Strategies For Esl Teachers
Strategies For Esl Teachers
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1 Adapted
from The Art of Teaching ESL, Leader's Guide to Video.(1993). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.1
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BICS/CALP 2
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A person's proficiency in a language refers to the degree to which that person is able to use the language. Language is used for various purposes. In education we can classify the uses of language into two dimensions: the social dimension and the academic dimension (Cummins, 1981). We can compare language to an iceberg. The portion that is visible on the surface, usually the social dimension, is only a fraction of the total iceburg. In order to use a language in academic work, the speaker must have an extensive foundation related to the language. This foundation is acquired through using the language over an extensive period of time in settings designed to build that foundation. Cummins refers to the skills necessary for social interactions involving language as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). They involve listening comprehension and speaking skills sufficient to understand and respond to social interactions. BICS can be compared to the visible portion of an iceberg. They demonstrate the learner's ability to understand and use spoken language appropriately. Most non-native English speakers acquire sufficient BICS in English within a two-year period to meet their needs in social situations. Cummins refers to the language skills necessary to function in an academic situation as Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). These skills encompass listening, speaking, reading, and writing abilities, specifically in relation to learning in content academic areas. Students generally require from five to seven years to acquire CALP skills. These can be compared to the portion of an iceberg that is not visible because it is under the surface of the ocean. CALP refers to all experience associated with language, both concept development and linguistic development. Definitions BICS-Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills: The skills involved in everyday communication listening, speaking, carrying on basic conversation, understanding speakers. and getting one's basic needs met. CALP-Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: The skills that are needed to succeed in the academic classroom, including problem solving, inferring, analyzing, synthesizing, and predicting. They go beyond the BICS, demanding much greater competence in the language.
2 Adapted from Law, B. and Eckes, M. (1990). The more than just surviving handbook: ESL for every classroom teacher. Winnipeg: Peguis Publishers.
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5.2 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Characteristics of Students' Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills3
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is in greater command of the language than is actually the case. Pronunciation - Although students may have a noticeable accent, their pronunciation is understandable. Younger students, especially, may begin speaking with almost no accent though their command of vocabulary, grammar and syntax may be slight. Fluency - Students' fluency is smooth, although the length of their utterances is somewhat limited by difficulties with English. Their speech may be marked by restatements, repetitions, and hesitations. Reading: Reading skills improve, and students profit greatly from inclusion in basal reading groups. Although students may now prepare some assignments independently their performance in content classes is usually adequate. Writing: Students use more complex sentence structure in their writing. The introduction of many irregular word forms adds to the difficulty of learning English and students need assistance with them.
Listening Comprehension: Students generally understand nontechnical speech, including conversation with teachers and classmates. Since they sometimes misinterpret utterances, native speakers of English must adjust their vocabulary and rate of speech. Speaking: Grammar and word order students have a fair command of basic sentence patterns. They avoid constructions which demand more control of grammar and word order. They also begin to overgeneralize, applying grammar rules they have learned in inappropriate places. For example, students often apply the -ed past tense ending to irregular pasts,resulting in formations such as "bringed" instead of "brought". Vocabulary - The vocabulary which students use is adequate for social conversation, but not for successful participation in discussion of subject-area content. The fact that students can carry on a social conversation, often in relatively unaccented speech, often persuades observers that the student
3Adapted from Help! They Don't Speak English Starter Kit. Virginia: Eastern Stream Center on Resources and Training, 1992.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.3
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Cognitively Undemanding I TPR Demonstrations, Illustrations Following directions Art, Music, PE Face-to-face conversations Simple games Answering lower-level questions Context-embedded IV III Mathematics computations Science experiments Social studies projects (map activities, etc.) Developing academic language Understanding text through discussion, visuals Answering higher-level questions Subject content (without diagrams or examples) Mathematics word problems (without illustrations) Explanations of new abstract concepts Reading for information in content areas Writing compositions Writing answers to higher-level questions II Telephone conversations Notes on refrigerator Written directions (without diagrams or examples) Writing answers to lower-level questions Context-reduced
Cognitively Demanding
4 From Cummins, J. (1981) "The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students." Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework. Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State University.
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5.4 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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provide this by making the classroom a warm, supportive place where students feel free to take risks with language. The Monitor: Krashen hypothesizes that language instruction results in the creation of a mental monitor through which the learner filters spoken and written output. The monitor aids learners in achieving accuracy, but may hinder the development of fluency. The ideal is a balance where the student has opportunities for unrestricted fluency and for using the monitor to "edit" and develop accuracy. Meaningful Communication: Research shows that more learning takes place when students are engaged in communication that is meaningful to them because more of the content and structure of the communication enters long-term memory. Communication is meaningful when it touches on the students' real lives or centers on topics chosen by and of interest to the students. Teachers can ensure that meaningful communication happens in the classroom by allowing students to choose books, materials and topics that interest them when appropriate. Stages of Language Acquisition: Students go through predictable stages in acquiring a language. The following chart shows characteristics of each stages:
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5.5
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Stage 1
Pre-Production
Students comprehend simple language but cannot produce language yet. Characterized by minimal comprehension no verbal production
Stage 2
Early Production
Students comprehend more complex language and can make one or two word responses. Characterized by: limited comprehension one/two word responses
Stage 3
Speech Emergence
Stage 4
Intermediate Fluency
Students can: listen point respond with action draw choose act out
Teacher should: use visual aids modify speech focus on key vocabulary ask for physical responses
Students can speak in Students can combine phrases and sentences. phrases and sentences into longer passages of language, oral and written. Characterized by: Characterized by: increased good comprehension comprehension simple sentences use of complex some basic errors sentences in speech some errors in reading limited to written language what can be comprehended orally writing limited to brief responses Students can: Students can: Students can: name retell analyze label define create group explain defend answer yes/no compare debate discriminate summarize predict list describe evaluate categorize role-play justify count restate support contrast examine hypothesize Teacher should: Teacher should: Teacher should: use yes/no use games help students questions incorporate develop academic ask for singlelanguage from TV, skills, especially in word answers radio, movies reading and use cloze exercises conduct writing writing expand on student exercises use activities that answers use readings for require analysis, language input hypothesizing, use problemjustifying and solving activities supporting.
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5.6 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Resources on the Natural Approach Hadley, Alice Omaggio. Teaching Language in Context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1993. Krashen, Stephen D. Inquiries and Insights. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press, 1985. _________. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press, 1982 _________. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. New York: Pergamon Press, 1981. Terrell, Tracy D. "A Natural Approach to Second Language Acquisition and Learning." The Modern Language Journal 61(1977): 325-37. _________. "The Natural Approach to Language Teaching: An Update." The Modern Language Journal 66 (1982) 121-32. _________. "The Role of Grammar Instruction in a Communicative Approach." The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991): 51-63
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.7
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5 Adapted from McCloskey, M.L. & Nations, M.J. (1988). English Everywhere: An Integrated Curriculum Guide. Atlanta, GA: Educo Press.
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5.8 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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6. Student demonstration. Students are given the opportunity to play the roles of reader of the series and performer of the actions. The teacher checks comprehension and prompts when needed. 7. Pairs. Students work in groups of two or three, one telling or reading the series, and the other(s) listening and responding physically. During the group work time, the teacher can work individually with students. Several authors have developed TPR scripts on a variety of topics for teachers' use. (See Resource List) Develop your own activities around familiar situations or around school experiences that might be frightening or confusing to students from other cultures (e.g., an earthquake or tornado drill, or a job interview). TPR can also be an effective tool for student assessment. You can observe students who are not yet producing much English as they participate in TPR activities and determine just how much the student is able to understand. Sample Scripts Watching TV 1. It's time to watch your favorite show. Turn on the tv. 2. This is the wrong show. You hate this show. Make a terrible face. Change the channel. 3. This show is great! Smile! Sit down in your favorite chair. 4. This part is very funny. Laugh.
Strategies for ESL Teachers
5. Now there's a commercial. Get up and get a snack and a drink. Sit down again. 6. The ending is very sad. Cry. 7. The show is over. Turn off the TV. 8. Go to bed. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear (A Jump Rope TPR Game) Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, turn around. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, touch the ground. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, read the news. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, shine your shoes. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, go upstairs. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, say your prayers. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, turn out the lights. Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear, say goodnight. Resources for Total Physical Response Asher, J. (1977). Learning another language through actions: The complete teacher's guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions. Enright, D.S. & McCloskey, M.L. (1985). Jump-rope games. Branching Out: TESOL Newsletter Supplement No. 2. 29(3), 12-13.
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5.9
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Hadley, Alice Omaggio. Teaching Language in Context. 2nd ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1993. Linse, C. (1983). The children's response: TPR and beyond toward writing. Hayward CA: Alemany Press. Nelson, G. & Winters, T. (1980). ESL Operations: Techniques for learning while doing. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Romjin, E. & Contee, S. (1979). Live Action English. New York: Pergammon Press. Veitch, B. (1981). Cook and learn: Pictorial single portion recipes. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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5.10 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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6 Adapted from McCloskey, M.L. (1990) Integrated Language Teaching Strategies. Atlanta, GA: Educo Press, pp. 4-5.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.11
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learners as they work cooperatively together. Common Questions about Cooperative Learning 7 What is cooperative/ collaborative learning? Cooperative learning is a form of indirect teaching in which the teacher sets the problems and organizes the students to work it out collaboratively. (Kenneth Bruffee, 1984) Cooperative learning means more than merely putting students in groups for discussion or completion of tasks. Johnson and Johnson (1984), two of the most prominent researchers on cooperative learning, have defined the four elements crucial to effective cooperative activities: 1. Positive interdependence among learners in respect to resources, task accomplishment, or reward; 2. Face-to-face interaction in small groups (although computers and computer networks may allow cooperation that is not face-toface.); 3. Individual accountability for participation or internalization of the relevant knowledge or skills; and 4. use of interpersonal and small group skills in the learning process.
But notice that cooperative learning involves more than just working in small groups. The elements of group reward and individual accountability are crucial to the success of a cooperative learning task. In a metaanalysis of 46 studies that compared cooperative and competitive learning strategies carried out over an extended period of time in elementary and high school classrooms, 63 percent reported significant differences in favor of the cooperative structure. However, when only those studies which included group rewards for individual achievement were considered, 89 percent resulted in superior performance under the cooperative mode (Slavin, 1983). How can you give a group reward based on individual achievement? A study by Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne (1986) illustrates one way to accomplish this. Seventy-five 8th graders were assigned to three conditions in groups of four to work on a computer simulation teaching map reading and navigational skills. In the first condition, students were told that they would be completing individual worksheets every day, but their grade would be determined by the average scores of the team members on the worksheets and the final exam. In the competitive condition, students worked in groups and completed daily worksheets, but were told that their grade would be
7 Adapted from Thrush, E.A. (1990) Working Together: Cooperative/Collaborative Learning. TESOL in Action Monograph Series, 5 (2). Atlanta, GA: GATESOL.
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5.12 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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determined by their rank within the group. In the individualistic condition, students were told that their scores would be compared to preset standards to determine the grade. After the simulation was completed, all student were tested individually on the map skills they had learned. Students in the cooperative condition scored higher on the computer simulation and on the tests of concepts learned than students in either of the other conditions. In addition, students in the cooperative condition engaged in significantly more task-oriented verbal interaction and indicated greater acceptance of females as work partners. Knowing that their grades depended not only on their own learning but on how much each of their group members learned about map skills, students were highly motivated to teach each other and ensure that every group member learned as much as possible. The idea is to have the students work together while learning the skills, then test them individually but have their final grades dependent on the average of the group. If this is not possible within your academic structure, perhaps a certain percentage of their grade could be determined by the average of the group scores, the rest by their individual test scores. Another, relatively simple way, is to give the group a task, and tell them that you will ask one student from the group at random to report orally or that you will choose one paper from the group to grade. That individual's grade becomes the group grade.
Strategies for ESL Teachers
Knowing this, the group members will see to it that everyone in the group has mastered the task. In some cases it may work better to assign a group project in which each individual is responsible for a part of the project, but a single grade is given. Work in class should be structured so that the students in the group can discuss and plan together, and advise each other on their segments of the project, but not do another student's work. See the Suggested Activities section for possible assignments. Won't students object to getting a group grade? The Johnsons have conducted over 70 studies of cooperative learning in classroom settings. Their observation is that once students become accustomed to the concept of group rewards, it seems logical to them, and indeed, the only way to grade a task that all have contributed to. Even at the college level, students are increasingly required to work in project groups and are accustomed to having their grades based on a combination of group work and individual tests. Research shows that high achievers do not lose anything by working in groups with students of lesser abilities. If anything, they learn more from teaching and explaining to others. What are the benefits of cooperative/collaborative learning?
5.13
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Carol Ames (1984) has elaborated on the motivational processes that underlie the effectiveness of different learning situations as follows: 1. When learners receive some indication of success, they feel more successful and competent. The indication of success or failure is usually a grade or other external evaluation, comparison with previous performance, or comparison with others' performance. Competitive situations, by their nature, reduce the number of learners who can be given "successful" external evaluation, or who can see their performances as superior to others', thus limiting the number of learners who will feel competent and will rate their own performance as successful. Cooperative settings, on the other hand, increase the possibility for success as it is measured by completion of the group task, allowing more learners to feel competent. 2. Success in competitive settings tends to result in exaggerated inflation of self-esteem while failure results in exaggerated deflation. Self-esteem and feelings of competence strongly influence the individual's motivation to engage in an activity, so cooperative learning, by providing more learners an opportunity for success, motivates the majority to engage in further learning, while competitive learning motivates only the few who receive high evaluations.
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3. The perception of failure in cooperative settings depends on the group outcome. Those who are in successful groups perceive their own performance as successful even though they may have low abilities, but those in unsuccessful groups may see themselves as unsuccessful and experience feelings of low selfesteem. For that reason, it is important that the teacher structures the task and monitor group performance to provide the support needed to make the experience successful for everyone. 4. Cooperative settings reduce the perceptions of differences among individuals. Students who have participated in cooperative groups tend to see other students as more similar to themselves than students in competitive settings. The result is that cooperative learning results in higher achievement levels for all students, not just those top few who would also be successful in competitive settings. Naturally enough, cooperative learning helps students develop better interpersonal skills. Perhaps most importantly, cooperative learning has been shown to be an extremely effective way of mainstreaming handicapped, minority, and LEP students. Study after study shows better acceptance of these students by the majority after cooperative learning experiences. Some male students express a greater willingness to work with female
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Strategies for ESL Teachers
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students after a cooperative experience as well. Who benefits the most from collaborative learning? One of the most important findings to emerge from the cooperative learning research is the strong achievement gains among minority pupils in cooperative classrooms.. . Anglos show equal or somewhat greater academic gains in cooperative classrooms compared to traditional classrooms, but minority students show far greater gains in the cooperative compared to traditional methods. Spencer Kagan (1986) Kagan explains that this is an effect of bringing the social organization of the classroom more in line with that of the home environment. Many of our students come from cultures which value the group, especially the family and the community, over the individual. The traditional American classroom, with its emphasis on competition and individual achievement, is not an environment in which members of these groups can flourish. What is the teacher's role in cooperative learning? Teacher roles in cooperative learning classrooms are quite different from those of traditional classrooms; along with the changed social structure comes a changed pattern of teacher attention, expectations, and discipline. The need for discipline, especially
Strategies for ESL Teachers
individual discipline, is reduced, and the ability of teachers to consult with individual students is increased. Spencer Kagan (1986) Frank Smith (1986) suggests that teachers model collaboration for their students by writing with them: brainstorming, composing, and editing together. This doesn't mean that teachers ask for ideas from students with a set of acceptable answers already in mind, but that they actually work through the process of a new writing task with the students. Teachers are often hesitant to do this, thinking that they shouldn't put themselves in the position of being tentative, of starting and backing up, of rethinking and revising in front of their students. They are afraid they will be seen as not fully competent in their own language skills. But this is how all writers really write. When students do not have a model of how advanced writers work, they tend to assume that good writers never falter, never make mistakes, never change what they have written. Judging their own efforts against this impossible goal, they see little chance of ever becoming good writers. Also, collaborating with students provides them with a model for collaboration. They learn how to create the kind of give and take necessary for good collaboration. They learn how to negotiate differences in concepts.
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5.15
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Suggested Cooperative Learning Activities and Projects8 Dyad Activities Dyad Activities help students practice some aspect of English structure without the presence of the teacher. The students work in pairs. Each student has the answers for the other student, and can provide immediate correction. The teacher can prepare the exercises ahead of time, or the students can write exercises in pairs and exchange them. The teacher should check them for accuracy first. Sample Dyad Activity Instructions: The exercises for Student A and Student B are cut apart so that Student A sees only the first four sentences and Student B sees only the last four sentences. They sit facing each other. Student A reads sentence 1, filling in the blank with the correct form of the word in parentheses. Student B checks the answer and tells Student A whether the answer was right or wrong. Then Student B reads sentence 2, filling in the blanks, and Student A checks the answer. They continue until they have done all the sentences. Student A: 1. My car is ____________ than yours (fast) 2. My car is the same make as his. 3. His car is ____ __________ color ______ mine. (different) 4. His car is more expensive than hers. Student B: 1. My car is faster than yours. 2. My car is _______ ________ make ______ his. 3. His car is a different color from mine. 4. His car is ____ ____________ _______ hers. (expensive)
8 Thrush, E.A. (1996) Preface to Modules for English Learning. Rome, Italy: Italian Ministry of Education.
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5.16 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Information Gap Activities In an Information Gap activity, each student (in a pair or group of 3-4) has some information that the others in the group need in order to complete a task. The students must ask each other questions to get the missing information. Sample Information Gap Activity: Instructions: The charts below are cut apart so Student A sees only the first chart and Student B sees only the second chart. They sit facing each other and ask each other questions to fill in the missing information in the charts. This can also be done for groups of 3 or 4 students, but every student's chart must have different information. When the charts are completed, the students can look at each others' chart to check their information. Student A: Car Model Ford Taurus Country of Origin U.S. Price Type sedan Nissan Altima $15,000 sedan Ferrari Italy
Student B: Car Model Ford Taurus Country of Origin Price $13,000 Type Nissan Altima Japan Ferrari $50,000 sports car
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.17
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Interview Grid This is a structured way of having students ask and answer questions about topics meaningful to them. It ensures that they use the grammar points relevant to the day's lesson. Instructions: The students work in groups of 4-5. The teacher provides them with a grid like the following: Mary ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ Teacher Student Student Student Student Smith Memphis Mexico Simpsons
live now? live..last year? watch on TV..last night? do..last weekend? movies eat...for breakfast? beans, cheese, eggs
First, the teacher models the questions, writing them on the board and having the students repeat them. Then the teacher points out how Mary Smith answered the questions and how those answers are indicated with just a few words. Then the students ask the questions of the teacher. The teacher answers, and the students note down the answers in the appropriate spaces. This shows the students how to do the exercise. Then they work in their groups, taking turns asking each other the questions and jotting down the answers. Afterwards, the teacher asks for a report from each group on what the members watched last night, etc. Notice that the cue words can be changed to elicit whatever language point the teacher wants the students to practice. The sample grid focuses on irregular past tense verbs.
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5.18 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Jigsaw Listening Jigsaw Listening activities give students practice in listening to information in English, then conveying that information to someone else. In a Jigsaw exercise, students work in groups of 4 or 5. Each student in each group has a number from 1 to 4 or 5. The teacher gives each group a different text, cut into the same number of pieces as the number of students in the group. For example, if there are 4 groups of 4 students each, the teacher might choose 4 different texts about computers and cut each into 4 pieces. Each student would read one piece of one text. Within the groups, students would tell each other what they read, so that each group would then have all the information from one of the 4 texts. Then the students would form new groups -- all the number 1s would be in one group, all the 2s in another, and so on. Each member of the new group would give the information from the text read by the old group. The result is that each person in the class would get all the information from all 4 texts. Alternative: The students in the new group would have a task to complete using the information provided by the group members. For example, they might have to fill out a grid that classifies the information in some way. Sample Jigsaw Activity This activity is a little different because the students gather information rather than reading it. This works well as an introductory activity for a new class. 1. The students are divided into groups - 4 groups of 4 or 5 groups of 5 work best. 2. Each student in the group is assigned a number, from 1 to 4 or 5. 3. The students interview each other to fill in a grid like the one below. ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ Student's name Student's name Student's name Student's name Hobbies Pets Sports 4. The students form new groups: all the 1s together, all the 2s together, and so on. Between them, each group now has information about all the students. 5. The students in the new groups choose some information about the class that they find interesting, and design a graphic display for the information. For example, they might draw a bar chart showing how many students in the class have dogs, how many have cats, and so on. They can present their graphs to the class or display them in the room.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.19
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Memory Games These games are usually played with index cards, but pieces of any stiff paper can be used. Either the teacher or the students make up sets of cards with matching information. For example, one card might have the infinitive form of a verb; the matching card would have the irregular past form. Or one might have the English word for a computer keyboard; the matching card would have a picture cut out of a magazine, or the word in another language. When several pairs of cards are ready, they are mixed up and placed face down on a table. The students (usually in groups of 4 or pairs) take turns revealing 2 cards. If the cards match, the student keeps the cards. If the cards don't match, they are replaced on the table and the next student takes a turn. When all cards have been turned over, the student with the most matches wins the game. Alternative: When a card is turned over, the student must say what the matching card will say before turning over the second card. This promotes active memory instead of passive and is more advanced. Numbered Heads Together The Numbered Heads Together technique solves several problems with group work; it forces the group to take responsibility for the learning of each member, it ensures that one student in the group does not do all the work while the others sit passively by, it prevents a few students from volunteering all the answers to the teacher's questions, and it guarantees that all students have an equal chance of being called on. Numbered Heads Together is often used to check comprehension of a text students have read or something they have listened to. Instructions: 1. Students work in groups of 3 or 4. 2. Each student has a number from 1 - 3 or 4. 3. The teacher asks a question about a text the students have read or about some topic they have studied. 4. The groups discuss the question for a few seconds, decide on an answer and make sure everyone in the group knows the answer. 5. The teacher calls a number between 1 and 3 (or 4) at random and indicates a group. 6. The student with the indicated number in that group gives the group's answer. If the answer is wrong, the teacher goes to another group.
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5.20 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Alternative: The teacher assigns each member of each group a letter in a word W I N for groups of 3 or T E A M for groups of 4, for example. Then the teacher can call a group number and a letter to designate the student to answer. For example, if the teacher calls 5W then the student in group 5 with the letter W answers the question. Or the teacher can give out cards in a deck - each group would have an Ace, King, Queen, and Jack. Then the teacher calls 6Jack for example. Role Plays Role plays help students use language fluently. They also help them learn to be creative, imaginative, and resourceful. In a role play, unlike a dialogue, the teacher provides only a brief description of the characters and situation of the role play. The students then improvise the words and actions. In a guided role play, the teacher may write out a few hints of the dramatic action which is to occur. For example, a guided role play of a formal introduction might look like this: Student Say hello and give your name Welcome the visitor to the school Offer to help if needed Visitor to the School Say hello and give your name Say you're happy to be there and give your purpose Thank the student
Strip Story A strip story is simply a text that the teacher has cut into strips. The students work in groups to put the text back together in the right order. To do this, students have to look for clues, including sentence beginnings and endings, and coherency cues. The students must read the text closely to be able to reconstruct it. The teacher should elicit from the class what cues they used to reconstruct it so they become aware of strategies to use in their own writing. There should also be some follow-up activity using the information from the reconstructed text.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.21
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Question and Answer Game This game is particularly useful in getting students to practice question forms. It can be used to check comprehension of a text students have read or something they have listened to. Instructions: 1. The teacher writes on the board several pieces of information from the text. For example, if the text were about computers, the teacher might write the categories and answers below. Software word processor spreadsheet database Hardware CPU monitor mouse Abilities RAM ROM 33 mhz
Each student should choose a category and an answer and try to form an appropriate question. For example, if the student chose the category hardware and the answer monitor, the question might be, How does the computer display information to the user? Notice that there may be many correct questions for each answer. Alternative: The teacher might cover the answers on the board with sticky notes. Different amounts of money can be written on the sticky notes. Then the students might choose Hardware for $1,000. The teacher would take off the sticky note that says $1,000, revealing the answer behind it. If the student forms an appropriate question, the teacher gives the sticky note to the student. The student who finishes with the most money wins the game.
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5.22 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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Resources on Cooperative Learning Ames, C. (1984). Competitive, cooperative, and individualistic goal structures: A cognitivemotivational analysis. In C. Ames and R. Ames (Eds.) Research on Motivation in Education: Vol I, Student Motivation (p. 177-206). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Bruffee, K. (1984) Collaborative learning and the conversation of mankind. College English 46, pp. 635-52. Cohen, E.G. (1986) Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. New York: Teachers College Press. Coelho, E., Winer, L., & Olsen, J. (1989) All sides of the Issue: Activities for cooperative jigsaw groups. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press. Enright, D.S. & McCloskey, M.L. (1988) Integrating English: Developing English language and literacy in the multilingual classroom. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R. (1984). Motivational processes in cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning situation. In C. Ames and R. Ames (Eds.) Research on Motivation in Education: Vol 2,
Strategies for ESL Teachers
The Classroom Milieu (p. 249278). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Holubec, E.J. (1991) Cooperation in the classroom: Revised. Edna, MN: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., Holubec, E.J. & Roy, P. (1984) Circles of learning: Cooperation in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. & Stanne, M.B. (1986). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 27, pp. 668-677. Kagan, S. (1986) Cooperative learning and sociocultural factors in schooling. In Beyond language: Social and cultural factors in schooling language minority students (pp. 231-98) Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State Unversity. Kagan, S. (1988). Cooperative learning: Resources for teachers. Laguna Niguel, CA: Spencer Kagan, Ph.D. Moskovitz, J.M., Malvin, J.H., Shaeffer, G.A. & Schaps, E.
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(1983) Evaluation of a cooperative learning strategy. 20 (4), pp. 687-696. Orlick, T. (1982). The second cooperative sports and games book: Challenge without competition. New York:Pantheon. Poole, D. & Thrush, E.A. (1987) Interactions I & II: Speaking activities. New York: Random House. Poole, D. & Thrush, E.A. (1997) Interactions I: Multi-skills activities book. New York: McGraw-Hill. Slavin, R.E. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman. Smith, F. (1986) Insult to intelligence: The bureaucratic invasion of our classrooms. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Thrush, E.A., Baldwin, R.J., & Blass, L. (1997) Interactions Access: A listening/speaking book. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Trimbur, J. (1985). Collaborative learning and teaching writing. In Perspectives on research and scholarship in composition. Ben W. McClelland and Timothy R. Donovan (Eds.) New York: MLA, pp. 87-109.
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5.24 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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9 Adapted from McCloskey, M.S. & Nations, M.J. (1988). English Everywhere: An Integrated Curriculum Guide. Atlanta, GA: Educo Press.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.25
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from the story, etc. Students can illustrate the parts of the story that they dictated, making a cover and turning the story into a class small or big book. Select follow-up activities based on student levels. Beginning students might search for certain words and underline them, read the story in chorus, or participate in an oral cloze activity. (In a cloze activity, every nth word is left out of a passage for students to fill in.) Intermediate students might unscramble sentences, choose words and make cards for a word bank, or match sentence strips to sequenced pictures from the story. Duplicate the story and have students use small copies for reading, selecting, and practicing vocabulary words. Children may enjoy making covers for their own copies of the story, illustrating the pages, and taking the books home to read to family members. Older students may enjoy publishing their books on the computer, editing each others' stories and collaborating on page layout and design. 6. Students may move from reading their own or class pieces to trading and reading one another's work. They may also move from dictating to the teacher to writing their own pieces. Resources for The Language Experience Approach Ashton-Warner, S. (1963). Teacher. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Dixon, C. & Nessel, D. (1983). Language experience approach to reading (and writing): LEA for ESL. Hayward CA: Alemany. Rigg, P. (1989) Language experience approach: Reading naturally. In Rigg, P. and Allen, V. (Eds.), When they don't all speak English, pp. 65-76. Urbana, IL: NCTE. Van Allen, R. & Allen, C. (1976) Language experience activities. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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5.26 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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10 From Enright, D.S. & McCloskey, M.L. (1988)Integrating English:Developing English language and literacy in the multilingual classroom. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.27
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Whole Language
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Whole Language has been widely adopted in the teaching of reading to native speakers of English. It has been somewhat controversial, partly because of some misinterpretations and misapplications of its underlying principles. Many schools now supplement Whole Language teaching with more traditional approaches to reading such as instruction in phonics. Phonics instructions, widely used in elementary schools in the 70s and 80s, focused on teaching students to decode written language by sounding out words letter by letter. Phonics instructions was replaced by whole language in many areas, but has recently been reinstated in some school systems. Phonics instruction can be of value to native speakers by helping them convert the written words to the spoken forms they already know. However, it is not particularly helpful to LEP students with little or no spoken English. Knowing how to sound out a word is of no use if the student doesnt know the meaning of that word. Also, until speakers of other languages have acquired the full sound system of English, sounding words out may not be possible. For example, Spanish has five vowel sounds while English has thirteen. Children who have only heard Spanish while growing up will not be able to distinguish the additional vowel sounds in English for quite some time. However, Whole Language as a tool in teaching LEP students incorporates many of the same ideas and strategies as the Natural Approach and Integrated Language Teaching. The basic principle is that literacy is developed through engagement with meaningful, interesting language rather than study of discrete units such as grammar, vocabulary, or phonics. The emphasis is on function rather than form. In Whole Language teaching, as in Integrated Language Teaching, students work on completion of a task or project which requires the use of all language skills. There is often a product at the end of the project: an oral or written report, a poster display, a brochure, a recipe book, or a class newspaper, for example. The preparation of this product may involve students in reading or interviewing people to gather information, talking to each other in planning, and designing the product, and speaking or writing in delivering the final product. Note: There is a common misperception that because Whole Language Activities do not start with the teaching of grammar, vocabulary, spelling or punctuation, these elements of language can never be dealt with. In fact, while the primary focus of a
Strategies for ESL Teachers
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5.28
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Whole Language Activity is the content, not the form, all the mechanics of the language are important in the final stages of production of the project, just as professional writers do a final edit on their texts. As much as possible, students should rely on sources other than teacher correction in doing a final edit. These sources of help can include the dictionary, the spelling checker on the computer, other students, grammar reference books, and other tools appropriate to the students age and skill level. This helps encourage good habits that they will use outside the classroom when the teacher is not available. Examples of Whole Language Activities Student Newspaper - The classic whole language activity, creating a student newspaper requires students to use all language skills to gather information, write, and edit articles for a newspaper. Students can work in groups to write sports and news articles and write movie, book, and TV reviews. Either the teacher or the students may produce the final newspaper using a typewriter or computer, and distribute it to the class. The students motivation to read the newspaper will be high because the articles will be on subjects of interest to them and written by their classmates. Fashion Show - Fashion shows are especially fun for pre-teen and teen students. Students have to read and
Strategies for ESL Teachers
research the names and types of clothing, styles, and materials. Then they organize and rehearse the presentation of the fashions. Groups might be assigned a particular season or type of clothing such as sportswear, formal, professional, etc. They can choose the music and write the narrative that one student reads as the others parade in the clothing. Cookbook - the students can create a class cookbook with recipes - perhaps for specialties from their native country or culture. They need to learn measurements and standard ways of giving cooking instructions. They can do research to provide information on the nutritional value of the dish they have chosen. If possible, older students might prepare the dish for the class and invited guests. Some high school classes have been able to take over their school cafeteria for a day and prepare lunch for all the teachers and staff of the school. Their teachers have found that this increases acceptance of the students by the school community. Resources for Whole Language Edelsky, C. and Smith, K. "Hookin' 'em in at the start of school in a 'whole language' classroom." Anthropology and Education Quarterly 14 (1983) 257-81. Galda, L. and Pellegrini, A.D. (eds.) Play, Language and Stories: The development of children's literate
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5.29
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behavior. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1984. Goodman, K.S. What's Whole in Whole Language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1986. Smith, F. Understanding Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971.
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5.30 Strategies for ESL Teachers
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11 From Chamot, A.U. & O'Malley, J.M. (1987). The cognitive academic language learning approach: A bridge to the mainstream. TESOL Quarterly, 21 (2). Washington, DC: TESOL
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Strategies for ESL Teachers 5.31