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Hardware in the loop targets are devices designed for running real-time simulations. To achieve small time steps they use a combination of powerful processors and big #FPGA. The Speedgoat Performance real-time target features a #Xeon #microprocessor with a FPGA module connected over #PCIe. In this article I show you how to use this interface to share data in real time between the FPGA and the microprocessor. Check it out! https://lnkd.in/dkMRcf5N

When I develop a #trading system for a CPU, I always take into account 2 key aspects: -Execution time -Memory requirements But if I am using some embedded like an #FPGA I add another dimension: Spatial domain. The reason is that the space required for a specific logic or algorithm impact your PnL. Determining the implementation cost is often complex and influenced by various design factors. So, imagine that you are in the design phase of the system: -A fully fewtured 32-bit processor needs about 2000 6-input lookup tables on a modern SRAM-based FPGA -Yet, there are compact 32-bit processors that utilize bit-serial processing, and such processors can be condensed to 200 lookup tables -This smaller processor could be integrated thousands of times over on a contemporary FPGA -In bit-serial processing, only one bit is computed per clock cycle -As a result, a 32-bit bit-serial processor operates at least 32 times slower than its parallel counterpart if they share the same clock speed In hardware design for a trading system: -There's often a trade-off between processing speed and physical space -Some behavioral compilers can automatically manage this trade-off for developers -These tools provide options to set a desired compute throughput, minimizing resource use, or alternatively, to specify available resources to maximize performance Here another example but this time based on integer arithmetic: -The computational cost for addition and subtraction increases linearly with the size of the operands (measured in bits), typically requiring about one LUT per bit -It's worth noting that in hardware design, it's common to use bit vectors of arbitrary size -A 32-bit datapath isn't necessary for a modulo-10 counter -Comparators also scale linearly, using approximately 0.5 LUTs per bit for comparisons -Multipliers' complexity ranges from linear to quadratic, depending on whether sequential or fully parallel operations are used -However, due to the high cost of multipliers, most modern FPGAs include dedicated multiplier blocks -Operations like division and square root are particularly costly and should be avoided when possible -While floating point arithmetic is feasible on FPGAs, addition and subtraction become more costly due to the need for normalization: •A shift operation required when the exponents of two floating point numbers are different •Many high-level synthesis tools now support floating point data types and include optimizations to reduce implementation costs

How Is a Microprocessor Different From an Integrated Circuit [Microprocessor vs Integrated Circuit] #electronics #microprocessors #integratedcircuits #semiconductors #chips A microprocessor and an integrated circuit (IC) are related but distinct in their roles and characteristics. In summary, while a microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit, it represents a specialized and advanced application of integrated circuit technology, primarily focused on high-level data processing and control tasks in computers and embedded systems. Integrated circuits, in contrast, encompass a broader category of electronic devices with diverse functions and applications. Here are the key differences between a microprocessor and an integrated circuit: https://lnkd.in/g24VzgfB

FPGA is a highly flexible integrated chip optimized for parallel processing, while microcontrollers are designed for sequential processing tasks, consuming less power and offering a simpler development process.#energyconsumption #flexibilityandcustomization #FPGA #microcontroller #performance

Understanding the Role of MSP and PSP in ARM Cortex-M Microcontrollers: Efficient Stack Management for System and User-Level Operations In ARM Cortex-M microcontrollers, including the STM32 family, the system uses two stack pointers: the Main Stack Pointer (MSP) and the Process Stack Pointer (PSP). These stack pointers are used to manage different contexts, especially when dealing with interrupts and multi-threading. Main Stack Pointer (MSP) The MSP is the default stack pointer used by the system on reset and during interrupt handling. It is typically used for system-level operations, including interrupt service routines (ISRs) and exception handling. Process Stack Pointer (PSP) The PSP is used for regular application code, particularly in systems that support an operating system with user and kernel modes. It is intended for user-level tasks, allowing separation from the system-level operations that use the MSP. How MSP and PSP Work with Interrupts Initial Setup MSP Initialization: On reset, the microcontroller sets the MSP to the value stored at the beginning of the vector table. This is usually set to the end of RAM, growing downwards. PSP Initialization: The PSP is typically initialized by the operating system (if present) or by the user application to point to a different region in RAM. This separation allows for a distinction between system-level and user-level stack usage. Context Switching and Interrupt Handling When an interrupt occurs, the following steps are generally followed: Stack Selection: Upon entering an interrupt, the system automatically switches to using the MSP, regardless of the current stack pointer in use. This ensures that the context saved during the interrupt is on a known, secure stack. Saving Context: The CPU automatically pushes the current context (registers, including program counter, link register, and status register) onto the MSP. This is known as the "stack frame." Execution of ISR: The CPU jumps to the ISR specified in the vector table. The ISR can modify the system state, handle hardware events, etc. Restoring Context: Upon completion of the ISR, the CPU automatically pops the saved context from the MSP, restoring the previous state. Returning to Previous Context: If the system was using the PSP before the interrupt, it will automatically switch back to the PSP upon exiting the ISR. Usage in Multi-threading In systems with an operating system (RTOS), the MSP is typically reserved for kernel-level operations, including handling exceptions and scheduling. The PSP is used by individual tasks or threads. When a context switch occurs: Context Saving: The current task's state (registers, etc.) is saved onto the PSP. Switching PSP: The PSP is switched to the stack pointer of the next task to run. Context Restoring: The state of the next task is restored from its PSP.

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#Pipelining Technique in Microcontrollers like #STM32: ❓ What is Pipelining? Pipelining is an approach where different stages of instruction processing are overlapped to improve CPU #performance. This technique allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously by dividing instruction execution into discrete stages.🚀💡 🔍 How Does Pipelining Work in STM32 Microcontrollers? STM32 microcontrollers use pipelining to execute instructions more efficiently. The process involves several stages: --Instruction Fetch (IF): The instruction is fetched from memory. --Instruction Decode (ID): The fetched instruction is decoded to understand the operation. --Execute (EX): The actual operation specified by the instruction is performed. --Memory Access (MEM): Accesses memory if the instruction requires it. --Write Back (WB): Writes the result back to the register or memory. 🔎 Benefits of Pipelining in STM32 Microcontrollers Increased Throughput: By overlapping stages, pipelining allows the CPU to process multiple instructions simultaneously. Enhanced Performance: Reduces the overall execution time of each instruction. Efficient Resource Utilization: Ensures that different parts of the CPU are used concurrently, improving efficiency. 🛠️ Detailed Example: Adding Two Numbers Using 3-Stage Pipelining Let's illustrate 3-stage pipelining with an example where we add two numbers, 5 and 7. The stages we'll consider are: Instruction Fetch (IF) Instruction Decode (ID) Execute (EX) Step-by-Step Process >>Cycle 1: Instruction Fetch (IF): The CPU fetches the instruction to load the number 5 into register R0. Instruction Decode (ID): The next instruction, which is to load the number 7 into register R1, is decoded. >>Cycle 2: Instruction Fetch (IF): The CPU fetches the instruction to perform the addition of values in registers R0 and R1. Instruction Decode (ID): The instruction to store the result in register R2 is decoded. Execute (EX): The previous instruction (loading 5 into R0) is executed. >>Cycle 3: Instruction Fetch (IF): Fetches a new instruction, such as a subsequent operation or a jump. Instruction Decode (ID): Decodes the new instruction. Execute (EX): Performs the addition of 5 and 7 (now stored in R0 and R1) and writes the result to R2. Why Prefer Longer Pipeline Stages? Longer pipelines can improve performance by allowing more stages to overlap. Here’s why they’re beneficial: Higher Instruction Throughput: By having more stages, the CPU can process more instructions in parallel. Reduced Instruction Latency: Long pipelines help in keeping various parts of the CPU busy, leading to quicker execution of instructions over time. Efficient Use of CPU Resources: Longer pipelines can make better use of CPU resources by keeping different stages of multiple instructions in progress. Feel free to share your experiences or ask questions about pipelining in STM32 microcontrollers in the comments below! 👇🗨️  

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🚀 New Blog Post Alert! 🚀 Excited to share our latest article on Getting Started with CI for AMD (Xilinx) FPGA Synthesis! Learn how to streamline FPGA design using BeetleboxCI, from creating a hardware testbench to automating synthesis and testing with continuous integration. 🔧 Key Takeaways: Automate FPGA synthesis and testing Harness the power of Vivado and ILA Boost efficiency with CI practices 👉 Read the full article to transform your FPGA development process: https://lnkd.in/eUBTuXU5 #FPGA #AMD #ContinuousIntegration #BeetleboxCI #HardwareDesign #Innovation #DigitalDesign

Hi folks, Achronix Semiconductor and Bluespec are breaking new ground in FPGA technology by introducing Linux-capable RISC-V soft processors for the Achronix Speedster 7t FPGA family. Here's the scoop: ● Innovative Integration: For the first time in the industry, Bluespec's RISC-V processors will integrate into Achronix's unique 2D network-on-chip (NoC) architecture, simplifying the addition of scalable processing power to FPGA designs. ● Flexible Design: The 2D NoC allows for the seamless addition and repositioning of one or more RISC-V cores within the FPGA fabric, maintaining high performance across configurations. ● Enhanced Programmability: With support for C/C++ and operating systems like Linux, developers can now embed up to eight 64-bit processors with customizable instructions and hardware accelerators into their projects. ● Accelerated Development: The inclusion of familiar technologies and accelerator ports for each processor streamlines the development process, enabling faster deployment of Speedster7t FPGA designs. ● Powerful SoC Capabilities: With Bluespec’s RISC-V soft cores, Achronix's FPGAs evolve into fully programmable SoCs, offering unparalleled speed and density benefits for various applications. Charlie Hauck, CEO of Bluespec, and Nick Ilyadis, VP of Product Planning at Achronix, both highlight the potential of this collaboration to speed up product differentiation and market entry for customers. Read more here 👇 https://cstu.io/147f6f #Achronix #Bluespec #RISCV #FPGA #Linux #TechInnovation #EngineeringRecruitment #EmbeddedRecruiter #RunTimeRecruitment