Project Scheduling: Pert/Cpm: Learning Objectives
Project Scheduling: Pert/Cpm: Learning Objectives
CHAPTER 8
LE A R NI NG OB J E C T I VE S
After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the role and application of PERT/CPM for project scheduling. 2. Define a project in terms of activities such that a network representation can be developed. 3. Develop a complete project schedule. 4. Compute the critical path, the project completion time and its variance. 5. Convert optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic time estimates into expected activity time estimates. 6. Compute the probability of the project being completed by a specific time. 7. Compute the project completion time given a certain level of probability. 8. Find the least expensive way to shorten the duration of a project to meet a target completion date. 9. Formulate the crashing problem as a linear programming model. 10. Formulate project scheduling as a linear programming model. 11. Know some of the specialised software available in the market for scheduling and tracking project activities.
C HA P T E R OU T LI NE
8.1 Introduction 360 8.2 A Project Example: Replacement of an Airport Gate-Management System 361 8.3 Project Network Representation 361 8.4 Project Scheduling with Deterministic Activity Durations 364 8.5 Project Scheduling with Probabilistic Activity Durations 368 8.6 Uses of Simulation in Project Scheduling 372 8.7 Project Crashing 372 8.8 Using Linear Programming in Project Scheduling 378 8.9 Project Scheduling Software 378 Summary 379 Glossary 379 Solved Problems 380 Discussion and Review Questions 384 Problems 385 End of Chapter Case 390
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
Project scheduling is at the heart of many decision problems that are, in nature, nonrepetitive, unique, and clearly defined in terms of scope, objectives, and time frame. These decisions are referred to as a project; an interrelated set of activities directed towards the accomplishment of a unique, often major outcome and that have a definite starting and ending point. Every organization may be involved at any time in a project of any size, duration, and complexity level. Examples of typical projects are setting up of a stage for a rock concert, the construction of a new plant or facility, the design and the marketing of a new product or service, the redesign of a business process, the construction (or repair) of a bridge, the development of a new drug, and the acquisition and installation of an enterprise planning system. All these projects consist of several activities that have to be completed and some of them are interdependent, that is, they cannot start before the completion of some other activities. In many situations, managers face the challenges of planning, coordinating, and monitoring these activities so that the project of interests is completed on time and within the allocated budget. Project management provides a number of approaches to cope with these challenges. This chapter introduces the critical path method (CPM) and the program evaluation review technique (PERT), two management science techniques developed in the late 1950s to plan, schedule, and control large, complex projects with many activities. These approaches differ primarily on how the duration and the cost of activities are processed. In the case of CPM, it is assumed that details about these inputs are known with certainty, whereas for PERT, these details are not known with certainty. Both approaches use a network representation (see Chapter 5) to display the relationships between project activities and to help managers to address questions such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is the total time required to complete the project (the expected total time for PERT)? What are the start and the completion times for individual activities? Which critical activities must be completed as scheduled to meet the estimated project completion time? How much delay can be tolerated for non-critical activities without incurring a delay in the estimated project completion time? What is the least expensive way to speed up a project to meet a targeted completion time?
PERT also provides answers to the following additional questions: 6. 7. What is the probability of completing a project within a given time frame? What is the variability in the project completion time?
We will first introduce a project example that will be used in the chapter to illustrate the project graphical representation and to discuss both approaches, CPM and PERT. The chapter ends with a discussion on timecost trade-offs in project acceleration and on the use of linear programming in project acceleration as well as in project scheduling. It is worthwhile to note that project scheduling, the focus of this chapter, is only one of the major phases involved in the management of a project. Project planning and project control processes, as well as their related challenges, are two other phases, not discussed in this chapter, that are required to ensure the effective use of resources to deliver the project objectives on time and within cost constraints. Other management variables that also matter include the senior managers support, a clear definition of roles and responsibilities, the communication systems, and the human resource management practices.
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TABLE 8-1
List of Activities for the Airport Gate Management System (AGMS) Acquisition Project
Immediate Predecessors A B A B, D C, E Estimated Time (weeks) 2 2 1 1 4 2
Activity A B C D E F
Description Set up the project acquisition team Write down the software requirements Develop a contractor evaluation grid that will be used to evalute proposals Identify and select potential contractors Develop and send out a request for proposal to potential contractors Audit candidate contractors, select one contractor, negotiate and sign an agreement contract with the selected contractor Prepare the definition of functional specifications Develop a software testing plan Software customization phase I Purchase and install the hardware Test the first release Develop a training plan for key users Train key users Software customization phase II Test the second release Software customization phase III Test the final release Software deployment and project sign-off
G H I J K L O M N P Q R
F G G G H, I, J K L, N K M N P Q
5 2 12 2 1 1 2 6 1 3 2 4
For a small project network, one convenient way to determine its duration and critical activities (questions 1 and 3 above) is through the enumeration of all the different paths in the network. A path is a sequence of connected nodes in the network from the start node to the finish node. The length of the path is given by the sum of the durations of the activities on the path. For the network shown in Figure 8-1, the corresponding paths are shown in Table 8-2. In this list, path # 1 is the longest, while paths # 23 and # 24 are the shortest. Path # 1 is critical, because any delay in the duration of an activity located in this path will delay the entire project. For instance, increasing the duration of activity A by 2 weeks will increase the length of path # 1 by 2 weeks for a total duration of 46 weeks. Whereas, for path # 23 and # 24, the length will only increase to 20 weeks, respectively. Hence, in any project network, the path with the longest duration is called a critical path and the corresponding activities are called critical activities in that they must be completed as scheduled to meet the scheduled project completion time. The estimated duration of the project is
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FIGURE 8-1
C B A D E F
N O
R Finish
TABLE 8-2
Path # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
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therefore given by the length of the critical path. It is possible to find more than one critical path in a network project, but all critical paths will have the same length. For the network shown in Figure 8-1, the critical path is A-B-E-F-G-I-K-M-N-P-Q-R and its corresponding length is 44 weeks. Therefore, the projects estimated duration is 44 weeks. All activities in the critical path are called critical activities, whereas the remaining activities (C, D, H, L, and O) are non-critical activities. The procedure described above is prohibitive for large project networks. In addition, it does not provide answers to the scheduling time of individual activities and the delay that can be tolerated for non-critical activities without incurring a delay in the scheduled project completion time. In the next two sections, we discuss how techniques such as CPM and PERT help managers to address these questions.
A forward pass (from the starting node to the finish node) is used to compute the EST and EFT, whereas a backward pass (from the finish node to the starting node) is used for the LST and LFT. To determine the critical path and the project schedule, the approach consists of calculating, respectively, the starting time and the completion time for each activity as well as identifying the corresponding slack. The basis of the forward pass is the EST rule that states that all immediate predecessors must be completed before an activity can begin. Let t be the duration (estimated) of an activity. If no delay occurs anywhere in the project, the earliest finish time for an activity is
EFT EST t (8-1)
It results from the EST rule that the earliest start time for each activity is equal to the largest earliest finish times of the immediate predecessors. For example, consider the network shown in Figure 8-1. The project-starting activity A has no predecessor. Therefore, it can start as soon as the project starts, which we assume to be time 0. The earliest finish time of activity A can now be computed as 0 2 2. Activities B and D have activity A as their immediate predecessor. The EST for B is 2 and the EFT is 2 2 4. The EST for D is 2 and EFT is 2 1 3. Activity B is the only immediate predecessor of activity C and its EFT is known. Therefore, the EST for C is 4 and the EFT is 4 1 5. Activity E has two predecessor activities, B and D, with known EFT (4 and 3).
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FIGURE 8-2
Nodes Notation
A 2
EST
EFT
LST
LFT
The EST for D is 4, or the maximum between 4 and 3. The EFT of activity D is 4 4 8. If we continue this forward pass, the EST and the EFT for all activities can be computed as summarized in Figure 8-3, in which the node is expanded to include additional information (as shown in Figure 8-2). We show in the top left side of the node, the activity name (e.g., A); in the bottom left side, the activity duration; and in the top right side, the activitys EST and EFT. Later in our discussion we will place the activitys LST and LFT on the bottom right of the node. The forward pass to obtain the EST and the EFT can be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. For each activity with no predecessor, set EST 0. For each activity with known EST, calculate EFT using Equation 8-1, that is, EFT EST t. For each new activity where all immediate predecessors have known EFT values, apply the EST rule to obtain the EST and step 2 to calculate EFT. Repeat step 3 until EST and EFT have been obtained for all activities.
The basis of the backward pass is the LFT rule which states that an activity can start at the latest time if and only if all its immediate predecessors are completed. Hence, the latest finish time for each activity is equal to the smallest latest start times of the immediate successors
FIGURE 8-3
ES, EF 4, 5
C 1
ES, EF E 4, 8 4
ES, EF M 28, 34 6
ES, EF P 35, 38 3 ES, EF N 34, 35 1 ES, EF Q 38, 40 2 ES, EF O 35, 37 2 ES, EF R 40, 44 4
G 5
ES, EF H 15, 17 2
L 1
ES, EF 28, 29
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activities. Therefore, if no delay occurs anywhere in the project, the latest start time for an activity that will result on not delaying the completion of the project is:
LST LFT t (8-2)
The backward pass starts by setting up the LFT of all activities without successors (including the finish node) equal to the maximum EFT and then works backward from the finish node to the starting node. The procedure can be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. For each of the activities without successors (including the finish node), set LFT equal to EFT of the finish node. For each activity with known LFT value, calculate LST using Equation 8-2, that is, LST LFT t. For each new activity where immediate successors have known LST values, apply, respectively, the LFT rule to obtain the corresponding LFT and step 2 to calculate LST. Repeat step 3 until LFT and LST have been obtained for all activities.
For the network shown in Figure 8-4, we set the LFT and the LST of the finish node equal to its EFT 44 weeks. The immediate successor of activities R and O is the finish node. Hence, the LFT is 44 weeks and LST 44 4 40 weeks for activity R. For activity O, LFT is 44 weeks and LST 44 2 42 weeks. Activity R is the immediate successor for activities Q. Hence the corresponding LFT for activity Q is 40 weeks, whereas the LST 40 2 38 weeks. Activity Q is the immediate successor for activity P. The LFT 38 for activity P and the LST 38 3 35 weeks. Activity P and O are immediate successors for activity N. Hence, LFT minimum (35, 42) 35 weeks for activity N. If we proceed backward until the starting node, the LFT and the LST for all activities can be computed as summarized in Figure 8-4. For example, Activity G has activities J, I, and H as immediate successors. Its corresponding LFT min (25, 15, 25) 15 weeks and LST 15 5 10 weeks. The slack time for an activity refers to the length of time that can be tolerated without incurring a delay in the scheduled project completion time. The slack time per activity needs to be calculated first to identify the critical path(s), by considering either the start times or the finish times. Hence, for each of the activities in the project network, the slack time can be calculated as follows:
Slack LST EST or LFT EFT (8-3)
FIGURE 8-4
ES, EF 4, 5 LS, LF 1 7, 8
ES, EF 4, 8 4 LS, LF 4, 8
ES, EF 8, 10 LS, LF 2 8, 10
ES, EF J 15, 17 LS, LF 2 25, 27 ES, EF I 15, 27 1 2 LS, LF 15, 27 ES, EF H 15, 17 2 LS, LF 25, 27 ES, EF K 27, 18 LS, LF 1 27, 28
ES, EF M 28, 34 LS, LF 6 28, 34 ES, EF N 34, 35 LS, LF 1 34, 35 ES, EF L 28, 29 LS, LF 1 41, 42
ES, EF P 35, 38 LS, LF 3 35, 38 ES, EF Q 38, 40 2 LS, LF 38, 40 ES, EF O 35, 37 2 LS, LF 42, 44 ES, EF R 40,44 4 LS, LF 40, 44
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Table 8-3 summarizes the activities slack times for the airport gate management system acquisition project example. Activities A, B, E, F, G, I, K, M, N, P, Q, and R have zero or no slack, meaning that these activities cannot be delayed without delaying the entire project. Alternately, a reduction in the duration of one these activities will result in the reduction of the entire projects length. They are called critical activities and belong to the critical path(s). The remaining activities (C, D, H, J, L, and O) are non-critical activities since they provide managers with some degree of freedom about when to start or complete them without delaying the entire project. Therefore, Table 8-3 provides the project manager with answers to some of the questions raised at the end of the introduction section. For the airport gate management system acquisition project example, the critical path is A-B-E-F-G-I-K-M-N-P-Q-R-Finish, the estimated project completion time is 44 weeks, and each activity has to be completed according to the schedule shown in Table 8-3. As stated earlier, note that it is possible for a project to have multiple critical path(s). The slack times provide valuable information for the overall management of the project. For example, an activity with smaller slack time (e.g., activity D with 1 week) will need tighter control than an activity with a larger slack time (e.g. activities H and J with 10 weeks).
TABLE 8-3
Activity A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R Finish EST 0 2 4 2 4 8 10 15 15 15 27 28 28 34 35 35 38 40 44
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The duration of an activity is therefore assumed to have a beta probability distribution in PERT analysis. Following this distribution, the expected activity time, te, and the variance of the activity completion time, 2 can be obtained as follows:
te a 4m b 6 2 a 1b 2 6
2
(8-4)
(8-5)
Figure 8-5 illustrates the shape of the beta distribution, where at the two extremes we have the two estimates a and b with a very small probability, whereas the third estimate m provides the highest point (mode) of the probability distribution. In PERT analysis, the project completion time is computed in a similar manner as in the CPM approach, but by substituting the three estimates of the activity duration with the expected activity time, te , as obtained according to Equation 8-4, and by the variance of the activity completion time, 2, as obtained according to Equation 8-5. Therefore, the expected completion time of the project (p) can be derived as well as the variability in the project completion time (p), as follows:
p max (EFT) max(LFT) sum of the expected duration for the activities in the critical path P (sum of the variances of the duration for the activities in the critical path) (8-6) (8-7)
Assume that, due to variability in activity times, the three estimates of activities duration for the airport gate management system acquisition project example are as shown in Table 8-4. (see columns 24). Therefore, by applying Equations 8-4 and 8-5 the mean and the variance of the activity duration shown in the last two columns of Table 8-4 can be computed. The estimated start and finish times for all activities according to the forward pass and the backward pass were summarized in Figure 8-4. The critical path is A-B-E-F-G-I-K-MN-P-Q-R-Finish. The expected project completion time (p) is 44 weeks (given by the
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FIGURE 8-5
x a
m Activity Duration
TABLE 8-4
Activities Expected Times and Variances for the AGMS Acquisition Project
Mean, Variance, 2 a 1b 2 6
ACTIVITY A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R
m 2 2 1 1 4 2 5 2 12 2 1 1 6 1 2 3 2 4
te a 4m b 6 2 2 1 1 4 2 5 2 12 2 1 1 6 1 2 3 2 4
0.111 0.111 0.028 0.028 0.111 0.111 0.444 0.111 0.444 0.111 0.028 0.028 0.444 0.028 0.111 0.250 0.111 0.444
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maximum EFT or LFT). Given the data in Figure 8-4, the standard deviation for the project equals 1.62 weeks, computed as follows:
p
(var(A) var(B) var(E) var(F) var(G) var(I) var(K) var(M) var(N) var(P) var(Q) var(R)
(0.111) (0.111) (0.111) (0.111) (0.444) (0.444) (0.028) (0.444) (0.028) (0.250) (0.111) (0.444) p (2.64) 1.62
In addition to providing answers to questions about the projects critical activities, the start and completion times of activities, the expected completion time of the project, and the variability in the project completion time, PERT analysis also answers questions such as the probability of whether or not the project will be completed on time or, conversely, what the project completion time will be, given a certain probability.
The approach consists of converting X into a standard normal distribution and determining the area under the normal curve using Table A in Appendix B. To that end the z value is computed as follows,
z xp p x c or d (8-8)
where For the airport gate management system acquisition project, what is the probability of completing the project within 46 weeks? The Z value for the normal probability distribution at x 46 is z 4644 1.23. Therefore from Table A in Appendix B, 1.62 P(X 1.23) 0.50 0.3907 0.8907 or 89.07%. Hence, there is about 89% probability that the project will be completed on time. Alternatively the Excel function NORMSDIST(z) can be used to seek the probability corresponding to the z value. What is the probability that the project lasts more than 46 weeks? P(X 46) 1 P(X 46) 1 P(X 46) 1 0.8907 0.1093 or 10.93%. There is a 11% probability that the project will not be completed on time.
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FIGURE 8-6
P(X d) X d X
P(X d)
X d Project Duration
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FIGURE 8-7
P(X d)
X d Project Duration
For the airport gate management system acquisition project, what would be the completion time under which for the project has 95% probability of completing? From Table A in Appendix B, z 1.65 for P(X b) 0.95. Alternatively, the Excel function NORMINV(probability) can be used to seek the corresponding z value. Hence, using Equation 8-9, x 44 1.65 1.62 46.67 weeks, that is, if the project completion time is 46.67 weeks, the company will complete it on time with a 95% probability.
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speeding up or shortening of the duration of an activity by using additional resources. These include overtime, hiring temporary staff, renting more efficient equipment, and other measures. Project crashing refers to the process of shortening the duration of the project by crashing the duration of a number of activities. Since it generally results in an increase of the overall project costs, the challenge faced by the project manager is to identify the activities to crash and the duration reduction for each activity such that as the project crashing is done in the least expensive manner possible. This section discusses a procedure that can be used for small-sized projects. We also discuss how linear programming (Chapter 3) can be used to investigate project crashing decisions, especially for larger size projects. Figure 8-8 illustrates the activity costs and activity duration relationships, where the normal time refers to the estimated activity duration used with CPM or PERT in the computation of earliest (latest) start or finish times. The normal cost refers to the activity cost under the normal activity time. The crash time refers to the shortest possible time to complete an activity with additional resources. The crashing cost refers to the activity cost under the crashing activity time. This relationship is assumed to be linear. Hence, for each activity a crash cost per period (e.g., per week) can be derived as follows:
crash cost per period (Crash cost Normal Cost) (Normal time Crash time) (8-10)
FIGURE 8-8
Crash
Normal cost
Normal
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The general procedure for project crashing involves the following four steps: 1. 2. 3. Compute the crash cost per period for all activities using Equation 8-10. Find critical path(s) in the project network using the normal times and identify critical activities. Select a critical activity with the smallest crash cost per week that can still be crashed, in the case that there exists only one critical path. Otherwise, select one activity from each critical path that can be still crashed and yield the smallest total crash cost per period (including a common activity among critical paths). Crash the selected activity or activities by one period. Update the length of paths. Stop the procedure if the completion deadline is reached. Otherwise, check to ensure current critical path(s) are still critical and find the new ones, if any. Return to Step 3.
4.
To illustrate the procedure above, consider the network shown in Figure 8-9, which shows the activities for a new product development project and their precedence relationships. Start is a dummy activity with zero duration added to ensure that all activities have one starting node. Table 8-5 provides the information about the activities normal times and costs, crash times and costs, the maximum crashing reduction in time as obtained by the difference between the normal time and the crash time, and the crash cost per week as obtained using Equation 8-10. For example, the normal time for activity C is 10 weeks and its cost is $45 000. It can be shortened by up to 4 weeks at an additional cost of $36 000 or $9000 per week of reduction. The project critical path obtained by using normal times is Start-A-C-E-H. The estimated project completion time is 28 weeks. Suppose that management wants to shorten the project to 24 weeks to beat competition. Which activities should be crashed, and for each crashed activity provide the total number of weeks crashed and the total cost. What is the overall project crashing cost? To reduce the project completion time from 28 weeks to 27 weeks, one of the activities on the critical path needs to be reduced. Activity A has the lowest crash cost per week among all critical activities ($3000). It is therefore selected and crashed by one week, that is, the duration for activity is 4 weeks instead of 5. This shortens the project completion time Project Network for the New Product Development Example
F
FIGURE 8-9
C Start D
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TABLE 8-5
Time and Cost Information for the New Product Development Project
Maximum Reduction in Time (weeks) 3 2 4 2 1 2 2 3
Activity A B C D E F G H
Cost ($) Normal Crash 25 000 30 000 45 000 30 000 30 000 20 000 35 000 35 000 34 000 40 000 81 000 38 000 37 000 26 000 44 000 65 000
Crash Cost per Week 3000 5000 9000 4000 7000 3000 4500 10 000
to 27 weeks and Start-A-C-E-H is still the single critical path. To shorten the project completion to 26 weeks, activity A is once again selected, given that it can still be crashed and it has the lowest crash cost per week among all critical activities ($3000). The project completion time is now 26 weeks. Start-A-C-E-H is still a critical path but another path, Start-BC-E-H, has also become critical. To reduce the entire project to 25 weeks, one activity from each critical path needs to be crashed. One option is to choose activity A and B, respectively, but the total cost would be $8000 ($3000 $5000). Activity E is common to both critical paths, has a crash cost per week of $7000, which is lower than $8000 (if A and B are crashed), and will reduce both path simultaneously if selected. We crash activity E by one week to reduce the project completion time to 25 weeks. At this stage, we have 3 critical paths: Start-A-C-E-H, Start-B-C-E-H, and Start-B-CF-H. Activity E cannot be crashed further. To reduce the project completion time to 24 weeks, Activities A and B will be crashed for a total cost of $8000 ($3000 $5000), any other combination being more costly. Note that the option of shortening A and F is cheaper, but it does not reduce the length of the critical path Start-B-C-E-H. In conclusion, to shorten the completion project duration to 24 weeks, activity A should be crashed by 3 weeks at a cost of $9000 (3 $3000), activity E by 1 week at a cost of $7000, and activity B by one week at a cost of $5000. The total project crashing cost is $21 000 ($9000 $7000 $5000). Table 8-6 provides a summary of the procedure after 4 weeks of project crashing, where * indicates a critical path.
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TABLE 8-6
Paths Start-A-F-H Start-A-C-E-H Start-A-C-F-H Start-B-C-F-H Start-B-C-E-H Start-B-D-E-H Start-B-D-G-H Activity crashed Crashing cost
0 15 28* 21 25 26 22 19
1 14 27* 20 25 26 22 19 A $3000
4 12 24 18 24 24 20 18 A,B $8000
For the new product development project, the linear programming will be formulated as follows, where X j starting time for activity j and Y j number of weeks by which activity i is crashed. The cost for completing the project using normal times is fixed. Hence, the objective function is formulated as minimizing the project crashing:
minimize Z 3000YA 5000YB 9000YC 4000YD 7000YE 3000YF 4500YG 10 000YH
Precedence Relationship Constraints To express the precedence relationships between activities, the following three relations are used for each activity: (1) Earliest start time Finish time of preceding activity(ies); (2) Finish time Earliest start time activity duration; and (3) Activity duration Normal activity time number of weeks by which an activity is crashed. Therefore, the following constraints are developed:
XA 0 XB 0 XC XA 5 YA XC XB 4 YB XD XB 4 YB XE XC 10 YC XE XD 5 YD XF XA 5 YA XF XC 10 YC XG XD 5 YD XH XE 7 YE XH X F 5 Y F XH X G 4 Y G (Earliest starting time for activity A) (Earliest starting time for activity B) (C cannot start earlier than the completion of activity A) (C cannot start earlier than the completion of activity B) (D cannot start earlier than the completion of activity B) (E cannot start earlier than the completion of activity C) (E cannot start earlier than the completion of activity D) (F cannot start earlier than the completion of activity A) (F cannot start earlier than the completion of activity C) (G cannot start earlier than the completion of activity D) (H cannot start earlier than the completion of activity E) (H cannot start earlier than the completion of activity F) (H cannot start earlier than the completion of activity G)
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Maximum Reduction Constraints This set of constraints refers to the limits by which each activity can be crashed.
YA 3 YB 2 YC 4 YD 2 YE 1 YF 2 YG 2 YH 3 (activity A can be crashed up to 3 weeks) (activity B can be crashed up to 2 weeks) (activity C can be crashed up to 4 weeks) (activity D can be crashed up to 2 weeks) (activity E can be crashed up to 1 week) (activity F can be crashed up to 2 weeks) (activity G can be crashed up to 2 weeks) (activity H can be crashed up to 3 weeks)
Project Completion Deadline Since H is the finish activity of the project, its finishing time must be no longer than the project deadline, that is, XH 6 YH 24 weeks. Non-negativity Constraints This set of constraints stipulates that all variables must be non-negative, that is, all Xj and Yj 0, j A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Exhibit 8-1 shows the Excel Solver layout for the new product development crashing project. The Excels function SUMPRODUCT is used in the LHS column as well as in the Z value cell. The solution is shown in the bottom section of the Exhibit. It shows that activity A should be crashed by 2.5 weeks and activity C should be crashed by 1.5 week for a total crashing cost of $21 000. Note that the Solvers solution has the same objective function as the manual procedure, but with a different solution. This indicates that the problem has multiple solutions.
EXHIBIT 8-1
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(8-11)
Subject to
Xj Xi ti, for all j, for all i P(j) Xj 0, for all j (8-12) (8-13)
The objective function minimizes the sum of earliest start times of activities. Its value is only to ensure that each activity starts at the earliest time. Constraint 8-12 states that an activity cannot start unless all its immediate predecessors are completed. Constraint 8-13 is the non-negativity constraint. To determine the LST and LFT for activities, the linear programming model can be written as follows, where W j latest start time for activity j:
maximize Z a W j
j
(8-14)
Subject to
Wj Wi ti, for all j, for all i P(j) Wj tj EFTj , j finish activity Wj 0, for all j (8-15) (8-16) (8-17)
The objective function to maximize the sum of all activity start times to ensure the latest activity start times. Constraint 8-15 defines the activity precedence relationships. Constraint 8-16 states the completion time of the finish activity in the project network.
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Summary
This chapter introduced the critical path method (CPM) and the program evaluation review technique (PERT), two management science techniques developed in the late 1950s to plan, schedule, and control large, complex projects with many activities. We showed when and how these approaches can be used to help managers address questions such as what is the expected total time required to complete a project; what are the start and the completion times for individual activities; which critical activities must be completed as scheduled; how much delay can be tolerated for non-critical activities; what is the least expensive way to speed up a project; and in the case where the durations of activities are not known with certainty, the probability to complete a project according to a given time frame and the variability in the project completion time. The chapter also showed how the network representation can be used to depict the project activities and their relationships, how to handle crashing decisions heuristically or using a linear programming model, and how the project scheduling problem can be formulated as a linear programming problem that seeks to determine the project completion time subject to meeting the precedence relationships between activities. Finally, a brief list was provided of specialized project management software packages that have been developed for scheduling and tracking project activities.
Glossary
Activity A task that needs to be completed within a project and consumes both time and resources. Activity on arc (AOA) A project network representation in which the project activities are reported on arcs and the nodes represent the starting or the completion of activities. Activity on node (AON) A project network representation in which the project activities are reported on nodes and the arcs represent their precedence relationships. Backward pass The process used to determine the latest start time and the latest finish time of an activity, which consists of moving backward through the project network from the finish node to the starting node. Beta probability distribution A form of distribution used to represent the duration of an activity in PERT analysis. Critical path method (CPM) An analysis approach used in project scheduling when the project inputs (e.g., activities duration and costs) are assumed to be known with certainty. Crashing Speeding up or shortening the duration of an activity by using additional resources. Crash time The shortest possible time to complete an activity with additional resources. Crash cost The cost to crash an activity. Critical path(s) The path(s) with the longest length in the project network. Critical activities Activities in the critical path. These activities must be completed as scheduled to prevent delaying the project completion. Earliest start time (EST) The earliest time at which an activity can start if no delays occur in the project. Earliest finish time (EFT) The earliest time at which an activity can finish if no delays occur in the project. Forward pass A process used to determine the earliest start time and the earliest finish time of an activity, which consists of moving forward through the project network from the starting node to the finish node. Immediate predecessors Activities that must be completed prior to the starting time of a given activity. Immediate successors Activities that follow the completion of a given activity. Latest start time (LST) The latest time at which an activity can start without delaying the completion of the project. Latest finish time (LFT) The latest time at which an activity can finish without delaying the completion of the project. Length of path The sum of the durations of the activities on the path. Normal time The estimated activity duration used with CPM or PERT in the computation of earliest (latest) start or finish times. Normal cost The activity cost under the normal activity time. Path A sequence of connected nodes in the network from the start node to the finish node. Program evaluation review technique (PERT) An analysis approach used in project scheduling when some of the project inputs (e.g., activities duration and costs) are not known with certainty
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Project A set of activities interrelated by their precedence relationships that need to be undertaken in the accomplishment of a unique, often major outcome. Project crashing The process of shortening the duration of a project by crashing the duration of a number of activities. Project network A representation used to depict the project activities. Slack time The length of time that can be tolerated for an activity without incurring a delay in the estimated project completion time.
Solved Problems
Problem 1 Expected durations (in weeks) and variances for the major activities of an R&D project are depicted in the precedence network diagram chart. Determine the probability that project completion time in Figure 8-10 will be a. b. Less than 50 weeks. More than 50 weeks. b. deviation for each path are shown in Table 8-7. Path S-1-58-End is the critical path. Therefore, the project expected completion time is 51 weeks and the corresponding variance is 1.488 weeks. a. The z value for the normal distribution at x 50 is
z 50tS1 .82. Hence, P(x 50) .2061. 1.22
Solution Because S and End have zero durations, we can ignore them in the following calculations. The mean and standard
FIGURE 8-10
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Solution Problem 2 Table 8-8 shows the information related to a project that a. The project network is shown in Figure 8-11. involves the merger of two marketing firms (in days). b. The project schedule is as follows: Table 8-8 Data for Solved Problem 2
Activity A B C D E F G H I J Immediate predecessor(s) A B C, D B D, F E E, G F, I Estimated duration(days) 10 15 5 12 14 8 15 10 6 9 Activity Start A B C D E F G H I J Finish Earliest Latest Start Start 0 0 0 10 15 27 15 27 41 42 48 57 0 13 0 23 15 28 19 27 47 42 48 57 Earliest Finish 0 10 15 15 27 41 23 42 51 48 57 57 Latest Finish Slack 0 23 15 28 27 42 27 42 57 48 57 57 0 13 0 13 0 1 4 0 6 0 0 0
a. b. c. d. e.
f.
Draw the project network. Develop the project schedule (EST, EFT, LST, LFT). What are the critical activities? What is the project completion duration? If there is an option to delay one activity without delaying the entire merge project, which activity would you delay and why? Formulate the LP model that would determine the earliest start times of activities.
c. d. e. f.
The critical activities are: B-D-G-I-J The project completion duration is 57 days. Activity A or C since they have the largest slack times. The LP formulation of the model is as follows, where X j earliest start time for activity j A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J.
minimize Z XA XB XC XD XE XF XG XH XI XJ
FIGURE 8-11
C E
Start B D
I Finish G
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subject to
XC XA 10 XD XB 15 XE XC 5 XE XD 12 XF XB 15 XG XD 12 XG XF 8 XH XE 14 XI XE 14 XI XG 15 XJ XF 8 XJ XI 6 XA XB 0
b. c.
The expected project completion time is 57 days and its variance is .44 .44 .88. The probability that the project will be completed in 60 days or more: P(X 60) P(X z), where z 6057 3.198. Therefore from Table A in 0.88 Appendix B, P(X 3.198) 0.5 0.4990 0.001 or 0.1 percent. The probability that the project will be completed in 55 days or less: P(X 50) P(X z), where z 5557 2.13. Therefore from Table A in 0.88
All variables 0 Problem 3 Consider the network information shown in the previous problem (Problem 2) and assume that the duration of some activities is not known with certainty. The estimates of these activities are shown below, assuming that the duration for the other activities remains unchanged.
Activity A C D G H Optimistic 8 3 10 13 8 Most Likely 10 5 12 15 10 Pessimistic 12 7 14 17 12
Appendix B, P(X 2.13) 0.5 .4788 .0212 or 2.12 percent. d. z0.96 1.76. Using Equation 8-9, the project completion time X 57 1.76 .938 58.65 days. Therefore to meet this completion time, the latest start and finish times for each activity should be as follows:
Activity Start A B C D E F G H I J Finish Latest Start 1.65 14.65 1.65 24.65 16.65 29.65 20.65 28.65 48.65 43.65 49.65 58.65 Latest Finish 1.65 24.65 16.65 29.65 28.65 43.65 28.65 43.65 58.65 49.65 58.65 58.65
a. b. c. d.
What is the critical path? What is the projects expected completion time and its variance? What is the probability that the project will be completed in 60 days or more? In no more than 55 days? If the company wants a 96% probability of completing the project on time, state the latest time each activity should have started and completed.
Solution a. The mean and variance for activities for which the duration is not known with certainty:
Mean, Activity A C D G H Variance, 2 te a 4m b 6 10 5 12 15 10 a 1 b 2 6
2
Problem 4 Indirect cost for a project is $12 000 per week for as long as the project lasts. The project manager has supplied the cost and time information and precedence network diagram shown in Figure 8-12.
Crashing Potential (weeks) 3 3 2 1 3 1 Cost per Week to Crash $11 000 3000 first week, $4000 after that 6000 1000 6000 2000
Activity A B C D E F
a
8 3 10 13 8
m
10 5 12 15 10
b
12 7 14 17 12
Use the information to: a. Determine an optimum crashing plan. b. Graph the total costs for the plan.
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FIGURE 8-12
13 S C
15
6 D
8
End
4.
5.
Check to see which path(s) might be critical: S-A-B-End and S-E-F-End would be 22 weeks in length, and S-C-D-End would still be 19 weeks. Rank activities on the critical paths:
Path A-B . . . . . ......... E-F . . . . . ......... Activity B A E F Cost per Week to Crash $4000 11 000 6000 (no further crashing possible)
2.
Crash B on path S-A-B-End and E on S-E-F-End for a cost of $4000 $6000 $10 000, for a net savings of $12 000 $10 000 $2000. 6. At this point, no further reduction is costeffective: paths S-A-B-End and S-E-F-End would be 21 weeks in length, and one activity from each path would have to be shortened. This would mean activity A at $11 000 and E at $6000 for a total of $17 000, which exceeds the $12 000 potential savings in indirect costs. Note that no further crashing for activity B is possible. The following table summarizes the results, showing the length of the project after crashing n weeks:
Path n0 1 23 19 23 B 3 2 22 19 22 B,F 6 3 21 19 21 B,E 10
Activity B should be shortened one week since it has the lower crashing cost per week. This would reduce indirect costs by $12 000 at a cost of $3000, for a net savings of $9000. At this point, paths S-A-B-End and S-E-F-End would both have a length of 23 weeks, so both would be critical. 3. Rank activities by crashing cost on the two critical paths:
Path Activity B A F E Cost per Week to Crash $4000 11 000 2000 6000
b.
Choose one activity (the least costly) on each path to crash: B on S-A-B-End and F on S-E-F-End, for a total cost of $4000 $2000 $6000 and a net savings of $12 000 $6000 $6000. Note: There is no activity common to the two critical paths.
A summary of costs for the preceding schedule would look like Table 8-9. The graph of total cost is shown in Figure 8-13.
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FIGURE 8-13
290 280 Total Cost 270 260
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Problems
1. For the precedence network diagram in Figure 8-14, determine both the critical path and the project duration by determining the length of each path. The numbers above the nodes represent activity duration in days. Using the data in Table 8-10 construct a precedence network diagram. The project is completed when activities H, I, and J are all finished. Using the data in Table 8-11 construct a precedence network diagram. The project is completed when activities D, F, J, and K are all finished. 4. ET is an entertainment group that specializes in the management of band tours around the world. The company is considering placing a bid for the management of the next 2-day concert of a very popular rock band in the city of Toronto. As part of the planning process, the company has determined that the list of activities in Table 8-12 would need to be performed to carry out the project. Construct the precedence network diagram that can be used in the scheduling of these activities.
2.
3.
FIGURE 8-14
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5. Assume that the activities in Problem 4 have the 8. Reconsider the list of activities in Problem 6 and their duration (in days) as shown in Table 8-13. corresponding durations in Problem 7. Suppose that a. What is the maximum number of working days after 12 days, activities A, B, and I have been finished, the company would have to write in their bid to activity E is 75 percent finished, and activity J is half complete all activities of this project if no delays finished. How many days after the original start time occur? would the project finish? b. What are the critical activities? 9. The following table contains information related to c. When would each activity have to start and the major activities of a research project. Use the finish at the earliest to complete this project on information to do the following: time? a. Draw a precedence network diagram. d. When would each activity have to start and finb. Find the critical path by identifying all the start ish at the latest to complete this project on time? to end paths and calculating their lengths. c. What is the expected duration of the project? 6. Softbank is a consulting company that specializes in the customization of software in the banking industry. Immediate Expected The company has been hired to serve on a project that Activity Predecessor(s) Duration (days) involves the replacement of the user interface currently A................ 5 in place for online banking in the website of a large C................ A 8 Canadian bank. It has been determined that the list of D................ C 2 activities in Table 8-14 would need to be performed to B................ A 7 carry out the project. E ................ 3 Construct the precedence network diagram that can F ................ E 6 be used in the scheduling of these activities. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B, D 10 7. Assume that activities in Problem 6 have the duraM ............... F 8 tions (in days) as shown in Table 8-15. G................ 1 H................ G 2 a. Determine the following values for each activity: K................ H 17 the earliest start time, the earliest finish time, the latest start time, the latest finish time, and 10. Chris received a new word-processing software prothe activity slack time. gram for her birthday. She also received a cheque, b. Identify the critical activities, and determine with which she intends to purchase a new computer. the expected duration of the project. What is the Chriss university instructor assigned a paper due next maximum number of working days the comweek. Chris decided that she will prepare the paper on pany would have to write in their bid to the new computer. She made a list of the activities and complete all project activities if no delays occur? Table 8-13 Data for Problem 5
Activity Duration (in days) A 5 B 18 C 13 D 3 E 10 F 11 G 4 H 9 I 2
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their estimated durations. Chriss friend has offered to shop for, select and purchase a computer, and install the software. a. Arrange the activities into two logical sequences. b. Construct a precedence network diagram. c. Determine the critical path and its expected duration. d. What are some possible reasons for the project to take longer than the expected duration?
Estimated Time (hours) .8 .4 .2 .6 .5 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Activity (abbreviation) Install software (Install) Outline the paper (Outline) Submit paper to instructor (Submit) Choose a topic (Choose) Use grammar-checking routine and make corrections (Check) Write the paper using the wordprocessing software (Write) Shop for a new computer (Shop) Select and purchase computer (Select) Library research on chosen topic (Library)
Their first project consists of activities listed in the following table. a. Draw the precedence network diagram. b. What is the probability that the project can be completed in 24 days or less? In 21 days or less? c. Suppose it is now the end of the seventh day and that activities A and B have been completed while activity D is 50 percent completed. Optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates for the completion of activity D are now 5, 6, and 7 days. Activities C and H are ready to begin. Determine the probability of finishing the project by day 24 and the probability of finishing by day 21.
DURATION IN DAYS Immediate Most Activity Predecessor(s) Optimistic Likely Pessimistic A.......... B.......... C .......... D.......... E.......... F .......... G.......... H.......... I .......... A C D F B H 5 8 6 9 5 5 2 4 5 6 8 8 12 6 6 3 4 7 7 11 11 15 9 7 7 5 8
11. The information in the following table pertains to a project that is about to commence.
Immediate Predecessor(s) Estimated Duration (days) 15 12 6 5 3 8 8 9 7 14 6
Activity
A................. B................. A C................. B D................. B E ................. C F ................. G................. F H................. F I.................. G J ................. H K................. J
13. The new director of special events at a large university has decided to completely revamp graduation ceremonies. Toward that end, a precedence network diagram of the major activities has been developed. The chart has five paths with expected durations and variances as shown in the following table. Graduation day is 16 full weeks from now. Assuming that the project begins now, what is the probability that the project will be completed before: a. Graduation time? b. The end of week 15? c. The end of week 13?
Path Expected Duration (weeks) 10 8 12 15 14 Variance 1.21 2.00 1.00 2.89 1.44
As the project manager, which activities would you be concerned with in terms of timely project completion? Explain. b. Determine the following values for each activity: the earliest start time, the earliest finish time, the latest start time, the latest finish time, and the activity slack time. 12. Three recent university graduates have formed a partnership and have opened an advertising firm.
a.
14. What is the probability that the following project will take more than 10 weeks to complete if the precedence network diagram, activity means, and
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standard deviations (both in weeks) are as shown 16. The precedence network diagram in Figure 8-15 below? reflects optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates for each activity. Determine: Activity Mean Standard Deviation a. The expected completion time for each path and A 5 1.3 its variance. B 4 1.0 b. The probability that the project will require more C 8 1.6 than 49 weeks. c. The probability that the project can be completed A B in 46 weeks or fewer. 17. A project manager has compiled a list of major activiS End ties that will be required to install a computer information system in her company. The list includes three C estimates of durations (optimistic, most likely, pessimistic) for activities and precedence relationships. 15. The project described in the following table and precedence network diagram has just begun. It is scheduled 3-Point to be completed in 11 weeks. Activity Precedes Estimates (weeks) a. If you were the manager of this project, would A 2-4-6 you be concerned? Explain. D A 6-8-10 b. If there is a penalty of $5000 a week for each E D 7-9-12 week the project is late, what is the probability of H E 2-3-5 incurring a penalty of at least $5000? F A 3-4-8
Activity A B C D A S C D Expected Duration (weeks) 4 6 3 9 B End Standard Deviation (weeks) .70 .90 .62 1.90 G B I J K C M N O F B I J C M N 5-7-9 2-2-3 2-3-6 3-4-5 4-5-8 5-8-12 1-1-1 6-7-11 8-9-13
If the project is finished within 26 weeks of its start, the project manager will receive a bonus of $1000; and if the project is finished within 27 weeks of its start, the bonus will be $500. Find the probability of each bonus.
FIGURE 8-15
9-10-12 3 14-18-26 6
13-13-1 3
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5-6-7 5 8
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10
11
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18. The project manager of a task force planning the construction of a domed stadium had hoped to be able to complete construction prior to the start of the next season. After reviewing construction duration estimates, it now appears that a certain amount of crashing will be needed to ensure project completion before the season opener. Given the following information, determine a minimum-cost crashing schedule that will shave five weeks off the project length.
CRASHING COSTS First Week $15 000 10 000 5000 20 000 16 000 12 000 24 000 30 000 25 000 10 000 40 000 20 000 Second Week $20 000 10 000 5000 21 000 18 000 15 000 24 000 25 000 10 000 20 000
Activity
Precedes A C C C D E F I B G H H, J
Determine a minimum-cost crashing plan that will take off six weeks from the project duration. b. Plot the total-cost curve from part a against project duration. What is the optimum number of weeks to crash? 20. Chucks Custom Boats (CCB) builds luxury yachts to customer order. CCB has landed a contract with a Vancouver businessman (Mr. P). Relevant data are 19. A construction project has indirect costs totalling shown below. The complication is that Mr. P wants $40 000 per week. Major activities in the project and delivery in 32 weeks or he will impose a penalty of their expected durations are shown in the precedence $375 for each week his yacht is late. network diagram in Figure 8-16:
A......... B......... C......... D......... E......... F......... G......... H......... I.......... J......... K......... M......... N......... P.........
a.
FIGURE 8-16
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Activity K L N M J Q P Y Z
Immediate Predecessor(s) K K L N M, J Q Q P
CRASHING COSTS 1st Week $410 125 45 300 50 200 85 90 2nd Week $415 45 350 225 90
Develop a minimum cost crashing schedule. 21. Table 8-16 is a list of activities and their expected duration, used by a component supplier to automobile manufacturers, to plan for QS9000 (the auto industry version of ISO9000) certification (registration). a. Draw the precedence network diagram. b. Determine the earliest and latest times, and identify the critical activities and the project duration.
*These are estimates of time and may vary based upon situation, company, and registrar.
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Current Problem
Fantasy Products Marketing Vice-President Vera Sloan has recently learned from reliable sources that a competitor is also in the process of developing a similar product, which it intends to bring out at almost the same time. In addition, her source indicated that the competitor plans to sell its product, which will be smaller than The Big Chill, for $99 in the hope of appealing to more customers. Vera, with the help of several of her key people who are to be involved in marketing The Big Chill, has decided that to compete, the selling price for The Big Chill will have to be lowered to within $10 of the competitors price. At this price level it will still be profitable, although not nearly as profitable as originally anticipated. However, Vera is wondering whether it would be possible to expedite the usual product introduction process to beat the competition to the market. If possible, she would like to get a six-week jump on the competition; this would put the product introduction date only 18 weeks away. During this initial period, Fantasy Products could sell The Big Chill for $125, reducing the selling price to $109 when the competitors product actually enters the market. Since forecasts based on market research show
that sales during the first six weeks will be about 400 per week, there is an opportunity for $25 per unit profit if the early introduction can be accomplished. In addition, there is a certain amount of prestige involved in being first to the market. This should help enhance The Big Chills image during the anticipated battle for market share.
Data Collection
Since Fantasy Products has been through the productintroduction process a number of times, Vera has developed a list of the tasks that must be accomplished and the order in which they must be completed. Although the duration and costs vary depending on the particular product, the basic process does not. The list of activities involved and their precedence relationships are presented in Table 8-17. Duration and cost estimates for the introduction of The Big Chill are presented in Table 8-18. Note that some of the activities can be completed on a crash basis, with an associated increase in cost. For example, activity B can be crashed from 8 weeks to 6 weeks at an additional cost of $3000 (i.e., $12 000$9000). Assume that if B is crashed to 7 weeks, the additional cost will be $1500 (i.e., $3000/2).
TABLE 8-17
Activity A B C D E F G H I J K L M
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TABLE 8-18
Activity A B C D E F G H I J K L M
Normal Cost $2000 9000 2000 1000 2000 0 12 000 3500 5000 8000 50 000 10 000 5000
Managerial Report
Fantasy Products needs to decide whether to bring The Big Chill to market 18 weeks from now as Vera Sloan is recommending. As the project management specialist in the R&D department, you have been asked to answer the following questions: 1. When would the project be completed using normal durations?
2.
3.
Is it possible to complete the project in 18 weeks? What would the associated additional cost be? Which activities would need to be completed on a crash basis? Is there some time frame shorter than the 18 weeks Vera has recommended that would make more sense in terms of profits?
Source: Adapted from an original case by Robert J. Thieraus, Margaret Cunningham, and Melanie Blackwell, Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio.