The Six Wives of Henry VIII
By Alison Weir
4/5
()
About this ebook
Either annulled, executed, died in childbirth, or widowed, these were the well-known fates of the six queens during the tempestuous, bloody, and splendid reign of Henry VIII of England from 1509 to 1547. But in this “exquisite treatment, sure to become a classic” (Booklist), they take on more fully realized flesh and blood than ever before. Katherine of Aragon emerges as a staunch though misguided woman of principle; Anne Boleyn, an ambitious adventuress with a penchant for vengeance; Jane Seymour, a strong-minded matriarch in the making; Anne of Cleves, a good-natured woman who jumped at the chance of independence; Katherine Howard, an empty-headed wanton; and Katherine Parr, a warm-blooded bluestocking who survived King Henry to marry a fourth time.
“Combin[ing] the accessibility of a popular history with the highest standards of a scholarly thesis”, Alison Weir draws on the entire labyrinth of Tudor history, employing every known archive—early biographies, letters, memoirs, account books, and diplomatic reports—to bring vividly to life the fates of the six queens, the machinations of the monarch they married and the myriad and ceaselessly plotting courtiers in their intimate circle (The Detroit News).
In this extraordinary work of sound and brilliant scholarship, “at last we have the truth about Henry VIII’s wives” (Evening Standard).
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Reviews for The Six Wives of Henry VIII
730 ratings37 reviews
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5I have a nearly insatiable interest in the Tudors and this book helped quench some of that interest. Weir's biographies of Henry VIII and his six wives gave me a satisfying insight into the court and the women who became his wives, as well as the impact it had in his three legitimate children, each of whom ruled England.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5This was an excellent, highly engaging biography of the wives of Henry VIII. The story is absolutely riveting and I could hardly set the book down.The first half of the book, in fact, more than the first half of the book, deals with the first two of Henry's wives, this being because they were married to him the longest.The second part of the book deals with the last four of his wives.This was a terrific read and I would not hesitate to recommend it to anyone interested in this period of history, whether you are a fan of Henry VIII or not.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5It is true story. And very easy to read.I was so surprised about the king had six wives. So many.But I feel some rady poor because they were sent to London tour.Only she cannot bore the baby boy.I strongly feel that I am happy to live this age.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I loved this book!! It was so interesting that I didn't want to put it down. Looking forward to reading about Henry's kids next.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5A good book, but a slow read. Packed with information on each of Henry VIII's wives. Tough to get through, but well worth it.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I found this book to be very good. I learned something about each wife that I didn't know about.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5A good general overview of Henry VIII and his wives. My only complaint was that it seemed to devote too much time to the first two, which made it more difficult for the next four to be as fully realized as people.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5A very well written book, I have read several books on Henry Vlll and his six wives. Weir again here has done her research into the lives of all six wives and leaves nothing out. A very good book for Tudor fans as well as anyone who has and interest in British history. I am never disappointed when reading Allison Weirs books.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5This book is an excellent biography about six very different women. Very readable, even for those who are not familiar with the story of Henry VIII and his wives. I highly recommend this book!
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I read this book in 6th grade and have been in love with Alison Weir ever since. There is so much detail in this book but none of it is boring. It is amazing to see how many conceptions and miscarriages a queen had to go through just so that A king could have a son. Henry VIII spent most of his life looking for a son when he should have seen the potential he had in his daughters. I can read this over and over and I always seem to learn something new.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Well-written, very involving story of Henry's wives. It was particularly interesting to get some insight into the less-famous wives like Catherine Parr and Anne of Cleves.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Where I got the book: purchased on Amazon UK.Ah, I do enjoy an Alison Weir. I am not enough of a historian to have Opinions about history, so my comments are about the writing rather than historical merit, and the writing is good. Weir is always lively and entertaining, perfect for a recreational history reader like me, and I found myself zipping through this as if through a novel, even though I knew how each character's story ended!It's strange, though, that my interest is always greatest up to the point where Anne Boleyn dies. I always think that the real Henry VIII story was that of the Henry-Catherine-Anne triangle, and the rest of the wives never seem to match up to the cut and thrust of the Great Matter. Once Henry won the point that he could marry and dispose of at will, the other wives' stories seem to be those of ambition overcoming common sense with the possible exception of Anne of Cleves, who really did quite well out of the deal (granted, it's a bit trickier, politically speaking, to behead a foreign princess so she had some guarantees going in).Perhaps this is why I felt that the book started off as an account of the wives but ended up more as the standard Henry +6 story; Catherine and Anne dominate the first part of the book, and then the wives get less interesting. Still, if you're looking for a good recap or just a bit of Tudor entertainment with real-life characters, read this one. It also has a good chronology, very useful if you need to check dates.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Hmmm... I'm really tempted to class this as historical fiction, given the many, many liberties Weir takes with her sources. In fact, I presumed it WAS historical fiction at first and enjoyed it immensely as such. However, I see that both in LC and here, it's classed as history, so I'll bow to the will of the majority and class it as such myself. I just have a problem reading "history" that doesn't have footnotes! Weir tries to make up for this by her folksy bibliography at the end, and maybe she really could have footnoted everything she wrote. Nonetheless, it sure seemed like she knew an awful lot about everyone's state of mind, far more than contemporaneous sources would have recorded. Chronicles of the period, albeit all we have to go on, are notoriously biased and exaggerated as well. I'll give it 4 stars. 3 stars as history, 5 stars as historical fiction.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Excellent and easy to read. Great for a general overview of Henry's wives.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5This book is an interesting history and chronology of the court of Henry VIII, his love life and court intrigue. No wonder Showtime is doing a show about the Tudors; no fiction writer could make this up. This book helps understand the dilemmas Henry VIII was under, dispel myths about him (and royalty) and creates some new ones.Ms. Weir does a fantastic job of bringing historical figures to life, telling us about the women behind the names with intelligence and zest. The author is careful to distinguish between fact and fiction, and even more careful to inform the reader about "educated guesses".
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5comprehensive, easily read biography of Henry's queens
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Read this after Mantel's historical fiction Wolf Hall, an impossible act to follow. However, it's a great introduction to the period, although Weir's sympathy for Anne Boleyn really annoyed me.
- Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5If I could create a genre for this book, it would be "intense history" or "serious history." This was a politically intense and emotionally nerve-wracking time to live in for any woman. The lifespan of a woman in this time is said to be around thirty years of age. The lifespan of a woman as wife of Henry VIII rested on her attitude as Queen and wife and how well he thought of her. While I don't advocate for divorce, I will accept it over a beheading any day!
Divorced, beheaded, died
Divorced, beheaded, survived.
This was how I remembered what happened to each Queen growing up.
Alison Weir did her research thoroughly in the making of this book. If there are any gaps, she acknowledges it. Sometimes papers are missing or its location may not be known. She did mention a fire which may account for other missing evidence that would have answered questions about Henry and his wives. It's long and intense, but it's well done.
However, it's not something I would want to re-read over and over again, which is why I gave it three stars. - Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5This was a fun, fascinating, and surprisingly riveting history, but I cannot in good conscience give more than 3 stars to anything with so many word-for-word repeated sentences (especially ones that so often concerned minor details like who-wore-what). Definitely a neat companion to the ubiquitous Tudor subgenre of fiction, though; I rather wish I'd read this before Wolf Hall and not after.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5This book offers a fascinating account of the six wives of Henry VIII. The six women were quite modern and highly educated for their times and older than average when they married King Henry. Anne Howard being the notable exception for being the youngest and probably least educated of his wives. The book chronicles the background histories of each woman and her turbulent marriage to the King. Sadly being married to Henry VIII meant belong to a world of intrigue, with various court factions trying to pull down each queen so that they could gain status and favor whenever a new queen was selected. Each queen endured her own hardships. Two, Anne Boleyn and Catherin Howard were beheaded. Catherine of Aragon was spurned, divorced, separated from her only child and left to die forgotten. Jane Seymour was only queen for a short time before dying in childbirth. Catherine Parr only survived the court intrigues by being lucky enough to outlive Henry. Out of all the wives, probably Anne of Cleves fared the best. His second foreign born wife, she quickly stepped aside when Henry wanted to divorce her. And as a result became his ‘most beloved sister’ and was able to settle peaceably in England for the most part and live out her life in comfort. The book is a must read for any student of Tudor history.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I was extremely interested in Henry VIII's life, but always confused by the timeline. This book was amazing for being in chronological order and the details. It is a large book, but surprisingly a page turner for a historical biography. His life is very interesting, and Allison Weir tries to stay as unbiased as possible, she actually makes you understand why he felt the need to marry so many times, he needed a son. Her writing is amazing and I am now starting on her other biographies. This is a must read for anyone interested in Tudor or British History.
- Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5I read the Kindle version. I think the paper version would be better, because you'd be able to flip backwards and forwards to the timelines and family trees.
I was a bit confused by the pictures at the end. The names were spelt differently from the way they were spelt in the rest of the book, and some of the information contained there contradicted the rest of the book. - Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5People have been fascinated for hundreds of years with Henry and his many wives. This biography examines each wife in turn, and on their own merits (not just as Henry's wives). Weir once again did careful research in her subjects and it shows, but she also has a sympathetic view toward these women living in a man's world. Excellent.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I love Alison Weir so my review might be a little biased. Since I have read a great deal of her other works I jumped at buying this book. It covers all six of Henry VIII's wives using a great deal of research. Predictably, Ms. Weir focuses the majority of the book on his first two, most famous wives Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn. The rest of the book somewhat flies through the rest of the wives, especially his third wife who died shortly after childbirth so her reign was quite short.This is a long book and it is heavily laded with facts and dates but I love that. It is very informative and entertaining. It is not a boring book by any means. If you want a comprehensive study of all of Henry VIII's wives, then pick up this book.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5The bibliography is at the end instead of cited throughout which means that this book is more for fun than it is for serious study. That being said, I'm no longer seriously studying history so it doesn't really make a difference, the book was excellent. It's just that old habits die hard and I found myself wanting to look at the original sources - which of course is ridiculous. It's was very interesting to read this book and watch the HBO series at the same time. Overall they're doing a good job of balancing artistic license/entertainment value and historical accuracy. I'm really looking forward to how they're going to handle Anne Boleyn's alleged crimes, trial, and execution next season. (This review was written before that season, having now seen that season, I really liked the way HBO did it.) As for the entertainment value of the book, I don't think you need to be into history to enjoy this. Historians criticize Alison Weir for making assumptions not based on solid fact, but she makes it clear that these are her interpretations of the events, the reader can make the same assumptions or different ones. I recommend it to anyone who likes a sordid plot line and a beheading or two. (For the record, while I enjoy reading about him, Henry the VIII was a d-bag.)
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5This exhaustive effort by the author does not prove an exhausting experience for the reader - not for this one, anyway. Rather, this heavy tome is an engaging and informative, filled with details of the lives - and deaths - of Henry VIII'S six queen consorts.It may seem to many that Catherine Parr - the sixth wife - was the most fortunate of these queens; however, after reading this it becomes clear that wife number four - Anne of Cleves - had the best life of them all.It's also interesting to trace how the legendary Tudor monarch developed from a much-beloved sovereign to one of the most feared tyrants in English history.In short, this is a brilliantly-researched book written by a great author.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5A great, in-depth look at Henry VIII and his six wives, with a nicely objective view toward all of them. Beautifully researched, lots of fun to read, definitely a great resource for anyone who's curious about these fascinating women.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5An engrossing history of the six women chosen to be the wives of Henry VIII.Expertly researched and deftly written, Alison Weir delivers a highly readable saga.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5An easy to read history book about a fascinating topic. I learnt much more about tudor history than ever before without ever feeling that I was learning.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5I became very keen to learn all about the Tudors after reading Hilary Mantel's excellent Wolf Hall, followed by Bring Up the Bodies not long after. At that time I had very little notion about British History, and none at all about Henry VIII and his time, other than the fact he was an oft-married tyrant who had a couple of his wives beheaded. This book was just what I needed to fill some of the biggest gaps in my understanding of a) the reasons why H8 married so often b) who his wives were, with their backgrounds and personal stories and c) why he killed off two of his wives and divorced two more. I also learned in greater detail about d) how and why the break from Rome and the pope occurred, and why there were so many reversals back and forth from Catholic to Protestant beliefs, resulting in the deaths of uncounted masses of people for heresies which were determined according to ever-changing priorities and whims of the great monarch. I felt I got quite a thorough overview of each of H8's six wives, and also that Alison Weir seemed to greatly dislike Anne Boleyn, who came across as quite an unlikeable woman, though I gather this is a widely agreed upon opinion. Catherine of Aragon, his first wife, predictably enough, came across as a saint. Ann of Cleves and Catherine Parr, as the two clever ones who survived marriage to a vile brute. And of course, plenty of information about the monarch himself and his time. Recommended for those who like me have an interest in literature about that period with little background on the topic, as I imagine a lot of the material is familiar to those who have a better grasp on English history.
Book preview
The Six Wives of Henry VIII - Alison Weir
PRAISE OF THE SIX WIVES OF HENRY VIII
Enthralling ... The panorama of royal family life as it meshed with politics, dynastic needs and history is rich, vivid and ... gripping.
—Chicago Tribune
At last we have the truth about Henry VIII’s wives. This book is as reliable and scholarly as it is readable, and thank goodness, it is unpartisan. It does justice to these very different ladies with varying fortunes.
—A. L. Rowse, The Evening Standard
An exquisite treatment, sure to become a classic.
—Booklist
A story that has been reviewed before, but not with the depth of this coverage. New research and details enrich a comprehensive yet lively survey of not just Henry’s wives, but the Tudor period’s colorful figureheads.
—Bookwatch
Informative, erudite and entertaining ... Steeped in the Tudor Court’s pageantry, politics and sexual intrigue.
—Bookworld Reviews
The scope and depth of Weir’s research provide a wealth of detail missing from many other narrative histories about the Tudors.
—Publishers Weekly
Well researched and at times beautifully written ... [This] work unquestionably is the finest exercise in collective biography focusing on Henry’s wives.
—Library Journal
A handsome and well-researched study of an endlessly fascinating period.
— Kansas City Star
by the same author
ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE
THE LIFE OF ELIZABETH I
THE CHILDREN OF HENRY VIII
THE PRINCES IN THE TOWER
BRITAIN’S ROYAL FAMILIES: THE COMPLETE GENEALOGY
The Six Wives of Henry VIII
_________
Alison Weir
Copyright © 1991 by Alison Weir
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic
or mechanical means, or the facilitation thereof, including information storage and retrieval
systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer, who may
quote brief passages in a review. Any members of educational institutions wishing to
photocopy part or all of the work for classroom use, or publishers who would like to obtain
permission to include the work in an anthology, should send their inquiries to
Grove/Atlantic, Inc., 841 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.
First published in Great Britain in 1991 by The Bodley Head, London
Printed in the United States of America
Due to limitations of space, permissions and acknowledgments appear on page 644, which
constitutes an extension of this copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Weir, Alison.
The six wives of Henry VIII/Alison Weir.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-10: 0-8021-3683-4
ISBN-13: 978-0-8021-3683-1
1. Henry VIII, King of England, 1491-1547—Marriage. 2. Great
Britain—History—Henry VIII, 1509-1547. 3. Great Britain—
Queens—Biography. 4. Wives—Great Britain—Biography.
I. Title. II. Title: 6 wives of Henry VIII.
DA333.A2W45 1992
942.05’2’092—dc20 91-29522
Grove Press
An imprint of Grove/Atlantic, Inc.
841 Broadway
New York, NY 10003
Distributed by Publishers Group West
www.groveatlantic.com
06 07 08 09 10 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
This book is dedicated to
my parents,
Doreen and James Cullen,
my mother-in-law,
Margaret Weir,
and in loving memory of
William Blackwood Weir
Contents
Chronology
Introduction
Part I Katherine of Aragon
1 The princess from Spain
2 A true and loving husband
3 Our daughter remains as she was here
4 Pain and annoyance
5 Sir Loyal Heart and the Tudor court
6 A chaste and concordant wedlock
Part II The ‘great matter’
7 Mistress Anne
8 A thousand Wolseys for one Anne Boleyn
9 It is my affair!
10 Happiest of Women
11 Shall I die without justice?
12 Like one given by God
Part III How many wives will he have?
13 I like her not!
14 Rose without a thorn
15 Worthy and just punishment
16 Never a wife more agreeable to his heart
17 Under the planets at Chelsea
Bibliography
Genealogical Tables
Index
Chronology
Introduction
The reign of Henry VIII is one of the most fascinating in English history. Not only was it a time of revolutionary political and social change, but it was also dominated by one of the most extraordinary and charismatic men to emerge in the history of the British Isles – the King’s contemporaries thought him ‘the greatest man in the world’ and ‘such a king as never before’. He ruled England in unprecedented splendour, surrounded by some of the most intriguing personalities of the age, men and women who have left behind such vivid memorials of themselves that we can almost reach out across the centuries and feel we know them personally.
Six of these people were the King’s wives. It is — and was then — a remarkable fact in itself that a man should have six wives, yet what makes it especially fascinating to us is that these wives were interesting people in their own right. We are fortunate that we know so much about them – not only the major events and minutiae of their public lives, but also something of their thoughts and feelings, even the intimate details of their private lives. Henry VIII’s marital affairs brought the royal marriage into public focus for the first time in our history; prior to his reign, the conjugal relationships of English sovereigns were rarely chronicled, and there remain only fragmentary details of the intimate lives of earlier kings and queens. Yet, thanks to Henry VIII, such details became a matter of public interest, and no snippet of information was thought too insignificant to be recorded and analysed, a trend that has continued unabated for 450 years, and which has burgeoned in the twentieth century with the expansion of the media.
Thanks to the wealth of written material that has survived in the form of early biographies, letters, memoirs, account books and diplomatic reports, unprecedented in any preceding reign, we know a great deal about, and are able to make sense of, the lives of these six long-dead women. That such material was for the first time available to any sizeable extent was thanks to the humanism of the Renaissance and the widening interest in learning it engendered. There was a dramatic expansion of educational facilities, with the founding of many new colleges and schools, and literacy was now seen as being of prime importance, not only for men, but – to an increasing degree as the Tudor period progressed – for women also. The development of printing gave rise to a growth industry in popular works and tracts, which coincided with a renewed interest in history, leading to a succession of books by a new generation of chroniclers. Greater care was taken, both in England and abroad, to maintain public records, and with the evolution of intelligence systems, such as that established by Thomas Cromwell, more detailed information than ever before was accumulated.
Much of the source material for the reign of Henry VIII was collated by historians and published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, giving rise to a succession of biographies, learned and otherwise, of the King, his courtiers and his wives. Yet while there have been several excellent recent individual biographies of the wives (see Bibliography), there has been no serious collective biography since 1905 when M.A.S. Hume’s scholarly book, The Wives of Henry VIII was published. This present book aims to fill that gap for the general reader, with information drawn from only the most reliable of the original sources.
What were they really like, those six wives? Because of the nature of the source material for the reign, nearly all of which has a political or religious bias, a writer could come up with very different assessments of each of them, all of which might be equally valid. But this would be abdicating some of the responsibilities of an historian, whose function is to piece together the surviving evidence and arrive at a workable conclusion. What follows are the conclusions I have reached after many years of research into the subject, conclusions that, on the weight of the evidence, must be as realistic as anything can be after a lapse of 450 years.
Thus, we will see that Katherine of Aragon was a staunch but misguided woman of principle; Anne Boleyn an ambitious adventuress with a penchant for vengeance; Jane Seymour a strong-minded matriarch in the making; Anne of Cleves a good-humoured woman who jumped at the chance of independence; Katherine Howard an empty-headed wanton; and Katherine Parr a godly matron who was nevertheless all too human when it came to a handsome rogue. They were fascinating women, both because of who they were and what happened to them; yet we should not lose sight of the fact that, while they were queens and therefore, nominally at least, in a position of power, they were also bound to a great degree by the constraints that restricted the lives of all women at that time. We should therefore, before proceeding with their story, pause to consider those constraints.
‘Woman in her greatest perfection was made to serve and obey man,’ wrote the Scots reformer John Knox in his treatise First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, published in 1558. In Tudor England, as in the Middle Ages, women were brought up to believe that they were vastly inferior to men. Even a queen was subordinate to the will of her husband, and – like all wives – was required to learn in silence from him ‘in all subjection’. Two of Henry VIII’s wives – Anne Boleyn and Katherine Parr – being highly intelligent and outspoken women, found this particularly hard, and consequently both clashed with the King on numerous occasions. Naturally, Henry won. The concept of female inferiority was older than Christianity, but centuries of Christian teaching had rigidly enforced it. Woman was an instrument of the devil, the author of original sin who would lure man away from the path to salvation – in short, the only imperfection in God’s creation.
Henry VIII’s wives would all have learned very early in life that, as women, they had very little personal freedom. Brought up to obey their parents without question, they found that, once married to the King, they were expected to render the same unquestioning obedience to a husband – indeed, more so than ordinary wives, for this husband also happened to be the King of England. Even widowhood brought its constraints, as Katherine of Aragon found after her first husband died and she was left to the tender mercies of her father and father-in-law until she remarried. Only during courtship might a woman briefly gain the upper hand, as both Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour did, but woe betide her if she did not quickly learn to conform once the wedding-ring was on her finger.
The notion that women could be equal to men would have been totally foreign to the King and most of his male contemporaries. Thus women, single or married, possessed very few legal rights. A woman’s body and her worldly goods both became her husband’s property on marriage, and the law allowed him to do exactly as he pleased with them. Infidelity in a wife was not tolerated, but for queens Henry VIII made it a treasonable offence punishable by death, because it threatened the succession. Two of Henry’s wives died on the scaffold after being found guilty of criminal intercourse, and the wife of a peer could face the same penalty if her adultery was proved and her husband petitioned the King to have her executed. A wife who murdered her husband was guilty, not of murder, but of petty treason, and the penalty for this until the eighteenth century was death by burning. Even if a wife merely displeased her husband, justifiably or not, the law allowed him to turn her out of the house with just a shift to cover her, and she had no right of redress. Wifebeating was common and, instead of provoking the horrified reaction it arouses today, 450 years ago it would have been regarded as a righteous punishment for an erring or disobedient wife, although there is no evidence that Henry VIII ever beat any of his wives.
From the cradle to the grave, the lives of Henry’s queens – and of all women – were lived according to prescribed rules and conventions. Only four of the six received any formal education; Jane Seymour and Katherine Howard appear to have been barely literate. Many people in the first half of the sixteenth century still did not believe that women should be educated, holding to the medieval view that girls taught to write would only waste their skill on love-letters. But thanks to men such as the Spanish educationist Juan Luis Vives, and Sir Thomas More, whose daughters were renowned examples of womanly erudition, as well as the shining examples of both Katherine of Aragon and Katherine Parr who proved that women could be both learned and virtuous, the Renaissance concept of female education gradually became accepted and even applauded. Nevertheless, the Elizabethan bluestocking was not yet born; in Henry VIII’s time, the education of girls was the privilege of the royal and the rich, and its chief aim was to produce future wives schooled in godly and moral precepts. It was not intended to promote independent thinking; indeed, it tended to the opposite.
When it came to choosing a marriage partner, high-born girls – and princesses in particular – were at the mercy of their fathers, for it was almost unheard of for them to select their own husbands. One married for political reasons, to cement alliances, to gain wealth, land and status, and to forge bonds between families; marrying for love was merely wayward and foolish. Royal marriages, of course, were largely matters of political expediency: it was not unknown for a king to see his bride’s face for the first time on their wedding day, and it was still thought unusual for a king to marry one of his own subjects. Kings were expected to ally themselves with foreign powers for political and trading advantages, and had done so until 1464 when Henry’s grandfather, Edward IV, had married Elizabeth Woodville, a commoner, for love alone, and caused a furore. Half a century later, a burgeoning sense of English nationalism meant that Henry VIII’s marriages to four commoners passed without anyone complaining that they were not of royal blood. What did excite comment was that he had married them for love, a sensational departure from tradition. In a sense, however, these were political marriages too, since the political and religious factions at Henry’s court were continually trying to manoeuvre their master in and out of wedlock.
Negotiations for marriages between royal houses could be – and often were – very protracted. It took thirteen years to arrange the marriage of Katherine of Aragon and Arthur Tudor; fortunately – as so often happened – negotiations began when both were toddlers. Royal courtship in such cases consisted of formal letters containing fulsome declarations of love, and symbolic gifts, usually rings or jewels. Unless a bride was being reared at her future husband’s court, geographical barriers often prevented the couple from meeting. Kings had to rely on the accuracy of descriptions sent by ambassadors, and also on the artistry of court painters, though there were notable mishaps: Holbein painted Anne of Cleves, but in doing so unduly flattered the lady, and a distraught Henry was driven to complain that it was ‘the fate of princes to take as is brought them by others, while poor men be commonly at their own choice’.
There was no legal age for marriage in the sixteenth century. Marriage between children was not unknown, but the usual age of both partners was around fourteen or fifteen, old enough for cohabitation. No one questioned whether young people were mature enough to marry and procreate at such an early age: life expectancy was short, and the average woman could not expect to live much beyond thirty. In this context, therefore, all of Henry’s wives except Katherine Howard married him at quite a late age. Katherine of Aragon was twenty-four (it was her second marriage), Anne Boleyn around thirty-two, Jane Seymour twenty-eight, Anne of Cleves twenty-four, and Katherine Parr thirty-one (her third marriage). By contrast, Katherine Howard was only fifteen or thereabouts when Henry, at the age of forty-nine, took her to wife, and the bride’s youth excited much comment.
A formal betrothal was called a precontract; in the case of a royal union, its terms and conditions were set out in a formal marriage treaty. A precontract could be in written form, or consist of a verbal promise to marry made before witnesses. Once it had been made, only sexual intercourse was necessary to transform it into marriage, and many couples lived together quite respectably after having conformed to this custom. Some, of course, went on to take their vows in church, but this was not a necessity except in the case of a royal or noble union, such as that between Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, which came about in this way, but which was later regularised by a ceremony of marriage.
The dowry, or marriage portion, was always the chief issue in any betrothal contract. A dowry could consist of lands, money, jewellery, plate, even household goods, and a girl’s chances of marriage depended more upon her father’s financial and social status than upon her face and form, although these sometimes helped. Even the plainest girl, if she had a rich dowry, would never lack for suitors. The contract would also feature the terms of the bride’s jointure, settled upon her by her husband-to-be or his father, for her maintenance after marriage and during widowhood. Yet it was never hers to control directly unless her husband permitted it, or unless she was widowed and did not remarry.
Without a precontract, sex before marriage was forbidden, although, of course, it was a frequent occurrence that was not just confined to the lower orders of society. As Katherine Howard’s experiences prove, lax morality could prevail among the nobility also. Men, however, were encouraged to sow their wild oats, but a woman who did so became a social outcast and ruined her chances of making a good marriage. For this reason, Henry VIII conducted his courtships of Katherine Howard and Jane Seymour in the presence of their relatives, in order to preserve the good reputation of his future wives.
Weddings themselves were performed according to ancient Roman Catholic rites, with vows being exchanged in the church porch, followed by a nuptial mass at the high altar. Two witnesses had to be present. The old form of the service then in use required the bride to vow to be ‘bonair and buxom [amiable] in bed and at board’. Henry VIII’s weddings were all solemnised in private ceremonies, with only a few selected courtiers present. Only three were marked by public celebrations afterwards: those to Katherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour and Anne of Cleves. The date and place of the King’s marriage to Anne Boleyn were kept so secret that even Archbishop Cranmer could not be certain about them. This is not to say, however, that the modern concept of a royal wedding, with all its attendant pageantry, was unknown. Public royal weddings had been the rule up until the reign of Henry VIII, and that of his parents, Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, in 1486 at Westminster Abbey was a very public affair, as was the wedding of Katherine of Aragon and Arthur Tudor at St Paul’s Cathedral in 1501. Indeed, the ceremonies observed, the procession through the streets, and the cheering crowds, were not so very different from those that a worldwide television audience saw when the present Prince of Wales married Lady Diana Spencer on the same site 480 years later.
The English had a fondness for traditional customs, and celebrated their weddings with feasting and a good deal of bawdy revelry. Dancing would follow the nuptial banquet, and then the bride and groom would be ceremoniously put to bed by the guests, the marriage bed being blessed by a priest before the couple were left alone to consummate their marriage. There is, however, no record of Henry VIII being publicly put to bed with any of his wives, although Katherine of Aragon was with Prince Arthur, in front of many witnesses.
Once the marriage had been consummated, the couple were literally viewed as one flesh, and Sir Thomas More advised them to regard their sexual union as being similar to ‘God’s coupling with their souls’. Theological doctrine inclined to the view that all carnal relationships were of a base and sinful nature; only the sacrament of marriage made the ‘damnable act’ ‘pure, clean, and without spot of sin’. However, although instances of marital sex did not have to be mentioned in the confessional, the marriage ceremony was not intended as a gateway to self-indulgent lust. The Church taught that sex was only for the procreation of children, that the Word of God might be handed down to future generations; sex was therefore a sacred duty in marriage. ‘Who does not tremble when he considers how to deal with his wife?’ asked Henry VIII in his treatise A Defence of the Seven Sacraments; ‘for not only is he bound to love her, but so to live with her that he may return her to God pure and without stain, when God who gave shall demand His own again.’
Marriage brought with it further constraints for women. Matrimony was essential to the Tudor concept of the divine order of the world: the husband ruled his family, as the King ruled his realm, and as God ruled the universe, and – like subjects – wives were bound in obedience to their husbands and masters. In 1537, Sir Thomas Wyatt advised his son to ‘rule his wife well’ so that she would love and reverence him ‘as her head’. ‘I am utterly of the opinion,’ wrote Thomas Lupset in An Exhortation to Young Men (1535), ‘that the man may make, shape and form the woman as he will.’ Certainly this was what Henry VIII expected to do as a husband. In his eyes, and in those of other men of his era, a loving, virtuous and obedient wife was a blessing direct from God. But for women, even queens, marriage often brought with it total subjection to and domination by a domestic tyrant.
Marriage was therefore a period of great upheaval and adjustment for young women, and even more so for those born royal, for a princess often had to face a perilous journey to a new land and a stranger she had never before set eyes on, as well as a heart wrenching parting from parents, siblings, friends, home and native land, all of which she might never see again. If she were clever, however, a royal bride could come to enjoy considerable power and influence, as did both Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn. Yet such status and power emanated solely from her husband. She enjoyed no freedoms but those he permitted her. Without him, she was nothing.
Queens of England were housewives on a grand scale, with nominal charge of vast households and far-flung estates from which they derived huge revenues. In fact, they had an army of officials to administer these for them, and only controlled their own income to the degree permitted them by the King; no major transactions would be conducted without his consent. Any decisions they made concerning finances, patronage, benefactions, estate management and household matters were subject to his approval; their privy council was an advisory body appointed by him to oversee their affairs on his behalf. There is evidence that Henry VIII was in fact happy to leave a good many domestic decisions to his wives’ discretion, and was certainly generous with money when the mood took him. He could also be callous when he felt the need, and was not above reminding Anne Boleyn that he had the power to lower her more than he had raised her, leaving her in no doubt as to who held the upper hand.
What was really required of a queen was that she produce heirs for the succession and set a high moral standard for court and kingdom by being a model of wifely dignity and virtue. To depart from this role could spell disaster, as both Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard found to their cost. Katherine was certainly promiscuous, but Anne merely lacked the necessary modesty, circumspection and humility of manner; thus it was easy for her contemporaries to believe her guilty of moral laxity.
A queen’s formal dignity was reinforced by the clothes and jewels she wore, and nowhere were the constraints upon women as obvious as when it came to the rules governing their attire. The everyday dress of a married woman was preordained by convention. Hair that had been worn loose before marriage must now be hidden under a hood and veil; only queens might have their hair flowing after marriage, and then only on state occasions when it was necessary to wear a crown. Women only cut their hair to enter a cloister; most wore it long – Anne Boleyn and Katherine of Aragon both had hair so long they could sit on it. Widows were required to wear a nunlike wimple and chin-barbe, familiar on portraits of the Lady Margaret Beaufort, Henry VII’s mother. This practice was dying out by the time of the Reformation, although for some time afterwards widows would wear severe white caps or hoods.
Even in summer, sleeves were required to reach the wrist, and gowns were worn long, sweeping the floor. Such were the dictates of modesty, which also required a woman to suffer agonising constriction within a corset of stiff leather or even wood. Yet it was not thought indecent to wear gowns with a square neckline low enough to expose most of the upper breasts; in an age when handreared babies rarely survived, the sight of a female breast was a common one and excited little censure.
The sumptuous attire of queens provided yet further limitation; the heavy velvets and damasks used, the long court trains, the elaborate head-dresses, and the cumbersome oversleeves, all had the effect of severely restricting movement. Queens walked slowly, danced slowly, and moved with regal bearing, not just because they were born to it, but because their clothes constrained them to it. Yet they did not complain – like many women in all periods of history, they were willing to suffer in the cause of fashion.
The chief function of a queen – and of the wives of lesser men, for that matter – was to bear her husband male heirs to ensure the continuity of his dynasty. Pregnancy could be, and often was, an annual event – from the male point of view, a highly satisfactory state, although not so satisfactory for those wives who were worn out with frequent childbearing, or for the high proportion of women and babies who died in childbed. Pregnancy and childbirth were extremely hazardous. As well as preparing a layette and a nursery, an expectant mother would, as a matter of routine, make provision for someone to care for her child in the event of her dying at its birth. And even if she survived the birth, she might be physically scarred for life. This is not the place to discuss the truly horrific things that could happen to a woman in childbed – suffice it to say that lack of medical knowledge (only midwives attended confinements, doctors were rarely called in unless it was to deal with severe complications) and the absence of any real understanding of hygiene were what really killed women.
A woman who bore ten children could expect to see less than half grow to full maturity if she were lucky. Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had ten pregnancies between them: two children survived. Caesarian section and forceps were unknown, and many babies died at birth. Given the problems with the feeding and management of babies that prevailed at the time, it is surprising that any survived at all. Many were given unsuitable foods, and there were no antibiotics; any chance infection could carry an infant off with hardly a warning. A mother could herself be at risk, even after the birth was successfully over, for at any time during her lying-in period, puerperal fever could strike; Jane Seymour died of this, probably because a tear in her perineum became infected. In this respect, marriage brought no real security to women; in all too many cases, they died as a result of it.
In an age of arranged marriages, a wife could not expect her husband to be faithful. Marriages were business arrangements, pleasure could be found elsewhere. Adultery in men was common, and Henry VIII is known to have strayed frequently during his first two marriages. Nor did he expect to be censured for it: he once brutally advised Anne Boleyn to shut her eyes as her betters had done when she dared to upbraid him for being unfaithful.
The medieval tradition of courtly love still flourished at the Tudor court. It was a code of behaviour by which the chivalrous knight paid court to the lady of his heart, who was usually older, married and of higher rank – and thus conveniently unattainable. A man could refer to his ‘mistress’ in the noblest sense, without implying that there was any sexual relationship, yet all too often the courtly ideal was merely an excuse for adultery. We shall see that Henry VIII was a great exponent of this chivalric cult, a concept inbred in him from infancy, and which inspired the courtship of all of his wives as well as the pursuit of his mistresses.
Marriage, however, was as far removed from courtly love as night from day. Once married, couples had to make the best of things, however bad, for there was rarely a way out. Divorce was very rare, and was only granted by Act of Parliament in exceptional cases, usually involving adultery among the nobility. Annulment by an ecclesiastical court, or even by the Pope, was more common, but the only grounds permissible were non-consummation of the marriage, discovery of a near degree of affinity, insanity, or the discovery of a previous precontract to someone else. Where a couple were within the forbidden degrees of affinity, the Pope was usually happy to issue a dispensation before the marriage took place. The validity of such a dispensation was accepted without question in Europe until Henry VIII brought his suit against Katherine of Aragon in 1527, claiming that the Pope had contravened Levitical law by issuing a dispensation allowing him to marry his brother’s widow. Such a stand, taken at a crucial time in the history of the Church, was enough to rend Christendom asunder.
To today’s liberated women and ‘new men’, the lives of Henry VIII’s wives appear to have been shockingly narrow and hemmed by intolerable constraints. Yet, having experienced nothing else, they did not think to question these, and accepted their inferior status as part of the divine order of things. Katherine Parr even applauded it; in her book, The Lamentations of a Sinner, published in 1548, she exhorted wives to wear ‘such apparel as becometh holiness and comely usage with soberness’, and warned them against the evils of overeating and drinking wine. Young women, she said, must be ‘sober minded, love their husbands and children, and be discreet, housewifely, and good’. Henry VIII was dead when these words were written, but we may certainly read in them a reflection of his own views. Jane Seymour took as her motto the legend ‘Bound to obey and serve’, while Katherine Howard’s was ‘No other will than his’. They, like the King’s other wives, accepted their subjugation; it was the price of their queenship and of marriage.
Part I
Katherine of Aragon
1
The princess from Spain
The child, thought the ambassadors, was delightful, ‘singularly beautiful’. Seated upon the lap of her mother, the Queen of Castile, she was gravely surveying the important yet deferential men who were taking such polite and fulsome interest in her. Only two years old in the spring of 1488, the Infanta Katherine of Aragon was already displaying the plump prettiness that was to enchant her two future husbands. Her wide blue eyes gazed from a round, firmchinned face, which was framed by wavy, red-gold hair, worn loose as was the custom for princesses at that time. She sat with her mother on a dais in the midst of the court of Castile and Aragon, which had gathered for a brief respite in the wars against the Infidel to enjoy a tournament. And, during the interval, when the contesting knights had withdrawn to their tents, the English ambassadors, sent by King Henry VII, came to pay their respects.
Queen Isabella, sovereign of Castile in her own right, and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon were well aware of their purpose. They came from a king whose title to his crown was dubious, to say the least. Although three years had now elapsed since Henry Tudor had usurped the throne of England after defeating Richard III, the last Plantagenet king, at the battle of Bosworth, he was still working hard to consolidate his position. He had, in fact, no title at all to the crown by descent; therefore he professed to claim it by right of conquest and through a questionable descent from the early British kings – not for nothing did he name his eldest son, born in 1486, Arthur. Nevertheless, there were still living at least six male members of the House of Plantagenet with a better lineal claim to the throne than Henry VII, and he knew it. Ferdinand and Isabella knew it too, and they were sensible of the fact that a marriage alliance between England and one of the great European powers would imply recognition of Henry VII’s title and immeasurably strengthen his position both in his own kingdom and in the eyes of the world at large.
There were, at that time, two major powers in Europe: France and Spain. English distrust of the French, engendered by nearly 200 years of war, forced Henry VII to consider a more congenial alliance for his son with Spain, then a new political entity. Until 1479, Spain had been made up of a group of minor kingdoms ruled by interrelated monarchs, and since the eighth century, much of the Spanish peninsula had been held by the Moors. Slowly, the Christian rulers had reclaimed the land. The ‘Reconquest’ had been going on for centuries, an internal crusade that absorbed Spanish energies and kept her to a large extent out of European politics. This long struggle against the Moors was in fact the greatest source of a sense of national identity, and the biggest single unifying factor, more so even than the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile that brought the Spanish kingdoms together under a single monarchy. No Spanish rulers were more zealous in eliminating the Moors than Ferdinand and Isabella, and by 1488 only the Moorish kingdom of Granada remained unconquered by the Christians. The sovereigns were rulers of the rest of the Iberian peninsula, save for the kingdom of Portugal, and it would only be a matter of time before Granada too came under their dominion. Spain was therefore taking its place as a major European power.
Ferdinand and Isabella represented everything that seemed desirable to Henry VII: they were the descendants of ancient monarchies, their position was strong, and their reputation glorious. If they could be persuaded to agree to a marriage alliance between Prince Arthur and one of their four daughters, then the Tudor dynasty would be far more secure than hitherto. Moreover, Spain and France were hereditary enemies, and therefore a joint pact between England and Spain would benefit both sides. The Spanish sovereigns were well aware of the potential advantages to themselves of such an alliance, but they were in no hurry to make a commitment. Ferdinand was as wily a politician as Henry Tudor, and was not prepared to sign any treaties until he could be sure that the English King was firmly established on his throne. Given England’s susceptibility to dynastic warfare, it seemed more than likely that Henry VII might not long enjoy his regal dignity.
There was, however, something that Ferdinand desired very much, and that was military assistance against the French. In March 1488, the Spanish ambassador at the English court was Dr Roderigo de Puebla, an unscrupulous diplomat of Jewish origins. Ferdinand had instructed him to offer Henry an infanta for his son in return for an undertaking on Henry’s part to declare war on France. The King of England had reacted enthusiastically to the proposal, and promptly despatched his ambassadors to Spain to view the sovereigns’ youngest daughter, Katherine.
A Spanish herald, Ruy Machado, was moved to comment on the charming impression made on the envoys by both the little girl and her mother, the Queen. At the same time, in England, Henry VII was welcoming Ferdinand’s representatives and enthusiastically showing off his nineteen-month-old son, first dressed in cloth of gold and then stripped naked, so they could see he had no deformity. The Spaniards saw an auburn-haired, fair-skinned child who was tall for his age, and thought him both beautiful and graceful, with ‘many excellent qualities’.
Ferdinand and Isabella were impressed by their reports, but still not happy about sending their daughter to a realm whose king might be deposed at any time. As Puebla told Henry VII quite candidly in July, ‘Bearing in mind what happens every day to the kings of England, it is surprising that Ferdinand and Isabella should dare think of giving their daughter at all.’ But at last Ferdinand decided that assistance against France was more important to him than his daughter’s future security, and instructed his ambassadors to draw up a treaty of marriage. There was some haggling between the representatives of both sides over the financial settlement to be made on the bride, but this was settled amicably and it was agreed that the Infanta should bring with her a dowry of 200,000 crowns (equivalent to about £5 million today). The alliance was ratified, and the dowry confirmed, by the Treaty of Medina del Campo, which was signed by the Spanish sovereigns on 27 March 1489. Thus Katherine’s matrimonial future was decided when she was three years old, a common fate of princesses at that time.
Katherine of Aragon was named after her English great-grandmother, Katherine of Lancaster, a daughter of John of Gaunt (a younger son of Edward III), who had married Henry III of Castile in 1388 and died in 1418. Her son by Henry succeeded his father as John I, and married his cousin, Isabella of Portugal; they were the parents of Isabella of Castile. Isabella had been born into a land ravaged by war, both dynastic and holy. Her brother, Henry IV, was a spineless weakling, and her mother went insane when she was a girl. Fortunately, in 1469 a marriage was arranged for Isabella with her cousin, Ferdinand of Aragon, a vigorous youth eleven months her junior. In 1474, Henry IV died childless, and Isabella became Queen of Castile in her own right.
The new Queen was of middle height with a good figure that would soon be ruined by ten pregnancies in quick succession. She had skin so fair it looked white, and her eyes were a greeny blue. She was graceful, beautiful, modest and pious, but was also blessed with a sense of humour and boundless energy. She was both clever and sensible, and turned a blind eye to her husband’s many infidelities, although she loved him dearly. Her only fault, as noted by her contemporaries, was her love of ostentation in dress, for, like her daughter Katherine in later years, she was ‘a ceremonious woman in her attire’, favouring the rich velvets and cloth of gold so typical of the period.
In 1479, the King of Aragon died and Ferdinand succeeded him. Thus, for the first time in her history, Spain became united under centralised rule, with only the Moorish Kingdom of Granada refusing allegiance to the sovereigns. The reconquest of this Infidel bastion was to be the great enterprise of their reign, to which they would devote most of their time and resources. Campaign followed campaign, with the ever growing family of the King and Queen being trailed after them in the wake of their army, from city to city, through inhospitable and hostile territory, the monarchs themselves sometimes suffering gruelling privation in their quest for a holy victory.
This left the Queen with little time to devote to her children. Her first child, Isabella, was born in 1470, and was followed in rapid succession over the next fifteen years by nine others. Sadly, all the campaigning took its toll: five babies died young. However, the rest grew to maturity. An heir to the throne, the Infante John, was born in 1478; then there was Juana, born in 1479, Maria in 1482, and Katherine (who was called Catalina in her native land), born on the night of 15-16 December 1485 in the palace of the Bishop of Toledo at Alcala de Henares, in the midst of war. The Queen had been in the saddle all day, and rose from her bed the day after the birth to go back on the march, consigning her youngest daughter to the care of nurses. Nevertheless, she cared deeply for all her children, and personally supervised their education. They, in turn, all loved and respected her, especially Katherine, who grew up to be the most like her in looks and character.
While Isabella lived, Katherine had a champion who would consider her welfare and security before all else. Yet Katherine was Ferdinand’s daughter as well, and he was very different from her mother. In appearance he was of medium height with a wellproportioned body, and had long dark hair and a good complexion. He was genial, charismatic and a good conversationalist. Like his wife, he possessed great energy which he put to good use on military campaigns but also expended on women. His contemporaries thought him compassionate, yet this did not always extend to his own family; he later abandoned one daughter to penury and had another declared insane in order to seize her kingdom. He was notorious as a great dissimulator, and for being fond of political intrigue. Yet for all his failings, he loved his wife, and theirs was a dynamic and successful partnership.
The only glimpse we have of Katherine of Aragon during her childhood is at the tournament where she was presented to the English ambassadors. Yet she was an innocent witness to most of the great landmarks of her parents’ reign: the fall of Granada in 1492, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, and the establishment of the notorious Spanish Inquisition. All of these things served to enhance the reputation of Ferdinand and Isabella as champions of the Catholic Church; Spain’s prestige in the world had never been higher.
After the conquest of Granada, the four infantas were sent there to live in the Moorish palace of the Alhambra. There they grew to maturity and were educated among the arched courtyards and splashing fountains where once the caliphs had kept their harem. The Christian princesses rarely left their sunny home, except for the great occasions of state at which their presence was required. Katherine’s tutor, appointed by her mother, was a clerk in holy orders, Alessandro Geraldini, who would later accompany her to England as her chaplain. Her education was very much in the medieval tradition, although Erasmus, the celebrated Dutch humanist, who met Katherine in England, tells us that she was ‘imbued with learning, by the care of her illustrious mother’. She learned to write with a graceful hand, and improved her mind with devotional reading, but she was also taught the traditional feminine skills of needlework and dancing, lacemaking, and embroidery in the Spanish ‘black-work’ style, which she would later popularise in England. Before her eyes was the image of her pious mother as the supreme example of Christian queenship, an example that Katherine would try to emulate all her life.
Ferdinand and Isabella arranged advantageous marriages for all their children, although none turned out as successfully as they had hoped. Isabella was married in 1490 to the Infante Alfonso of Portugal. Although it was an arranged marriage, the young couple quickly fell in love, but their happiness was shattered when, only seven months later, Alfonso was killed after a fall from his horse. His widow returned to Spain declaring it was her intention to enter a nunnery, but Ferdinand was having none of this, and after protracted negotiations sent her back to Portugal in 1497 to marry Alfonso’s cousin, King Manuel I. In 1498, Isabella died giving birth to a son, the Infante Miguel, who only lived two years. Manuel would later remarry, and his bride would be Isabella’s younger sister Maria.
Juana, the second daughter of the sovereigns, was volatile and highly unstable, yet her parents arranged for her an even more glorious marriage. Their fame had led many princes to seek alliance with them, one such being the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, Hapsburg ruler of vast territories, including Austria, parts of Germany, Burgundy and the Low Countries. He had two gifted children, Philip and Margaret, and Ferdinand and Isabella were happy to ally themselves with Maximilian by marriages between Philip and Juana and Margaret of Austria and the Infante John, the heir to Spain.
Juana and Philip were married in 1496. Philip was not for nothing nicknamed ‘the Handsome’, and Juana fell violently and possessively in love with him, with the predictable result that he soon tired of her and took mistresses. This provoked his wife to terrible rages, and her behaviour became a public scandal both in Flanders and Spain. Reports of it reached Queen Isabella, who was deeply troubled by them, yet powerless to do very much to alter the situation. However, Juana’s mental instability did not affect her fertility, and she produced six children, her eldest son Charles being born in 1500 at Ghent.
Her brother John fared rather better in his marriage, which took place in 1497. He was a pleasant youth who excelled in all the knightly virtues and who had captured the hearts of his future subjects. His constitution, however, was delicate, and Ferdinand and Isabella were concerned that his spirited and robust bride would wear him out. Their fears were well founded, too, for the Infante died only six months after his marriage, leaving Margaret of Austria pregnant with a child that was later stillborn. This meant that the Infanta Isabella was now the heiress to the Spanish throne, and when she bore her son Miguel in 1498, there were great celebrations, in spite of her death in childbirth, for Spain once more had a male heir. Yet when Miguel succumbed to a childish illness in 1500, the unstable Juana became heiress to the sovereigns, which was naturally a matter of concern to them, though at least she had a healthy son of her own.
Queen Isabella grieved deeply for the loss of her children and grandchildren, which made her remaining unmarried daughter, Katherine, seem all the more precious to her. Throughout these years of marriages and tragedy, negotiations had dragged on for Katherine’s wedding to Prince Arthur, and Isabella was now determined to ensure that her daughter’s future would be as secure and happy as she could make it. In 1493, when Katherine was seven years old, it had been decided that she would go to England in 1498, when she was twelve. In 1497, Henry VII sent her ‘a blessed ring’ as a token of his fatherly affection. She could not remember a time when she had not been referred to as the Princess of Wales, and from the age of two she had been schooled for her destiny as Queen of England. She had been brought up in the knowledge that one day she must leave Spain and her parents for ever, being told that such was the fate of all princesses like her. As she had been reared to absolute obedience to the will of her parents, she did not question this.
In August 1497, Katherine and Arthur were formally betrothed at the ancient palace of Woodstock in Oxfordshire, Dr de Puebla standing proxy for the bride. Katherine did not go to England in 1498; the date of her arrival was postponed until September 1500, when Prince Arthur would be fourteen and capable of consummating the marriage. There was concern at the English court that the bride would find it difficult to make herself understood when she arrived there, and both Queen Elizabeth and the Lady Margaret Beaufort, the King’s mother, requested the sovereigns of Spain to ensure that Katherine always spoke French – the diplomatic language of Europe – with her sister-in-law Margaret of Austria, as they themselves did not understand Latin or Spanish. They also suggested that Katherine accustom herself to drink wine, as the water of England was not drinkable. In December 1497, Queen Elizabeth wrote to Queen Isabella asking to be kept informed of the health and safety of her future daughter-in-law ‘whom we think of and esteem as our own daughter’.
The Spanish marriage alliance was popular in England, and Henry VII and his subjects were impatient to see the girl who would one day be Queen Consort of England. Spain’s second ambassador at the English court, Don Pedro de Ayala, boldly suggested to the sovereigns that it would be a good thing if Katherine came to England soon in order to accustom herself to the way of life and learn the language. He thought she could only lead a happy life by ‘not remembering those things which would make her less enjoy what she would find here’. However, considering the manners and way of life of the English, he thought it best if she did not come until she was of marriageable age. Ferdinand was in no hurry: the recent appearance of a new pretender to the English throne, Perkin Warbeck – an imposter – and the continued existence of the Earl of Warwick, who had a very good claim to it, had made him cautious, and if another, better match had presented itself for his daughter at that time he would have accepted it. However, he did agree to a proxy wedding taking place on 19 May 1499 at Prince Arthur’s manor house at Bewdley near Worcester. Again Dr de Puebla acted as proxy for the bride, and the Prince declared to him in a loud clear voice that he much rejoiced to contract the marriage because of his deep and sincere love for the Princess his wife, whom of course he had never seen. Such courtesies were the order of the day, however superficial.
Prince Arthur wrote several letters to his bride, of which only one survives, dated October 1499 and written in Latin to ‘my dearest spouse’. In it he acknowledges the ‘sweet letters’ sent to him by her (none of which are extant), which so delighted him that he fancied he conversed with and embraced her. ‘I cannot tell you what an earnest desire I feel to see your Highness, and how vexatious to me is this procrastination about your coming. Let [it] be hastened, [that] the love conceived between us and the wished-for joys may reap their proper fruit.’ Such florid and adult sentiments from the pen of a thirteen-year-old boy hint at the assistance of a tutor, yet nevertheless it must have been a comfort to Katherine to receive encouragement from her future husband.
There remained only one obstacle to Katherine’s departure for England, and that was the young Earl of Warwick, the nephew of Edward IV and Richard III, who was then a prisoner in the Tower. Ferdinand now made it very clear to Henry VII that unless Warwick were eliminated Katherine would never set foot in England, and Henry, anxious to preserve at all costs his friendship with Spain and the benefits the marriage alliance would bring, acted at once. Warwick was arraigned on a charge of conspiring with the pretender Perkin Warbeck; the simple-minded youth, beguiled by an agent provocateur, pleaded guilty, but was sentenced to death for his co-operation and beheaded on Tower Hill in November 1499. There was now nothing to stand in the way of Katherine’s wedding to Arthur. Yet not for nothing would she one day say that her marriage had been made in blood, nor would she ever cease to feel an irrational sense of responsibility for the young Earl’s death.
In 1500, assured by Dr de Puebla that ‘not a doubtful drop of royal blood remains in England’, the sovereigns began to prepare for their daughter’s departure from Spain. Henry VII, in turn, was commanding the Mayor and aldermen of the City of London to arrange a lavish reception for his son’s bride. He also requested that only beautiful women be sent in the Princess’s train, stipulating that ‘at least, none of them should be ugly.’ We do not know if Queen Isabella took this into account when appointing the ladies of her daughter’s household; for her, the main criterion was that they should come from the noblest and most ancient families of Spain. There was also a trousseau to be assembled. Katherine was to take with her many fine gowns of velvet and cloth of gold and silver, cut in the Spanish fashion, as well as undergarments edged with fine black-work lace, and hoods of velvet braided with gold, silver or pearls. The latter she would need after her marriage, when convention required a wife to cover her hair; only on state occasions would she wear it loose. Then there were night robes edged with lace for summer and fur for winter, cloth stockings and wooden stays, as well as the stiff Spanish farthingales that belled out the skirts of her gowns. Also in the trousseau was the gold and silver plate which was part of Katherine’s dowry, and her jewellery, some of which was very fine and included heavy collar chains and crucifixes, and large brooches to be pinned to the centre of Katherine’s bodices beneath the square necklines that would stay fashionable, and plunge ever lower, for the next sixty years. Lastly, a reminder to the Princess of where her duty lay, the Queen packed a beautifully embroidered christening robe.
When Isabella heard of Henry VII’s extravagant plans for Katherine’s reception, she was quick to write and tell him that she and Ferdinand would prefer it if ‘expenses were moderate’, as they did not want their daughter to be the cause of any loss to England; ‘on the contrary, we desire that she will be the source of all kinds of happiness.’ Isabella hoped, she said, that ‘the substantial part of the festival should be his love’. But Henry was determined that this, the first major state occasion since his coronation, should be celebrated on a lavish scale in order to underline the splendour of the Tudor dynasty. In March 1501, he paid £14,000 for jewels alone for the wedding, and the City of London was sparing no expense in its plans for a magnificent reception for the Infanta. Already, workmen were building a great platform outside St Paul’s Cathedral so that the crowds might witness the young couple taking their vows, and as this was a popular marriage there was mounting excitement in London.
In April 1501, Queen Isabella announced that her daughter was ready. Accordingly, on 19 May, another proxy wedding ceremony took place at Bewdley, just to make sure that nothing could be found lacking in the first. Two days later, Katherine left the Alhambra for ever, and began the first stage of her journey to the port of Corunna, whence she was to take ship for England. She took her final leave of her parents in Granada, knowing full well that she might never see them again. Isabella had carefully chosen a duenna for her, Doña Elvira Manuel, a noblewoman of mature years, who would act as chief lady-in-waiting, governess, chaperon, and general mother substitute. Doña Elvira was stern and proud, yet she was zealous in protecting her charge and concerned for her welfare. Only in later years, when Katherine began to resent the strict etiquette she imposed, did a rift develop between them.
The Infanta’s household was headed by the Count and Countess de Cabra. It included the Commander Mayor Cardenas, Don Pedro Manuel (the duenna’s husband), a chamberlain, Juan de Diero, Katherine’s chaplain Alessandro Geraldini, three bishops and a host of ladies, gentlemen and servants. Travel in those days was by litter or on horseback; the strict conventions of the Spanish court demanded that Katherine’s face be veiled in public, and that she travel behind the closed curtains of a litter, even during the hot summer months.
Katherine and her suite arrived at Corunna on 20 July, but could not embark for England until 17 August because of unfavourable winds. The sea crossing was terrible: a violent storm blew up in the Bay of Biscay, and the ship was tossed for four days in rough seas. Katherine was very sea-sick and later wrote to her mother to say ‘it was impossible not to be terrified by the storm’. The captain was forced to return to Spain, and docked at Laredo on the Castilian coast for a month while the tempests raged. At last, on 27 September, the winds died down, and Katherine once more stepped on board the ship that would take her to England. Five days later, it arrived at Plymouth in Devon.
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A true and loving husband
As Katherine walked down the gangway, followed by her retinue, the first thing she saw through her veil was the Mayor of Plymouth and his aldermen, come to welcome her to England. The townsfolk were there too, cheering and waving, and there were banners in the streets. Señor Alcares, a gentleman in the Infanta’s train, wrote to Queen Isabella that Katherine ‘could not have been received with greater joy if she had been the saviour of the world’. After being served a great feast by the citizens of Plymouth, Katherine heard mass and gave thanks for her safe arrival in her adoptive land. Meanwhile, a royal messenger was speeding away to the King, to tell him that the Princess whose arrival he had awaited for thirteen years was actually in his kingdom.
From Plymouth, Katherine travelled eastwards on the road to London. Along the way, people who had heard of her coming lined the roads to see the mysterious veiled lady who would one day be their queen. When Henry VII received news of her arrival, it was already November, and he set off at once from the royal manor at Easthampstead, Berkshire, with Prince Arthur. In Hampshire, word reached the King that Katherine was lodged at the bishop’s palace at Dogmersfield; Henry, Arthur and the lords of the Privy Council arrived there on the evening of 4 November, eager to see her.
The Count de Cabra and Doña Elvira met Henry at the door and politely