Stuff You Should Have Learned at School
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About this ebook
If you spent your school days in a haze and you feel like you’re missing some essential bits of knowledge, here’s the perfect pocket guide to bring you up to speed. Within these pages are easy to read refreshers on basic knowledge in English, math, science, history, geography, the classics, and music, including:
- Algebra, geometry, numbers, angles, and ratios
- Literary terms, Shakespeare, great poets and novelists, and the rudiments of spelling and grammar
- The human body, the theory of evolution, the laws of physics, and the meaning of puzzling equations like E=MC2.
- Major world battles, U.S. Presidents, and historical inventions and discoveries.
Michael Powell
An Adams Media author.
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Stuff You Should Have Learned at School - Michael Powell
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are registered trademarks of Barnes & Noble, Inc.
© 2004 by Gusto Company AS
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Illustrations by Allen Boe and AnnDréa Boe
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INTRODUCTION
If your schooldays were the happiest days of your life, you either had a great time and learned nothing or you’ve had a miserable existence ever since. Maybe you were the kind of pupil who, when asked to explain the theory of gravity, threw your teacher out of the window.
Can you name 10 United States presidents or explain plate tectonics to your granny? Do you know who invented the Post-It note and how to add fractions? Have you ever attempted to read James Joyce’s Ulysses?
That’s why this little book shouldn’t ever leave your backpack (can’t bear to throw it away, huh?). It’s packed with all that stuff that you should have learned at school when you were too busy with . . . um . . . other stuff.
Here’s your chance to bone up on 50 of the big ideas you might have heard of if you hadn’t been screwing off, smoking behind the bike racks, sleeping, or just being plain stupid. It wouldn’t kill you to have a second chance, would it?
So eyes on the blackboard and pay attention!
CONTENTS
ENGLISH
Literary Criticism and Theory
Literary Forms and Terms
Geoffrey Chaucer
The Chopping Bard: Ten Shakespeare Plays
Goethe
Fifty-Four Great Poets
One Hundred Must-Read Novels
Ten Spelling Tips
Ten Grammar Tips
James Joyce and Ulysses
MATHEMATICS
Types of Numbers
Fractions, Ratios, and Percentages
Sequences: What Comes Next?
The Beauty Of Prime Numbers
Algebra: Simultaneous Equations
Averages
Flow Charts
Geometry: Angles
Probability
Math is Fun
SCIENCE
Atoms
The Human Body
Eighteen Physical Laws
Sixty Inventions and Discoveries
Evolution and Natural Selection
Freud, Jung, and the Unconscious
What is E = MC²?
Quantum Theory
A Brief History of the Big Bang
Birth of Computers
HISTORY
Archaeology: A Load of Old Bones?
Twenty Battles
United States Presidents
Know Your Dinosaurs
Egyptian Mummification
GEOGRAPHY
Gondwanaland and Continental Drift
Polar Ice and Global Warming
Volcanoes: How Do They Work?
Capital Cities
Cloud Formation
THE CLASSICS
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey
The Olympian Deities
Roman Gladiators
Ten Greek Myths
MUSIC
Why Are There Twelve Notes in a Musical Scale?
The Orchestra
Thirty Classical Composers and Their Greatest Works
Musical Notation
Ten Operas Explained
ENGLISH
Outside of a dog, a book is a man’s best friend and inside of a dog, it’s too dark to read.
– Groucho Marx
Literary Criticism and Theory
Literary Forms and Terms
Geoffrey Chaucer
The Chopping Bard: Ten Shakespeare Plays
Goethe
Fifty-Four Great Poets
One Hundred Must-Read Novels
Ten Spelling Tips
Ten Grammar Tips
James Joyce and Ulysses
Literary Criticism and Theory
Literary criticism is the interpretation and evaluation of the literary qualities of a text with reference to personal and cultural significance, the use of language, and the aesthetic effect, and placing the text within the context of genres and literature as a whole. Literary theory examines the nature of literature itself (asking questions such as What is literature?
) and its purpose and functions, and attempts to understand the frames of reference applied to judgments of literature.
Different schools, or types, of literary theory and criticism take individual approaches to understanding texts. Here are the broad schools that have been most influential during the last century.
New Criticism:
New Criticism started in the late 1920s and proposed that a work should be judged and interpreted by detailed reference to the text alone; it should be treated as an autonomous entity, separate from other factors such as the author’s biographical details or intended meaning.
This approach opens up the text to rich ambiguity
and many simultaneous meanings.
Archetypal/Myth Criticism:
Archetypal, or Myth, Criticism involves viewing the text and its genre, plots, and characters in terms of recurrent archetypes or mythic patterns that Carl Jung described as primordial images,
a common language of symbols that is passed down from generation to generation, inherited in our collective unconscious.
It treats literature as an active process that involves the reader at a deep psychological level because he or she brings experience of these symbols to a reading of the text.
Psychoanalytic Criticism:
Psychoanalytic Criticism applies modern psychological ideas (particularly those of Sigmund Freud) to the study of literature and often uses them to psychoanalyze the author. This literary movement also applies psychological principles to interpret the motivations and conflicts of the characters.
Marxist Criticism:
Marxist Criticism is based on the philosophical, political, and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who believed that it is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence . . . but their social existence that determines their consciousness.
Therefore, Marxist critics always interpret the form and content of a text in the context of the historical, economic, and sociological forces that shaped it.
Russian Formalism:
Russian Formalism, a diverse linguistic movement that began in the 1920s, viewed literature as being composed of an autonomous, largely self-referential language, a sum of literary and artistic devices, as distinct from ordinary spoken language, which is largely functional. Its focus is to define and analyze the unique features and functions of this formal poetic language.
Structuralism:
Structuralism is a way of viewing the world (and literature) that places more importance on the structures that link individual elements than the elements themselves, which have no intrinsic importance or even existence in isolation. Everything in the world is textual in the sense that it is composed of signs and ordered according to a pattern of relationships. This approach has helped take literature off its pedestal and allowed a wider study of textuality
in more popularist
forms of writing.
Post-Structuralism and Deconstruction:
Post-Structuralism and Deconstruction was a reaction to Structuralism. It aimed to view a text as having no knowable center or meaning but an infinite set of meanings, rendering any attempt to take meaning from the structure as futile and, in fact, meaningless. It can also be crudely summed up as death to the author
– the idea that once a text has been written, it ceases to be the domain of the author and cannot be read as communicating a single message, but will present many coexisting and conflicting with each other. This school of thought also tries to demonstrate that binary ideas, such as maleness and femaleness, or good and evil, are not polar but fluid and exist on a continuum.
Feminist Criticism:
Put very simply, Feminist Criticism aims to reinterpret language and literature, which has for so long been dominated by male beliefs and preoccupations. It explores the relationship between writing and gender; rediscovers, re-examines, and reprints women’s literature of the past; seeks to challenge and raise awareness of male and female stereotypes and sexist and patriarchal attitudes in literature; defines recurrent feminist themes and develops a new feminist writing.
Reader-Response Theory:
Reader-Response Theory suggests that the reader produces his or her own highly subjective meanings. This broad approach can accommodate, at one end of the spectrum, the–some would say elitist–idea that there is a correct
reading that the educated
reader can attain by developing a sophisticated interpretive strategy. But it can also allow a relativistic analysis that the reader actually creates the text.
Literary Forms and Terms
Do you know the difference between a trochee and an iambic pentameter, or a simile and a metaphor? Here is all you need to know to cut it in the big bad world of literature.
Alexandrine: a line of verse that has six iambic feet
Allegory: a story, poem, or play in which the events and characters have symbolic meanings beyond their literal sense
Alliteration: the repetition of the same consonants (usually initial ones) or stressed syllables (e.g., Around the rocks the rugged rascal ran.
)
Anapaest: a metrical foot with three syllables, the first two unstressed and the last stressed: di-di-dum
Assonance: the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds (e.g., all for naught
)
Blank Verse: unrhymed verse (often iambic pentameter). Frequently used by Shakespeare (see here)
Couplet: a pair of successive lines of poetry, usually rhyming and with the same meter. Made popular by Chaucer (see here)
Dactyl: a metrical foot with three syllables, the first stressed and the last two