical elements that are designed to direct his meditation as well as his life are called the Three Excellences. The first, the excellence in the beginning
(of the meditation), refers to an engendering of an attitude motivated by the yearning for the well-being and enlightenment of others. The second, the excellence in the middle,
means the reorienting of one’s meditational state to its transcendental aspect by transmuting the meditation into a nonconceptual awareness. The third, the excellence at the end,
refers to the sharing of the meditator’s spiritual merits with others through a genuine dedication.
Meditation on Tranquility
Enlightenment is achieved by means of transcendental wisdom (prajñā), which in turn arises from the joint mastery of tranquility (śamatha) and insight (vipaśyanā). Insight
here means two interdependent aspects: the process and the result. The process is the analysis, while the result is a deeper view of reality. Yet it must be pointed out that such insight cannot emerge without the essential support of inner purity, calmness, and clarity, all of which are intimately connected with the meditation on tranquility. Tranquility
means a quietude of body and mind. A special quality that this tranquility contains is perfect ease,
which turns body and mind into a tractable and efficient spiritual vehicle. The other terms currently used in the English language for meditative tranquility are concentration,
one-pointedness,
quietude,
and calm abiding.
Like every self-realization process, this tranquility also has several levels of its own – a worldly, a superworldly, and a transcendental level – all of which can be reached by meditators.
The basic level, known as approximate tranquility,
represents the human plane of desire
(kāma-dhātu). This can be reached through the nine levels of (worldly) tranquility.
Tranquility on the superworldly level refers to the eight contemplative absorptions,
which correspond to the celestial plane of fine form
and the formless plane
(rūpa-dhātu and arūpa-dhātu). Tranquility on the transcendental level is realized in the preparatory stage of arahathood.
A beginner should first learn how to practice and maintain the tranquility representing the worldly level. He can start by concentrating on a chosen object, either concrete or visualized. This is a mental state of calmness. To a meditator, tranquility
should mean a perfectly concentrated state. It contains two intrinsic qualities: stability and clarity. The two are present in what the tradition calls one-pointed mental focus.
While concentrating in this manner, one relies upon the vital force of mindfulness.
Such concentrated tranquility is aptly described by the incomparable Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), the founder of the Gelukpa order of Tibetan Buddhism:
Concentration is a king who commands the mind. If settled, it remains immobile, like Mount Sumeru; if projected, it permeates all images of virtue. It creates a perfect ease, which makes body and mind tractable.
The role of mindfulness
There can be no concentration without mindfulness, for mindfulness infuses the concentrated state with the vital energy. Supported by self-control, mindfulness will then command all aspects of one’s life, both contemplative and active. If the meditator concentrates one-pointedly in his tranquil meditation, he is bound to achieve calmness, for this concentration integrates the fragmented inner forces in a natural way. The success or failure of the meditation is largely caused by the presence or absence of mindfulness.
Mindfulness is by nature a neutral force, and as such it can be turned into either a positive or a negative element. The meditator must therefore know how to manage and direct it. In his daily life he must turn its neutral or negative aspect into a positive one.
During the early stage one may find that the concentration is weak because one’s mindfulness is unsteady as a consequence of the restless mind. With the help of self-control and dedication, one’s mindfulness will become more steady and will act as guardian
of the concentrated state. It will then instantly detect and determine any emerging distraction. This process can be compared to that of an experienced fisherman whose watchfulness and alertness help him detect a fish instantly. The mindfulness itself will undergo transformation until it finally becomes the transcendental awareness.
Timely vigilance
The act of detecting and removing a distraction is called sheyzhin (vigilance). The text spells out suitable remedies for distractions. The latter are grouped into two separate categories: senses and thoughts (either good, bad, or neutral) represent restlessness,
while sullenness, lethargy, drowsiness, and torpor are classified as diverse forms of dullness.
Restlessness is caused by one’s indulgence in sensuality or passion, by excitement, hatred, nervous tension, or stress. Dullness distraction is brought on by physical weakness, overrelaxation, laziness, insolence, stupidity, or frustration. A subtle dullness may emerge almost imperceptibly through a sensation of ecstasy. This problem crops up during a stable concentration. It produces sensations of ease and ecstasy, which in turn relax the mind and dull the clarity of the concentration. It is like getting intoxicated and losing the sharpness of the senses.
In addition to prescribing suitable remedies for any major or minor distraction, the text enumerates sets of methods for removing these obstacles and enhancing each meditational state. These are categorized as the eight points of progress, the six powerful methods, the four mental applications, and the nine stages of tranquility.
The nine stages of tranquility
The study of a painted scroll or sketch depicting the nine stages of tranquility will vivify the intricate process of mastering this concentrated tranquility. The frontispiece of this book [p. iv] illustrates step by step how the problems are resolved, how a meditator’s mindfulness is stabilized and vivified and his concentration strengthened until eventually he achieves the ideal tranquility (in the ninth stage).
The temple in the thangka painting indicates the need, at least during the early training, for serene solitude. The monk represents the meditator and symbolizes his detachment from worldly pursuits. The winding path signifies the nine stages of tranquility.
The first and lowest stage is symbolized by the monk trailing an elephant and a monkey. At this stage the meditator usually finds it hard to concentrate on a chosen image. He discovers that his inner world is overcome by the restless senses, thoughts, or passive dullness. These three powerful distractions continuously toss off his concentration like a little boat in a turbulent river and obscure it like a path shrouded in darkness. The gray monkey represents the restless mind and the gray elephant the heavy dullness. These conditions are typical of worldly minds. The image of the monk holding an ax and a rope indicates the need for self-control and mindfulness in the early stages of settling the mind. The flame along the first six stages represents vigilance. This is the dynamic aspect of mindfulness. While mindfulness watches attentively over the mental focus of the concentration, its vigilance detects any emergence of distraction – in either its crude or subtle forms – with agility and sharpness.
The second stage shows some progress in the monk’s endeavor to concentrate, as indicated by the white patch on both the monkey and the elephant. This limited progress means that the meditator is now able to achieve a concentrated focus every few moments to be interrupted again by a forceful distraction. This condition is like that of a flag that alternately flutters and stops, depending on the movement of the air.
The third and fourth levels show the monk making slow but steady progress by clearing the restlessness and dullness that alternately interfere with his concentration. The image of the monk roping the animals indicates his steady mindfulness and vigilance at these stages. But the sudden appearance of a gray rabbit on the elephant’s back indicates the emergence of a subtle dullness.
This is a mixed blessing. While the concentrated tranquility gradually stabilizes itself, it also produces an inner ease and ecstasy. This natural sensation imperceptibly lures the mind into a sullen state, robbing the mindfulness of its sharp focus. However, the white patch on the rabbit indicates the steadiness of the concentrated tranquility. This means fewer restless events at these stages.
The fifth and sixth stages show the monk achieving greater tranquility, as indicated by the animals’ widening white spots. The sixth and seventh stages show the monk achieving even greater – and irreversible – progress in perfecting his tranquility and removing distractions, as illustrated by the rapidly whitening bodies of the animals. The eighth stage shows the near-perfect tranquility, as symbolized by the virtually white elephant and monkey.
The ninth stage shows the monk in solitude, absorbed in the approximate tranquility,
as indicated by the equally restful white elephant. The approximate tranquility represents the serenity associated with the human plane of desire.
Mastery of the approximate tranquility will lead to the next stages, the superworldly and transcendental states.
The top of the thangka shows two monks riding on white elephants on two bands of multicolored rays of light, representing the two higher contemplative, superworldly levels. One of the levels, with its four states, corresponds to the natural consciousness on the refined plane of form, while the other, with its four states, corresponds to the formless plane (i.e., the two planes are within the existential realm). The sword in the monk’s hand symbolizes the sword of ultimate knowledge, which cuts through self-delusion. The monk soaring through the sky represents the preparatory and actual meditative absorption achieved by seekers of personal enlightenment (Arahats).
The test of a meditator’s immediate achievement should be discernible through his ability to maintain the concentrated tranquility unperturbed for any given time.
Meditation on Insight (into the True Reality)
The text covers various aspects of the meditation on insight ranging from its definition, categories, nature, role, and purpose to the doctrinal concepts of mind and reality, the interpretations, methods of investigation, the contemplative absorption, and the progressive realization of transcendental insight.
The insight meditation consists of three aspects: dynamic analysis, contemplative absorption, and the postabsorptive views of the illusory reality. Insight meditation basically means analytical investigation that provides the key to understanding the true nature of reality. This is why the Tibetan tradition calls it the superior seeing.
The early phase of the insight meditation consists of the intellectual investigation of what constitutes the true or false reality. The insight
as dynamic analysis cannot be meaningful without a stable inner tranquility. The reestablishing of tranquility before an insightful analysis will pacify not merely any residual disquiet but will effectively guard the concentrated investigation against any distractions. Besides, an analysis conducted without the essential calmness and clarity will activate an inner disquiet. Without this exhaustive