Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 2nd Ed.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 2nd Ed.
The invention all admird, and each, how he To be th inventor missed; so easy it seemd Once found, which yet unfound most would have thought Impossible John Milton
Figure 1.1 Approaches to product development. (a) Classic approach, with large design iterations typical of the over-thewall engineering approach. (b) A more modern approach, showing a main design flow with minor iterations representing concurrent engineering inputs. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
A = vg
C=
A=g
C=
A=f
C=
Characteristica ns s vs
A=p
C=
E=
a vs
a vg
= very good, g = good, f = fair, and p = poor. A = quality of materials, workmanship, maintenance, and inspection. B = control over load applied to part. C = accuracy of stress analysis, experimental data, or experience with similar parts.
= very serious, s = serious, and ns = not serious D = danger to personnel. E = economic impact.
Pin
Figure 1.2 Effect of manufacturing and assembly considerations on design of a reciprocating power saw. (a) Original design, with 41 parts and 6.37-min assembly time; (b) modified design, with 29 parts and 2.58-min assembly time. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(a)
(b)
(a) SI units Quantity Unit SI base units Length meter Mass kilogram Time second Temperature kelvin SI supplementary unit Plane angle radian SI derived units Energy joule Force newton Power watt Pressure pascal Work joule
SI symbol m kg s K rad J N W Pa J
SI Units
(b) SI prexes Multiplication factor 1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 1,000,000,000 = 109 1,000,000 = 106 1000 = 103 100 = 102 10 = 101 0.1 = 101 0.01 = 102 0.001 = 103 0.000 001 = 106 0.000 000 001 = 109 0.000 000 000 001 = 1012 Prex tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico SI symbol for prex T G M k h da d c m n p
(a) Fundamental conversion factors English Exact SI unit value Length 1 in. 0.0254 m Mass 1 lbm 0.453 592 37 kg Temperature 1 deg R 5/9 K (b) Denitions Acceleration of gravity Energy
Conversion Factors
1 g = 9.8066 m/s2 (32.174 ft/s2 ) Btu (British thermal unit) = amount of energy required to raise 1 lbm of water 1 deg F (1 Btu = 778.2 ft-lb) kilocalorie = amount of energy required to raise 1 kg of water 1K (1 kcal = 4187 J) 1 mile = 5280 ft; 1 nautical mile =6076.1 ft 1 horsepower = 550 ft-lb/s 1 bar = 105 Pa 9 degree Fahrenheit tF = tC + 32 (where tC is degrees 5 Celsius) degree Rankine tR = tF + 459.67 Kelvin tK = tC + 273.15 (exact) 1 poise = 0.1 kg/m-s 1 stoke = 0.0001 m2 /s 1 cubic foot = 7.48 gal
(c) Useful conversion factors 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 lb = 4.448 N 1 lb = 386.1 lbm-in./s2 1 kgf = 9.807 N 1 lb/in.2 = 6895 Pa 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa 1 Btu = 1055 J 1 ft-lb = 1.356 J 1 hp = 746 W = 2545 Btu/hra 1 kW = 3413 Btu/hr 1 quart = 0.000946 m3 = 0.946 liter 1 kcal =3.968 Btu
Invisalign Product
Figure 1.3 The Invisalign product. (a) An example of an Aligner; (b) a comparison of conventional orthodontic braces and a transparent Aligner. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Invisalign Part 1
Figure 1.4 The process used in application of Invisalign orthodontic treatment. (a) Impressions are made of the patient's teeth by the orthontist, and shipped to Align technology, Inc. These are used to make plaster models of the patient's teeth. (b) High-resolution threedimensional representations of the teeth are produced from the plaster models. The correction plan is then developed using computer tools. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Invisalign Part 2
Figure 1.4 (cont.) (c) Rapid-prototyped molds of the teeth at incremental positions are produced through stereolithography. (d) An Aligner, produced by molding a transparent plastic over the stereolithography part. Each Aligner is work approximately two weeks. The patient is left with a healthy bite and a beautiful smile. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
To establish the critical section and the critical loading, the designer: 1. Considers the external loads applied to a machine (e.g. an automobile). 2. Considers the external loads applied to an element within the machine (e.g. a cylindrical rolling-element bearing. 3. Located the critical section within the machine element (e.g., the inner race). 4. Determines the loading at the critical section (e.g., contact stress).
Example 2.1
0.25 m
Wp
0.25 m Wr
Figure 2.1 A simple crane and forces acting on it. (a) Assembly drawing; (b) free-body diagram of forces acting on the beam.
(a) P
Types of Loads
P
P (b) P y V x P (c) M y M P V
M x
Figure 2.2 Load classified as to location and method of application. (a) Normal, tensile; (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear; (d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined.
Figure 2.3 Sign convention used in bending. (a) Positive moment leads to tensile stress in the positive y direction; (b) positive moment acts in a positive direction on a positive face. The sign convention shown in (b) will be used in this book. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 2.2
(1) Px Normal, tensile Px = 0 B
y b z a
(2)
Py
Shear Py = P B
x P
Figure 2.4 Lever assembly and results. (a) Lever assembly; (b) results showing (1) normal, tensile, (2) shear, (3) bending, and (40 torsion on section B of lever assembly. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Type of support
Reaction
Support Types
Cable
Roller
P Py
Px Pin
Py Px M Fixed support
y P2 P2
(Rotation)
30 30 130 10 R. 130 20 20
12
12
20
A 3 3 (a)
4W 4W W
(ml + mp)g
4W
4W dP dP (Rotation)
4W dP
W 4W
dP
dP dP dP
P1 P1 0 x
dP
Figure 2.5 Ladder in contact Figure 2.6 External rim brake and forces with the house and the acting on it. (a) External rim brake; (b) ground while a painter is on external rim brake with forces acting on the ladder. each part. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(b)
60
60
Example 2.6
(a)
60
60
(b)
ma g
150 N
Figure 2.7 Sphere and forces acting on it. (a) Sphere supported with wires from top and spring at bottom; (b) free-body diagram of forces acting on sphere.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.8 Three types of beam support. (a) Simply supported; (b) cantilevered; (c) overhanging.
Example 2.7
C P l __ 2 P __ 2 P __ 2 P V = __ 2 x P V = __ 2 Pl Mmax = __ 4 P M = __ (l x) 2 x (d) y x P __ 2 V
A B P __ 2 l __ 2 (a) y A P __ 2 x x V M
(b) M M
y l __ 2 A P __ 2 x x
P M = __ x 2
(c)
Figure 2.9 Simply supported bar. (a) Midlength load and reactions; (b) freebody diagram for 0 < x < l/2; (c) free-body diagram l/2 x < l; (d) shear and moment diagrams. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Graph of q(x)
M x a Concentrated force y
q(x) = M x a2
Singularity Functions
P q(x) = P x a1 x a
Unit step
y w0 x a q(x) = w0 x a 0
Ramp
y w0 x a b w0 q(x) = __ x a1 b
Inverse ramp
y w0 x a b w0 q(x) = w0 x a 0 __ x a1 b
Parabolic shape
y q(x) = x a 2 x a
Table 2.2 Singularity and load intensity functions with corresponding graphs and expressions.
Example 2.8
M V P __ 2 0 V1 V3 l __ 2 l x l __ 2 V2 V P __ 2 P __ 2 l __ 2 M M2 l M1 M3 x
x l __ 2 (b) l
(a)
Figure 2.10 (a) Shear and (b) moment diagrams for Example 2.8.
Example 2.9
x, m
x l __ 4 P1 l __ 4 P2 (a) l __ 4 l __ 4
8.5 Parabolic 40.0 33.27 l __ 6 w __ 0l 8 w __ 0l 2 x l __ 4 R1 P1 l __ 4 P2 (b) 0 l __ 2 R2 Moment, kN-m 33.0 30.0 34.53 = Maximum moment (at x 6.9 m) 25.5 (c)
12
x, m
Figure 2.11 Simply supported beam. (a) Forces acting on beam when P1=8 kN, P2=5 kN; w0=4 kN/m, l=12 m; (b) free-body diagram showing resulting forces; (c) shear and (d) moment diagrams for Example 2.9.
Example 2.10
A RB m a1 B m a2 C 1m 3m (a) 1.5 m 1m 0.5 m (b) ma 2 g RC 1.5 m m a1g
Figure 2.12 Figures used in Example 2.10. (a) Load assembly drawing; (b) free-body diagram.
Stress Elements
y
y y
y yz zy z
0
y yx xy yx xy x
x 0
yx xy zx xz x
x
z
Figure 2.13 Stress element showing general state of threedimensional stress with origin placed in center of element.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.14 Stress element showing twodimensional state of stress. (a) Threedimensional view; (b) plane view.
(a)
(b)
y A cos
x xy yx y
A sin
x + y c = ______ 2 y
Mohrs Circle
1
y , xy xy
2
0 2
x
2
xy x , xy
5. The principal stresses have the values 1,2 = center radius. 6. The maximum shear stress is equal to the radius. 7. The principal axes can be found by calculating the angle between the x axis in the Mohrs circle plane and the point (x , xy ). The principal axes in the real plane are rotated one-half this angle in the same direction relative to the x axis in the real plane. 8. The stresses in an orientation rotated from the x axis in the real plane can be read by traversing an arc of 2 in the same direction on the Mohrs circle from the reference points(x , xy ) and (y , xy ). The new points on the circle correspond to the new stresses (x , x y ) and (y , x y ), respectively.
(cw)
Example 2.12
1=23.43 ksi
2=4.57 ksi 0 C
5 2 =58 8
9.4 3
c=14 ksi
2 =32
(a)
(ccw)
y
1=23.43 ksi 2
A C 2 =4.57 ksi 29 x
2 1
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.18 Results from Example 2.12. (a) Mohrs circle diagram; (b) stress element for proncipal normal stress shown in xy coordinates; (c) stress element for principal shear stresses shown in xy coordinates.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.19 Mohrs circle for triaxial stress state. (a) Mohrs circle representation; (b) principal stresses on two planes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Shear stress,
Shear stress,
Example 2.13
1/3 1/2 1
0 10 20 Normal stress, 30
2/3 2 3
1/3
1/2 1
30
2/3 3
10 20 Normal stress,
y (y , xy)
2
0 2
c
10 20 Normal stress,
1
30
2 (x , xy) x
2
(b)
Figure 2.20 Mohrs circle diagrams for Example 2.13. (a) Triaxial stress state when 1=23.43 ksi, 2 = 4.57 ksi, and 3 = 0; (b) biaxial stress state when 1=30.76 ksi, 2 = -2.76 ksi; (c) triaxial stress state when 1=30.76 ksi, 2 = 0, and 3 = -2.76 ksi.
Octahedral Stresses
2
oct oct
+
oct oct
oct oct
oct oct
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.21 Stresses acting on octahedral planes. (a) General state of stress; (b) normal stress; (c) octahedral stress.
1 2 2 !oct = ("x "y)2 + ("y "z)2 + ("z "x)2 + 6 !2 + ! + ! xy yz xz 3 !x + !y + !z !oct = 3
1/2
y
y y
x yx
y z
z
yx
y
x 0 (b) x
x z (a)
(a)
0 (b)
Figure 2.22 Normal strain of a cubic element subjected to uniform tension in the x direction. (a) Threedimensional view; (b) twodimensional (or plane) view.
Figure 2.23 Shear strain of cubic element subjected to shear stress. (a) Three-dimensional view; (b) two-dimensional (or plane) view.
Plain Strain
y y y
x dx
dx
xy ___ 2
y dy
dy x (a) (b) x
xy ___ 2
0 B (c)
Figure 2.24 Graphical depiction of plane strain element. (a) Normal strain x; (b) normal strain y; (c) shear strain xy
90
45 0
x
Adhesive
Slice
y RA
(a) RB x
400 N 400 N 400 N 400 N (b) 800 400 0 400 800 0 40 80 (d)
Shear, N
x (c) x
Expanded panel
Moment, N-m
Figure 2.27 Glue spreader case study. (a) Machine; (b) free-body diagram; (c) shear diagram; (d) moment diagram. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Chapter 3
Give me matter, and I will construct a world out of it. Immanuel Kant Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Centroid of Area
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.1 Ductile material Figure 3.2 Failure of a from a standard tensile test brittle material from a apparatus. (a) Necking; (b) standard tensile test failure. apparatus. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Lead Epoxy Pure aluminum Material Wood Steel Nylon Graphite 0 100 200 300 400 500 Ratio of strength to density, N-m/kg 600 10 4
2 1
12
Fiber
Su P _ Stress, = _ A
U
E
R
P
Sy P
P _ Stress, = _ A
0 0.002 _ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.6 Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal showing elastic and plastic deformations and yield strength Sy. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Sf
Compression
Sf
Tension _ Strain, = _ l
_ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.7 Typical tensile stressstrain diagrams for brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture. Hamrock Fundamentals of
Figure 3.8 Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension and in compression. machine Elements
Example 3.6
Magnesia Steel
Behavior of Polymers
Brittle (T << Tg) Limited plasticity (T 0.8 Tg)
P _ Stress, = _ A
Sy
_ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.10 Stress-strain diagram for polymer below, at, and above its glass transition behavior. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
10 4
Metals Lead Copper Steels Cast iron Zinc alloys Sintered iron
Polymers
Ceramics
Density of Materials
Density, , kg/m3
Magnesium Silicone rubber Acetal Phenol formaldehyde Nylon 10 3 8 10 2 Natural rubber Polyethylene
Graphite
Figure 3.11 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze, aluminum Bronze, leaded Bronze, phosphor (cast)b Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steelsc Zinc alloys Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber, naturald Rubber, silicone Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys b Bar stock, typically 8.8 103 kg/m3 c Excluding refractory steels. d Mechanical rubber.
Density, kg/m3 lbm/in.3 2.7 103 3.1 103 10.1 103 7.4 103 8.6 103 7.5 103 8.9 103 8.7 103 6.4 103 8.9 103 9.5 103 7.4 103 6.1 103 7.8 103 1.8 103 7.8 103 6.7 103 1.4 103 1.14 103 .95 103 1.3 103 1.0 103 1.8 103 3.9 1.7 2.9 3.2 103 103 103 103 0.097 0.11 0.36 0.27 0.31 0.27 0.32 0.31 0.23 0.32 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.28 0.065 0.28 0.24 .051 .041 .034 .047 .036 .065 0.14 0.061 0.10 0.12
Density of Materials
(0.03 lbm/in.3 ).
Table 3.1 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
10 12
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
10 11
Steels Cast iron Brass, bronze Aluminum Zinc alloys Magnesium alloys Babbitts
Carbides Alumina
Modulus of Elasticity
Graphite
10 8
10 7
10 6
Figure 3.12 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, Natural rubber polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Modulus of Elasticity, E Material GPa Mpsi Metals Aluminum 62 9.0 Aluminum alloysa 70 10.2 Aluminum tin 63 9.1 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 29 4.2 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 52 7.5 Brasses 100 14.5 Bronze, aluminum 117 17.0 Bronze, leaded 97 14.1 Bronze, phosphor (cast)b 110 16.0 Bronze, porous 60 8.7 Copper 124 18.0 Iron, gray cast 109 15.8 Iron, malleable cast 170 24.7 b Iron, spheroidal graphite 159 23.1 Iron, porous 80 11.6 Iron, wrought 170 24.7 Magnesium alloys 41 5.9 Steel, low alloys 196 28.4 Steel, medium and high alloys 200 29.0 Steel, stainlessc 193 28.0 Steel, high speed 212 30.7 Zinc alloys d 50 7.3 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 2.7 0.39 Nylons (polyamides) 1.9 0.28 Polyethylene, high density .9 0.13 Phenol formaldehyde e 7.0 1.02 Rubber, naturalf .004 0.0006 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 390 56.6 Graphite 27 3.9 Cemented carbides 450 65.3 Silicon carbide (SiC) 450 65.3 Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) 314 45.5 a Structural alloys. b For bearings. c Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 Mpsi). d Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 Mpsi). e Filled. f 25%-carbon-black mechanical rubber.
Modulus of Elasticity
Table 3.2 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steels, Zinc alloys d Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Cemented carbides Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys.
Poissons ratio, 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.22 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.28 0.19 0.19 0.26
Poissons Ratio
Table 3.3 Poissons ratio for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
3 10 2 2
Polymers
Ceramics
10 2
Thermal Conductivity
Graphite
Cast iron Bronze Steel Alumina Thermal conductivity, Kt, W/m-C Stainless steel
10
Silicon carbide
Natural rubber 1
10 1
Figure 3.13 Thermal conductivity for various Acetal, nylon metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Polyethylene
Thermal conductivity, Kt Material W/m C Btu/fthr F Metals Aluminum 209 120 Aluminum alloys, casta 146 84 Aluminum alloys, siliconb 170 98 c Aluminum alloys, wrought 151 87 Aluminum tin 180 100 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 24 14 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 56 32 Brassesa 120 69 Bronze, aluminuma 50 29 Bronze, leaded 47 27 Bronze, phosphor (cast)d 50 29 Bronze, porous 30 17 Coppera 170 98 Copper lead 30 17 Iron, gray cast 50 29 Iron, spheroidal graphite 30 17 Iron, porous 28 16 Iron, wrought 70 40 Magnesium alloys 110 64 Steel, low alloyse 35 20 Steel, medium alloys 30 17 Steel, stainlessf 15 8.7 Zinc alloys 110 64 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 0.24 0.14 Nylons (polyamides) 0.25 0.14 Polyethylene, high density 0.5 0.29 Rubber, natural 1.6 0.92 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )g 25 14 Graphite, high strength 125 72 Silicon carbide (SiC) 15 8.6 a At 100 C. b At 100 C ( 150 W/m C at 25 C). c 20 to 100 C. d Bar stock, typically 69 W/m C. e 20 to 200 C. f Typically 22 W/m C at 200 C. g Typically 12 W/m C at 400 C.
Thermal Conductivity
Table 3.4 Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
2 10 4
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
10
Zinc Magnesium Aluminum Brass, copper Most bronzes Babbitts Steel 10 5 Leaded bronze Cast irons Sintered iron
Phenol formaldehyde
10 6
Figure 3.14 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Linear thermal expansion coecient, a Material ( C)1 ( F)1 Metals Aluminum 23 106 12.8106 a 6 Aluminum alloys 24 10 13.3106 6 Aluminum tin 24 10 13.3106 6 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 20 10 11106 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 23 106 13106 6 Brasses 1910 10.6106 6 Bronzes 18 10 10.0106 6 Copper 1810 10.0106 6 Copper lead 1810 10.0106 6 Iron, cast 11 10 6.1106 6 Iron, porous 1210 6.7106 6 Iron, wrought 12 10 6.7106 6 Magnesium alloys 2710 15106 Steel, alloysb 11 106 6.1106 6 Steel, stainless 17 10 9.5106 6 Steel, high speed 11 10 6.1106 6 Zinc alloys 27 10 15106 Polymers Thermoplasticsc (60-100)106 (33-56)106 d 6 Thermosets (10-80)10 (6-44)106 6 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 9010 50106 Nylons (polyamides) 100106 56106 6 Polyethylene, high density 12610 70106 e 6 Phenol formaldehyde (25-40)10 (14-22) 106 f 6 Rubber, natural (80-120)10 (44-67)106 g 6 Rubber, nitrile 3410 62106 6 Rubber, silicone 5710 103106 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )h 5.0106 2.8106 Graphite, high strength 1.4-4.0106 0.8-2.2106 6 Silicon carbide (SiC) 4.310 2.4106 6 Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) 3.210 1.8106 a Structural alloys. b Cast alloys can be up to 15 106 ( C)1 . c Typical bearing materials. d 25 106 ( C)1 to 80 106 ( C)1 when reinforced. e Mineral lled. f Fillers can reduce coecients. g Varies with composition. h 0 to 200 C.
Table 3.5 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
2.0
Metals
Ceramics
1.8
1.6
1.4
Thermoplastics
1.2
1.0 Magnesium Aluminum 0.8 Graphite Carbides, alumina 0.6 Steel Cast iron Copper
0.4
Figure 3.15 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
0.2
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloys 0.9 0.22 Aluminum tin 0.96 0.23 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 0.15 0.036 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 0.21 0.05 Brasses 0.39 0.093 Bronzes 0.38 0.091 a Copper 0.38 0.091 Copper lead 0.32 0.076 Iron, cast 0.42 0.10 Iron, porous 0.46 0.11 Iron, wrought 0.46 0.11 Magnesium alloys 1.0 0.24 b Steels 0.45 0.11 Zinc alloys 0.4 0.096 Polymers Thermoplastics 1.4 0.33 Rubber, natural 2.0 0.48 Ceramics Graphite 0.8 0.2 Cemented Carbides 0.7 0.17 a Aluminum bronze up to 0.48 kJ/kg C (0.12 Btu/lbm F. b Rising up to 0.55 kJ/kg C (0.13 Btu/lbm F) at 200 C (392 F).
Table 3.6 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Example 3.12
l1 = 1 m l 2 = 0.3 m
l3 = 0.5 m d = 0.1 m
P1 = 3 kN
1000 Diamond SiC Si3N4 Be B Aluminas Sialons BeO ZrO2 Si Glasses Pottery Ti alloys Al alloys Rock, stone Cement, concrete Mo W alloys alloys Ni alloys Cu alloys Zn alloys Tin alloys Lead alloys Engineering alloys Engineering ceramics WC-Co
100
()
E __ Modulus of elasticity, E, GPa 10
1/2
(m/s)
Engineering composites
CFRP Laminates GFRP KFRP Mg alloys MEL PC Epoxies PS PMMA PVC Nylon
Porous ceramics
1.0
Ash Lower E limit for true solids Oak Pine Fir Perpendicular to grain Spruce Balsa 103
3 103
PP HDPE
Polyesters
Engineering polymers
0.1
Elastomers
3 10 2 Cork
1/2 E __ =C
Silicone
1/ 3 E __ =C
0.01 100
Cermets
Glasses
Engineering alloys
1000
CFRP GFRP Uniply KFRP Pottery Engineering CFRP composites Be Laminates GFRP KFRP Nylons PMMA Mg alloys
Specic Strength
Steels Ti alloys Cast irons Al alloys Zn Stone, alloys rock Engineering alloys
Ash PP Oak Pine Wood products MEL PVC Epoxies PS Polyesters HDPE PTFE PU
Lead alloys
Silicone
Balsa
Engineering polymers
Elastomers
Cork
Polymers foams
f __ =C
0.1 100
300
3000
10 000
30 000
1000 Diamond Minimum energy storage per unit volume Yield before buckling Engineering alloys Mo alloys Beryllium Cermets W WC SiC Boron Si3N4 MgO Al2O3
100
10
Steels ZrO2 Ni alloys CFRP BeO Uniply Silicon Cu alloys Zn alloys Ti alloys Ge Common rocks GFRP Engineering Al alloys Brick, etc. Glasses ceramics Mg alloys Cement Sn + Engineering Laminates Concrete composites CFRP GFRP Lead Ash Oak Pine Porous Mel ceramics ll to grain Epoxies PMMA Cast irons
4 S __ = 10 E
Balsa Woods Wood products Polyester Ash Oak Pine to grain Balsa LDPE HDPE PTFE
1.0
3 S __ = 10 E
2 S __ = 10 E
Engineering polymers S __ =C E
3/ 2 S __ =C E
PU
Elastomers
S __ =C E
1000
10 10
Wear Constant
Copper W __ = 10 3 A
10 12
PTFE
Mild steel
Engineering polymers 10 14 LDPE Unfilled thermoplastics HDPE 10 15 Filled PTFE Nylons Filled thermosets
10 4 Cast irons Nitrided steels Cemented carbides Al2O3 Si3N4 SiC Sailons
10 5 Engineering ceramics
Bronzes
10 6
10 7 10 17 Range of K A for p << pmax Rising K A as p nears pmax 10 100 Limiting pressure, pl , MPa 10 8 W __ = 10 9 A 1000 10 000
10 18
1000 Engineering ceramics Si C AL7 O3 Mild steel Porous ceramics 100 Stone, brick, and pottery Zn Cast irons Cu alloys AL alloys alloys Mg alloys GFRP Pb alloys Ash, oak Pines Parallel to grain Balsa wood products Ash, oak Perpendicular to grain Pines LDPE Balsa PVC (plasticised) E =C CR PF KFRP Engineering composites Engineering alloys Ni alloys Ti alloys Si3 N4 W alloys Cermets
S alloys Zr O3
CFRP
Glasses
PS
PC
PMMA
Polymides
Woods
Engineering polymers
1.0
Design guidelines
0.1 Polymer foams Hard butyl Elastomers E = C CR Soft butyl 0.01 0.1 1 Silicones
1/2
E = C CR 1000 10 000
1/3
Sand Casting
Extrusion
Dummy block
Figure 3.24 The extrusion process. (a) Schematic illustration of the forward or direct extrusion process; (b) Examples of cross-sections commonly extruded. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
(a)
(b)
Polymer Extruder
Barrel heater/cooler Thrust bearing Hopper Barrel liner Throat Screw Barrel Thermocouples Melt Filter Breaker screen plate thermocouple
Die
Motor
Figure 3.25 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Material Available Aluminum B, F, I, P, S, T, W Ceramics B, p, s, T Copper and brass B, f, I, P, s, T, W Elastomers b, P, T Glass B, P, s, T, W Graphite B, P, s, T, W Magnesium B, I, P, S, T, w Plastics B, f, P, T, w Precious metals B, F, I P, t, W Steels and stainless steels B, I, P, S, T, W Zinc F, I, P, W a B=bar and rod; F = foil; I = ingot; P = plate and sheet; S = structural shapes; T = tubing; W=wire. Lowercase letters indicate limited availability. Most of the metals are also available in powder form, including prealloyed powders.
formsa
Figure 3.26 A plot of achievable tolerance versus surface roughness for assorted manufacturing operations. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
I am never content until I have constructed a mechanical model of the subject I am studying. If I succeed in making one, I understand; otherwise I do not. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
Centroid of Area
y
dA A C _ y y x _ x x
y =
A y dA
A
A x dA
A1 y 1 + A2y 2 + = A1 + A2 + = A1 x 1 + A2x 2 + A1 + A2 +
x =
Example 4.1
y
y a
dA
d b c f e x
0 x y r
Figure 4.2 Rectangular hole within a rectangular section used in Example 4.1.
Figure 4.3 Area with coordinates used in describing area moment of inertia.
Example 4.2
y
r dy x
Parallel-Axis Theorem
y
dA
2 Ix = Ix + Ady
y 0 C dy 0 x x
2 Iy = Iy + Adx
Figure 4.5 Coordinates and distance used in describing parallel-axis theorem. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
a b 2 cm 60 6 cm 60 1 cm x
dx = 3r xc = 3r x dy = 4r
Figure 4.6 Triangular cross section with circular hole in it, used in Example 4.3.
Figure 4.7 Circular crosssectional area relative to x - y coordinates, used in Example 4.4.
Centroid _ x =0 x _ y=0
Area
A = r 2
_ x =0 x _ y=0
( (
) )
A = r 2 ri 2
_ a+b _ x = ____ 3 _ h y = __ 3
( (
) )
bh _ A = __ 2
_ b x = __ 2 _ __ y= h 2
A = bh
4 r_ _ ( Ix = _ 4 4 r_ _ Iy = _ ( + 4 1 _ r 4 J =_ 2
1 _ _ sin 2) 2 1 _ _ sin 2) 2
A = r 2
_ _ 4 _r _ x =y= _ 3 x _ 4a _ x = __ 3 _ __ _ y = 4b 3
r4 ___ Ix = Iy = _ 16 _ 4 r4 _ = I_ = _ __ __ Ix y 16 9 r4 ___ J = _ 8
r 2 A = ___ 4
( (
) )
ab _ A = ___ 4
Table 4.1 Centroid, area moment of inertia, and area for seven cross sections
Mass Element
y
x2 + z2
dma
dma x2 + y2 y
z2 + y2
r y
Figure 4.8 Mass element in three-dimensional coordinates and distance from the three axes.
Figure 4.9 Mass element in two-dimensional coordinates and distance from the two axes.
Equations
d 2th _ _____ ma = 4 2 m ____ ad Imx = _ 8 2 m ____ ad Imy = Imz = _ 16 ma = abc 2) ma_ (___ a2_ + b ___ __ Imx = ___ 12 2) ma (___ a2_+ c _ ___ __ Imy = ___ 12 2) ma (___ b2_+ c ___ _ ___ __ Imz = 12 d 2l _____ ma = _ 4 m d2 _ ____ a Imx = 8 2 + 4l 2) (3 d_ ___ a _ ___ ___ ___ __ Imy = Imz = m 48 l (do2 di2) _ __________ ma = 4 2 d 2) m ( d _ __________ a o i Imx = 8 2 + 3d 2 + 4l 2) m_ d a (3 ___ _o ___ ___ __i___ ___ ___ _ Imy = Imz = ___ 48
d x z
d 3 ____ ma = _ 6
P Internal load
External load P P
Figure 4.10 Circular bar with tensile load applied. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
z ro
TL != GJ != Tc J
r T
Deformation in Bending
M
y Longitudinal lines become curved Transverse lines remain straight, yet rotate (a) (b) M z x
Figure 4.12 Bar made of elastomeric material to illustrate effect of bending. (a) Undeformed bar; (b) deformed bar.
y Axis of symmetry
z Bending axis
Neutral surface
s = x x
x
Neutral axis y
y
Neutral axis
s x
x (a) (b)
Stress in Bending
max c M x
Mc != I
Example 4.10
8 mm C
Figure 4.16 U-shaped cross section experiencing bending moment, used in Example 4.10
b Centroidal axis
Neutral axis y e CG _ c Centroidal axis
dr Neutral axis r
ri a
d d
_ r rn _ c
M _ r r e
rn
ro
ci co
ro
_ r ri rn
c b (a) d
(b)
Figure 4.17 Curved member in bending. (a) Circumferential view; (b) cross-sectional view
Transverse Shear
P
(a) P
(b)
Figure 4.19 How transverse shear is developed. (a) Boards not bonded together; (b) boards bonded together. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
V (a) (b)
Figure 4.20 Cantilevered bar made of highly deformable material and marked with horizontal and vertical grid lines to show deformation due to transverse shear. (a) Undeformed; (b) deformed. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
A M wt dx M M + dM y M + dM
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.21 Three-dimensional and profile views of moments and stresses associated with shaded top segment of element that has been sectioned at y about neutral axis. Shear stresses have been omitted for clarity. (a) three-dimensional view; (b) profile view. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Cross section
Rectangular
Table 4.3 Maximum shear stress for different beam cross sections.
Example 4.13
300 lb T = 1000 in-lb 25 lb 5 in. 250 lb 75 lb 5 in. 50 lb 5 in. 200 lb 150 lb T = 1000 in-lb
V 50 lb 200 lb x 250 lb
75 lb
Figure 4.23 (a) Shear force; (b) normal force and (c) bending moment diagrams for the shaft in Fig. 4.22. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 4.24 Cross section of shaft at x=5 in., with identification of stress elements considered in Example 4.13.
Figure 4.25 Shear stress distributions. (a) Shear stress due to a vertical shear force; (b) Shear stress due to torsion. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Recoiler
Coil Slitter
Peeler
Coil-loading car
(a)
Rubber roller Steel spacers Key Driveshaft Lower driveshaft Rubber rollers
500 lbf
RB
180 lbf
540 lbf
10 in.
10 in.
5 in.
6 in.
RA
Collar Lower slitter blade Steel spacers (behind slitter blade)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.26 Design of shaft for coil slitting line. (a) Illustration of coil slitting line; (b) knife and shaft detail; (c) free-body diagram of simplified shaft for case study.
Radius =
) (
Figure 4.27 Shear diagram (a) and moment diagram (b) for idealized coil slitter shaft.
Chapter 5: Deformation
Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Example 5.1
P y x l
Figure 5.1 Cantilevered beam with concentrated force applied at free end. Used in Example 5.1. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 5.2 Free-body diagram of force anywhere between simplysupported ends. (a) Complete bar; (b) portion of bar.
y l a b w0 A yl C (a) a b w0 b MA = w0b a + _ 2 x
)
RA = w0b (b) a xa w0 V M
b w0b a + _ 2
)
w0b x (c)
Figure 5.3 Cantilevered bar with unit step distribution over part of bar. (a) Loads and deflection acting on cantilevered bar; (b) free-body diagram of forces and moments acting on entire bar; (c) free-body diagram of forces and moments acting on portion of bar.
y l a A P B C x b
Figure 5.4 Cantilevered bar with other end simply-supported and with concentrated force acting anywhere along bar. (a) Sketch of assembly; (b) free-body diagram of entire bar; (c) free-body diagram of part of bar.
Type of loading Concentrated load at any x y P a b l Unit step distribution over part or all of bar y a b w
0
Beam Deections
x yl
P ( x a 3 x3 + 3x2a) y = 6EI
x yl
w0 bx 3 bx 2 y = a + b EI 6 2 2 1 xa4 24
x yl
Mx 2 y = 2EI
y a
P b x
l P b y = x 6EI l
3
Pb l y a b w0 c
Pa l
x
l
xa 4 xab
Table 5.1 Deflection for three different situations when one end is fixed and one end is free and two different situations of simply supported ends.
w0b c + b 2 l
(b)
w0b a + b 2 l
y a P A B C yl Mo l (a) y a P yl, 1 x x
(b) y Mo yl, 2 x
l (c)
Figure 5.5 Bar fixed at one end and free at other with moment applied to free end and concentrated force at any distance from free end. (a) Complete assembly; (b) free-body diagram showing effect of concentrated force; (c) free-body diagram showing effect of moment.
Stress Elements
dx
dy dz dx
dz
dy dz
Strain Energy
Strain energy for special case where all three factors are constant with x P 2l U= 2EA M 2l U= 2EI T 2l U= 2GJ 3V 2 l U= 5GA
Factors involved P, E, A M, E, I T, G, J V, G, A
Table 5.2 Strain energy for four types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Castiglianos Theorem
Qi
The load Qi is applied to a particular point of deformation and therefore is not a function of x. T !U yi = to Qi before integrating for the general expressio permissible to take the derivative with respect !Q
i
The following procedure is to be employed in using Castiglianos theorem: 1. Obtain an expression for the total strain energy including (a) Loads (P , M , T , V ) acting on the object (use Table 5.2) (b) A ctitious force Q acting at the point and in the direction of the desired deection 2. Obtain deection from y = U/ Q. 3. If Q is ctitious, set Q = 0 and solve the resulting equation.
y b A x B P C
l (a) Q b x l (b) P
Figure 5.8 Cantilevered bar with concentrated force acting distance b from free end. (a) Coordinate system and important points shown; (b) fictitious force shown along with concentrated force.
Linkage System
l, A1, E1 l, A2, E 2 P A
P1 P2 P A Q
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.9 Linkage system arrangement. (a) Entire assembly; (b) free-body diagram of forces acting at point A. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 5.10
C x
B y h A Q P
Figure 5.10 Cantilevered bar with 90 bend acted upon by horizontal force at free end. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
P a (a) max P
a b
(c) (b)
a Kc = 1 + 2 b
Figure 6.1 Rectangular plate with hole subjected to axial load. (a) Plate with cross-sectional plane; (b) one-half of plate with stress distribution; (c) plate with elliptical hole subjected to axial load. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.1 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with central hole. (a) Uniform tension. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
P/2 P = P nom= A (b d )h
0.5
0.6
Figure 6.2 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with central hole. (b) pin-loaded hole. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Mc 6M nom= = I (b d )h2
Figure 6.2 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with central hole. (c) Bending. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
H r
Figure 6.3 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with fillet. (a) Axial load. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.3 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with fillet. (b) Bending. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.4 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with groove. (a) Axial load. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.4 Stress concentration factors for rectangular plate with groove. (b) Bending. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.5 Stress concentration factors for round bar with fillet. (a) Axial load. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.5 Stress concentration factors for round bar with fillet. (b) Bending. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.5 Stress concentration factors for round bar with fillet. (c) Torsion. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.6 Stress concentration factors for round bar with groove. (a) Axial load. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.6 Stress concentration factors for round bar with groove. (b) Bending. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 6.6 Stress concentration factors for round bar with groove. (c) Torsion. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
A xia
D d
T Nominal stresses: Axial load: P P = nom = 2 A (D /4) - Dd Bending (plane shown is critical):
Be
n di
ng
sio n
Figure 6.7 Stress concentration factors for round bar with hole. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Stress Contours
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6.8 Flat plate with fillet axially loaded showing stress contours for (a) square corners; (b) rounded corners; (c) small grooves; and (d) small holes.
Modes of Fracture
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6.9 Three modes of crack displacement. (a) Mode I, opening; (b) mode II, sliding; (c) Mode III, tearing. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Fracture Toughness
Kci = Y !nom "a
Material Metals Aluminum alloy 2024-T351 Aluminum alloy 7075-T651 Alloy steel 4340 tempered at 260 C Alloy steel 4340 tempered at 425 C Titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V Ceramics Aluminum oxide Soda-lime glass Concrete Polymers Polymethyl methacrylate Polystyrene Yield stress, Sy ksi MPa 47 73 238 206 130 325 505 1640 1420 910 Fracture toughness, Kci ksi in. MPa m 33 26 45.8 80.0 40-60 36 29 50.0 87.4 44-66
0.9 0.73-1.0
1.0 0.8-1.1
Table 6.1 Yield stress and fracture toughness data for selected engineering materials at room temperature. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Sy ns
1 2 3 1 DET MSST
Sy A 45o E S1 Sy H Sy
S2
0.577 Syt
Syt
G Sy B + S1
Shear diagonal
S1 Syt
Syt
D F
45o
Syt
+ S1
Syt Syt
0.577 Syt
0.577 Syt
S2 Shear diagonal
Figure 6.12 Graphical Figure 6.11 Graphical representation of distortion energy representation of maximum-sheartheory for biaxial stress state. stress theory for biaxial stress state. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 6.6
2500 N
100 mm
T T1
0 S2
S1
T2 (c)
Figure 6.14 Cantilevered round bar with torsion applied to free end used in Example 6.7.
y T
Figure 6.15 Cantilevered round bar with torsion and transverse force applied to free end used in Example 6.8. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Most suitable for brous brittle materials, glasses, and brittle materials in general.
Sut + 1
Suc 0
Sut !1 ns
Suc
Sut !3 ns
Figure 6.16 Graphical representation of maximum-normal-stress theory (MNST) for biaxial stress state. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Suc
Figure 6.17 Internal friction theory and modified Mohr theory for failure prediction of brittle materials. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Experimental Verication
2 Steel Cast iron 1 Maximum normal stress Cast iron Steel Copper Aluminum 1.0
1.0
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.18 Experimental verification of yield and fracture criteria for several materials. (a) Brittle fracture; (b) ductile yielding. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
0.500 diam 0.25 r 0.115 0.06 r 0.931 4.54 r 1.255 36.5 2.858 C C A B
5.39
3taper
On the Bridge!
Figure 7.1 On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891 warning the populace that death was waiting for them on the next bridge. Note the cracks in the iron bridge. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
2.
3.
4.
max Tension + m
1 cycle
a min
0
3 16
7 __
r
0.30
Stress
Compression
Time
R 97 8
Figure 7.3 R.R. Moore machine fatigue test specimen. Dimensions in inches.
Material 1015 4340 1045 1045 1045 1045 4142 4142 4142 4142 4142 1100 2014 2024 5456 7075
Condition Normalized Tempered Q&Ta 80 F Q&T 306 F Q&T 500 F Q&T 600 F Q&T 80 F Q&T 400 F Q&T 600 F Q&T 700 F Q&T 840 F Annealed T6 T351 H311 T6
Table 7.1 Cyclic properties of some metals. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Kc Regime A Regime B Crack growth rate at 50 Hz 1 mm/min da = C(K)m dN m 1 mm/hour 1 one lattice spacing per cycle 1 mm/day Regime C log K (b) 1 mm/week
10-6
10-8
Figure 7.4 Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a fatigue crack for two different stress ratios as a function of the number of cycles; (b) rate of crack growth, illustrating three regimes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 7.5 Cross-section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or beachmarks originating from a fatigue crack at B.
Tension-tension or tension-compression
Reversed bending
Unidirectional bending
Beachmarks
Fracture surface
Figure 7.6 Typical fatigue fracture surfaces of smooth and notched cross-sections under different loading conditions and stress levels.
Rotational bending
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 103 Not broken
104
106
107
Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading cycles. (a) Ferrous alloys, showing clear endurance limit.
Wr ou Per
ght
ast
104
108
109
Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading cycles. (b) Aluminum alloys, with less pronounced knee and no endurance limit. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading cycles. (c) Selected properties of assorted polymer classes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
0.5 0.4
100 x103 psi
280 3003103
Figure 7.8 Endurance limit as function of ultimate strength for wrought steels. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Endurance Limit
Material Magnesium alloys Copper alloys Nickel alloys Titanium Aluminum alloys
Relation Se = 0.35Su 0.25Su < Se < 0.5Su 0.35Su < Se < 0.5Su 0.45Su < Se < 0.65Su Se = 0.40Su (Su < 48 ksi Se = 19 ksi (Su 48 ksi
Notch Sensitivity
Use these values with bending and axial loads Steel, Su, ksi (MPa) Use these values with torsion as marked 1.0
180 (1241) 379) 1 ( 0 ) 20 120 (827 ) 965 2) 0( 80 (55 4 1 ) 4) 689 60 (41 0( 0 1 2) (55 4) 0 8 (41 ) 60 (345 50
0.6
Usage:
K f = 1 + (Kc 1)qn
0.4
0.2
0 0
0.5 0.02
1.0 0.04
1.5 2.0 2.5 Notch radius, r, mm 0.06 0.08 0.10 Notch radius, r, in.
3.0 0.12
3.5 0.14
4.0 0.16
Figure 7.9 Notch sensitivity as function of notch radius for several materials and types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Ground
f k f = eSut
0.2
Factor e MPa ksi 1.58 1.34 4.51 2.70 57.7 272.0 14.4 39.9
0 0.4
Figure 7.10 Surface finish factors for steel. (a) As function of ultimate strength in tension for different manufacturing processes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
100 120 140 160 180 Ultimate strength in tension, Sut, psi (b)
200
220
240x103
Figure 7.10 Surface finish factors for steel. (b) As function of ultimate strength and surface roughness as measured with a stylus profilometer. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Reliability Factor
Shot Peening
MPa Fatigue strength at two million cycles (MPa) 1380 100 200 300 200 483 Alternating stress, a, MPa 414 Shot peened 345 276 207 Machined 138 Not peened - notched (typical machined surface) 0 690 1380 2170 Ultimate tensile strength, Sut, (MPa) (a) 0 50 40 30 20 ksi Al 7050-T7651 Ti-6Al-4V 70 60
1035
150
100
ksi
345
50
Polished
104
108
Figure 7.11 The use of shot peening to improve fatigue properties. (a) Fatigue strength at two million cycles for high strength steel as a function of ultimate strength; (b) typical S-N curves for nonferrous metals. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 7.4
25 mm 25 mm P (a)
Se
Goodman Line
K f !a !m + Se Sut
2
1 = ns
Syt
Sut
Soderberg Line
K f !a !m + Se Syt
2
1 Figure 7.13 Influence of nonzero = mean stress on fatigue life for tensile ns loading as estimated by four empirical relationships. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
G a
45
Figure 7.14 Complete modified Goodman diagram, plotting stress as ordinate and mean stress as abscissa.
BC
max = Sy
CD
min = 2m Sy
DE
min =
1+
Se Kf Su Se Kf
Se Kf
Table 7.5 Equations and range of applicability for construction of complete modified Goodman diagram.
EF FG GH HA
min = m min = Sy
max = 2m + Sy max = m + Se Kf
Se Kf Su
max =
Sy ns
Table 7.6 Failure equations and validity limits of equations for four regions of complete modified Goodman diagram.
Example 7.7
90 B A D C
60 Stress, ksi
45 120
30
30
Figure 7.15 Modified Goodman diagram for Example 7.7. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
1.5 Alternating stress ratio, a/Su 1.0 0.5 Se (0.4)(0.9) = 0.36 Su 0 0.5 1.0
0 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Mean stress ratio, m/Su
Figure 7.16 Alternating stress ratio as function of mean stress ratio for axially loaded cast iron.
80
/S u Ratio S y gth S u n e r t s e U lti m at
80
60
60
40
Total elongation
Yield strength S y
40 Elongation, percent
20
20
0 6 10
105
104
103
102
101
10
102
103
Figure 7.17 Mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature as a function of strain rate. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Sy/Su, percent
Example 7.10
Figure 7.18 Diver impacting diving board, used in Example 7.10. (a) Side view; (b) front view; (c) side view showing forces and coordinates. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
M Px
Machine frame
AA R = 0.375 in.
(a)
3.0625 in.
1.375 in.
1 in.
2.25 in.
Shoulder
Stress, Pa
a m Time (b)
Figure 7.20 Press brake stud loading. (a) Shear and bending-moment diagrams for applied load; (b) stress cycle. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
...among all those who have written on the subject of moving forces, probably not a single one has given sufficient attention to the effect of friction in machines... Guillaume Amontons (1699)
Fluid film
Sleeve
Inner ring
Contacting Solids
x
y W
Radii of Curvature
Sphere
r
Cylinder rax
Conic frustum
rax
ray
ray
ray
ray
Radial inner
rby
Radial outer
rby
Ri
rbx
rbx
rbx
Figure 8.4 Sign designations for radii of curvature of various machine elements. (a) Rolling elements; (b) ball bearing races; (c) rolling bearing races.
Ellipsoidal Contact
D x 2 x
pH = pmax
Dy 2
2x 1 Dx
2y Dy
2 1/2
pmax
p y
pmax =
6W !DxDy
Elliptic Integrals
5
Elliptic integrals, E and F
Ellipticity parameter, ke
4 3 2 1 0 4
10 8 6 4 2
Dy 2 x
y Dy 2 x
Dx 2
Dx 2
12 16 20 24 Radius ratio, r
28
32
Figure 8.6 Variation of ellipticity parameter and elliptic integrals of first and second kinds as function of radius ratio.
1 r 100 2 / ke = r F= 2 + qa ln r where qa = 2 1 qa E = 1 + r
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
W ub h min
(a) W
W wa pa ub ps (b) (c) W
Conformal surfaces pmax 5 MPa h min = f (W, ub, 0, Rx , Ry) > 1 m No elastic effect
Figure 8.8 Mechanism of pressure development for hydrodynamic lubrication. (a) Slider bearing; (b) squeeze film bearing; (c) externally pressurized bearing.
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
W
ub
ub
h min Nonconformal surfaces High-elastic-modulus material (e.g., steel) pmax 0.5 to 4 GPa h min = f (W, ub, 0, Rx , Ry , E , ) > 0.1 m Elastic and viscous effects both important
h min Nonconformal surfaces (e.g., nitrite rubber) pmax 0.5 to 4 MPa h min = f (W, ub, 0 , Rx , Ry , E ) 1 m Elastic effects predominate
Regimes of Lubrication
Boundary film Bulk lubricant
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8.11 Regimes of lubrication. (a) Fluid film lubrication surfaces separated by bulk lubricant film. This regime is sometimes further classified as thick or thin film lubrication; (b) partial lubrication - both bulk lubricant and boundary film play a role; (c) boundary lubrication - performance depends essentially on boundary film. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Unlubricated 1
Coefficient of friction,
Boundary 10 1 Elastohydrodynamic
10 2 Hydrodynamic 10 3
10 4
Figure 8.12 Bar diagram showing coefficient of friction for various lubrication conditions.
Wear rate
Surface Roughness
Root-mean-square roughness Figure 8.14 Surface profile showing surface height variation relative to mean reference line.
Rq = 1 Nz2 ! N i=1 i
1/2
Table 8.2 Typical arithmetic average surface roughness for various manufacturing processes and machine components. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Viscosity
Friction force F ub ub Area A
u z
Temperature, tm, F 50 0 100 LB 550 X 103 SAE 10 SAE 70 104 Polypropylene glycol derivatives LB 100 X DC 500 A 102 Polymethyl siloxanes (silicones) Residuum (specific gravity, 0.968) 200 400 600 800 1000
Viscosity Data
105
Fluorolube light grease 101 Di(n-butyl) sebacate Crude oil (specific gravity, 0.855) Kerosene Mercury DC 200 E Halocarbons Fluorolube FCD331 106 Absolute viscosity, , lb-s/in.2
Absolute viscosity, , cP
100
107 Water plus 23% NaCl Water 20.7 MPa (3000 psi) Superheated steam (14.7 psig) Navy Symbol 2135
108
Air 102 50 Saturated steam Hydrogen 0 100 Temperature, tm, C 200 6.9 MPa (1000 psi) 300 400 500 109
Figure 8.16 Absolute viscosities of a number of fluids for a wide range of temperatures.
Advanced ester Formulated advanced ester Polyalkyl aromatic Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3) Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) Synthetic paranic oil (lot 2) plus antiwear additive Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) plus antiwear additive C-ether Superrened napthenic mineral oil Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction uid) Fluorinated polyether
Table 8.4 Absolute and kinematic viscosities of various fluids at atmospheric pressure and different temperatures.
Advanced ester Formulated advanced ester Polyalkyl aromatic Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3) Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) Synthetic paranic oil (lot 2) plus antiwear additive Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) plus antiwear additive C-ether Superrened napthenic mineral oil Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction uid) Fluorinated polyether
Table 8.5 Pressure-viscosity coefficients of various fluids at different temperatures. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Temperature, F 32 50 10 54 3 2 1 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 .06 .04 .03 .02 SAE 70 .01 60 .005 .004 30 .003 20 10 .002 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Temperature, C 90 100 110 120 130 140 310-7 50 10-6 Absolute viscosity, , reyn 10-5 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 10-3
10-4
40
Figure 8.17 Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (a) Single grade oils.
Temperature, F 32 50 10 54 3 2 1 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 .06 .04 .03 .02 20W-50 10W-30 20W-40 .01 10-6 .005 .004 .003 20W 5W-30 10W Absolute viscosity, , reyn 10-5 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 10-3
10-4
310-7
.002
20
30
40
50
60 70 80 Temperature, C
Figure 8.17 Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (b) Multigrade oils.
Constant C1 reyn N-s/m2 1.58 108 1.09 104 1.36 108 9.38 105 1.41 108 9.73 105 1.21 108 8.35 105 1.70 108 1.17 104 1.87 108 1.29 104
Table 8.6 Curve fit data for SAE single-grade oils. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Friction
W W
F = W
(b)
(a)
Table 8.7 Typical coefficients of friction for combinations of unlubricated metals in air. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
W F L
Figure 8.19 Conical asperity having mean angle plowing through a softer material. This action simulates abrasive wear.
Rubbing materials Gold on gold Copper on copper Mild steel on mild steel Brass on hard steel Lead on steel Polytetrauoroethylene (teon) on steel Stainless steel on hard steel Tungsten carbide on tungsten carbide Polyethylene on steel
Coecient of friction, 2.5 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.35 0.5
Adhesive wear coecient, k1 0.1-1 0.01-0.1 102 103 2 105 2 105 2 105 106 108 107
Table 8.8 Coefficients of rubbing friction and adhesive wear constant for selected rubbing materials.
Fatigue Wear
Wear particle
Figure 8.21 Fatigue wear simulation. (a) Machine element surface is subjected to cyclic loading; (b) defects and cracks develop near the surface; (c) the cracks grow and coalesce, eventually extending to the surface until (d) a wear particle is produced, leaving a fatigue spall in the material
Chapter 9: Columns
And as imagination bodies forth the forms of things unknown, The poets pen turns them to shapes And gives to airy nothingness a local habitation and a name. William Shakespeare A Midsummer Nights Dream Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Equilibrium Regimes
P P 0 Re 0 We (a) (b) 0 P Re
We (c)
We
Figure 9.1 Depiction of equilibrium regimes. (a) Stable; (b) neutral; (c) unstable.
Example 9.1
l
P mag
y l dx y dy ds P M V
Figure 9.3 Column with pinned ends. (a) Assembly; (b) deformation shape; (c) load acting.
P y x
Buckling of Columns
Euler Equation:
n2!2EI Pcr = l2
Theoretical effective column length AISC (1989) recommended effective column length
le = l le = l
le = 0.7l le = 0.8l
le = 0.5l le = 0.65l
le = 2l le = 2.1l
Table 9.1 Effective length for four end conditions. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Cc =
le rg
=
E
2E ! 2 Sy
Euler Equation
(Pcr )E "2 E (!cr )E = = A (le/rg)2
Johnson Parabola
2 Sy (Pcr )J (!cr )J = = Sy 2 A 4" E
le rg
!all =
!all =
Sy
n!
50 mm 27.6 mm
Example 9.3
41.7 mm
43.6 mm
Figure 9.6 Cross-sectional areas, drawn to scale, from results of Exampe 9.3, aas well as critical buckling load for each cross-sectional area.
P e A x y l l x
P M = Pe y x y
P e
M y P (c)
Secant Equation:
le ymax = e sec 2 P EI 1
B e P x (a) x (b)
M = Pe P
Figure 9.7 Eccentrically loaded column. (a) Eccentricity; (b) statically equivalent bending moment; (c) free-body diagram through arbitrary section.
In all things, success depends on previous preparation. And without such preparation there is sure to be failure. Confucius, Analects
Classes of Fit
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Loose Free Medium Snug Wringing Tight Medium Type Clearance Clearance Clearance Clearance Interference Interference Interference Applications Where accuracy is not essential, such as in building and mining equipment In rotating journals with speeds of 600 rpm or greater, such as in engines and some automotive parts In rotating journals with speeds under 600 rpm, such as in accurate machine tools and precise automotive parts Where small clearance is permissible and where moving parts are not intended to move freely under load Where light tapping with a hammer is necessary to assemble the parts In semipermanent assemblies suitable for drive or shring ts on light sections Where considerable pressure is needed to assemble and for shrink ts of medium sections; suitable for press ts on generator and motor armatures and for car wheels Where considerable bonding between surfaces is required, such as locomotive wheels and heavy crankshaft disks of large engines
Interference
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hub tolerance, tlh 0.0025d1/3 0.0013d1/3 0.0008d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3
Shaft tolerance, tls 0.0025d1/3 0.0013d1/3 0.0008d1/3 0.0004d1/3 0.0004d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hub tolerance, tlh 0.0216d1/3 0.0112d1/3 0.0069d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3
Shaft tolerance, tls 0.0216d1/3 0.0112d1/3 0.0069d1/3 0.0035d1/3 0.0035d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3 0.0052d1/3
Table 10.4 Maximum and minimum diameters of shaft and hub for two types of fit.
S2 z
!r = 0 pi r !" = th pi r !z = 2th
r (b)
Figure 10.1 Internally pressurized thinwalled cylinder. (a) Stress element on cylinder; (b) stresses acting on element.
Figure 10.2 Front view of internally pressurized, thin-walled cylinder. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
SQ dQ/2 dQ Sr
SQ r
ro
ri pi
(a)
Figure 10.3 Complete front view of thick-walled cylinder internally and externally pressurized. (a) With stresses acting on cylinder; (b) with stresses acting on element. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
dDQ dr
Cylindrical Element
$Dr Dr + $r dr
1 $Dr r $Q DQ dr Dr
rdQ
Q dQ DQ + $D $Q
r dQ
dQ
Pressurized Cylinders
Normal stress, S
Normal stress, S
po
SQ
ri Tension Sr Radius, r
Compression
ro SQ po
ro
Figure 10.5 Internally pressurized, thick-walled cylinder showing circumferential (hoop) and radial stresses for various radii.
Figure 10.6 Externally pressurized, thick-walled cylinder showing circumferential (hoop) and radial stresses for various radii.
Rotating Cylinders
Normal stress, S
Normal stress, S
SQ
SQ Tension Sr Radius, r Compression
Sr ri ro
Radius, r
ro
Figure 10.7 Stresses in rotating cylinder with central hole and no pressurization.
ri rs rs
rh
rf
rh ro
Figure 10.9 Side view showing interference of press fit of hollow shaft to hub. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
rf ri
ro
(a)
pf
rf
rf ri
pf ro
(b)
Figure 10.10 Front view showing (a) cylinder assembled with an interference fit and (b) hub and hollow shaft disassembled (also showing interference pressure).
When a man has a vision, he cannot obtain the power from that vision until he has performed it on the Earth for the people to see. Black Elk Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
2.
Mx =
3.
2 + M2 Mxy xz
4. 5. 6.
Develop a torque diagram as shown in Fig. 11.1(d). Torque developed from one power-transmitting element must balance the torque from other power-transmitting elements. Establish the location of the critical cross-section, or the x location where the torque and moment are the largest. For ductile materials use the maximum-shear-stress theory (MSST) or the distortion-energy theory (DET) covered in Sec. 6.7.1. For brittle materials use the maximum-normal-stress theory (MNST), the internal friction theory (IFT), or the modied Mohr theory (MMT), covered in Sec. 6.7.2.
z Az A P1 B Ay x T P2 (a) My Mz (b) P2 By
y T P1 Bz
Shaft Assembly
x Moment diagram caused by loads in x-z plane (c) Tx Moment diagram caused by loads in x-y plane
T x (d)
Figure 11.1 Shaft assembly. (a) Shaft with two bearings at A and B and two gears with resulting forces P1 and P2; (b) free-body diagram of torque and forces resulting from assembly drawing; (c) moment diagram in xz and xy planes; (d) torque diagram.
160 mm
40 mm
Example 11.1
Chain
(a) y
RA
160 mm
40 mm
M x
RB
P (b)
Figure 11.2 Illustration for Example 11.1. (a) Chain drive assembly; (b) free-body diagram; (c) bending moment diagram.
80 N-m (c)
Example 11.2
(a) A C B D A C
(b) B D
My = 75 N-m x(m)
Figure 11.3 Illustration for Example 11.2. (a) Assembly drawing; (b) free-body diagram; (c) moment diagram in xz plane; (d) moment diagram in xy plane; (e) torque diagram.
Tm p KfsTa
Sm p KfSa
Se/2ns D G
(a) y
SF
A sin F
Sm + KfSa
F Sy/2ns
TFm
TF F
Tm + KfsTa
x (b)
A cos F
Tm + KfsTa
Figure 11.4 Fluctuating normal and shear stresses acting on shaft. (a) Stresses acting on rectangular element; (b) stresses acting on oblique plane at angle . Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
4( ~ B) 2
2 ~ 2B
Figure 11.6 Illustration of relationship given in Eq. (11.29). Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(A ~ )2 +
~ A
Sy 3 + Tm + K f sTa 4 Se
32ns d= !Sy
Sy Mm + K f Ma Se
Sy 3 + Tm + K f sTa 4 Se
1/3
Example 11.4
d3 d1
d2
Example 11.5
y x1
PA x2 A
PB x3 B R2 x
R1
Figure 11.10 Illustration of keys and pins. (a) Dimensions of shaft with keyway in shaft and hub; (b) square parallel key; (c) flat parallel key; (d) tapered key; (e) tapered key with Gib head, or Gib-head key. The Gib head assists in removal of the key; (f) round key; (g) Woodruff key with illustration of mountingl (h) pin, which is often grooved. The pin is slightly larger than the hole so that friction holds the pin in place; (i) roll pin. Elastic deformation of the pin in the smaller hole leads to friction forces that keep the pin in place. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
w w
w 2 w w l
Shaft diameter in. 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.125 1.250 1.375 1.500 1.675 1.750 1.875
Key width in. 0.125 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.3125 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.50
Distance from keyseat to opposite side of shaft, in. 0.430 0.517 0.644 0.771 0.859 0.956 1.112 1.201 1.289 1.416 1.542 1.591
Shaft diameter in. 2.000 2.250 2.500 2.750 3.000 3.250 3.500 3.750 4.000 4.500 5.000 6.000
Key width in. 0.50 0.50 0.625 0.625 0.75 0.75 0.875 0.875 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.50
Distance from keyseat to opposite side of shaft, in. 1.718 1.972 2.148 2.402 2.577 2.831 3.007 3.261 3.437 3.944 4.296 5.155
Tapered Keys
0.5-0.5625 0.625-0.875 0.9375-1.25 1.3125-1.375 1.4375-1.75 1.8125-2.25 2.3125-2.75 2.875-3.25 3.375-3.75 3.875-4.5 4.75-5.5 5.75-6
Square type Width Heighta w h in. in. 0.125 0.125 0.1875 0.1875 0.25 0.25 0.3125 0.3125 0375 0.375 0.5 0.5 0.625 0.625 0.75 0.75 0.875 0.875 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.50 1.50
Flat type Width Heighta w h in. in. 0.125 0.09375 0.1875 0.125 0.25 0.1875 0.3125 0.25 0.375 0.25 0.5 0.375 0.625 0.4375 0.75 0.50 0.875 0.625 1.00 0.75 1.25 0.875 1.50 1.00
Available lengths, l Minimum Maximum Available in. in. increments in. 0.50 2.00 025 0.75 3.00 0.375 1.00 4.00 0.50 1.25 5.25 0.625 1.50 6.00 0.75 2.00 8.00 1.00 2.50 10.00 1.25 3.00 12.00 1.50 3.50 14.00 1.75 4.00 16.00 2.00 5.00 20.00 2.50 6.00 24.00 3.00
Woodruff Keys
Key No. Suggested shaft sizes, in. 0.3125-0.375 0.4375-0.50 0.6875-0.75 0.8125-0.9375 0.875-0.9375 1.00-1.1875 1.25-1.3125 1.25-1.75 1.25-1.75 1.25-1.75 1.8125-2.5 1.875-2.5 Nominal key sizea , in. wl 0.062 0.500 0.094 0.625 0.125 0.625 0.156 0.750 0.156 0.875 0.188 1.000 0.250 0.875 0.250 1.125 0.250 1.250 0.250 1.500 0.312 1.500 0.375 1.500 Height of key, in. h 0.203 0.250 0.250 0.313 0.375 0.438 0.375 0.484 0.547 0.641 0.641 0.641 Shearing Area, in.2 0.030 0.052 0.072 0.109 0.129 0.178 0.198 0.262 0.296 0.356 0.438 0.517
204 305 405 506 507 608 807 809 810 812 1012 1212
Set Screws
Flywheel
Tl
Tm
Figure 11.11 Flywheel with driving (mean) torque Tm and load torque Tl.
Coefcient of Fluctuation
Type of equipment Crushing machinery Electrical machinery Electrical machinery, direct driven Engines with belt transmissions Flour milling machinery Gear wheel transmission Hammering machinery Machine tools Paper-making machinery Pumping machinery Shearing machinery Spinning machinery Textile machinery Coecient of uctuation, Cf 0.200 0.003 0.002 0.030 0.020 0.020 0.200 0.030 0.025 0.030-0.050 0.030-0.050 0.010-0.020 0.025
Example 11.7
144 N-m
12 N-m
3 2
Figure 11.12 Load or output torque variation for one cycle used in Example 11.7.
Material Ceramics Composites: Ceramic-ber-reinforced polymer Graphite-ber-reinforced polymer Berylium High-strength steel High-strength aluminum (Al) alloys High-strength magnesium (Mg) alloys Titanium alloys Lead alloys Cast iron
Comment Brittle and weak in tension. Use is usually discouraged The best performance; a good choice. Almost as good as CFRP and cheaper; an excellent choice. Good but expensive, dicult to work, and toxic All about equal in performance; steel and Al-alloys less expensive than Mg and Ti alloys High density makes these a good (and traditional) selection when performance is velocity limited, not strength limited.
A Kingsbury Bearing.
ub
ub(x)
wa
ub
wb
p ua
ub
Heat
ua Aa E Ca
Moving
Ba
ua Da
B A Stationary (a)
Aa
Ba B
A (b)
ua
A B
L Aa ua H
Wz
Ca Ja ua
M Ka Ba ua Da I B
z
A Stationary
h
B
A (c)
Figure 12.8 Flow within a fixed-incline slider bearing (a) Couette flow; (b) Poiseuille flow; (c) resulting velocity profile. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Bearing pad
Figure 12.9 Thrust slider bearing geometry. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Wz
& sh
Wa
ub q
ho q qs qs (both sides)
Figure 12.10 Force components and oil film geometry in a hydrodynamically lubricated thrust slider bearing.
2. 3.
where tmi = inlet temperature, C. The inlet temperature is usually known beforehand. Once the mean temperature tm is known, it can be used in Fig. 8.17 to determine the viscosity of SAE oils, or Fig. 8.16 or Table 8.4 can be used. In using Table 8.4 if the temperature is different from the three temperatures given, a linear interpolation can be used. (continued)
!tm m = tmi + t 2
h0 = Hol
!0ubwt WzBt
Once the outlet lm thickness is known, the shoulder height sh can be directly obtained from sh = ho/Ho. If in some applications the outlet lm thickness is specied and either the velocity ub or the normal applied load Wz is not known, Eq. (12.72) can be rewritten to establish ub or Wz. 6. Check Table 12.1 to see if the outlet (minimum) lm thickness is sufcient for the pressurized surface nish. If ho from Eq. (12.72) ho from Table 12.1, go to step 7. If ho from Eq. (12.72) < ho from Table 12.1, consider one or both of the following steps: Increase the bearing speed. Decrease the load, the surface nish, or the inlet temperature. Upon making this change return to step 3. 7. Evaluate the other performance parameters. Once an adequate minimum lm thickness and a proper lubricant temperature have been determined, the performance parameters can be evaluated. Specically, from Fig. 12.16 the power loss, the coefcient of friction, and the total and side ows can be determined. a. b.
1.0
.8
Maximum normal load
.6
.4
ro
.2
Figure 12.13 Chart for determining Pads minimum film thickness corresponding to maximum load or Figure 12.12 Configuration of minimum power loss for various multiple fixed-incline thrust slider pad proportions in fixed-incline bearing bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Description of surface Mirror-like surface without toolmarks; close tolerances .2-.4 8-16 Smooth surface with17-20 6.2 250 out scratches; close tolerances .4-.8 16-32 Smooth surfaces; close Grind, le, 10 12.5 500 tolderances and lap .8-1.6 32-63 Accurate bearing surGrind, precision 7 25 1000 face without toolmarks mill, and le 1.6-3.2 63-125 Smooth surface withShape, mill, 5 50 2000 out objectionable toolgrind and marks; moderate turn tolerances a The values of lm thickness are given only for guidance. They indicate the lm thickness required to avoid metal-to-metal contact under clean oil conditions with no misalignment. It may be necessary to take a larger lm thickness than that indicated (e.g., to obtain an acceptable temperature rise). It has been assumed that the average surface nish of the pads is the same as that of the runner.
Table 12.1 Allowable outlet (minimum) film thickness for a given surface finish. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
4 2
Length-towidth ratio, 0
1/2
1
1
2 3 4
.6 .4 .2 .1
10
20
40
60
100
200
400
1000
Bearing number, Bt
Figure 12.14 Chart for determining minimum film thickness for fixed-incline thrust bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
400 200
Length-towidth ratio, 4 3 2 1
100 60 40 20 10 6 4 0 1 2 4 6 10 20 40
1/2
60
100
200
400
1000
Bearing number, Bt
Figure 12.14 Chart for determining dimensionless temperature rise due to viscous shear heating of lubricant for fixed-incline thrust bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Length-towidth ratio,
1/2
10
20
40
60
100
200
400
1000
Bearing number, Bt
Figure 12.16a Chart for determining friction coefficient for fixedincline thrust bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Length-towidth ratio, L
10
20
40 60
100
200
400
1000
Bearing number, Bt
Figure 12.16b Chart for determining power loss for fixed-incline thrust bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(b)
q qs (both sides)
q qs Length-towidth ratio, L
1/2
4
1
3 2
10
20
40
60
100
200
400
1000
Bearing number, Bt
(c) Figure 12.16c Chart for determining lubricant flow for fixedincline thrust bearings.
.8
Length-towidth ratio,
.6
4 3
.4 .2
1
1/2
0
0 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1000
Bearing number, Bt
Figure 12.16d Chart for determining lubricant side flow for fixedincline thrust bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Wr
F0
pmax
u Na r
c wt
Figure 12.19 Developed journal bearing surfaces for a concentric journal bearing. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Application Automotive engines: Main bearings Connecting rod bearing Diesel engines: Main bearings Connecting rod bearing Electric motors Steam turbines Gear reducers Centrifugal pumps Air compressors: Main bearings Crankpin Centrifugal pumps
600-750 1700-2300 900-1700 1150-2300 120-250 150-300 120-250 100-180 140-280 280-500 100-180
4-5 10-15 6-12 8-15 0.8-1.5 1.0-2.0 0.8-1.5 0.6-1.2 1-2 2-4 0.6-1.2
Table 12.2 Typical radial load per area Wr* in use for journal bearings. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 12.20 Effect of bearing number on minimum film thickness for four diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
80
20
10 2
10 1 Bearing number, Bj
100
101
Figure 12.21 Effect of bearing number on attitude angle for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Diameter-towidth ratio, j
10
1
2 0 1
Figure 12.21 Effect of bearing number on coefficient of friction for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
10 2
10 1 Bearing number, Bj
100
101
Figure 12.23 Effect of bearing number on dimensionless volume flow rate for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
.8 .6 .4
Diameter-towidth ratio, j
1 .2
10 2
10 1 Bearing number, Bj
100
101
Figure 12.21 Effect of bearing number on side-flow leakage for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
.8 .6
Diameter-towidth ratio, j
1 .4 .2 2 4
10 2
10 1 Bearing number, Bj
100
101
Figure 12.25 Effect of bearing number on dimensionless maximum film pressure for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
0 max
25 1 2 4 20 4 15 10 5 0
101
Figure 12.21 Effect of bearing number on location of terminating and maximum pressure for four different diameter-to-width ratios. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
hmin hp
t mo
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0 103
Figure 12.27 Effect of radial clearance on some performance parameters for a particular case. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
l z
ho
Surface b x
Wz Bearing runner
Wz
Bearing pad Bearing recess Manifold (a) Wz (b) Wz Recess pressure, pr = 0 Supply pressure, ps = 0 pr > 0 ps > 0
Restrictor
Flow, q=0
ho
q=0
p = pl p = pl
p = pr p = ps
(c) Wz + Wz
(d) Wz Wz ho + ho
ho ho
p = pr + pr p = ps
p = pr pr p = ps
Figure 12.29 Formation of fluid film in hydrostatic bearing system. (a) Pump off; (b) pressure buildup; (c) pressure times recess area equals normal applied load; (d) bearing operation; (e) increased load; (f) decreased load.
(e)
(f)
Wz
p=0
pr
sh
ho
Figure 12.30 Radial flow hydrostratic thrust bearing with circular step pad.
Conrad or deep groove Maximum capacity or lling notch Self-aligning, internal Self-aligning, external Double row, maximum Double row, deep groove
1.00
a 0.7
1.0
10
130
1.2-1.4
a 0.2
1.0
120
0.7
b 0.2
1.0
1.0
a 0.7
1.0
110
1.5
a 0.2
1.0
0 3 0
110
1.5
a 1.4
1.0
Table 13.1 Characteristics of representative radial ball bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Tolerance to misalignment 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
One-directional thrust Duplex, back to back Duplex, face to face Duplex, tandem
320
1.85
c 1.5
3.0
320
1.85
c 1.5
3.0
320
1.85
a 2.4
3.0
110
1.15
1.5
3.0
140
1.5
1.85
0.8
Table 13.2 Characteristics of representative angular-contact ball bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Type
One directional, at race One directional, grooved race Two directional, grooved race
Relative thrust
a 0.7
Tolerance to misb 0
6.45
1180
a 1.5
0.30
15
220
c 1.5
0.30
Separable outer ring, nonlocating (N) Separable inner ring, nonlocating (NU) Separable inner ring, one-direction locating (NJ) Separable inner ring, two-direction locating
1.55
1.20
12
500
1.55
1.20
12
320
1.55
a Locating
1.15
20
320
1.55
b Locating
1.15
Table 13.1 Characteristics of representative cylindrical roller bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
2.10
0.20
0.50
25
1250
2.40
0.70
0.50
1 30
Thrust
85
360
a 0.10 b 0.10
a 1.80 b 2.40
0.35-0.50
50
130
2.40
0.70
0.50
1 30
b Asymmetric
rollers. rollers.
Table 13.5 Characteristics of representative spherical roller bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
da de di
db
do
Figure 13.1 (a) Cross section through radial single-row ball bearings; (b) examples of radial single-row ball bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
r d
x ro
ri
d 2 cd 4
ro
cr ri
cd cr 2
Figure 13.2 Cross section of ball and outer race, showing race conformity.
Figure 13.1 Cross section of radial bearing, showing ball-race contact due to axial shift of inner and outer races. (a) Initial position; (b) shifted position.
20 16 12 8 4 0
.08
.040 .032
0 .001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006 .007 .008 .009 Dimensionless diametral clearance, cd /2d
Figure 13.4 (a) Free contact angle and endplay as function of cd/2d for four values of total conformity ratio.
Ball Bearing
r d
de + d cos 2
sh
de d cos 2 C L i
de /2 o
lt
le
ll d rr
rr
ll d
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.7 (a) Spherical roller (fully crowned) and (b) cylindrical roller; (c) section of toroidal roller bearing. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Outer ring
cd 2
ce 2
rr
ri
rr
ro cd /2
ro
de
ro
Axis of rotation
Figure 13.9 Schematic diagram of spherical roller bearing, showing diametral play and endplay. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
ro
o so
Centrifugal force
i si
i
Pzi
ri i o
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.12 Ball-spin orientations for (a) outer-race and (b) inner race control. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
de /2
Figure 13.13 Tapered-roller bearing. (a) Tapered-roller bearing with outer race removed to show rolling elements; (b) simplified geometry for tapered-roller bearing. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
di
di + 2d cd /2
do
c cd /2 (a)
(b)
cd /2 m max
max (c)
Figure 13.14 Radial loaded rollingelement bearing. (a) Concentric arrangement; (b) initial contact; (c) interference.
Outer race
P sh f
r s
ro f ri Inner race
t m cr cr cd /2
ce /2
t cr
cr cd /2 f
Dy D x
t
P C L
cr + m
Back-to-Back Arrangement
Stickout (a) Pa
Stickout
Bearing a (b)
Bearing b
Pa
Figure 13.17 Angular-contact bearings in back-to-back arrangement, shown (a) individually as manufactured and (b) as mounted with preload.
Load-Deection Curve
Bearing a load
Figure 13.18 Thrust load-axial deflection curve for typical ball bearing. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Basic load ratings Dynamic Static C N lb 5590 1260 5590 1260 7800 1750 11,400 2560 6890 1550 9360 2100 12,700 2860 15,900 3570 30,700 6900 11,200 5520 14,000 3150 22,500 5060 35,800 8050 13,300 2990 19,500 4380 28,100 6320 43,600 9800 15,900 3570 25,500 5370 33,200 7460 55,300 12,400 16,800 3780 30,700 6900 41,000 9220 63,700 14,300 C0
20 0.7874
25 0.9843
30 1.1811
35 1.3780
40 1.5748
32 1.2598 32 1.2598 35 1.3780 35 1.3780 42 16535 42 1.6535 47 1.8504 52 2.0472 72 2.8346 47 1.8504 52 2.0472 62 2.4409 80 3.1496 55 2.1654 62 2.4409 72 2.8346 90 3.5433 62 2.4409 72 2.8346 80 3.1496 100 3.9370 68 2.6672 80 3.1496 90 3.5433 110 4.3307
8 0.3510 8 0.3543 11 0.4331 13 0.5118 8 0.3150 12 0.4724 14 0.5512 15 0.5906 19 0.7480 12 0.4724 15 0.5906 17 0.6693 21 0.8268 15 0.5118 16 0.6299 19 0.7480 23 0.9055 14 0.5512 17 0.6693 21 0.8268 25 0.9843 15 0.5906 18 0.7087 23 0.9055 27 1.0630
2850 641 2850 641 3750 843 5400 1210 4050 910 5000 1120 6550 1470 7800 1750 15,000 3370 6550 1470 7800 1750 11,600 2610 19,300 4340 8300 1870 11,200 2520 16,000 3600 23,600 5310 10,200 2290 15,300 3440 19,000 4270 31,000 6970 11,600 2610 19,000 4270 24,000 5400 36,500 8210
Allowable load limit wall N lb 120 27.0 120 27.0 160 36.0 228 51.3 173 38.9 212 47.7 280 62.9 335 75.3 640 144 275 61.8 335 75.3 490 110 815 183 355 79.8 475 107 670 151 1000 225 440 98.9 655 147 815 183 1290 290 490 110 800 147 1020 229 1530 344
Mass
Designation
Bearing Ratings
rpm 22,000 22,000 19,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 15,000 13,000 10,000 15,000 12,000 11,000 9000 12,000 10,000 9000 8500 10,000 9000 8500 7000 9500 8500 7500 6700
28,000 28,000 24,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 18,000 16,000 13,000 18,000 15,000 14,000 11,000 15,000 13,000 11,000 10,000 13,000 11,000 10,000 8500 12,000 10,000 9000 8000
kg lbm 0.025 0.055 0.030 0.066 0.045 0.099 0.082 0.18 0.050 0.11 0.090 0.15 0.11 0.15 0.14 0.31 0.40 0.88 0.080 0.18 0.13 0.29 0.23 0.51 0.53 0.51 0.12 0.26 0.20 0.44 0.35 0.77 0.74 1653 0.16 0.35 0.29 0.64 0.46 1.00 0.95 2.10 0.19 0.42 0.37 0.82 0.63 1.40 1.25 2.75
16002 6002 6202 6302 16004 6004 6204 6304 6406 6005 6205 6305 6405 6006 6206 6306 6406 6007 6207 6307 6407 6008 6208 6308 6408
Basic load ratings Dynamic Static C N lb 12,500 2810 19,400 4360 25,100 5640 30,800 6920 28,600 6430 40,200 9040 38,000 8540 51,200 11,500 48,400 10,900 64,400 14,500 53,900 12,100 80,900 18,200 60,500 13,600 99,000 22,300 64,400 14,500 110,000 24,700 C0
20 0.7874
25 0.9843
30 1.811
35 1.3780
40 1.5748
45 1.7717
50 1.9685
35 1.3780 42 1.6535 47 1,8504 52 2.0472 52 2.0472 62 2.4409 62 2.4409 72 2.8346 72 2.8346 80 3.1496 80 3.1496 90 3.5433 85 3.3465 100 3.9370 90 3.5433 110 4.3307
11 0.4331 13 0.5118 14 0.5512 15 0.5906 15 0.5906 17 0.6693 16 0.6299 19 0.7480 17 0.693 21 0.8268 18 0.7087 23 0.9055 19 0.7480 25 0.9843 20 0.7874 27 1.0630
10,200 2290 15,300 3440 22,000 4950 26,000 5850 27,000 6070 36,500 8210 36,500 8210 48,000 10,800 48,000 10,800 63,000 14,200 53,000 11,900 78,000 17,500 64,000 14,400 100,000 22,500 69,500 15,600 112,000 25,200
Allowable load limit wall N lb 1200 274 1860 418 2750 618 3250 731 3350 753 4550 1020 4450 1020 6200 1390 6100 1390 8150 1830 6700 1510 10,200 2290 8150 1830 12,900 2900 8800 1980 15,000 3370
Mass
Designation
Bearing Ratings
rpm 18,000 16,000 13,000 12,000 11,000 9500 9500 9000 8500 8000 7500 6700 6700 6300 6300 5000
22,000 19,000 16,000 15,000 14,000 12,000 12000 11,000 10,000 9500 9000 8000 8000 7500 7500 6000
kg lbm 0.047 0.10 0.086 0.19 0.11 0.24 0.15 0.33 0.13 0.29 0.24 0.53 0.20 0.44 0.36 0.79 0.30 0.66 0.48 1.05 0.37 0.82 0.65 1.05 0.43 0.95 0.90 2.00 0.48 1.05 1.15 2.55
NU 202 EC NU 302 EC NU 204 EC NU 304 EC NU 205 EC NU 305 EC NU 206 EC NU 306 EC NU 207 EC NU 307 EC NU 208 EC NU 308 EC NU 209 EC NU 309 EC NU 210 EC NU 310 EC
Combined Load
P Pr = Pcosp
P0 = X0 Pr + Y0 Pa
Bearing type Radial deep-groove ball Radial angular-contact ball = 20 = 25 = 30 = 35 = 40 Single row X0 Y0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.42 0.5 0.38 0.5 0.33 0.5 0.29 0.5 0.26 0.5 0.22 cot 0.5 0.22 cot 0.5 0.22 cot Double row X0 Y0 0.6 0.5 1 0.84 1 0.76 1 0.66 1 0.58 1 0.52 1 0.44 cot 1 0.44 cot 1 0.44 cot
p Pa = Psinp
Table 13.8 Radial factor X0 and thrust factor Figure 13.19 Combined load acting Y0 for statically stressed radial bearings. on radial deep-groove ball bearing. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Fatigue Spall
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.20 Typical fatigue spall (a) Spall on tapered roller bearing; (b) detail of fatigue spall. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Fatigue Failure
4
Life
2
S1 = 1 M1 S2 = 1 M2 S3 = 1 M3 Sm = 1 Mm
~ L ~ L = 0.2
20
80
100
Figure 13.21 Distribution of bearing fatigue failures. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
1000
Figure 13.23 Typical Weibull plot of bearing fatigue failures. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Capacity Formulas
Bearing type e Deep-groove ball bearings Pa /C0 = 0.025 Pa /C0 = 0.04 Pa /C0 = 0.07 Pa /C0 = 0.13 Pa /C0 = 0.25 Pa /C0 = 0.50 Angular = 20 contact ball = 25 bearings = 30 = 35 = 40 = 45 Self-aligning ball bearings Spherical roller bearings Tapered-roller bearings 0.22 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.37 0.44 0.57 0.68 0.80 0.95 1.14 1.33 1.5 tan 1.5 tan 1.5 tan Single-row bearings Pa Pa e >e Pr Pr X Y X Y 1 0 0.56 2.0 1 0 0.56 1.8 1 0 0.56 1.6 1 0 0.56 1.4 1 0 0.56 1.2 1 0 0.56 1 1 0 0.43 1 1 0 0.41 0.87 1 0 0.39 0.76 1 0 0.37 0.66 1 0 0.35 0.57 1 0 0.33 0.50 Double-row bearings Pa Pa e >e Pr Pr X Y X Y
0.40
0.4 cot
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.09 0.92 0.78 0.66 0.55 0.47 0.42 cot 0.45 cot 0.42 cot
1.63 1.41 1.24 1.07 0.93 0.81 0.65 cot 0.67 cot 0.67 cot
Table 13.9 Capacity formulas for rectangular and elliptical conjunctions for radial and angular bearings. Hamrock Fundamentlas of Machine Elements
Bearing type e = 45 = 60 = 75 Spherical roller thrust Tapered roller Thrust ball 1.25 2.17 4.67 1.5 tan 1.5 tan
Double acting Pa Pa e >e Pr Pr X Y X Y 1.18 0.59 0.66 1 1.90 0.55 0.92 1 3.89 0.52 1.66 1 1.5 tan 0.67 tan 1 1.5 tan 0.67 tan 1
Table 13.10 Radial factor X and thrust factor Y for thrust bearings.
Material Factors
Material 52100 M-1 M-2 M-10 M-50 T-1 Halmo M-42 WB 49 440C Material factor, D 2.0 0.6 0.6 2.0 2.0 0.6 2.0 0.2 0.6 0.6-0.8
3.0 2.5
250
200
Lubrication factor, Fl
150
~ L10 life
100
50
0 .6
.8
10
0 .6
.8
10
Figure 13.24 Group fatigue life L10 as a function of dimensionless film parameter.
Chapter 14
Just stare at the machine. There is nothing wrong with that. Just live with it for a while. Watch it the way you watch a line when fishing and before long, as sure as you live, youll get a little nibble, a little fact asking in a timid, humble way if youre interested in it. Thats the way the world keeps on happening. Be interested in it. Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance
Spur Gears
Figure 14.1 Spur gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing spur gears; (b) a collection of spur gears.
Helical Gears
Figure 14.2 Helical gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing helical gears; (b) a collection of helical gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Bevel Gears
Figure 14.3 Bevel gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing bevel gears; (b) a collection of bevel gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Worm Gears
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.4 Worm gear drive. (a) Cylindrical teeth; (b) double enveloping; (c) a collection of worm gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Ou ts P iid te ch (
Base circle
r bp rp r op
pdd )iam
ete
r, d
Pitch circle
op
Pressure angle, F
Center distance, cd
Working depth, hk Clearance, cr Base diameter, dbg Ro ot dia me ter Circular tooth thickness Chordal tooth thickness
Dedendum, b
r bg
rg
rog
me te r, d
g
Circular pitch, pc
Gear
Pit ch
dia
Pitch point
Gear Teeth
id th Fa c To p ew la nd
Addendum
Circular pitch
Dedendum
Tooth thickness
Width of space
Pitch circl e
Fa c Fl a Bo tto m la nd
Outside c
ircle
Clearance
Fillet radius
Dedendum circle
Clearance circle
nk
21 2
Diametral pitch, pd , in1 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 12, 14, 16, 18 20, 24, 32, 48, 64 72, 80, 96, 120, 128 150, 180, 200
10
12
14
16
200
h;
d
it c
=8
n (m .00 i
= 8; d
= 20 0
3p
150 100
12 p
i tc h ;
24
;d p i t ch
= 1. 0 0
m) d=25 m ; 1 = m in (
Power transmitted, kW
Figure 14.8 Transmitted power as a function of pinion speed for a number of diametral pitches.
3600
Symbol a b c
Table 14.2 Formulas for addendum, dedendum, and clearance (pressure angle, 20; full-depth involute).
rbp rp
Figure 14.9 Pitch and base circles for pinion and gear as well as line of action and pressure angle.
Involute Curve
Contact Parameters
Arc of approach qa Arc of recess qr
Line o f actio n
a A P B b
Outs
ide c ircle
Outside circle
Pitc h ci rcle
Motion
Lab
Figure 14.11 Illustration of parameters important in defining contact. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Line of Action
Contact ratio:
1 Cr = pc cos !
2 r2 + rop bp 2 r2 rog bg
cd tan ! pc
Figure 14.12 Details of line of action, showing angles of approach and recess for both pinion and gear. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Backlash
P itc
h ci
ci ase
r cle
rcle
0
Base circle
Pitch
Backlash
Backlash
Center distance, cd , in. 2 4 8 16 32 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.028 0.021 0.025 0.033 0.034 0.042
Meshing Gears
Gear 2 (N2 teeth)
W2
r2 W1
r1 r2
Gear 1 (N1) r1
Gear 2 (N2)
W1
(+)
()
W2
Gear Trains
N2
N2 N1
N5 N6
N3
N4
N7
N8
Example 14.7
Input Shaft 1 A NA = 20 A Only pitch circles of gears shown
B NB = 70 Shaft 2 NC = 18 C D ND = 22 C D
Shaft 3 E N = 54 E
Shaft 4 Output
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.19 Illustration of planetary gear train. (a) With three planets; (b) with one planet (for analysis only).
Zp =
!L !A !F !A
Gear Quality
AGMA quality index (16) (6) 14 (17) 9 8 (7) 15 13 12 11 10 (4)(5) 100
10 Relative cost
1 0.5
1 2
4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12
Application Cement mixer drum driver Cement kiln Steel mill drives Corn pickers Punch press Mining conveyor Clothes washing machine Printing press Automotive transmission Marine propulsion drive Aircraft engine drive Gyroscope Pitch velocity ft/min m/s 0-800 0-4 800-2000 4-10 2000-4000 10-20 > 4000 > 20
0.0005
0.0010
Quality index, Qv 3-5 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-7 5-7 8-10 9-11 10-11 10-12 10-13 12-14 Quality index, Qv 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-14
0.00005 in.
0.00010
0.010
Figure 14.20 Gear cost as a function of gear quality. The numbers along the vertical lines indicate tolerances.
0.015
Form Cutting
Form cutter
Gear blank
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 14.21 Form cutting of teeth. (a) A form cutter. Notice that the tooth profile is defined by the cutter profile. (b) Schematic illustration of the form cutting process. (c) Form cutting of teeth on a bevel gear. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Pinion-Shaped Cutter
Figure 14.22 Production of gear teeth with a pinion-shaped cutter. (a) Schematic illustration of the process; (b) photograph of the process with gear and cutter motions indicated. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Gear Hobbing
Top view
Gear blank
Gear blank
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.23 Production of gears through the hobbing process. (a) A hob, along with a schematic illustration of the process; (b) production of a worm gear through hobbing. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 120 150 200
r Th
e ne
Grade 2
ed trid Ni
rd -h a
d
60
50
Grade 1 2 1 2
Allowable bending stress number MPa 0.703 HB + 113 0.533 HB + 88.3 0.0823 HB + 12.15 0.1086 HB + 15.89 ksi 0.0773 HB + 12.8 0.102 HB + 16.4 0.568 HB + 83.8 0.749 HB + 110
ou
gh
ided Nitr
40 Grade 1
Th
ro
-h u gh
d ene ard
30
20 10 450
400
Figure 14.24 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress number for steel gears. (a) Through-hardened steels. Note that the Brinell hardness refers to the case hardness for these gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Nitrided and throughhardened Nitralloy 135M and Nitralloy N, nitrided 2.5% Chrome, nitrided
Cast Iron ASTM A48 gray cast iron, as-cast ASTM A536 ductile (nodular) iron
Bronze Sut > 40, 000 psi (Sut > 275GP a) Sut > 90, 000 psi (Sut > 620GP a)
Table 14.5 Allowable bending and contact stresses for selected gear materials. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
500
Allowable bending stress number, Sb, MPa
me 2.5% Chro Grade 3
400
2 Grade
hrome 2 - 2.5% C
ksi 0.0862 HB + 12.73 0.1138 HB + 16.65 0.1052 HB + 9.28 0.1052 HB + 22.28 0.1052 HB + 29.28
Grade 1 -
1 2 1 2 3
0.594 HB + 87.76 0.784 HB + 114.81 0.7255 HB + 63.89 0.7255 HB + 153.63 0.7255 HB + 201.91
300
Grade 1
Nitrallo
me
40 30
200
20
100 250
275
325
350
Figure 14.24 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress number for steel gears. (b) Flame or induction-hardened nitriding steels. Note that the Brinell hardness refers to the case hardness for these gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
{ {
e2 d ra
e1 d a Gr
175
Figure 14.25 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable contact stress number for two grades of through-hardened steel. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
1.0 160 HB: YN = 2.3194 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 102 103
N-0.0538
YN = 1.3558 N-0.0178
YN = 1.6831 N-0.0323
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Figure 14.26 Stress cycle factor. (a) Bending stress cycle factor YN. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
1.5 Zn = 2.466 N-0.056 Stress cycle factor, Zn 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 102 Nitrided Zn = 1.249 N-0.0138 Zn = 1.4488 N-0.023
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Figure 14.26 Stress cycle factor. (a) pitting resistance cycle factor ZN. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Reliability Factor
Probability of Reliability factora , survival, percent KR 50 0.70b 90 0.85b 99 1.00 99.9 1.25 99.99 1.50 a Based on surface pitting. If tooth breakage is considered a greater hazard, a larger value may be required. b At this value plastic ow may occur rather than pitting.
0. 4
a,p
0. 8
(1 6
(3 2
i n. )
ap
=1
in. )
.6
(64
in
.)
Figure 14.27 Hardness ratio factor CH for surface hardened pinions and through-hardened gears.
rf a x l t (a) (b)
Figure 14.29 Loads and length dimensions used in determining tooth bending stress. (a) Tooth; (b) cantilevered beam. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Bending and Contact Stress Equations Lewis Equation AGMA Bending Stress Equation Hertz Stress AGMA Contact Stress Equation
Wt pd !t = bwY Wt pd KaKsKmKvKiKb !t = bwY j
1/2
pH = E
W 2!
!c = pH (KaKsKmKv)1/2
Table 14.7 Lewis form factor for various numbers of teeth (pressure angle, 20; full-depth involute). Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Number of teeth in mating gear. Load considered applied at highest point of single-tooth contact.
.10
0 12
Figure 14.30 Spur gear geometry factors for pressure angle of 20 and full-depth involute profile. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 14.8 Application factor as function of driving power source and driven machine.
Module, m, mm 5 6 8 12 20
Table 14.9 Size factor as a function of diametral pitch or module. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
where
Cmc = 1.0 for uncrowned teeth 0.8 for crowned teeth
0.80 when gearing is adjusted at assembly Ce = 0.80 when compatability between gear teeth is improved by lapping 1.0 for all other conditions
Face width, bw (in.) 0.70 0.60 Pinion proportion factor, Cpf 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Face width, b (mm)
.00 2 = 0 /d p 1.5 0 bw 1 .0 0 0.5 For bw/dp < 0.5 use curve for bw/dp = 0.5
10
20
30
40
Cp f
w bw 0.025 bw 25 mm 10d b p w 0.0375 + 0.000492bw 25 mm < bw 432 mm = 10d p bw 0.1109 + 0.000815bw (3.53 107)b2 w 432 mm < bw 1020 mm 10d p
10
20
30
40 Cma = A + Bbw + Cbw If bw is in inches: Condition Open gearing Commercial enclosed gears Precision enclosed gears Extraprecision enclosed gears A 0.247 0.127 0.0675 0.000380 B 0.0167 0.0158 0.0128 0.0102 C -0.765 s 10-4 -1.093 s 10-4 -0.926 s 10-4 -0.822 s 10-4
2
i ear ng
ng
se
ea dg
r un
its
me
o ncl al e i c r
If bw is in mm: Condition Open gearing Commercial enclosed gears Precision enclosed gears Extraprecision enclosed gears 800 1000 A 0.247 0.127 0.0675 0.000360 B 6.57 s 6.22 s 10-4 5.04 s 10-4 4.02 s 10-4 10-4 C -1.186 s 10-7 -1.69 s 10-7 -1.44 s 10-7 -1.27 s 10-7
200
Dynamic Factor
Pitch line velocity, ft/min 0 1.8 1.7 1.6 Dynamic factor, Kv 1.5 1.4 Qv = 10 1.3 1.2 1.1 "Very accurate" gearing 1.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Qv = 11 2500 Qv = 5 5000 Qv = 6 Qv = 7 Qv = 8 Qv = 9 7500
Figure 14.34 Dynamic factor as a function of pitch-line velocity and transmission accuracy level number. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Thomas Jefferson
Helical
Bevel
Advantages Inexpensive, simple to design, no thrust load is developed by the gearing, wide variety of manufacturing options. Useful for high speed and high power applications, quiet at high speeds. Often used in lieu of spur gears for high speed applications. High eciency (can be 98% or higher), can transfer power across nonintersecting shafts. Spiral bevel gears transmit loads evenly and are quieter than straight bevel. Compact designs for large gear ratios. Eciency can be 90% or higher.
Disadvantages Can generate signicant noise, especially at high speeds, and are usually restricted to pitch-line speeds below 20 m/s (4000 ft/min). Generate a thrust load on a single face, more expensive than spur gears. Shaft alignment is critical, rolling element bearings are therefore often used with bevel gears. This limits power transfer for high speed applications (where a journal bearing is preferable). Can be expensive. Wear by abrasion is of higher concern than other gear types, can be expensive. Generate very high thrust loads. Worm cannot be driven by gear; worm must drive gear.
Worm
Helical Gear
Pitch cylinder
Helix angle,
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.1 Helical gear. (a) Front view; (b) side view.
cn
pc
pa (a) (b)
Bending Stress:
Wt pd KaKsKmKvKiKb !t = bwYh
Pitting Resistance:
!c = pH KaKsKmKv Ih
1 2
0.127 0.46 0.46 0.143 0.47 0.49 0.164 0.48 0.52 0.195 0.49 0.55 0.241 0.50 0.60
0.131 0.49 0.49 0.153 0.50 0.53 0.186 0.52 0.56 0.237 0.53 0.61
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
0.129 0.47 0.47 0.145 0.48 0.49 0.167 0.49 0.52 0.197 0.50 0.55 0.242 0.51 0.59
0.133 0.50 0.50 0.155 0.51 0.53 0.188 0.52 0.56 0.238 0.54 0.60
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
0.135 0.46 0.46 0.158 0.139 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.190 0.174 0.145 0.48 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.240 0.231 0.210 0.49 0.53 0.51 0.54 0.53 0.55 tooth form and should be avoided.
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
0.133 0.52 0.52 0.149 0.52 0.55 0.165 0.53 0.58 0.195 0.54 0.62 0.215 0.51 0.65 0.255 0.56 0.71
0.136 0.56 0.56 0.152 0.57 0.59 0.186 0.57 0.63 0.206 0.55 0.66 0.251 0.60 0.72
0.139 0.60 0.60 0.175 0.61 0.64 0.195 0.58 0.67 0.246 0.63 0.73
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
0.131 0.50 0.50 0.145 0.51 0.54 0.161 0.51 0.57 0.176 0.52 0.60 0.196 0.53 0.63 0.222 0.53 0.67 0.257 0.54 0.71
0.134 0.54 0.54 0.150 0.55 0.58 0.166 0.55 0.60 0.187 0.56 0.64 0.215 0.57 0.67 0.255 0.58 0.72
0.137 0.58 0.58 0.153 0.59 0.61 0.176 0.60 0.64 0.206 0.60 0.68 0.251 0.62 0.72
0.140 0.62 0.62 0.163 0.62 0.65 0.196 0.63 0.69 0.246 0.65 0.73
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
0.133 0.49 0.49 0.147 0.50 0.52 0.163 0.50 0.54 0.178 0.51 0.56 0.198 0.51 0.59 0.223 0.52 0.61 0.257 0.53 0.64
0.136 0.52 0.52 0.151 0.53 0.55 0.167 0.53 0.57 0.188 0.54 0.59 0.216 0.54 0.62 0.255 0.55 0.65
0.138 0.55 0.55 0.154 0.56 0.57 0.176 0.56 0.60 0.207 0.57 0.62 0.251 0.58 0.66
0.141 0.58 0.58 0.163 0.58 0.60 0.196 0.59 0.63 0.245 0.60 0.66
Table 15.2 Geometry factors Yh and Ih for helical gears loaded at tooth tip.
Bevel Gears
Pitch apex to back Crown to back Pitch apex to crown Crown
Pitch apex Face width Face angle Dedendum angle Shaft angle Pitch angle Back angle Front angle Root angle Uniform clearance Gear
Pinion
on
ed
ist
ce
ck c
Bevel Gears
Figure 15.4 Bevel gears with curved teeth. (a) Spiral bevel gears; (b) Zerol. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.5 Forces acting on a bevel gear Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Bending Stress:
Pitting Resistance:
2Tp pd KaKvKsKm English units bwd p KxYb !t = 2T K K K K p a v s m SI units bwd p m pKxYb TpE KaKvKmKsKx 2 "bwd pIb English units
!c =
Cp
where Kmb = 1.00 for both gear and pinion straddle mounted (bearings on both sides of gear) = 1.10 for only one member straddle mounted = 1.25 for neither member straddle mounted
1.6 5
10
40
50 1.00
25
125
Size factor, Ks
0.75
0.50
Ks = 0.00492 bw + 0.4375 (bw in mm) = 0.125 bw + 0.4375 (bw in in.) Ks = 0.5 for bw < 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
Ks = 0.5 for met < 1.6 (pd < 16 in. ) 0.4 16 5 2.5 1.25 0.8 0.6 -1 Outer transverse pitch, pd, in. (a) 0.5
-1
0.25
1.0
4.0
5.0
Figure 15.6 Size factor for bevel gears. (a) Size factor for bending stress; (b) size factor for contact stress or pitting resistance. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.7 Geometry factor for straight bevel gears with pressure angle = 20 and shaft angle 90. (a) Geometry factor for contact stress, Ib. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.7 Geometry factor for straight bevel gears with pressure angle = 20 and shaft angle 90. (b) Geometry factor for bending, Yb. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
40
40 35
30
30 25
20
15
20
10 0.04
0.06
0.14
0.16
Figure 15.8 Geometry factor for spiral bevel gears with pressure angle = 20, spiral angle = 25, and shaft angle 90. (a) Geometry factor for contact stress, Ib. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.8 Geometry factor for spiral bevel gears with pressure angle = 20, spiral angle = 25, and shaft angle 90. (a) Geometry factor for bending, Yb. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
40
40 35
30
25
30
20
15
20
10
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.10
0.11
Figure 15.9 Geometry factor for Zerol bevel gears with pressure angle = 20, spiral angle = 25, and shaft angle 90. (a) Geometry factor for contact stress, Ib. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.9 Geometry factor for Zerol bevel gears with pressure angle = 20, spiral angle = 25, and shaft angle 90. (a) Geometry factor for bending, Yb. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 15.10 Illustration of worm contact with a worm gear, showing multiple teeth in contact. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 15.3 Suggested minimum number of worm gear teeth for customary designs.
Figure 15.11 Forces acting on a worm. (a) Side view, showing forces acting on worm and worm gear. (b) Three-dimensional view of worm, showing worm forces. The worm gear has been removed for clarity. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
where
!Ndwm English units cos " vt = 12 #d wm SI units 2 cos "
where
0.5 2 + 0.463 Z < 20 0.0200 Z + 40Z 76 Cm = 0.0107 Z 2 + 56Z + 5145 0.5 20 Z < 76 1.1483 0.00658Z 76 Z 0.659 exp (0.0011vt )0 < vt 700 ft/min (0.571) 700 ft/min < vt 3000 ft/min Cv = 13.31vt 65.52v(0.774) 3000 ft/min < vt t
where
vt = 0 ft/min 0.150 0 < vt 10 ft/min = 0.124 exp 0.074vt0.645 0.103 exp 0.110vt0.450 + 0.01210 ft/min < vt
111
I 200 I
900
I 2500 I
1IO00 1000
12
20 20
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
75 75
cas t
S ta
Materials factor, Cs
Materials factor, Cs
I i i i i 1i i i i i i i i i
900
i i i 3 i in
I I I CALlbN A. .-..a. r*al m-r A ..IlT
1 HIWJ
ti c
ch
ill
Sa
c as
800 800
nd
t cas
ed org rf to
700
IIIIII II
800 800 1-i
I i i i i i i
Y
/
C;HtC;K I-ItiUHt
600 600
FACTORFOR CENTER t DISTANCESc 3.00 IN (76 mm) I I 500 500 1 I I I I III ! I I Y I I I I
I I
2.5 3 2.5
90 5 6 7 8910 20 25 30 30 40 40 50 60 60 70 160 90 10 15 20 4 5 MEAN GEAR DIAMETER, Dm -INCHES Mean gear pitch diameter, d (in.)
1.0 1.0
2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0
Figure 15.12 Materials parameter Cs for bronze worm gears and worm minimum surface hardness of 58 Rc. (a) Materials factor for center distances cd greater than 76 mm (3 in); (b) Materials factor for center distances cd less than 76 mm (3 in). When using the figure in (b), the value from part (a) should be checked and the lower value used. See also Table 15.4. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(a)
Manufacturing Process Sand casting Static chill cast or forged Centrifugally cast
Pitch diameter d 64 mm (2.5 in.) d 64 mm d 200 mm (8 in.) d > 200 mm d 625 mm (25 in.) d > 625 mm
Units for pitch diameter in. mm 1000 1000 1189.6365 476.5454 log d 1859.104 476.5454 log d 1000 1000 1411.6518 455.8259 log d 2052.012 455.8259 log d 1000 1000 1251.2913 179.7503 log d 1503.811 179.7503 log d
Table 15.4 Materials factor Cs for bronze worm gears with worm having surface hardness of 58 Rc.
Speed
Torque
Motor current, A
Table 15.13 The gears used to transmit power from an electric motor to the agitators of a commercial mixer. Hamrock Fundamentals
Table 15.14 Torque and speed of motor as a function of current for the industrial mixer used in the Case Study. of Machine Elements
Engineers need to be continually reminded that nearly all engineering failures result from faulty judgments rather than faulty calculations. Eugene S. Ferguson, Engineering and the Minds Eye
Thread Geometry
p Crest d dc dp dr Root
(a) (b) (c)
l p
l p p
ht
Figure 16.2 (a) Single-, (b) double-, and (c) triple-threaded screws.
(a)
(b)
0.5 p
0.25 ht 0.25 p
p p 2.7
Figure 16.5 Details of Acme thread profile. (All dimensions are in inches.)
= 29 dp
dc
dr
Crest diameter, dc , in. 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/4 2 1/2 2 3/4 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5
Acme Threads
Tensile stress area, At , in.2 0.02632 0.04438 0.06589 0.09720 0.1225 0.1955 0.2732 0.4003 0.5175 0.6881 0.8831 1.030 1.266 1.811 2.454 2.982 3.802 4.711 5.181 7.338 9.985 12.972 16.351 Shear stress area, As , in.2 0.3355 0.4344 0.5276 0.6396 0.7278 0.9180 1.084 1.313 1.493 1.722 1.952 2.110 2.341 2.803 3.262 3.610 4.075 4.538 4.757 5.700 6.640 7.577 8.511
Table 16.2 Crest diameters, threads per inch, and stress areas for Acme threads.
Power Screws
Load, W (Screw is threaded into W) dp/2 /2 /2 Pitch, p Thrust collar
Equal rc
C D B A B Axis of screw A
Pn
n /2 H 0 dp/2 E
/2
E
(a)
Pn cosn sin H 0
Pn sin P n Pn cos
W
(c)
cW
Figure 16.7 Forces acting in raising load of power screw. (a) Forces acting on parallelepiped; (b) forces acting on axial section; (c) forces acting on tangential plane.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 16.8 Three types of threaded fastener. (a) Bolt and nut; (b) cap screw; (c) stud.
Illustration
Description An externally threaded fastener with a trimmed hex head, often with a washer face on the bearing side.
Application notes Used in a variety of general purpose applications in dierent grades depending on the required loads and material being joined. Used in slots where the square neck keeps the bolt from turning when being tightened.
Carriage bolt
A round head bolt with a square neck under the head and a standard thread.
A bolt with a wide, countersunk at head, a shallow conical bearing surface, an integrally-formed square neck under the head and a standard thread. A hex bolt with integrated washer, but wider than standard washers and incorporating serrations on the bearing surface side. A at, countersunk screw with a at top surface and conical bearing surface.
Used in belting and elevator applications where head clearances must be minimal.
Used in applications where loosening hazard exists, such as vibration applications. The serrations grip the surface so that more torque is needed to loosen than tighten the bolt. A common fastener for assembling joints where head clearance is critical.
Dome shaped head that is wider and has a lower prole than a at cap screw.
Designed for light fastening applications where their appearance is desired. Not recommended for high-strength applications.
Lag screw
A screw with spaced threads, a hex head, and a gimlet point. (Can also be made with a square head.)
Step bolt
A plain, circular, oval head bolt with a square neck. The head diameter is about three times the bolt diameter.
Used to join resilient materials or sheet metal to supporting structures, or for joining wood since the large head will not pull through.
Types of Nuts
Illustration Nuts Type Hex nut Description A six-sided internally threaded fastener. Specic dimensions are prescribed in industry standards. A nut with a hex prole and an integral nylon insert. Application notes The most commonly used generalpurpose nut. The nylon insert exerts friction on the threads and prevents loosening due to vibration or corrosion. Used to cover exposed, dangerous bolt threads or for aesthetic reasons. Used for general purpose fastening and locking. A cotter pin or wire can be inserted through the slots and the drilled shank of the fastener. Used to join two externally threaded parts of equal thread diameter and pitch. Used in combination with a hex nut to keep the nut from loosening. A popular lock nut because of ease of use and low cost.
Cap nut
Castle nut
Coupling nut
Wing nut
A six-sided internally threaded fastener, thinner than a normal hex nut. A hex nut preassembled with a free spinning external tool lock washer. When tightened, the teeth bite into the member to achieve locking. An internally threaded nut with integral pronounced at tabs. A hex nut with integrated washer, but wider than standard washers and incorporating serrations on the bearing surface side.
Used for applications where repetitive hand tightening is required. Used in applications where loosening hazard exists, such as vibration applications. The serrations grip the surface so that more torque is needed to loosen than tighten the bolt.
Serrated nut
Table 16.4 Common nuts and washers for use with threaded fasteners. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Types of Washers
Washers Flat washer A circular disk with circular hole, produced in accordance with industry standards. Fender washers have larger surface area than conventional at washer. A conical disk spring. A coiled, hardened, split circular washer with a slightly trapezoidal cross-section A hardened circular washer twisted teeth or prongs. with Designed for general-purpose mechanical and structural use.
Used to maintain load in bolted connections. Preferred for use with hardened bearing surfaces. Applies high bolt tension per torque, resists loosening caused by vibration and corrosion. Internal teeth are preferred fro aesthstics since the teeth are hidden under the bolt head. External teeth give greater locking eciency. Combination teeth are used for oversized or out-ofround holes or for electrical connections.
Table 16.4 (cont.) Common nuts and washers for use with threaded fasteners. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Pb (tension)
0b
kb kj
Pi Pb
j (contraction)
0j
Pj
0b
Extension
(b)
0j
Figure 16.10 Force versus deflection of bolt and member. (a) Separated bolt and joint; (b) assembled bolt and joint. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
0b Deflection
Figure 16.11 Forces versus deflection of bolt and joint when external load is applied. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Bolt Stiffness
dc Ls Lse = Ls + 0.4dc
1 4 = kb !E
Lt dr Lte = Lt + 0.4dr
Ls + 0.4dc Lt + 0.4dr + 2 2 dc dr
Figure 16.12 Bolt and nut. (a) Assembled; (b) stepped-shaft representation of shank and threaded section. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
dc
Figure 16.13 Bolt and nut assembly with conical frustum stress representation of joint. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Single member, f = 30
Two members, same Youngs modulus, E , back-to-back frustaa Two members, same Youngs modulus, back-to-back frusta, = 30 , di = dw = 1.5dc a
Two members, same material, Wileman kj = Ei dc Ai eBi dc /Li methoda,b a Note that this is stiness for the complete joint, not a member in the joint. b See Table 16.6 for values of A and B for various materials. i i
Table 16.5 Member stiffness equations for common bolted joint configurations. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 16.6
3/2 dc
15
30
dc
1 2 12.5
25
3 8 10 10
d2
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.14 Hexagonal bolt-and-nut assembly used in Example 16.6. (a) Assembly and dimensions; (b) dimensions of frustrun cone. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Crest diameter, dc , mm M5 M36 M1.6 M16 M5 M24 M17 M36 M1.6 M16 M6 M36 M1.6 M36
Ultimate tensile strength, Su , MPa 400 420 520 830 900 1040 1220
Yield strength, Sy , MPa 240 340a 415a 660 720a 940 1100
Proof strength, Sp , MPa 225 310 380 600 650 830 970
Table 16.9 Dimensions and tensile stress areas for UN coarse and fine threads. Root diameter is calculated from Eq. (16.2) and Fig. 16.4. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 16.10 Dimensions and tensile stress areas for M coarse and fine threads. Root diameter is calculated from Eq. (16.2) and Fig. 16.4. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Pj
Separation of Joint
Pj
Figure 16.16 Forces versus deflection of bolt and joint as function of time.
0b
Deflection
0j
Gaskets
Gasket
Figure 16.17 Threaded fastener with unconfined gasket and two other members.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 16.18 Failure modes due to shear loading of riveted fasteners. (a) Bending of member; (b) shear of rivet; (c) tensile failure of member; (d) bearing of member on rivet. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 16.9
P = 1000 lb 7 2 3 3 2 C A y x rC D C D rD B 8 A rA rB B
(a) tA 3 A d B tB d
(b)
rC 4.635
7 8
3 3 5
rD 2.365 (c)
tC C d (d) tD D d
7 8
1 2
(e)
Figure 16.19 Group of riveted fasteners used in Example 16.9. (a) Assembly of rivet group; (b) radii from centroid to center of rivets; (c) resulting triangles; (d) direct and torsional shear acting on each rivet; (e) side view of member. (All dimensions in inches.)
Weld Symbols
Bead Basic arc and gas weld symbols Plug Groove Fillet or Bevel V slot Square Basic resistance weld symbols U J Spot Projection Seam Flash or upset
Finish symbol Contour symbol Root opening, depth of filling for plug and slot welds Effective throat Depth of preparation or size in inches Reference line Specification, process or other reference T Tail (omitted when reference is not used) Basic weld symbol or detail reference
Groove angle or included angle of countersink for plug welds Length of weld in inches Pitch (center-to-center spacing) of welds in inches Field weld symbol Weld-all-around symbol L@P A B
Arrow connects reference line to arrow side of joint. Use break as at A or B to signify that arrow is pointing to the grooved member in bevel or J-grooved joints.
Fillet Weld
1 16
he
Load
1 16 1
Figure 16.21 Fillet weld. (a) Cross-section of weld showing throat and legs; (b) shear planes.
(b)
Geometry of Welds
Dimensions of weld Bending Torsion P a Weld x d x x A=d x a P Iu = d 2/6 M = Pa Weld Ju = d 3/12 T = Pa c = d/2
Table 16.12 Geometry of welds and parameters used when considering various types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Geometry of Welds
b x x x = 2(b + d ) d2 y = 2(b + d ) b2 x x 4bd + At top Iu = 6 d 2(4 b + d ) At bottom Iu = 6(2b + d ) d2 Weld a x P P
y d x
a Weld
(b + d )4 6b2d2 Ju = 12(b + d )
A = b+ d
a Weld x
Weld
(2b + d )3 b2(b + d )2 Ju = 12 (2 b + d )
Table 16.12 (cont.) Geometry of welds and parameters used when considering various types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Geometry of Welds
Dimensions of weld y d x A = b + 2d b Weld x d2 y = (b + 2d ) x Weld 2bd + d2 At top Iu = 3 2 d (2b + d ) At bottom Iu = 3(b + d ) x a P Weld x x Weld P a (b + 2d )3 d2(b + d )2 Ju = 12 (b + 2d ) P P Bending Torsion
b d x A = 2b + 2d x
a x
( b + d)3 Ju = 6
Table 16.12 (cont.) Geometry of welds and parameters used when considering various types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Geometry of Welds
b d x A = 2b + 2d x
Weld x x Weld
P Iu = bd + d 2/3
Weld x x Weld P a
b 3 + 3bd 2+ d 3 Ju = 6
d x A = b
Ju = (d 3/4)
Table 16.12 (cont.) Geometry of welds and parameters used when considering various types of loading. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Electrode Properties
Ultimate tensile strength, Su , ksi 62 70 80 90 100 120 Yield strength, Sy , ksi 50 57 67 77 87 107 Elongation, ek , percent 17-25 22 19 14-17 13-16 14
Example 16.10
y 100 300 A tx ty A 45 l1 y x B (a) B (b) 150 20 kN tx ty x 80
l2
Figure 16.22 Welded bracket used in Example 16.10. (a) Dimensions, load and coordinates; (b) torsional shear stress components at points A and B. (All dimensions in millemeters.) Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Welds in Fatigue
Type of weld Reinforced butt weld Tow of transverse llet weld End of parallel llet weld T-butt joint with sharp corners
Adhesive Joints
(a) b L
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 16.23 Four methods of applying adhesive bonding. (a) Lap; (b) butt; (c) scarf; (d) double lap.
tm
Scarf Joint
n
(a)
A tm A
(b)
x l
ro ri
T
(c)
Figure 16.24 Scarf joint. (a) Axial loading; (b) bending; (c) torsion.
h 2 h
Rigid
(c)
Figure 16.25 Common examples of integrated fasteners. (a) Module with four cantilever lugs; (b) cover with two cantilever and two rigid lugs; (c) separable snap joint for chassis cover. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
A
c c b Type of design
l y P h h _ 2
B
a h c2 c1 b h
Rectangle
Trapezoid
(Permissible) deflection
y l2 y = 1.09 ___ h
l2 y = 0.86 ___ h
Figure 16.27 Permissible deflection of different snap fastener cantilever shapes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Material Polytetrauoroethylene PTFE (teon) Polyethylene (rigid) Polyethylene (exible) Polypropylene Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Polystyrene Polycarbonate
Coecient of friction On self-mated On steel polymer 0.12-0.22 0.20-0.25 0.40-0.50 0.55-0.60 0.66-0.72 0.25-0.30 0.38-0.45 0.50-0.60 0.60-0.72 0.50-0.65 0.60-0.78 0.55-0.60 0.55-0.60 0.40-0.50 0.48-0.60 0.45-0.55 0.54-0.66
Cylinder flange
Entia non multiplicantor sunt prater necessitatum. (Do not complicate matters more than necessary.) Galileo Gallilei
Stress Cycle
Stress
Strain
Spring Materials
Modulus of elasticity, E , psi 30 106 20 106 29 106 28 106 Shear modulus of elasticity, G psi 11.5 106 11.5 106 11 106 10 106 Density, , lb/in.3 0.283 0.283 Maximum service temperature, F 250 250 Principal characteristics High strength; excellent fatigue life General purpose use; poor fatigue life Unsatisfactory for subzero applications Good strength at moderate temperatures; low stress relaxation Low cost; high conductivity; poor mechanical properties Ability to withstand repeated exures; popular alloy High elastic and fatigue strength; hardenable Good strength; high corrosion resistance Precipitation hardening; for high temperatures Constant modulus over a wide temperature range
Common name Specication High-carbon steels Music wire ASTM A228 Hard drawn Stainless steels Martensitic Austenitic ASTM A227
0.280 0.282
500 600
Copper-based alloys Spring brass ASTM B134 Phosphor bronze Beryllium copper ASTM B159 ASTM B197
Table 17.1 Typical properties of common spring materials. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Material Music wirea Oil-tempered wireb Hard-drawn wirec Chromium vanadiumd Chromium siliconee
Size range in. mm 0.004-0.250 0.10-6.5 0.020-0.500 0.50-12 0.028-0.500 0.70-12 0.032-0.437 0.80-12 0.063-0.375 1.6-10
Constant, Ap ksi MPa 196 2170 149 1880 136 1750 169 2000 202 2000
Table 17.2 Coefficients used in Equation (17.2) for five spring materials.
Helical Coil
P R P d
l = 2 RN
P R (a) P
D R P
T = PR
P
R (c)
(b)
Figure 17.2 Helical coil. (a) Straight wire before coiling; (b) coiled wire showing transverse (or direct) shear; (c) coiled wire showing torsional shear.
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
D/2
Figure 17.3 Shear stresses acting on wire and coil. (a) Pure torsional loading; (b) transverse loading; (c) torsional and transverse loading with no curvature effects; (d) torsional and transverse loading with curvature effects. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 17.4 Four end types commonly used in compression springs. (a) Plain; (b) plain and ground; (c) squared; (d) squared and ground. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Term Number of end coils, Ne Total number of coils, Nt Free length, lf Solid length, ls Pitch, p
Type of spring end Plain and ground Squared or closed 1 2 Na + 1 Na + 2 p(Na + 1) pNa + 3d dNt d(Nt + 1) lf /(Na + 1) (lf 3d)/Na
Table 17.3 Useful formulas for compression springs with four end conditions.
Po Ps lf li ga lo ls
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 17.5 Various lengths and forces applicable to helical compression springs. (a) Unloaded; (b) under initial load; (c) under solid load.
Po
Pi 0 0 i o s
Figure 17.6 Graphical representation of deflection, force and length for four spring positions.
Deflection,
Buckling Conditions
0.80 Ratio of deflection to free length, /l f Stable 0.60 Unstable
0.40
Stable
10
Figure 17.7 Critical buckling conditions for parallel and nonparallel ends of compression springs. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
r3 r1
A r2 r4 B
(a) P
(b) P
d d r3 r1 A r2 r4 B
Figure 17.8 Ends for extension springs. (a) Conventional design; (b) Side view of Fig. 17.8(a); (c) improved design; (d) side view of Fig. 17.8(c).
(c)
(d)
200 175
di
ll
lf
lb
lh ga
Figure 17.10 Preferred range Figure 17.9 Dimensions of of preload stress for various helical extension spring. spring indexes. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
P d
a D
Leaf Spring
b 2 b 2
nb b
b 2 b 2
P l (a) l (b) P x x
Figure 17.12 Leaf spring. (a) Triangular plate, cantilever spring; (b) equivalent multiple-leaf spring. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Belleville Springs
200
2.275
1.000
120 1.414 80
Di h
40
0.400
20
40
60
t Do
140
160
180
200
(a)
(b)
Cam
0.04
0.20
Figure 17.17 Performance of the spring in the case study. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Nothing has such power to broaden the mind as the ability to investigate systematically and truly all that comes under thy observation in life. Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor
P (e) (c) P
Figure 18.1 Five types of brake and clutch. (a) internal, expanding rim type; (b) external contracting rim type; (c) band brake; (d) thrust disk; (e) cone disk. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Thrust Disk
0.6 Dimensionless torque, T = T/2Pro
0.5
ro
r ri
dr
0.4
Tp
Figure 18.3 Effect of radius ratio on dimensionless torque for uniform pressure and uniform wear models.
Friction materiala Molded Woven Sintered metal Cork Wood Cast iron; hard steel
Maximum contact pressure,b pmax psi kPa 150-300 1030-2070 50-100 345-690 150-300 1030-2070 8-14 55-95 50-90 345-620 100-250 690-1720
Maximum bulk temperature, tm,max F C 400-500 204-260 400-500 204-260 400-1250 204-677 180 82 200 93 500 260
Friction materiala Coecient of friction, Molded 0.06-0.09 Woven 0.08-0.10 Sintered metal 0.05-0.08 Paper 0.10-0.14 Graphitic 0.12 (avg.) Polymeric 0.11 (avg.) Cork 0.15-0.25 Wood 0.12-0.16 Cast iron; hard steel 0.03-0.16 a When rubbing against smooth cas iron or seel.
Cone Clutch
dr sin rd dP dr
dA
dw r D d d
Figure 18.4 Forces acting on elements of cone clutch. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Short-Shoe Brake
d4 d3 C D d2 B P P d1 W
Figure 18.5 Block, or short-shoe brake, with two configurations. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 18.3
14 in.
1.5 in.
14 in. 36 in.
d6
2 1 r A
d7
Drum Lining
d5
d5
Figure 18.7 Long-shoe, internal, expanding rim brake with two shoes.
dP cos Wx
Figure 18.8 Forces and dimensions of long-shoe, internal, expanding rim brake. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 18.4
y 15 15
W W d a A r d d b d b 10 10 a B 10 10 x
W W 15 15
Figure 18.9 Four-long-shoe, internal expanding rim brakes used in Example 18.4.
dP cos
dP 2
dP sin
dP cos 1 Rx A d7 Ry x
r Rotation
Figure 18.10 Forces and dimensions of long-shoe, external, contracting rim brake. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Pivot-Shoe Brake
y Rotation dP dP cos d7 cos r dP sin
2 dP cos 1 r cos
dP sin
dP
Rx
Ry
d7
Band Brake
d 0 d (F + dF ) cos 2 F + dF d (F + dF ) sin 2 d 2 dP d F1 F2 0 (a) (b) r d d 2 d F cos 2 F
d F sin 2
dP
Drum rotation
Figure 18.12 Band brake. (a) Forces acting on band; (b) forces acting on element. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Example 18.7
Rotation
d9
Operating condition Continuous: poor heat dissipation Occasional: poor heat dissipation Continuous: good heat dissipation as in oil bath
Table 18.3 Product of contact pressure and sliding velocity for brakes and clutches.
17.5 in.
30
30
18 in.
Figure 18.14 Hoist line brake for mobile hydraulic crane. The crosssection of brake with relevant dimensions is given.
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been. Theodore von Karmen
Flat Belt
B A 1 01 D1 D2 02 D 2
cd
Figure 19.1 Dimensions, angles of contact, and center distance of open flat belt. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Weighted Idler
Figure 19.2 Weighted idler used to maintain desired belt tension. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Synchronous Belt
Tooth included angle Circular pitch Backing A Neoprene-encased tension member
Section AA
V-Belt in Groove
wt dN/2 sin ht
dN 2
2 36
Driven unit Agitators Liquid Semisolid Compressor Centrifugal Reciprocating Conveyors and elevators Package and oven Belt Fans and blowers Centrifugal, calculating Exhausters Food machinery Slicers Grinders and mixers Generators Farm lighting and exciters Heating and Ventilating Fans and oil burners Stokers Laundry machinery Dryers and ironers Washers Machine tools Home workshop and woodworking Pumps Centrifugal Reciprocating Refrigeration Centrifugal Reciprocating Worm gear speed reducers, input side
Overload factor 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.0
Table 19.1 Overload service factors f1 for various types of driven unit.
Belt type 2L 3L 4L
Minimum pitch diameter, in. Recommended Absolute 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.8
7 32 5 16
Table 19.2 Recommended minimum pitch diameters of pulley for three belt sizes.
Table 19.3 Recommended pulley dimensions in inches for three electric motor sizes.
Motor speed, rpm 575 695 870 1160 1750 Recommended pulley diameter, in. 2.50 2.50 2.50 3.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.50 2.25
Correction factor 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.89 0.89 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.69
Table 19.4 Arc correction factor for various angle of loss in arc of contact.
Table 19.5 Power ratings for light-duty V-belts. (a) 2L section with wt = 1/4 in and ht=1/8 in. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 19.5 Power ratings for light-duty V-belts. (b) 3L section with wt = 3/8 in and ht=1/4 in. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Speed of faster shaft rpm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Pulley eective outside diameter, in. 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 Rated horsepower, hp 0.14 0.19 0.24 0.29 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.21 0.31 0.41 0.50 0.60 0.69 0.78 0.26 0.40 0.54 0.67 0.81 0.94 1.07 0.30 0.47 0.65 0.82 0.99 1.15 1.31 0.31 0.53 0.73 0.94 1.13 1.32 1.51 0.31 0.30 0.27 0.22 0.15 0.56 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.47 0.79 0.83 0.83 0.81 0.75 (c) 1.02 1.07 1.09 1.07 1.01 1.24 1.31 1.33 1.30 1.23 1.45 1.53 1.55 1.51 1.41 1.65 1.73 1.75 1.69 1.66
4.00 0.49 0.87 1.20 1.47 1.69 1.84 1.92 1.92 1.84 1.65
Table 19.5 Power ratings for light-duty V-belts. (c) 4L section with wt = 1/2 in and ht=9/32 in. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 19.6 Center distances for various pitch diameters of driver and driven pulleys. (a) 3L type of V-Belt. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Table 19.6 Center distances for various pitch diameters of driver and driven pulleys. (b) 4L type of V-Belt. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(b)
Wire Rope
(a)
(b)
Figure 19.6 Two lays of wire rope. (a) Lang; (b) regular. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Application Safety factor,a ns Track cables 3.2 Guys 3.5 Mine shafts, ft Up tp 500 8.0 1000-2000 7.0 2000-3000 6.0 Over 3000 5.0 Hoisting 5.0 Haulage 6.0 Cranes and derricks 6.0 Electric hoists 7.0 Hand elevators 5.0 Private elevators 7.5 Hand dumbwaiters 4.5 Grain elevators 7.5 Passenger elevators, ft/min 50 7.60 300 9.20 800 11.25 1200 11.80 1500 11.90 Freight elevators, ft/min 50 6.65 300 8.20 800 10.00 1200 10.50 1500 10.55 Powered dumbwaiters, ft/min 50 4.8 300 6.6 800 8.0 a Use of these factors does not preclude a fatigue failure
Table 19.8 Minimum safety factors for a variety of wire rope applications.
0
0 10 20 D/d ratio 30 40
10
20
30 D/d ratio
40
50
60
Figure 19.7 Percent strength loss in wire rope for different D/d ratios.
Table 19.9 Maximum allowable bearing pressures for various sleeve materials and types of rope. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Rolling Chains
pt /2 pt A r Pitch circle
Link plate
Pin link
Pin
rc
Dragline
Drag rope
5 ft
15 ft
(a)
Mirror
(b)
Mirror -10
Mirror +10
DPT Device
Address electrode Electrode Yoke support post Hinge support post Metal 3 address pads Landing sites
To SRAM (d)
Figure 20.1 The Texas Instruments digital pixel technology (DPT) device. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Lithography
Figure 20.2 Pattern transfer by lithography. Note that the mask in step 3 can be a positive or negative image of the pattern. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Etching Directionality
(a)
undercut
Mask layer
(b)
(c)
{111} face Etch front Etch material (e.g. silicon) 54.7 Etch front Final shape Etch front
Figure 20.3 Etching directionality. (a) Isotropic etching: etch proceeds vertically and horizontally at approximately the same rate, with significant mask undercut. (b) Orientation-dependant etching (ODE): etch proceeds vertically, terminating on {111} crystal planes with little mask undercut. (c) Vertical etching: etch proceeds vertically with little mask undercut. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(a)
Bulk Micromachining
Substrate (e.g. n-type Si) (b) Non-etching mask (e.g. silicon nitride)
(111) planes
Figure 20.4 Schematic illustration of bulk micromachining. (a) Diffuse dopant in desired pattern. (b) Deposit and pattern masking film. (c) Orientation-dependant etch (ODE), leaving behind a freestanding structure.
Surface Micromachining
Figure 20.5 Schematic illustration of the steps in surface micromachining. (a) deposition of a phosphosilicate glass (PSG) spacer layer; (b) etching of spacer layer; (c) deposition of polysilicon; (d) etching of polysilicon; (e) selective wet etching of PSG, leaving the silicon substrate and deposited polysilicon unaffected. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Micromirror
(a) (b)
Figure 20.6 (a) SEM image of a deployed micromirror. (b) Detail of the micromirror hinge. (Source: Sandia National Laboratories.)
Micro-Hinge Manufacture
(a) (b) (c)
Poly1
Spacer layer 1
Spacer Layer 2
Silicon
(d) Poly2
(e)
Figure 20.7 Schematic illustration of the steps required to manufacture a hinge. (a) Deposition of a phosphosilicate glass (PSG) spacer layer and polysilicon layer. (b) deposition of a second spacer layer; (c) Selective etching of the PSG; (d) depostion of polysilicon to form a staple for the hinge; (e) After selective wet etching of the PSG, the hinge can rotate. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
LIGA
Figure 20.8 The LIGA (lithography, electrodeposition and molding) technique. (a) Primary production of a metal final product or mold insert. (b) Use of the primary part for secondary operations, or replication Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Beams in MEMS
Table 20.1 Summary of important beam situations for MEMS devices. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
(a)
(b)
Figure 20.9 Scanning electron microscope images of a diamond-tipped cantilever probe used in atomic force microscopy. (a) Side view with detail of diamond; (b) bottom view of entire cantilever. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Rectangular Plate
a/b 1.0 0.0138 0.3078 1.2 0.0188 0.3834 1.4 0.0226 0.4356 1.6 0.0251 0.4680 1.8 0.0267 0.4872 2.0 0.0277 0.4974 0.0284 0.5000
Table 20.2 Coefficients and for analysis of rectangular plate pressure sensor.
pb4 !max = " 3 Et pb2 !max = " 2 t
Electrostatic Actuation
Fy a y x h V (volts) Stationary comb Moving comb Beam spring suspension
Fy (a)
a y x h V (volts)
Anchors
(c) (b)
Figure 20.10 Illustration of electrostatic actuatuation. (a) Attractive forces between charged plates; (b) forces resulting from eccentric charged plate between two other plates; (c) schematic illustration of a comb drive. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Comb Drive
Figure 20.11 A comb drive. Note the springs in the center provide a restoring force to return the electrostatic comb teeth to their original position. From Sandia National Laboratories. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Rotor Stator 12 18
27
(a)
(b)
Figure 20.12 (a) Schematic illustration of a rotary electrostatic motor, sometimes called a slide motor; (b) scanning electron microscope image of a rotary micromotor. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Figure 20.13 Capilary tube for microflow. (a) Schamitic illustration of tube construction; (b) induced traveing wave and fluid flow. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
c) Droplet ejection
d) Liquid refills
Satellite droplets
Figure 20.14 (a) Sequence of operation of a thermal inkjet printer. (a) Resistive heating element is turned on, rapidly vaporizing ink and forming a bubble. (b) Within five microseconds, the bubble has expanded and displaced liquid ink from the nozzle. (c) Surface tension breaks the ink stream into a bubble, which is discharged at high velocity. The heating element is turned off at this time, so that the bubble collapses as heat is transferred to the surrounding ink. (d) Within 24 microseconds, an ink droplet (and undesirable satellite droplets) are ejected, and surface tension of the ink draws more liquid from the reservoir.
Ink reservoir
Nozzle
Figure 20.15 Schematic illustration of a piezoelectric driven inkjet printer head. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements
Metal Coating BaTiO3 /CuO SNO2 SNO2 SNO2 SNO2 WO3 Fe2 O3 Ga2 O3 MoO3 In2 O3
Accellerometer
Stationary polysilicon fingers Spring (beam) Direction of acceleration
C1 Anchor to substrate C2
(a)
(b)
Figure 20.16 (a) Schematic illustration of accellerometer; (b) photograph of Analog Devices ADXL-50 accelerometer with a surface micromachined capacitive sensor (center), on-chip excitation, self-test and signal conditioning circuitry. The entire chip measures 0.500 by 0.625 mm. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements