Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    The Popes: Every Question Answered
    The Popes: Every Question Answered
    The Popes: Every Question Answered
    Ebook1,468 pages14 hours

    The Popes: Every Question Answered

    By Rupert Matthews

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    This comprehensive historical reference covers the Apostolic Succession from St. Peter to Pope Francis, plus a selection of Papal Bulls and teachings.

    The papacy is a unique religious office. Lasting two millennia, it is one of the oldest and most enduring institutions in the world. The line of authority linking the current pope to the ministry of Jesus Christ has continued unbroken over the centuries.

    The Popes: Every Question Answered presents pertinent facts and fascinating details about all 266 popes, from St. Peter to Pope Francis I. Covering controversies, triumphs, and reforms from the Late Roman Period to the twenty-first century, this is an indispensable reference guide for theological students and people of all faiths.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherOpen Road Integrated Media
    Release dateSep 1, 2014
    ISBN9781626862708
    The Popes: Every Question Answered
    Author

    Rupert Matthews

    Rupert Matthews has written over 150 books for different publishers, achieving significant sales in a variety of markets both in the UK and abroad. His works have been translated into 19 languages and have been shortlisted for a number of awards. Rupert has been a freelance writer for 20 years, working in-house at a major book publisher before going freelance.

    Read more from Rupert Matthews

    Related to The Popes

    Related ebooks

    Christianity For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Following Paul

      Feb 7, 2020

      Following Paul
      6 min read

    • Article

      What Happened Next?

      Feb 24, 2022

      What Happened Next?
      9 min read

    • Article

      Thousands Pour Into St. Peter's As The Funeral Of Retired Pope Benedict XVI Begins

      Jan 5, 2023

      Bells tolled Thursday for the funeral of Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI, the German theologian who made history by retiring, as thousands of mourners packed St. Peter's Square.

      4 min read

    • Article

      The Benedictines

      Jan 5, 2024

      The Benedictines
      9 min read

    • Article

      Greatest Popes

      Dec 31, 2020

      Born Francesco della Rovere, the Sistine Chapel was built under his papacy. He also helped found the Vatican Library. But when it came to politics, Sixtus was unlucky. He waged war to gain Ferrara for his nephew, but lost, and he piled money and titl

      3 min read

    • Article

      Sectarian Scrolls?

      Apr 7, 2023

      Sectarian Scrolls?
      7 min read

    • Article

      The Roman Roots Of The English Church

      Apr 1, 2022

      Going to Church in Medieval England Nicholas Orme (Yale University Press, £20) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: A New History James G. Clark (Yale University Press, £25) THE FALLOUT OVER THE CHURCH of England’s response to Covid-19 is still with u

      7 min read

    • Article

      Book of Uncommon Prayer

      May 3, 2023

      Book of Uncommon Prayer
      3 min read

    • Article

      The People’s Pope

      Mar 21, 2024

      The People’s Pope
      7 min read

    • Article

      10 Jewish Biblical Facts That Hardly Any Christians Know…

      Oct 28, 2022

      As a new believer in Yeshua (Jesus), I assumed I was no longer Jewish—that believing in this Jewish Man had nothing in common with Jewishness. However, after reading the New Testament, I was shocked to find out that it was a Jewish book, telling a Je

      3 min read

    • Article

      The People’s Pope

      Mar 21, 2024

      The People’s Pope
      7 min read

    • Article

      A Living Fossil

      Oct 4, 2023

      A Living Fossil
      7 min read

    • Article

      Constantine Had Not Converted To Christianity?

      Jul 15, 2021

      INTERVIEW WITH HOWARD DRAKE Dr Drake is professor emeritus at the University of Santa Barbara and specialises in Ancient Rome, with particular emphasis on the fourth century CE and the life of Emperor Constantine. When Constantine became emperor of t

      6 min read

    • Article

      Why Study Church History?

      Jun 15, 2020

      Why Study Church History?
      3 min read

    • Article

      The Church & the Holocaust

      Mar 6, 2020

      The Church & the Holocaust
      3 min read

    • Article

      The Pope’s True Power

      Sep 3, 2018

      “Witch hunts” is what prominent cardinal Óscar Rodríguez Maradiaga of Honduras called the Boston Globe’s and other outlets’ reporting on decades of sexual abuse by Catholic priests in 2002, after the coverage led to accusations of a cover-up. He is n

      4 min read

    • Article

      'The Pope Who Would Be King' Details The Birth Of The Modern Papacy

      Apr 17, 2018

      Pope Francis, the current supreme pontiff of the Catholic Church, wields two different kinds of authority, one vast and one minuscule. The vast one is obvious: The Pope is seen as the heir to St. Peter, the spiritual leader of the world's more than 1

      3 min read

    • Article

      The Workings Of The Spirit

      May 17, 2024

      The Workings Of The Spirit
      13 min read

    • Article

      How the Mormons Conquered America: The success of the Mormon religion is a study in social adaptation.

      Jun 12, 2014

      At the end of the smash Broadway musical, The Book of Mormon, the protagonist, Elder Price, a zealous young Mormon missionary in Uganda, triumphantly sings, “We are still Latter day Saints, all of us / Even if we change some things, or we break the r

      11 min read

    • Article

      AGENTS OF Change

      Apr 13, 2020

      What on earth is a Reformational church? The Reformational church is God’s agent of constant change from glory to glory, conforming to the image of His Son. That’s why we are straightening and aligning the church to what Jesus intended in the first p

      4 min read

    • Article

      John Paul I, Who Served As Pope For 33 Days, Moves A Step Closer To Sainthood

      Sep 4, 2022

      The ceremony in St. Peter's Square on Sunday constituted the last formal step in the Vatican before possible sainthood for Albino Luciani, an Italian who died 33 days after he was elected pontiff.

      2 min read

    • Article

      Revealed: The Ancient Propaganda War That Led To The Triumph Of Christianity

      Apr 16, 2021

      New historical research is shedding fresh light on the birth of Christianity as a major religion. Although Christianity had existed since the mid-first century AD, it didn’t become the Roman empire’s main religion until more than 250 years later. Now

      5 min read

    • Article

      Simon Sebag Montefiore

      Dec 5, 2019

      Simon Sebag Montefiore
      3 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for The Popes

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      The Popes - Rupert Matthews

      INTRODUCTION

      The papacy is one of the oldest and most enduring institutions in the world. It has lasted for almost two millennia, seeing off duchies, kingdoms, and empires that sought to eclipse it and bring the popes to heel. As a religious office that has exercised temporal rule, the papacy is unique in European history. Although its fortunes have fluctuated and its holders have been a varied group of humans, the papacy has never deviated from its appointed task to lead Christianity and follow in the sacred footsteps of its founder St. Peter.

      Jesus Christ lived and performed His ministry in the Middle East. He was born in Bethlehem, preached around Galilee and Judea, before being crucified in Jerusalem. His Resurrection and the events that followed were the defining moments of Christianity, confirming His status as the Son of God and firing His disciples with the zeal to go out and spread the faith that became known as Christianity.

      The leading figure among those disciples was St. Peter, formerly known as Simon, on whom Jesus had promised to build His Church. The biblical book Acts of the Apostles shows Peter as playing a leading role in Christianity after Christ ascended into Heaven. It was Peter who organized the election of Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot as a disciple, and it was Peter who ruled on a variety of issues. He left Jerusalem to preach the faith in Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea. Two letters by Peter are included in the New Testament.

      Peter later traveled to Rome and became the leader of the nascent Christian community in that great city. At the time, Rome was the largest city on Earth with a population of over a million. It was also the capital of the mighty Roman Empire, a melting pot of faiths and peoples as well as a hotbed of political intrigue and military power. Quite what Peter’s role as leader of the Christians in Rome was is not entirely clear. Later writers referred to him as bishop of Rome, but the term bishop was then poorly defined. He most certainly had a leading role but, just as certainly, that role was not as rigidly defined as the term bishop of Rome would imply.

      According to Church tradition, St. Peter taught with St. Paul in Rome where both men met their deaths in about the year 67, during the reign of the emperor Nero and because of their faith. Traditionally, Peter was executed in the Circus of Nero on the Vatican Hill and his body buried nearby. The site of his burial was later chosen as the site for a grand Basilica of St. Peter. The current basilica of that name is a sixteenth-century replacement. Both the site of the execution and the burial are now regular pilgrimage spots in the city of Rome.

      Before he was taken away for execution, Peter appointed a man named Linus to take over his role as leader of the Christians in Rome. Although neither the nature of Peter’s role nor the terms that he handed over to Linus have been preserved, the move was the key moment in the foundation of the papacy. In many ways, it was the moment the papacy was born.

      Jesus Christ had handed to Peter authority over his flock, and now Peter was handing that authority to Linus. Thus was set in train the Apostolic Succession, the unbroken line of authority passed from person to person down the centuries that links the current pope directly to the ministry of Christ.

      The imposing statue of St. Paul outside St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Italy. A key founder of Church Law alongside St. Peter, St. Paul is depicted with his traditional attributes: the scrolls of scriptures and the sword of his martyrdom.

      The majestic interior of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Italy. The four pillars of St. Peter’s baldachin, built by Bernini, rise above the tomb of St. Peter that was once marked by a simple rock.

      The functions that the current pope performs—those of preaching, governing, and ordaining—were the same as the Apostles had performed in the years immediately after Christ ascended into Heaven. And each bishop of Rome was ordained into office by bishops who had themselves been ordained by the previous pope. Thus there was an unbroken line of men who had been put into office by their predecessors by the laying on of hands right back to Christ.

      Because the bishopric of Rome had been founded by St. Peter himself, the bishops of Rome maintained that they had a special leading role over other bishops. This claim was not always accepted—the patriarchs of Antioch stated that Peter had been bishop of Antioch before going to Rome and thus claimed precedence, while the patriarchs of Constantinople regarded themselves as equals to the bishop of Rome.

      A portrait of St. Linus, Peter’s successor as bishop of Rome, from an icon in the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, Italy.

      The question of precedence by the bishops of Rome was to be a constant feature of the early centuries of the papacy. The niceties of the disputes kept theologians and lawyers busy for years but, gradually, the primacy of the bishop of Rome became accepted. If nothing else, the increasing prestige of the bishop of Rome attracted to Rome the finest thinkers and administrators, so that the institution came to have a near monopoly on talent, culminating in the wonders of the Renaissance.

      The bishops of Rome were called upon to adjudicate in disputes across Christendom. Whether the point at issue was a theological definition or the more concrete question of which of two rivals should be appointed to a position, it was the bishop of Rome who, by the fifth century, was looked upon as being the person with the authority to make a final decision.

      The Crucifixion of St. Peter by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was painted for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, Italy. In a final act of humility, St. Peter asked that he be crucified upside-down so as not to imitate the death of Jesus Christ.

      Not that all the men who held the position of bishop of Rome in these early years were quite up to the job—one absconded with the money collected for good works, while a second hired a gang of gladiators to slaughter his opponents—but slowly the institution came to have a prestige and power that attracted to Rome the finest brains and most elevated souls. When the Western Roman Empire fell in the later fifth century, it was the Church that survived, providing a continuity and an anchor for the citizens of the defunct Empire now forced to live under the secular rule of barbarians, many of whom where not Christians. The Church copied the old administrative system of the Empire with bishops and archbishops taking the place of provincial governors, all looking to Rome for guidance, instruction, and preferment.

      A fresco depicting The Baptism of Constantine, painted by Gianfrancesco Penni in the early sixteenth century. The event was a key turning point in the history of Christianity when it became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.

      In the very earliest days, the Christians of Rome had met in a field near the city to elect a new bishop. Apparently, the election was held by show of hands or acclamation. But as the number of Christians increased and the importance of the papacy grew, such a procedure would no longer suffice. From the seventh century onward, there were increasingly bitter disputes over how a new pope should be elected and who should be entitled to a vote. The people, clergy, and nobles all claimed to have a right to take part in elections, often trying to marginalize the influence of other groups.

      For a while it was the nobles of the Papal States who controlled the elections of a new pope. Popes were elected for the benefit of local families and, predictably, not all popes proved to be honest or even pious. Eventually, however, it was the clergy who won the struggle for dominance at election time. By the mid-eleventh century it was established that the clergy of the parishes within Rome should be the sole electors. These cardinals, as they were known, at first suffered bullying and bribery, but over the decades the modern system of a secret election within a closed conclave developed. Thereafter, the influence of the secular world on the choice of a new pope declined to almost nothing.

      The stunning mosaic in the apse of St. Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, Italy. The enthroned Christ appears with St. Peter and St. Andrew to His left and St. Paul and St. Luke to His right. In the foreground is the Gothic baldachin by Arnolfo di Cambio.

      At first, the cardinals were simply the parish priests and deacons of the parish churches in Rome. However, popes soon began to appoint as cardinals men of talent and skills from elsewhere. A local priest was hired to do the actual work of the parish, while the cardinal concentrated on serving the papacy in a higher capacity. Thus the electorate gradually lost its exclusively Roman nature, acquiring first an Italian then European profile and, finally, a more global nature.

      It is that global nature of the papacy that dominates today. With the coming of Pope Francis to the Vatican the old European monopoly has been smashed. The Catholic Church has adherents across the World. Europe is no longer the center of balance for the Church as there are far more Catholics outside Europe than within it.

      Nor are the old rituals and ceremonials entirely in keeping with the modern face of the Church. Many date back to the days when the pope was the secular ruler of a large swathe of central Italy and claimed respect and obedience from counts and kings. The Church no longer has such secular power but has instead gained a new mantle of spiritual and moral authority. As the papacy moves into the twenty-first century, it is right that a new pope from the New World should arise to introduce new ways of doing business and new methods of expression. The papacy has changed before to reflect the changing world. It would appear to be doing so again.

      THE POPE

      The title of Pope was in origin more of a nickname than a formal title. It derives from the Greek world for father and, by about the year 200, was being applied to any bishop who showed particular pastoral care for his flock. By around 470, the bishops of Rome were being given the title whether or not they were of a particularly pastoral nature. It was not until the reign of Pope Gregory VII that an edict was issued that formalized both the use of the title for the bishop of Rome and banned its use by other bishops.

      THE VATICAN

      The papacy is today centered on the Vatican, but it was not always so. Before 311, the bishops of Rome lived and officiated at a wide variety of locations in the city—sometimes on the run from pagan persecutors. In 311, Emperor Constantine gave Pope St. Miltiades the Lateran Palace to serve as a home and office for himself and his staff. The Lateran Basilica was built on adjacent land and became the Cathedral of Rome, a status it retains. The Vatican Hill was surrounded by stout defensive walls and by the sixteenth century had become the citadel of Rome. When the Kingdom of Italy annexed the Papal States in 1870, Pope Pius IX retreated into the Vatican fortress and vowed never to emerge. In 1929, a treaty between Italy and the papacy recognized the Vatican as an independent city state within Rome, and the popes have resided there ever since.

      The Late Roman Empire 1st to 4th Centuries

      CHAPTER ONE

      The very earliest popes were leaders of the small Christian community in pagan Rome. The nature and form of the office they held is unclear, but by the year 300 the bishop of Rome had emerged as a powerful, spiritual force within Christianity and the Roman Empire. What had begun as a religion of foreigners, the impoverished, and slaves—that met with mistrust and, at times, terrible persecution—had become the mainstream faith of Rome. Wealth and lands flowed in to the hands of the Church so the bishop of Rome took on the roles of caring for the poor, building churches, and managing finances. But, just as the papacy was finding its feet, disaster struck with the Fall of Rome.

      ST. PETER The 1st Pope c.33–c.64

      Born Bethsaida, Palestine; c.1

      Parents Father, Jonah; Mother, unknown

      Died Rome, Italy; probably October 13, 64

      St. Peter was both a personal disciple of Jesus Christ and the first person to organize a community of Christians in Rome. Together with the unique mission entrusted to him by Jesus, these facts mean that Peter is today recognized as having been the first pope. This was not always the case—the early Christians in Rome reserved the title of pope for St. Peter’s successors.

      Ruins of the fishing village of Bethsaida on the northern shores of the Sea of Galilee in modern-day Israel.

      Peter was born as Simon in Bethsaida on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. Together with his brother Andrew, he became a fisherman and moved to Capernaum where he married a local girl. Peter spent some time with John the Baptist but, when Jesus began His ministry, he became one of the very first disciples to give up his home to follow Christ. From the start, Peter was recognized as a leader among the disciples and seems to have been present with Jesus at every important event in His life. Peter was there to hear most of Jesus’s sermons and parables and witnessed the raising of Jairus’s daughter, the Transfiguration, the Last Supper, and the Agony in the Garden.

      UPON THIS ROCK I WILL BUILD MY CHURCH AND THE GATES OF HELL WILL NOT PREVAIL AGAINST IT

      MATTHEW 16

      LEADER OF THE DISCIPLES

      The particular favor with which Jesus viewed Peter is illustrated several times in the New Testament. When Jesus asked the disciples who they thought He was, it was Peter who stated that they took Him to be the Messiah, the Son of the living God. Jesus then told Peter that he was blessed because of his insight and gave him the name or title of Cephas, the Aramaic word for rock. This name was later rendered into Greek as Peter, the name by which the fisherman born as Simon is today best known.

      Of crucial importance to the papacy, Jesus then went on to tell the disciples that upon this rock (i.e., Peter) I will build my church and the gates of hell will not prevail against it. Jesus continued, speaking directly to Peter, I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.

      These passages, found in the Gospel of Matthew, are taken to mean that Jesus entrusted the care of His followers to St. Peter, a duty that Peter then passed on to his successors. It was largely on this basis that later popes established their claim to supremacy over other bishops. Exactly what Jesus intended in this incident has been disputed, particularly by Protestant theologians, but there can be no doubt at all that He intended Peter to have a special role of some kind.

      This statue of St. Peter stands in front of St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. He is holding the key to the kingdom of heaven and a scroll containing the names of those fit to enter.

      Peter attacks Malchus to protect Jesus. Jesus then ordered Peter to sheathe his sword, and laid hands on Malchus to heal his wound. He then rebuked Peter saying those who live by the sword shall die by the sword.

      Throughout the Gospels, Peter comes across as being generous and warm-hearted but somewhat hot-tempered. This latter trait was shown most clearly when Jesus was arrested in the Garden of Gethsemane. Jesus had gone to the garden to pray, taking with Him three disciples of which Peter was one. Just as Jesus finished praying another disciple, Judas, arrived at the head of a group of men, some of whom were armed. Judas kissed Jesus, a pre-arranged signal to the servants of the high priest who Judas had brought with him. Those men surged forward to seize Jesus and Peter leapt to His defense. In the struggle that ensued, Peter cut off the ear of Malchus, the high priest’s servant. Jesus rebuked Peter, miraculously healed Malchus, and allowed Himself to be arrested.

      That night, Jesus was put on trial. As Christ predicted, Peter was asked three times if he was a follower of Jesus, and each time Peter denied that this was the case. Peter was no doubt justifiably frightened of being arrested himself, or of being set upon by a mob.

      Peter is absent from the Crucifixion, when only Christ’s mother Mary, Mary Magdalene, and St. John seem to have been present, but he reappears as a witness to the Resurrection. He was the first of the disciples to see the risen Christ and remained a key player during the 40 days that Christ stayed on Earth.

      Thereafter, the sources for Peter’s later life become less extensive. The Acts of the Apostles shows that Peter played a very important leadership role in the early Christian community in Jerusalem. He preached a major sermon on Pentecost and insisted on a new disciple being selected as a replacement for Judas. Peter is recorded as having been arrested and put on trial in front of the Sanhedrin where, although he openly defied the judges, he was set free. He was later imprisoned by King Herod but escaped—set free by an angel. Peter then traveled to Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea to speak to followers of Jesus and keep their faith alive. It was about this time that Peter began preaching the message of Christ to non-Jews and it seems to have been Peter who first set out rules for allowing Gentiles to enter the Christian community.

      When the disciples gathered in Jerusalem for what turned out to be the Last Supper, Jesus began washing the feet of His followers—a traditional act of hospitality at the time. Peter objected to Jesus washing his feet, but Jesus insisted and turned the incident into a lesson for his disciples: If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I have given you an example, that you should do as I have done to you. Peter then replied, Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head.

      LETTERS OF ST. PETER

      Two letters thought to have been written by Peter are included in the New Testament. The First Epistle of St. Peter is addressed to people living in Roman provinces in Asia Minor; it speaks of Jesus and urges the recipients to be steadfast in their faith during apparently difficult times.

      The Second Epistle is addressed to churches generally and has a less specific message than the First. In this letter, Peter urges his readers to lead lives of good Christian virtue. He then condemns false teachers who were already twisting the true Christian message for their own purposes. The letter then explains why Christ had not returned in the Second Coming as soon as many had expected.

      There has been considerable debate as to whether the two letters were, in fact, written by Peter. They were originally written in Greek, and both contain fine rhetorical flourishes. Peter, however, was an illiterate fisherman whose first language was Aramaic. It is therefore unlikely that he could have written these letters with his own hand. However, Peter is known to have had a secretary called Silvanus who may well have helped with the composition of the letters.

      Where Peter was when he wrote the Epistles is likewise much debated. The First Epistle states that the writer was in Babylon. This cannot have been literally true, and is likely a coded reference to the fact that he was living in the capital of a great empire, i.e., Rome.

      BISHOP OF ROME

      As an Apostle with a direct personal link to Christ, Peter would have enjoyed enormous respect among the Christian community in Rome. He would also have been in a position to lay down the law and rebuke those who broke the teachings of Christ. He may have been referred to as the presbyter or episkopoi of the community. The two words seem to have been used interchangeably in early Christian times and mean overseer or organizer. Our modern word bishop is derived from episkopoi, so it is likely that during his lifetime Peter was regarded as bishop of Rome. Given the small number of Christians living in Rome and the very different conditions of the time, however, a bishop at this date would have been a very different type of official to modern bishops.

      A few years after Peter arrived in Rome, there was a devastating fire. Many people suspected that the fire had been caused by arson and Emperor Nero quickly blamed the Christians, ordering that they should be executed in degrading ways. Some were thrown to wild dogs, some were burned, and still more were crucified. It would seem that most of the Christians executed were killed during festivals marking the tenth anniversary of Nero assuming power, October 13, 64, which is recognized as the date of Peter’s martyrdom.

      Condemned to crucifixion, as Peter was being led to the cross he declared that he was unfit to die in the same manner as Jesus and so asked the soldiers to nail him upside down.

      His body was later taken down and carried over the river to the Vatican Hill for burial. At the time, this was open country—a suitable place for the burial of a criminal. The surviving Christians marked the spot with a large red stone, symbolizing the rock of Peter’s name. A few decades later, the rock was replaced by a proper shrine and, later still, the Basilica.

      THE SECOND EPISTLE

      Unlike the First Epistle, the Second is quite vague in its intention. It also has a number of features that seem to refer to events that took place after the year 80, by which time Peter had been martyred. Some scholars believe that while the First Epistle was written—or at least dictated—by Peter, the Second Epistle was not.

      THE BASILICA

      In 318, Emperor Constantine ordered that a vast basilica should be built over the tomb of St. Peter. This was demolished in the early sixteenth century and a new basilica was completed on the site by 1626 with the old altar remaining in place. In the 1950s, an excavation under the altar found an ancient tomb containing the bones of a man aged in his sixties that dated back to the mid-first century. These were declared to be the remains of St. Peter.

      ST. LINUS The 2nd Pope c.64–c.76

      Born Volterra, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Herculanus; Mother, Claudia

      Papacy c.64–c.76

      Died Rome, Italy; September 23, c.76

      Not much is known for certain about Pope Linus—a reflection of the lack of written records relating to the early Church rather than of his importance. As the first bishop of Rome after St. Peter, Linus was instrumental in establishing the succession of office that stretches from today right back to Jesus.

      Ruins of the old city of Volterra, Italy—the birthplace of St. Linus.

      Perhaps the earliest mention of Linus comes in the biblical book 2 Timothy. This book is a letter written by St. Paul to his friend and supporter Timothy. Almost certainly, the letter was written from Rome when Paul was expecting his martyrdom and so dates to about the year 65. In the closing section Paul writes, Eubulus greets you, and so do Pudens, Linus, Claudia, and all the brothers and sisters. It is often held that this Linus is the same man recorded by later historians as Pope Linus, and that Claudia was his mother.

      Linus’s time as bishop of Rome was relatively peaceful for the Christian community. The persecution of Christians by the emperor Nero, in which St. Peter had been martyred, lasted only a few months. The Christians seem to have thereafter been more or less ignored by Roman officialdom—for a while at least. There are only two recorded actions of Linus as pope. The first was to issue an edict enforcing a rule laid down by St. Paul in his First Epistle to the Corinthians stating that women had to cover their heads in church. The second was the appointment of 15 men, none of whose names are recorded, as bishops. The duties, rights, and status of bishops at this date are not certain. They certainly had no diocese to preside over, nor were they priests in the modern sense of the word. These bishops seem to have been those men who had learned enough about the teachings of Jesus Christ to be in a position to instruct others and to have the authority to rebuke those who misbehaved. There are indications that the bishops met in council, with Linus as a sort of chairman or convenor. It seems that men holding the office of deacon looked after the more practical side of organizing the community.

      The dates of Linus’s time as pope are rather obscure. He is usually said to have taken over on the death of St. Peter, though he may have assumed his duties when Peter was arrested. That would put his assumption of office in the year 64. However, the early writer Jerome dates it to 67, which might indicate a gap of three years or might mean the date of death for Peter was in 67. Linus held office until his death, which is variously given as taking place in the year 76, 78, or 80, though the sources do agree that he died on September 23. He was buried on Vatican Hill, close to the grave of St. Peter.

      ST. ANACLETUS The 3rd Pope c.76–c.92

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Emilianus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.79–c.92

      Died Rome, Italy; c.92

      The confusion that surrounds the early papacy, due to a lack of reliable records, is exemplified by Anacletus. His name is given in different sources as Anacletus, Anencletus, and Cletus; and for many years it was thought that Cletus had been a different person to Anacletus.

      Ruins of the old city of Rome—birthplace of St. Anacletus.

      This original confusion led to scholarly disputes over both the order in which Cletus and Anacletus had held office and their respective dates. However, it is now officially held that the three names actually refer to a single person, a saint whose day is celebrated on April 26.

      The name Anacletus is Greek, but this pope is recorded as having been born in Rome. It is assumed that his parents were Greeks resident in Rome and some have suggested that they were slaves. The name Anacletus seems to have been most common among educated slaves and to have meant blameless. One of the accusations thrown at the early Church by its pagan opponents was that it was a religion of slaves and the poor, so the origins of Anacletus may have been of the lowest social order.

      That Anacletus took over from Linus is certain, but his dates are not. Some sources say he held the papacy from 76, others give the year 77, 79, or 80. Likewise, his death is recorded as having taken place in 88 or 92. It is generally agreed that this pope is the same man as the Cletus who was made a bishop by St. Peter.

      His only recorded act is that one December he ordained 25 priests to minister to the Christian community of Rome. Even that fact is disputed however. It is recorded in the Liber Pontificalis, which was drawn up about the year 250. By that date, Rome was divided into 25 parishes and some historians think that the compilers of the book, knowing nothing for certain about Anacletus, decided to record that he had created this division of the city to give him credit for something.

      The Liber Pontificalis also claims that he was crowned with martyrdom. There is no evidence that this is true and, so far as we know, the emperor Domitian, who ruled Rome at this date, had nothing against the Christians. Again, the tradition may have arisen to give Anacletus some posthumous honor. However, Domitian is known to have insisted at times on being addressed as Dominus and Deus (Lord and God). No Christian would have agreed to that, so there is an outside chance that Anacletus may have fallen foul of the emperor for this reason.

      Anacletus was traditionally buried on April 26, on the Vatican Hill, close to the red rock erected over the grave of St. Peter.

      EARLY SOURCES

      No contemporary written records of the earliest popes survive. Our knowledge of papal history before about 200 comes from a variety of later sources, which may or may not be reliable. From about 200 onward there are references in letters and other documents to the then pope, but for the earlier popes historians rely on a mix of documents. Potentially, the most useful of these is the Liber Pontificalis, a book that lists all popes, giving their dates and any noteworthy actions. The book was compiled in about 250 from earlier records, now lost, and oral traditions. For the earliest popes, the recorded details are scanty and often contradictory.

      ST. CLEMENT I The 4th Pope c.92–c.100

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Faustinus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.92–c.100

      Died Rome, Italy; possibly November 24, c.100

      That Clement was widely respected during his lifetime is almost certain because by the year 92 he was one of the few men still alive who had been an adult old enough to meet with St. Peter and St. Paul.

      Around the year 60, St. Paul wrote a letter to the Christians in Philippi referring to a respected worker for Christ named Clement. This was the same Clement who St. Peter appointed to be a deacon in Rome. That this was the man who 30 years later became pope is almost certain.

      Clement is known to have written a number of books and letters. Of these, the only one known to have survived intact is the letter he wrote to the Christians of Corinth in about 96 and known today as The First Epistle of Clement.

      The letter is important for a number of reasons. First, references to the letters of St. Paul prove these were already available in both Rome and Corinth at this early date. It also demonstrates that the bishop of Rome was being asked to resolve a dispute within another Christian community. Whether this was because the bishop of Rome was recognized as superior to the bishop of Corinth or because Clement had a personal authority is not clear. It did, however, set a precedent for later bishops of Rome.

      ST. EVARISTUS The 5th Pope c.100–c.109

      Born Antioch, now Antakya, Turkey; date unknown

      Parents Father, Judah; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.100–c.109

      Died Rome, Italy; possibly October 27, c.109

      Evaristus was the first pope who had known neither Jesus nor any of the Apostles. This was a difficult time for early Christianity as the first generation of adherents died out.

      When Evaristus was bishop of Rome there was a growing tendency among Christians to debate the teachings of Jesus Christ and the exact nature of His person—was he human, divine, or both? As the people who had known Jesus either directly or at second hand died, the Christians turned increasingly to the written records of Christ. It was now that the Gospels acquired the importance they would retain to the present day.

      The structure of the Church was likewise in flux. Gradually, the bishops would come to wield considerable power over priests and the faithful, but that process had barely started. Nor was the primacy of the bishop of Rome accepted as yet. The bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople also claimed their offices went back to the Apostles.

      Given this ferment of ideas and events, it is a shame that Evaristus is such a shadowy figure. The only facts really known about him are that his father was born in Bethlehem and that he was buried on the Vatican Hill.

      ST. ALEXANDER I The 6th Pope c.109–c.116

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Alexander; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.109–c.116

      Died Rome, Itlay; possibly May 3, c.116

      Later tradition has it that reading a narration of the Last Supper as part of the Eucharist was an idea of Alexander’s. Whether this was true or not is unknown, but it may reflect genuine changes to the Eucharist.

      We know from other sources that the ritual of the Eucharist was at about this time emerging from the earlier Agape, or communal feast, open only to Christians. The two eventually separated, with the eucharist being held as a disparate event—usually on a Sunday.

      Similarly, Alexander has been credited with originating the practice of blessing water mixed with salt for the purpose of sprinkling in Christian homes to drive out evil influences, but there is no concrete evidence for this.

      A Christian named Alexander was martyred by being beheaded beside the seventh milestone from Rome on the Via Nomentana in the second century. His tomb stood beside the road near the site of his execution. For many years it was believed that this Alexander was identical to Pope Alexander I, but there is no documentary link. In 1960, Pope John XXIII officially broke the link between the martyr Alexander and the pope Alexander, recognizing them to have probably been two different men.

      ST. SIXTUS I The 7th Pope c.116–c.125

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Pastor; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.116–c.125

      Died Rome, Italy; possibly April 3, c.125

      Although his name is conventionally given as Sixtus, this pope’s real name was probably Xystus as this is the more correct Greek form of the name current at this date.

      Of all the early popes, Sixtus I is one of the most poorly known. Although the later sources give his dates with apparent authority, they do not agree with each other. It is generally agreed, however, that he held office for ten years during the reign of the emperor Hadrian.

      The most important act attributed to St. Sixtus by later historians is that it was he who introduced to the Mass the Sanctus—a short hymn that in translation runs: Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of hosts. Heaven and earth are full of your glory. Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest.

      The Sanctus is based in part on a verse from Isaiah in the Old Testament. That verse is recited during some Jewish rituals, and some believe that the Sanctus is therefore derived from Judaic practice, which would make it an ancient part of Christian ritual. However, whether St. Sixtus truly introduced it or not is not known for certain.

      ST. TELESPHORUS The 8th Pope c.125–c.136

      Born Terranova da Sibari, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Unknown

      Papacy c.125–c.136

      Died Rome, Italy; possibly January 2, c.136

      As with most early popes, firm information about Telesphorus is hard to come by. However, most early sources agree that he held office for 11 years and was born in southern Italy of Greek parentage.

      A key source for knowledge of early Christian thinking is Irenaeus, a Greek who died in about 202. His writings include several references to the bishops of Rome. The actual dates of Telesphorus’s pontificate are disputed however, nor is anyone certain what powers or obligations he held as bishop of Rome. The one fact that the early historians agree on is that Telesphorus was martyred by order of the Roman emperor, though whether that was Hadrian or Antoninus Pius is uncertain. At this time, the growing number of Christians were incurring the wrath of the Roman government. The key problem was that Christians refused to accept that other gods existed and would not pour libations on the altars of the state gods. Some years earlier, Emperor Trajan had decided that Christians should be punished only if they openly flaunted their contempt of the official gods. It seems that Telesphorus must have done just this for he was executed and his body was buried on the Vatican Hill near to that of St. Peter.

      ST. HYGINUS The 9th Pope c.138–c.142

      Born Athens, Greece; date unknown

      Parents Unknown

      Papacy c.138–c.142

      Died Rome, Italy; date unknown

      The Liber Pontificalis says that Hyginus was an Athenian philosopher who traveled to Rome. The length of his time in office is unclear, with some sources giving four years, others as much as ten.

      Although details of Hyginus’s time as pope are almost entirely lacking, sources from elsewhere show that the office of bishop was changing at this time. As the numbers of Christians grew it was no longer possible for a single leader to minister to them all. Other presbyters emerged to minister to groups of the faithful, although the bishop of a city remained the most respected Christian there. We know that in Antioch, for example, the bishop was asserting a real authority over the presbyters, as opposed to the vague moral authority he had possessed before. In Antioch, nobody could act as a presbyter without the bishop’s consent. In this way they sought to weed out those men insufficiently knowledgeable in Christ’s teachings.

      A later account credits Hyginus with similar actions in Rome and, since the ordering of ranks of clergy and decisions about who was fit to serve and who wasn’t were occupying bishops elsewhere, this may be have been true. Hyginus is likewise credited with moving Easter Day from the day of the Jewish Passover to the nearest Sunday.

      ST. PIUS I The 10th Pope c.142–c.155

      Born Aquileia, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Rufinus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.142–c.155

      Died Rome, Italy; date unknown

      It is during the papacy of St. Pius I that the bishopric of Rome begins to emerge into certain history. Even so, the length of his time in office is not certain, with dates varying from 140 to 146 being given for the start of his papacy.

      Aquileia was one of the largest and wealthiest cities of the early Roman Empire. It was destroyed by Attila the Hun in the mid-fifth century.

      Several early writers state that Pius was the brother of Hermas, who wrote a famous book called The Shepherd, which likened the established Church to a shepherd and Christian people to its flock. We know Hermas was born a slave, so many have speculated that Pius was likewise of servile origin.

      Pius is often credited with being the first bishop of Rome in the modern sense of the words. The evidence for this is slim but persuasive. We know that another prominent Christian left Rome in a huff at this time, having failed to become bishop of Rome, so there must have been such a position for him to hope to gain. We also know that within a couple of decades of Pius’s time writers were talking about the powers of the bishop of Rome as having been of long standing and predating Anicetus, who followed Pius. Other clues point to it having been Pius who managed to secure the authority of the bishop of Rome over all the Christian communities in and near the city. For example, Pius decreed that Easter should be celebrated on Sunday—illustrating that he was in a position to issue a decree with the expectation that it would be obeyed, at least in and around Rome.

      Pius played a leading role in a bitter dispute within early Christianity. Marcion, a wealthy shipowner from Sinope, began preaching an idiosyncratic version of Christianity that became popular throughout Asia Minor. In 144, he came to Rome and proclaimed that only some Christian writings were true, denouncing others. Concerned by the validity and popularity of Marcion’s views, Pius summoned a council of learned Christians to question him and, in July 144, Marcion was excommunicated, becoming perhaps the first person to suffer this fate for his views—earlier excommunications had been on the grounds of sin, especially fornication or worshiping pagan gods. His teachings were later condemned as heretical—another first.

      A rather more welcome visitor to Rome at this time was St. Justin, who stayed in the city several times between 140 and 165, when he was martyred. Justin wrote many important theological works, on subjects such as the Resurrection and the Logos.

      Later writers claim that Pius was himself martyred, something taken as fact from the ninth century onward. However, the research that followed the decision of the Second Vatican Council that accounts of martyrdom are to accord with the facts of history failed to find any real evidence that Pius had suffered anything other than a natural death.

      MARCIONISM

      Marcion taught that the God proclaimed by Jesus was a separate deity to that of the Old Testament, effectively cutting Christ off from his Jewish heritage. He also proclaimed the teachings of St. Paul showed that the God of Christ was a perfect spiritual entity, while the God of the Old Testament was a malicious, material creature.

      ST. ANICETUS The 11th Pope c.155–c.166

      Born Homs, Syria; date unknown

      Parents Father, John; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.155–c.166

      Died Rome, Italy; possibly April 20, c.166

      When Anicetus held the position of bishop of Rome is not known for certain, although most scholars agree that the dates 155 to 166 cannot be more than a year or two out. Anicetus took over from Pius, traditionally being elected 14 days after the latter’s death.

      While the method by which he was chosen is unknown, Anicetus certainly inherited wide-ranging powers and authority similar to those enjoyed by later bishops. However, the limits of the power that the bishop of Rome could exercise at this date are shown by the fact that Cerdo the Gnostic openly preached in Rome his message that there were two equal, but opposed deities–God and Satan–and that Satan created and ruled the world, while God held sway over the spiritual realm. The Gnostic sect was extremely active at the time and gained numerous adherents. Anicetus and others considered the teachings to be heretical.

      St. Polycarp miraculously extinguishes the fire prepared for his execution.

      The chief event of Anicetus’s time as bishop came when Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome. Polycarp was well into his eighties at this date and, as a young man, had met and listened to John the Apostle who had known Christ. He was, as a result, highly respected.

      The purpose of the visit was to allow the two leaders of Christianity to resolve various doctrinal issues, such as agreeing the date on which the Resurrection of Christ should be celebrated. Polycarp and most Christians in the East celebrated the date on the Jewish Passover, regardless of on which day of the week it fell. Most in the West preferred to celebrate it on the nearest Sunday, since it was held to be the Lord’s Day. After much debate neither managed to convince the other, so they agreed to accept that each should do as they thought fit. They parted as friends, having agreed on many other matters, which is more than can be said for many of their successors as leaders of Eastern and Western Christianity. Polycarp was martyred in Smyrna soon after he left Rome. According to tradition, he was sentenced to be burned at the stake but when the flames miraculously went out, he was beheaded. Later tradition has it that Anicetus himself was martyred on April 20, perhaps alongside Justin the Martyr, but there is no conclusive evidence to support this claim.

      GNOSTICISM

      The basis of Gnosticism was the claim that its adherents had access to a hidden knowledge—gnosis—that was additional and superior to the accepted Gospels and letters of the Apostles. This knowledge was often in the form of gospels or letters that, the Gnostics claimed, St. Paul had hidden as being too sublime or powerful to be circulated to ordinary people. Other forms of hidden knowledge came in the shape of special interpretations of accepted apostolic writings. Many Gnostics passed on verbal secrets to each other, holding these to be so sacred that they should not be written down.

      ST. SOTER The 12th Pope c.166–c.174

      Born Fondi, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Unknown

      Papacy c.166–c.174

      Died Rome, Italy; date unknown

      It was Soter who began a process by which the ability to undertake sacred tasks was increasingly reserved only to clergy properly appointed by a bishop.

      Soter issued a decree that a marriage would be considered valid only if it had been properly solemnized by a priest. Previously, Christians had followed pagan practice in seeing marriage as being primarily a civil matter.

      At some point, Soter wrote a strongly worded letter to Bishop Eusebius of Corinth. The letter has not survived, but it seems to have criticized Eusebius for a lax attitude toward sinners and the conditions under which they should be readmitted to the Christian community. The reply from Corinth was apologetic and promised to put things right, but rather pointedly did not accept that the bishop of Rome had any right to dictate to the bishop of Corinth. The exchange is seen as an early attempt by the bishop of Rome to exercise the type of authority over other bishops that later popes would take for granted.

      Later tradition has it that Soter spoke out against the teachings of Montanus (see p.28). Later accounts of the martyrdom of Soter are now considered to be apocryphal.

      ST. ELEUTERUS The 13th Pope c.174–189

      Born Nicopolis, Greece; date unknown

      Parents Father, Habundius; Mother, unknown

      Papacy c.174–189

      Died Rome, Italy; 189

      The first firm date in the history of the papacy is the death of Eleuterus in 189. Apart from that, however, little is known about this elusive pope. His later fame rests largely on a passage in the Liber Pontificalis.

      The passage reads as follows: He (Eleuterus) received a letter from Lucius, king of Britain, asking him to appoint a way by which Lucius might become a Christian. Eleuterus has therefore been credited with beginning the conversion to Christianity of the British Isles. However, at this date there were no kings in Britain, then the Roman province of Britannia, firmly under the control of Rome. Later generations sought to explain the statement by saying that the word king should be taken to mean nobleman, or that the king in question was a king of an area outside Roman control.

      Eleuterus was the first bishop of Rome to be faced by what would become the Montanist heresy (see p.28). The Christians of Lyon, led by Irenaeus who was later to gain fame as a theologian, asked Eleuterus for the opinion of the Church of Rome on the new movement within Christianity. No firm record of Eleuterus’s response has survived, but he is thought to have sent at least one letter to Montanus.

      ST. VICTOR I The 14th Pope 189–198

      Born Africa; date unknown

      Parents Father, Felix; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 189–198

      Died Rome, Italy; 198

      The first pope to have Mass celebrated in Latin instead of Greek, Victor was a formidable character who ruthlessly tackled the Gnostic writer and priest Florinus, excommunicating him from the Church.

      Next to feel his wrath was Theodotus of Byzantium who had suggested that Jesus had been a normal human until the Holy Spirit descended on Him during His baptism. Theodotus, too, was excommunicated. Victor also definitively declared Montanism to be a heresy. This New Prophecy movement adhered to mainstream Christian theology in almost every respect. The hostility of the Church seems to have been driven by the claim by the self-proclaimed prophets who founded the movement to have the ability to forgive sins, something the Church reserved to ordained priests. The Montanists also held that women could become priests and bishops, again in defiance of the established Church.

      Victor is the first bishop of Rome known to have had any dealings with the imperial government. A Christian servant named Marcia became the mistress of Emperor Commodus. She asked Victor for a list of fellow Christians held in slavery or prison for their faith and managed to secure their release.

      ST. ZEPHYRINUS The 15th Pope 198–217

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Habundius; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 198–217

      Died Rome, Italy; perhaps August 26, 217

      Zephyrinus was a controversial character. According to some he was a disgrace to his position as bishop of Rome; to others he was a brave man heroically defending the Faith in difficult circumstances.

      Zephyrinus held office in trying times. Marcionism, Montanism, and Gnosticism were all strong and growing heresies. Moreover, a rich banker named Theodotus tried to set up a rival bishop of Rome who would espouse the heresy that Christ had been a mere man until his baptism. This plot was uncovered when the would-be rival bishop threw himself at the feet of a startled Zephyrinus and begged forgiveness.

      In about 197, the emperor Septimius Severus announced a policy of religious syncretism, whereby the followers of different gods would be encouraged to identify their local deity with its Roman equivalent. Neither the Christians nor the Jews had a Roman equivalent for their God, and persecutions began. In 202, large numbers of Christians were executed in North Africa. In 211, another wave of martyrdoms followed in western North Africa and Gaul.

      What action, if any, Zephyrinus took to counter this persecution is unknown. Later accounts claim that he, too, fell victim to the persecutions and was martyred on August 26, 217. He was buried on the Appian Way.

      ST. CALLIXTUS I The 16th Pope 217–222

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Domitius; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 217–222

      Died Rome, Italy; perhaps August 14, 222

      One of the most controversial popes, Callixtus is notorious for splitting the Church of Rome, inadvertently creating the first schism and the first antipope. Born into slavery, as a youth he worked for Carpophorus who was responsible for handling money as an investor.

      As a young man Callixtus, or Callistus, worked for a Christian named Carpophorus who was responsible for handling money invested for charitable purposes by local Christians. Carpophorus put Callixtus in charge of managing the substantial funds. When the money (and Callixtus) went missing, Callixtus was arrested and put to work on a treadmill. Upon his release, he tried to extract some of the money from a Jew to whom he claimed to have lent the money. The Jew denied it and a fight broke out. Callixtus was again arrested and sentenced to slavery in mines in Sardinia.

      Callixtus was freed, some years later, thanks to the mistress of Emperor Commodus (see p.28). When Pope Victor died, Callixtus entered the household of the new pope, Zephyrinus. By about 210, Zephyrinus had handed over to Callixtus the effective running of the Church.

      When Zephyrinus died, there was a bitter dispute over who should succeed him. The majority of those entitled to vote went for Callixtus, while a vocal minority chose a priest named Hippolytus. Both men announced that they were now bishop of Rome and inevitable confusion ensued.

      Callixtus took over from his predecessor in attempting to deal with doctrinal disputes, including Modalism: the idea that the Holy Trinity represents three modes of a single deity rather than three persons in one. Callixtus condemned the idea but not those who espoused it, incurring the ire of those who wanted the Modalists excommunicated.

      Callixtus’s death was as dramatic as his life. In August 222, rioting broke out in Rome following the murder of the emperor Elagabalus by the Praetorian Guard. Callixtus was somehow caught up in the riot, and the next day his body was found stuffed down a well.

      ANTIPOPE HIPPOLYTUS

      Rich, cultured, educated, and freeborn, Hippolytus was everything that Callixtus was not. When Callixtus was elected bishop of Rome, Hippolytus condemned both the election and the man and led a sizeable faction of Roman Christians into schism. Hippolytus was the author of a number of important theological and liturgical works, including the Apostolic Tradition and the Refutation of All Heresies. Traditionally, he was martyred by being dragged behind a chariot.

      ST. URBAN I The 17th Pope 222–230

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Pontianus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 222–230

      Died Rome, Italy; 230

      There are many colorful legends about Urban but little certain knowledge. This was a quiet time for Christianity with no recorded persecutions or martyrdoms.

      Against this background of stable obscurity, later generations credited Urban with being the first bishop of Rome to use a silver goblet and platter for Mass, and to provide similar silver utensils to every church in Rome. For a religion that was at first largely the preserve of the impoverished, this was a remarkable step.

      Also ascribed to Urban by later generations was a decree concerning the use of money given during Mass: The gifts of the faithful that are offered to the Lord can only be used for ecclesiastical purposes, for the common good of the Christian community, and for the poor; for they are the consecrated gifts of the faithful, the atonement offering of sinners, and the patrimony of the needy. Rather more fanciful are the legends that Urban toppled a pagan idol by the power of prayer alone and that he had a tiara made for himself.

      Later generations believed that he was martyred by being beheaded with a sword, and he is often shown in art with this attribute.

      ST. PONTIAN The 18th Pope 230–235

      Born Rome, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Calpurnius; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 230–235

      Died Sardinia, Italy; 237

      The papacy of Pontian began as quietly as that of his predecessor. In about 231, however, he was involved in a dispute in Egypt over the status of the formidably intelligent scholar and theologian Origen.

      In 230, Origen spent some months in Caesarea Maritima in Palestine, where he was ordained by the local bishop. On his return to his native Alexandria, however, he found that the bishop there, Demetrius, refused to accept him as a priest. When Pontian was asked for his opinion on the matter, he judged that as Origen was from Alexandria he was wrong to have accepted elevation to the priesthood from any bishop other than the bishop of Alexandria. This incident is taken as clear evidence that Christians were starting to look to the bishop of Rome for judgement.

      In March 235, Emperor Maximinus Thrax came to power and turned on the Christians. Pontian was one of the first to be arrested and sentenced to perpetual slavery in Sardinia. Just before leaving Rome, on September 28, 235, he stood down as bishop to allow someone else to take over. At the same time he was reconciled to the antipope Hippolytus (see p.29). Both men died in Sardinia a couple of years later.

      ST. ANTERUS The 19th Pope 235–236

      Born Petilia Policastro, Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Romulus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 235–236

      Died Rome, Italy; January 3, 236

      Anterus took over as bishop of Rome at a time when Emperor Maximinus Thrax had instituted the first official, empire-wide persecution of Christians. Anterus died less than two months after taking office.

      Religion in the Roman Empire was complex, with a large variety of gods and goddesses vying for attention. What all these deities had in common was that their adherents practiced their rites in public and recognized that the other gods were, in fact, gods. Governors and emperors believed that the well-being of the Empire rested on the favor of the state gods: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Everyone in the Empire was expected to attend the public festivals in honor of these gods and to pour libations onto their altars. Christians pointedly refused to do so, making them obvious scapegoats when a disaster befell the Empire. Most persecutions followed either a disaster, such as famine or invasion, or were sparked by local civil unrest. Either way, the Christians were easy targets to blame and to strike.

      Anterus was buried in the Catacomb of Callixtus, where his tomb was unearthed in 1854. No documented evidence exists for the later legend that he was martyred.

      ST. FABIAN The 20th Pope 236–250

      Born unknown, probably Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Fabius; Mother, unknown

      Papacy 236–250

      Died Rome, Italy; January 20, 250

      Fabian is referred to in several contemporary documents, where he is always treated with respect. He clearly made a deep impact on his fellow Christians, and it is a shame that we know little about him.

      With the new persecution ordered by Emperor Maximinus Thrax, the Christians met secretly to choose a new leader. There were several distinguished candidates but legend has it that a dove settled on the head of Fabian, an otherwise unnoticed member of the crowd. Taking this as a sign from God, the Christians appointed Fabian.

      Meanwhile, the persecutions of Maximinus came to an end when civil war broke out and a new emperor, Gordian III, left the Christians in peace. Fabian continued building the burial Catacomb of St. Callixtus and other cemeteries, undertook a reformation of the structure of clergy in Rome, and had the bodies of Pontian and Hippolytus returned from Sardinia.

      In January 250, the next emperor, Decius, announced that everyone had to honor the state gods. Fabian was among the first to refuse and the first to be arrested. A few days later he died in prison, presumably murdered by the guards. He was buried in the Catacombs of Callixtus, where his tomb was found in 1854.

      ST. CORNELIUS The 21st Pope 251–253

      Born unknown, probably Italy; date unknown

      Parents Father, Castinus; Mother, unknown

      Papacy March 251–June 253

      Died Civitavecchia, Italy; June 253

      Having ordered the death of Fabian (see p.31), the emperor Decius was not about to tolerate a new bishop of Rome. His men patrolled with such efficiency that it was impossible for Christians to organize a new election. It was over a

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1