كود البناء السعودي-المتطلبات الانشائية
كود البناء السعودي-المتطلبات الانشائية
In appreciation and gratitude to The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and Prime Minister
King Abdullah Bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud
And to the Crown Prince, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defence and Aviation and
Inspector General
Prince Sultan Bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud
For their continuous support and gracious consideration,
The Saudi Building Code National Committee is honored to present the first issue of
The Saudi Building Code (SBC).
201 Architectural
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code (SBC) is a set of legal, administrative and technical
regulations and requirements that specify the minimum standards of construction for building
in order to ensure public safety and health. A Royal Decree dated 11th June 2000 order the
formation of a national committee composed of representatives of Saudi universities and
governmental and private sectors. In September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the
general plan of the National Committee to develop a unified building code for the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia.
To choose a base code for the Saudi Building Code a number of Codes have been
studied. The National Committee has been acquainted with the results of the national
researches and the international codes from the U.S.A., Canada and Australia also the
European Code, and Arab Codes. It has also sought the opinions of specialists in relevant
Saudi universities, governmental and private sectors through holding a questionnaire, a
symposium and specialized workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has been chosen to be a
base code for the Saudi Building Code.
The International Code Council (ICC) grants permission to the Saudi Building Code
National Committee (SBCNC) to include all or any portion of material from the ICC codes,
and standards in the SBC and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any
other party or entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and
construction industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the
universities and research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to
code content by holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of
experts from inside and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of
April 2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base
code with the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of
soil and properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers
Decree No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-
committees started preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code requirements for Design Loads for Buildings and Structures
(SBC 301) were developed based on the standards of the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE). The American Society of Civil Engineers, through its Structural Engineering
Institute (ASCE/SEI), grants permission to the SBCNC to utilize as reference ASCE 7-02 and
ASCE 7-05 in the SBC and to include within the SBC provisions and materials from ASCE 7-
02 and ASCE 7-05 modified by SBCNC. ASCE/SEI is not responsible for any modifications
or changes that SBCNC has made to the provisions to accommodate local conditions.
The development process of SBC 301 followed the methodology approved by the
Saudi Building Code National Committee. Many changes and modifications were made and
the most important one was adding the seismic contour maps for Saudi Arabia and some parts
and items relating to seismic design outside the intensity of the seismic belt of the Kingdom
have been deleted. Only SI Units were used through out the Code.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL
1.1 Scope
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Construction Documents
1.4 Basic Requirements
1.5 General Structural Integrity
1.6 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures
1.7 Additions and Alterations to Existing Structures
1.8 Load Tests
1.9 Anchorage
REFERENCED STANDARDS
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
1.1.0 The Saudi Building Code for Loading referred to as SBC 301 provides minimum
load requirements for the design of buildings and other structures. Loads and
appropriate load combinations, which have been developed to be used together,
are set forth for strength design and allowable stress design. For design strengths
and allowable stress limits, design specifications for conventional structural
materials used in buildings and modifications contained in SBC 301 shall be
followed.
SECTION 1.2
DEFINITIONS
1.2.0 The following definitions apply to the provisions of the entire SBC 301.
Design Strength. The product of the nominal strength and a resistance factor.
Essential Facilities. Buildings and other structures that are intended to remain
operational in the event of extreme environmental loading from wind, or
earthquakes.
Factored Load. The product of the nominal load and a load factor.
Limit State. A condition beyond which a structure or member becomes unfit for
service and is judged either to be no longer useful for its intended function
(serviceability limit state) or to be unsafe (strength limit state).
Load Factor. A factor that accounts for deviations of the actual load from the
nominal load, for uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a load
effect, and for the probability that more than one extreme load will occur
simultaneously.
Loads. Forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movement, and
restrained dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which
variations over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable
loads. (see also nominal loads.)
Occupancy. The purpose for which a building or other structure, or part thereof, is
used or intended to be used.
Other Structures. Structures, other than buildings, for which loads are specified
in this code.
P-Delta Effect. The second-order effect on shears and moments of frame members
induced by axial loads on a laterally displaced building frame.
Resistance Factor. A factor that accounts for deviations of the actual strength
from the nominal strength and the manner and consequences of failure (also called
strength reduction factor).
SECTION 1.3
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
1.3.1 General. Construction documents shall show the size, section and relative
locations of structural members with floor levels, column centers and offsets fully
dimensioned. The design loads and other information pertinent to the structural
design required by Sections 1.3.1.1 through 1.3.1.7 shall be clearly indicated on
the construction documents for parts of the building or structure.
1.3.1.1 Floor Live Load. The uniformly distributed, concentrated and impact floor live
load used in the design shall be indicated for floor areas. Live load reduction of the
uniformly distributed floor live loads, if used in the design, shall be indicated.
1.3.1.2 Roof Live Load. The roof live load used in the design shall be indicated for roof
areas (Section 4.9).
1.3.1.3 Wind Design Data. The following information related to wind loads shall be
shown, regardless of whether wind loads govern the design of the lateral-force-
resisting system of the building:
1. Basic wind speed (3-second gust), km/hr.
2. Wind importance factor, I, and building category.
3. Wind exposure, if more than one wind exposure is utilized, the wind
exposure and applicable wind direction shall be indicated.
4. The applicable internal pressure coefficient.
5. Components and cladding. The design wind pressures in terms of kN/m2
to be used for the design of exterior component and cladding materials not
specifically designed by the registered design professional.
1.3.1.4 Earthquake Design Data. The following information related to seismic loads shall
be shown, regardless of whether seismic loads govern the design of the lateral-
force-resisting system of the building:
1. Seismic Occupancy importance factor, I.
2. Mapped spectral response accelerations SS and S1.
3. Site class.
4. Design spectral response accelerations SDS and SD1.
5. Seismic design category.
6. Basic seismic-force-resisting system(s).
7. Design base shear.
8. Seismic response coefficient(s), CS.
9. Response modification factor(s), R.
10. Analysis procedure used.
1.3.1.5 Flood Load. For buildings located in flood hazard areas as established in Section
5.3, the following information shall be shown, regardless of whether flood loads
govern the design of the building:
1. In flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action, the
elevation of proposed lowest floor, including basement.
2. In flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action, the
elevation to which any nonresidential building will be dry flood-proofed.
3. In flood hazard areas subject to high-velocity wave action, the proposed
elevation of the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member of the
lowest floor, including basement.
1.3.1.6 Special Loads. Special loads that are applicable to the design of the building,
structure or portions thereof shall be indicated along with the specified section of
this code that addresses the special loading condition.
1.3.1.7 System and Components Requiring Special Inspections for Seismic Resistance.
Construction documents or specifications shall be prepared for those systems and
components requiring special inspection for seismic resistance as specified in SBC
302 by the registered design professional responsible for their design and shall be
submitted for approval in accordance with SBC administrative code. Reference to
seismic provisions in lieu of detailed drawings is acceptable.
1.3.3 Live Loads Posted. Where the live loads for which each floor or portion thereof
of a commercial or industrial building is or has been designed to exceed 2.50
kN/m2, such design live loads shall be conspicuously posted by the owner in that
part of each story in which they apply, using durable signs. It shall be unlawful to
remove or deface such notices.
1.3.4 Occupancy Permits for Changed Loads. Construction documents for other than
residential buildings filed with the building official with applications for permits
shall show on each drawing the live loads per square meter (m2) of area covered
for which the building is designed. Occupancy permits for buildings hereafter
erected shall not be issued until the floor load signs, required by Section 1.3.3,
have been installed.
SECTION 1.4
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
1.4.1 General. Building, structures and parts thereof shall be designed and constructed
in accordance with strength design, load and resistance factor design, allowable
stress design, empirical design or conventional construction methods, as permitted
by the applicable material chapters.
1.4.2 Strength. Buildings and other structures, and all parts thereof, shall be designed
and constructed to support safely the factored loads in load combinations defined
in this document without exceeding the appropriate strength limit states for the
materials of construction. Alternatively, buildings and other structures, and all
parts thereof, shall be designed and constructed to support safely the nominal loads
in load combinations defined in this document without exceeding the appropriate
specified allowable stresses for the materials of construction.
Loads and forces for occupancies or uses not covered in this chapter shall be
subject to the approval of the building official.
1.4.3 Serviceability. Structural systems, and members thereof, shall be designed to have
adequate stiffness to limit deflections, lateral drift, vibration, or any other
deformations that adversely affect the intended use and performance of buildings
and other structures. See Section 10.12 for drift limits applicable to earthquake
loading.
1.4.3.1 Deflections. The deflections of structural members shall not exceed the more
restrictive of the limitations of Sections 1.4.3.2 through 1.4.3.4 or that permitted by
Table 1.4-1.
Construction L We D+Lf
Roof membersd
Supporting plaster ceiling l/360 l/360 l/240
Supporting nonplaster ceiling l/240 l/240 l/180
Not supporting ceiling l/180 l/180 l/120
Floor members l/360 − l/240
Exterior walls and interior
partitions:
With brittle finishes − l/240 −
With flexible finishes − l/120 −
Farm buildings − − l/180
Greenhouses − − l/120
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total load deflection shall not exceed
l/60. For secondary roof structural members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection
shall not exceed l/150. For secondary wall members supporting formed metal siding, the design wind
load deflection shall not exceed l/90. For roofs, this exception only applies when the metal sheets have
no roof covering.
b. Interior partitions not exceeding 1.8 m in height and flexible, folding and portable partitions are not
governed by the provisions of this section. The deflection criterion for interior partitions is based on the
horizontal load defined in Section 4.11.
c. See SBC 201 for glass supports.
d. The above deflections do not ensure against ponding. Roofs that do not have sufficient slope or camber
to assure adequate drainage shall be investigated for ponding. See Chapter 8 for rain and ponding
requirements and SBC 201 for roof drainage requirements.
e. The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “component and cladding” loads for the purpose
of determining deflection limits herein.
f. For steel structural members, the dead load shall be taken as zero.
g. For cantilever members, l shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever.
The total lateral force shall be distributed to the various vertical elements of the
lateral-force-resisting system in proportion to their rigidities considering the
rigidity of the horizontal bracing system or diaphragm. Rigid elements that are
assumed not to be a part of the lateral-force-resisting system shall be permitted to
be incorporated into buildings provided that their effect on the action of the system
is considered and provided for in design. Provisions shall be made for the
increased forces induced on resisting elements of the structural system resulting
SBC 301 2007 1/5
GENERAL
from torsion due to eccentricity between the center of application of the lateral
forces and the center of rigidity of the lateral-force-resisting system.
1.4.5 Counteracting Structural Actions. All structural members and systems, and all
components and cladding in a building or other structure, shall be designed to
resist forces due to earthquake, wind, soil and hydrostatic pressure and flood loads,
with consideration of overturning, sliding, and uplift, and continuous load paths
shall be provided for transmitting these forces to the foundation. Where sliding is
used to isolate the elements, the effects of friction between sliding elements shall
be included as a force. Where all or a portion of the resistance to these forces is
provided by dead load, the dead load shall be taken as the minimum dead load
likely to be in place during the event causing the considered forces. Consideration
shall be given to the effects of vertical and horizontal deflections resulting from
such forces.
1.4.6 Self-straining Forces. Provision shall be made for anticipated self-straining forces
arising from differential settlements of foundations and from restrained
dimensional changes due to temperature, moisture, shrinkage, creep, and similar
effects.
SECTION 1.5
GENERAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
1.5.0 Buildings and other structures shall be designed to sustain local damage with the
structural system as a whole remaining stable and not being damaged to an extent
disproportionate to the original local damage. This shall be achieved through an
arrangement of the structural elements that provides stability to the entire
structural system by transferring loads from any locally damaged region to
adjacent regions capable of resisting those loads without collapse. This shall be
accomplished by providing sufficient continuity, redundancy, or energy-
dissipating capacity (ductility), or a combination thereof, in the members of the
structure.
SECTION 1.6
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES
1.6.1 Nature of Occupancy. Buildings and other structures shall be classified, based on
the nature of occupancy, according to Table 1.6-1 for the purposes of applying
flood, wind, and earthquake provisions. The categories range from I to IV, where
Category I represents buildings and other structures with a low hazard to human
life in the event of failure and Category IV represents essential facilities. Each
building or other structure shall be assigned to the highest applicable category or
categories. Assignment of the same structure to multiple categories based on use
and the type of load condition being evaluated (e.g., wind, seismic, etc.) shall be
permissible.
1.6.2 Hazardous Materials and Extremely Hazardous Materials. Buildings and other
structures containing hazardous materials or extremely hazardous materials are
permitted to be classified as Category II structures if it can be demonstrated to the
satisfaction of the authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as part of
an overall risk management plan (RMP) that a release of the hazardous material or
extremely hazardous material does not pose a threat to the public.
In order to qualify for this reduced classification, the owner or operator of the
buildings or other structures containing the hazardous materials or extremely
hazardous materials shall have a risk management plan that incorporates three
elements as a minimum: a hazard assessment, a prevention program, and an
emergency response plan.
As a minimum, the hazard assessment shall include the preparation and reporting
of worst-case release scenarios for each structure under consideration, showing the
potential effect on the public for each. As a minimum, the worst-case event shall
include the complete failure (instantaneous release of entire contents) of a vessel,
piping system, or other storage structure. A worst-case event includes (but is not
limited to) a release during the design wind or design seismic event. In this
assessment, the evaluation of the effectiveness of subsequent measures for
accident mitigation shall be based on the assumption that the complete failure of
the primary storage structure has occurred. The off-site impact must be defined in
terms of population within the potentially affected area. In order to qualify for the
reduced classification, the hazard assessment shall demonstrate that a release of
the hazardous material from a worst-case event does not pose a threat to the public
outside the property boundary of the facility.
SECTION 1.7
ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS TO EXISTING STRUCTURES
design strength for the materials of construction. When using allowable stress
design, strengthening is required when the stresses due to nominal loads exceed
the specified allowable stresses for the materials of construction.
SECTION 1.8
LOAD TESTS
1.8.1 In-situ Load Tests. The building official is authorized to require an engineering
analysis or a load test, or both, of any construction whenever there is reason to
question the safety of the construction for the intended occupancy or use.
Engineering analysis and load tests shall be conducted in accordance with SBC
302.
1.8.2 Preconstruction Load Tests. Materials and methods of construction that are not
capable of being designed by approved engineering analysis or that do not comply
with the specified material design standards or alternative test procedures in
accordance with SBC 302, shall be load tested in accordance with SBC 302.
SECTION 1.9
ANCHORAGE
1.9.1 General. Anchorage of the roof to walls and columns, and of walls and columns to
foundations, shall be provided to resist the uplift and sliding forces that result from
the application of the prescribed loads.
1.9.2 Concrete and Masonry Walls. Concrete and masonry walls shall be anchored to
floors, roofs and other structural elements that provide lateral support for the wall.
Such anchorage shall provide a positive direct connection capable of resisting the
horizontal forces specified in this chapter but not less than a minimum strength
design horizontal force of 4.0 KN/m of wall, substituted for “E” in the load
combinations of Section 2.3 or 2.4. Walls shall be designed to resist bending
between anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 1.2 m. Required anchors in
masonry-walls of hollow-units or cavity-walls shall be embedded in a reinforced
grouted structural element of the wall. See Sections 7.1 and 10.11 for wind and
earthquake design requirements.
TABLE 1.6-1:
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES FOR
FLOOD, WIND AND EARTHQUAKE LOADS
1) Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of III
failure including, but not limited to:
a) Buildings and other structures where more than 300 people congregate in one area
b) Buildings and other structures with day care facilities with capacity greater than 150
c) Buildings and other structures with elementary school or secondary school facilities with
capacity greater than 250
d) Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater than 500 for colleges or adult education
facilities
e) Health care facilities with a capacity of 50 or more resident patients but not having surgery or
emergency treatment facilities
f) Jails and detention facilities
g) Power generating stations and other public utility facilities not included in Category IV
2) Buildings and other structures not included in Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities
that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels,
hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing sufficient quantities of hazardous
materials to be dangerous to the public if released.
3) Buildings and other structures containing hazardous materials shall be eligible for classification as
Category II structures if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority having
jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as described in Section 1.6.2 that a release of the hazardous
material does not pose a threat to the public.
1) Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities including, but not limited to: IV
a) Hospitals and other health care facilities having surgery or emergency treatment facilities
b) Fire, rescue, ambulance, and police stations and emergency vehicle garages
c) Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters
d) Designated emergency preparedness, communication, and operation centers and other facilities
required for emergency response
e) Power generating stations and other public utility facilities required in an emergency
f) Ancillary structures (including, but not limited to, communication towers, fuel storage tanks,
cooling towers, electrical substation structures, fire water storage tanks or other structures
housing or supporting water, or other fire-suppression material or equipment) required for
operation of Category IV structures during an emergency
g) Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers, and emergency aircraft hangars
h) Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire
suppression
i) Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions
2) Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process,
handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous
waste, or explosives) containing extremely hazardous materials where the quantity of the material
exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction.
3) Buildings and other structures containing extremely hazardous materials shall be eligible for
classification as Category II structures if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority
having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as described in Section 1.6.2 that a release of the
extremely hazardous material does not pose a threat to the public. This reduced classification shall
not be permitted if the buildings or other structures also function as essential facilities.
CHAPTER 2
COMBINATION OF LOADS
SECTION 2.1
GENERAL
Buildings and other structures shall be designed using the provisions of either
Section 2.3 or 2.4. Either Section 2.3 or 2.4 shall be used exclusively for
proportioning elements of a particular construction material throughout the
structure.
SECTION 2.2
SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
D = dead load;
E = earthquake load;
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights;
Fa = flood load;
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, ground water pressure, or pressure of
bulk materials;
L = live load;
Lr = roof live load;
P = ponding load;
R = rain load;
T = self-straining force;
W = wind load;
SECTION 2.3
COMBINING FACTORED LOADS USING STRENGTH DESIGN
2.3.1 Applicability. The load combinations and load factors given in Section 2.3.2 shall
be used only in those cases in which they are specifically authorized by the
applicable material design standard.
Exceptions:
1. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in (Eq. 2.3.2-6) and (Eq.
2.3.2-7) if the structural action due to H counteracts that due to W or E.
Where lateral earth pressure provides resistance to structural actions from
other forces, it shall not be included in H but shall be included in the
design resistance.
2. For Concrete structures and Masonry construction (Eq. 2.3.2-2) shall be
1.4 (D + F + T) + 1.7 (L + H) + 0.5 (Lr or R)
Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated. Effects of one or more
loads not acting shall be investigated. The most unfavorable effects from both
wind and earthquake loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need
not be considered to act simultaneously. Refer to Section 9.3 for specific definition
of the earthquake load effect E.
SECTION 2.4
COMBINING NOMINAL LOADS USING
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
2.4.1 Basic Combinations. Loads listed herein shall be considered to act in the
following combinations; whichever produces the most unfavorable effect in the
building, foundation, or structural member being considered. Effects of one or
more loads not acting shall be considered.
Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or load combinations
given in this standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an increase is
justified by structural behavior caused by rate or duration of load.
2.4.2 Alternative basic load combinations. In lieu of the basic load combinations
specified in Section 2.4.1, and as required by SBC 303, structures and portions
thereof shall be permitted to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from
the following combinations. When using these alternate basic load combinations
that include wind or seismic loads, allowable stresses are permitted to be increased
or load combinations reduced, where permitted by the material section of this code
or referenced standard.
2.4.2.1 Other loads. Where F, H, P or T are to be considered in design, 1.0 times each
applicable load shall be added to the combinations specified in Section 2.4.2.
SECTION 2.5
SPECIAL SEISMIC LOAD COMBINATIONS
For both allowable stress design and strength design methods, where specifically
required by Chapters 9 through 16 or by SBC 303, SBC 304, SBC 305, and SBC
306 or Ref. 11.1-1, elements and components shall be designed to resist the forces
calculated using Equation 2.5-1 when the effects of the seismic ground motion are
additive to gravity forces and those calculated using Equation 2.5-2 when the
effects of the seismic ground motion counteract gravity forces.
where:
E = The maximum effect of horizontal and vertical forces as per section 10.4.1.
f1 = 1.0 for areas occupied as places of public assembly, for live loads in excess
of 5.0 kN/m2 and for parking garage live load.
f1 = 0.5 for other live loads.
SECTION 2.6
LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS
CHAPTER 3
DEAD LOADS
SECTION 3.1
DEFINITION
Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the
building including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in
partitions, finishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated architectural and
structural items, and fixed service equipment including the weight of cranes.
SECTION 3.2
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTIONS
In determining dead loads for purposes of design, the actual weights of materials and
constructions shall be used provided that in the absence of definite information,
values approved by the authority having jurisdiction shall be used. The minimum
design dead loads are shown in Table 3-1 and Table 3-1(a) and the minimum
densities for design loads from materials are shown in Table 3-2.
SECTION 3.3
WEIGHT OF FIXED SERVICE EQUIPMENT
In determining dead loads for purposes of design, the weight of fixed service
equipment such as plumbing stacks and risers, electrical feeders, heating, ventilating
and air conditioning systems (HVAC) and fire sprinkler systems shall be included.
Load Load
Component Component
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
COVERINGS, ROOF, AND WALL FLOORS AND FLOOR FINISHES
Asbestos-cement shingles 0.20 Asphalt block (50 mm), 13 mm mortar 1.45
Asphalt shingles 0.10 Cement finish (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.55
Cement tile 0.80 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 13 mm mortar 0.80
bed
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.50 kN/m2) Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 25 mm mortar 1.10
bed
Book tile, 50 mm 0.60 Concrete fill finish (per mm thickness) 0.023
Book tile, 75 mm 1.00 Hardwood flooring, 20 mm 0.20
Ludowici 0.50 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6 mm 0.05
Roman 0.60 Marble and mortar on stone-concrete fill 1.60
Spanish 0.90 Slate (per mm thickness) 0.03
Composition: Solid flat tile on 25 mm mortar base 1.10
Three-ply ready roofing 0.05 Subflooring, 20 mm 0.15
Four-ply felt and gravel 0.25 Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on slab 0.90
Five-ply felt and gravel 0.30 Terrazzo (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.55
Copper or tin 0.05 Terrazzo (25 mm), on 50 mm stone concrete 1.55
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 0.20 Wood block (75 mm) on mastic, no fill 0.50
Deck, metal, 20 gage 0.10 Wood block (75 mm) on 13 mm mortar base 0.80
Deck, metal, 18 gage 0.15 FRAME PARTITIONS
Decking, 50 mm wood (Douglas fir) 0.25 Movable steel partitions 0.20
Decking, 75 mm wood (Douglas fir) 0.40 Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum board each 0.40
side
Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.05 Wood studs, 50 x 100, unplastered 0.20
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm 0.10 Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered one side 0.60
Insulation, roof boards (per mm
thickness) Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered two sides 1.00
Cellular glass 0.0015 FRAME WALLS
Fibrous glass 0.002 Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 2.30
Fiberboard 0.003 Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.40
Perlite 0.0015 Clay brick wythes:
Polystyrene foam 0.0005 100 mm 1.90
Urethane foam with skin 0.001 200 mm 3.80
Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.006 300 mm 5.50
Rigid insulation, 13 mm 0.05 400 mm 7.50
Skylight, metal frame, 10 mm wire 0.40 CEILINGS
glass
Slate, 5 mm 0.35 Acoustical fiberboard 0.05
Slate, 6 mm 0.50 Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.01
Waterproofing membranes: Mechanical duct allowance 0.20
Bituminous, gravel-covered 0.30 Plaster on tile or concrete 0.25
Bituminous, smooth surface 0.10 Plaster on wood lath 0.40
Liquid applied 0.05 Suspended steel channel system 0.10
Single-ply, sheet 0.03 Suspended metal lath and cement plaster 0.75
Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) 0.006 Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster 0.50
Wood shingles 0.15 Wood furring suspension system 0.15
FLOOR FILL
Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017
Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015
Sand, per mm 0.015
Stone concrete, per mm 0.023
TABLE 3-1(a):
MINIMUM DESIGN DEAD LOADS*FOR
DIFFERENT THICKNESS OF MASONRY WALLS, (kN/m2)
TABLE 3-2:
MINIMUM DENSITIES FOR DESIGN LOADS FROM MATERIALS
Density Density
Material Material
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Aluminum 26.5 Earth (submerged)
Bituminous products Clay 12.5
Asphaltum 13.0 Soil 11.0
Graphite 21.0 River mud 14.0
Paraffin 9.0 Sand or gravel 9.5
Petroleum, crude 8.5 Sand or gravel and clay 10.0
Petroleum, refined 8.0 Glass 25.0
Petroleum, benzine 7.0 Gravel, dry 16.5
Petroleum, gasoline 6.5 Gypsum, loose 11.0
Pitch 11.0 Gypsum, wallboard 8.0
Tar 12.0 Ice 9.0
Brass 82.5 Iron
Bronze 87.0 Cast 71.0
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 23.0 Wrought 75.5
Cement, portland, loose 14.0 Lead 111.5
Ceramic tile 23.5 Lime
Charcoal 2.0 Hydrated, loose 5.0
Cinder fill 9.0 Hydrated, compacted 7.0
Cinders, dry, in bulk 7.0 Masonry, Ashlar stone
Coal Granite 26.0
Anthracite, piled 8.0 Limestone, crystalline 26.0
Bituminous, piled 7.5 Limestone, oolitic 21.0
Lignite, piled 7.5 Marble 27.0
Peat, dry, piled 3.5 Sandstone 23.0
Concrete, plain Masonry, brick
Cinder 17.0 Hard (low absorption) 20.5
Expanded-slag aggregate 16.0 Medium (medium absorption) 18.0
Haydite (burned-clay aggregate) 14.0 Soft (high absorption) 16.0
Slag 21.0 Masonry, concrete*
Stone (including gravel) 23.0 Lightweight units 16.5
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, non-load- 4.0-8.0 Medium weight units 19.5
bearing
Other light aggregate, load-bearing 11.0-16.5 Normal weight units 21.0
Concrete, reinforced Masonry grout 22.0
Cinder 17.5 Masonry, rubble stone
Slag 22.0 Granite 24.0
Stone (including gravel) 24.0 Limestone, crystalline 23.0
Copper 87.5 Limestone, oolitic 22.0
Cork, compressed 2.0 Marble 24.5
Earth (not submerged) Sandstone 21.5
Clay, dry 10.0 Mortar, cement or lime 20.5
Clay, damp 17.5 Particleboard 7.0
Clay and gravel, dry 16.0 Plywood 6.0
Silt, moist, loose 12.5 Riprap (Not submerged)
Silt, moist, packed 15.0 Limestone 13.0
Silt, flowing 17.0 Sandstone 14.0
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 16.0 Sand
Sand and gravel, dry, packed 17.5 Clean and dry 14.0
Sand and gravel, wet 19.0 River, dry 17.0
(continued)
TABLE 3-2:
MINIMUM DENSITIES FOR DESIGN LOADS FROM MATERIALS - continued
Density Density
Material Material
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Slag Tin 72.0
Bank 11.0 Water
Bank screenings 17.0 Fresh 10.0
Machine 15.0 Sea 10.0
Sand 8.0 Wood, seasoned
Slate 27.0 Ash, commercial white 6.5
Steel, cold-drawn 77.5 Cypress, southern 5.5
Stone, quarried, piled Fir, Douglas, coast region 5.5
Basalt, granite, gneiss 15.0 Hem fir 4.5
Limestone, marble, quartz 15.0 Oak, commercial reds and whites 7.5
Sandstone 13.0 Pine, southern yellow 6.0
Shale 14.5 Redwood 4.5
Greenstone, hornblende 17.0 Spruce, red, white, and Stika 4.5
Terra cotta, architectural Western hemlock 5.0
Voids filled 19.0 Zinc, rolled sheet 70.5
Voids unfilled 11.5
*Tabulated values apply to solid masonry and to the solid portion of hollow masonry.
CHAPTER 4
LIVE LOADS
SECTION 4.1
DEFINITION
Live loads are those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the building or
other structure and do not include construction or environmental loads such as
wind load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or dead load. Live loads on a
roof are those produced (1) during maintenance by workers, equipment, and
materials, and (2) during the life of the structure by movable objects such as
planters and by people.
SECTION 4.2
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
4.2.1 Required Live Loads. The live loads used in the design of buildings and other
structures shall be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy
but shall in no case be less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit loads
required by Table 4-1 and Table 4-2.
4.2.2 Provision for Partitions. In office buildings or other buildings where partitions
will be erected or rearranged partition weight shall be considered, whether or not
partitions are shown on the plans, unless the specified live load exceeds (4 kN/m2).
SECTION 4.3
CONCENTRATED LOADS
Floors and other similar surfaces shall be designed to support safely the uniformly
distributed live loads prescribed in Section 4.2 or the concentrated load, in
kilonewtons (kN), given in Table 4-1, whichever produces the greater load effects.
Unless otherwise specified, the indicated concentration shall be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over an area (750 mm x 750 mm) and shall be located so as
to produce the maximum load effects in the structural members.
Any single panel point of the lower chord of exposed roof trusses or any point
along the primary structural members supporting roofs over manufacturing,
commercial storage and warehousing, and commercial garage floors shall be
capable of carrying safely a suspended concentrated load of not less than 9.0 kN in
addition to dead load. For all other occupancies, a load of 0.9 kN shall be used
instead of 9.0 kN.
SECTION 4.4
LOADS ON HANDRAILS, GUARDRAIL SYSTEMS,
GRAB BAR SYSTEMS, VEHICLE BARRIER SYSTEMS,
AND FIXED LADDERS
4.4.1 Definitions.
Handrail. A rail grasped by hand for guidance and support. A handrail assembly
includes the handrail, sup-porting attachments, and structures.
Grab Bar System. A bar provided to support body weight in locations such as
toilets, showers, and tub enclosures.
4.4.2 Loads.
(a) Handrail assemblies and guardrail systems shall be designed to resist a load
of 0.75 kN/m applied in any direction at the top and to transfer this load
through the supports to the structure. For one- and two-family dwellings, the
minimum load shall be 0.3 kN/m.
Further, all handrail assemblies and guardrail systems shall be able to resist a
single concentrated load of 0.9 kN applied in any direction at any point along
the top, and have attachment devices and supporting structure to transfer this
loading to appropriate structural elements of the building. This load need not
be assumed to act concurrently with the loads specified in the preceding
paragraph.
Intermediate rails (all those except the handrail), balusters, and panel fillers
shall be designed to withstand a horizontally applied normal load of (0.2 kN)
on an area not to exceed (300 mm x 300 mm) including openings and space
between rails. Reactions due to this loading are not required to be
superimposed with those of either preceding paragraph.
(b) Grab bar systems shall be designed to resist a single concentrated load of
(1.1 kN) applied in any direction at any point.
(c) Vehicle barrier systems for passenger cars shall be designed to resist a single
load of (27.0 kN) applied horizontally in any direction to the barrier system,
and shall have anchorages or attachments capable of transferring this load to
the structure. For design of the system, the load shall be assumed to act at a
minimum height of (450 mm) above the floor or ramp surface on an area not
to exceed (300 mm x 300 mm), and is not required to be assumed to act
concurrently with any handrail or guardrail loadings specified in the
preceding paragraphs of Section 4.4.2. Garages accommodating trucks and
buses shall be designed in accordance with an approved method, which
contains provision for traffic railings.
(d) The minimum design live load on fixed ladders with rungs shall be a single
concentrated load of 1.5 kN, and shall be applied at any point to produce the
maximum load effect on the element being considered. The number and
position of additional concentrated live load units shall be a minimum of 1
unit of 1.5 kN for every 3 m of ladder height.
(e) Where rails of fixed ladders extend above a floor or platform at the top of the
ladder, each side rail extension shall be designed to resist a concentrated live
load of 0.5 kN in any direction at any height up to the top of the side rail
extension. Ship ladders with treads instead of rungs shall have minimum
design loads as stairs, defined in Table 4-1.
SECTION 4.5
LOADS NOT SPECIFIED
For occupancies or uses not designated in Section 4.2 or 4.3, the live load shall be
determined in accordance with a method approved by the building official.
SECTION 4.6
PARTIAL LOADING
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load applied only to a portion
of a structure or member shall be accounted for if it produces a more unfavorable
effect than the same intensity applied over the full structure or member.
SECTION 4.7
IMPACT LOADS
The live loads specified in Sections 4.2.1 and 4.4.2 shall be assumed to include
adequate allowance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be made in the
structural design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact
forces.
4.7.1 Elevators. All elevator loads shall be increased by 100% for impact and the
structural supports shall be designed within the limits of deflection prescribed by
Refs. 4-1 and 4-2.
4.7.2 Machinery. For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and moving loads
shall be increased as follows to allow for impact:
SECTION 4.8
REDUCTION IN LIVE LOADS
The minimum uniformly distributed live loads, Lo in Table 4-1, may be reduced
according to the following provisions.
4.8.1 General. Subject to the limitations of Sections 4.8.2 through 4.8.5, members for
which a value of KLLAT is 37.0 m2 or more are permitted to be designed for a
reduced live load in accordance with the following formula:
⎛ ⎞
L = Lo ⎜ 0.25 + ⎟
4.57
(Eq. 4-1)
⎜ K LL AT ⎟⎠
⎝
where
L = reduced design live load per square m of area supported by the member.
Lo = unreduced design live load per square m of area supported by the member
(see Table 4-1)
KLL = live load element factor (see Table 4-3).
AT = tributary area m2
L = shall not be less than 0.50L0 for members supporting one floor and L shall
not be less than 0.40L0 for members supporting two or more floors.
4.8.2 Heavy Live Loads. Live loads that exceed 5 kN/m2 shall not be reduced except
the live loads for members supporting two or more floors may be reduced by 20%.
4.8.3 Passenger Car Garages. The live loads shall not be reduced in passenger car
garages except the live loads for members supporting two or more floors may be
reduced by 20%.
4.8.4 Special Occupancies. Live loads of 5 kN/m2 or less shall not be reduced in public
assembly occupancies.
4.8.5 Limitations on One-Way Slabs. The tributary area, AT, for one-way slabs shall
not exceed an area defined by the slab span times a width normal to the span of 1.5
times the slab span.
SECTION 4.9
MINIMUM ROOF LIVE LOADS
4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs. Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs shall
be designed for the live loads specified in Eq. 4-2 or other controlling combina-
tions of loads as discussed in Chapter 2, whichever produces the greater load. In
structures such as greenhouses, where special scaffolding is used as a work surface
for workmen and materials during maintenance and repair operations, a lower roof
load than specified in Eq. 4-2 shall not be used unless approved by the authority
having jurisdiction.
Where:
Lr = roof live load/m2 of horizontal projection for a non accessible roof, kN/m2.
1 for At ≤ 18.0 m2
R1 = 1.2 - 0.0111 At for 18.0 m2 < At < 54 m2
0.6 for At ≥ 54 m2
where At = tributary area m2 supported by any structural member and
1 for F ≤ 4
R2 = 1.2 - 0.05 F for 4 < F < 12
0.6 for F ≥ 12
where, for a pitched roof, F = 0.12 x slope, with slope expressed in percentage
points and, for an arch or dome, F = rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32.
4.9.2 Special-Purpose Roofs. Roofs used for promenade purposes shall be designed for
a minimum live load of 3.0 kN/m2. Roofs used for roof gardens or assembly
purposes shall be designed for a minimum live load of 5 kN/m2. Roofs used for
other special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the
authority having jurisdiction.
4.9.3 Special Structural Elements. Live loads of 5 kN/m2 or less shall not be reduced
for roof members except as specified in Section 4.9.
SECTION 4.10
CRANE LOADS
The crane live load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. Design loads for the
runway beams, including connections and support brackets, of moving bridge
cranes and monorail cranes shall include the maximum wheel loads of the crane
and the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces induced by the moving
crane.
4.10.1 Maximum Wheel Load. The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads
produced by the weight of the bridge, as applicable, plus the sum of the rated
capacity and the weight of the trolley with the trolley positioned on its runway at
the location where the resulting load effect is maximum.
4.10.2 Vertical Impact Force. The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be increased
by the percentages shown below to determine the induced vertical impact or
vibration force:
4.10.3 Lateral Force. The lateral force on crane runway beams with electrically powered
trolleys shall be calculated as 20% of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane
and the weight of the hoist and trolley. The lateral force shall be assumed to act
horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction
perpendicular to the beam, and shall be distributed with due regard to the lateral
stiffness of the runway beam and supporting structure.
4.10.4 Longitudinal Force. The longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except for
bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges, shall be calculated as 10% of the
maximum wheel loads of the crane. The longitudinal force shall be assumed to act
horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam in either direction parallel to
the beam.
TABLE 4-1:
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS, Lo,
AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS
Uniform Conc.
Occupancy or Use
kN/m2 kN
Apartments (see residential)
Access floor systems
Office use 2.5 9
Computer use 5 9
Armories and drill rooms 7.5
Assembly areas and theaters
• Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 3
• Lobbies 5
• Movable seats 5
• Platforms (assembly) 5
• Stage floors 7.5
Balconies (exterior) 5
On one- and two-family residences only, and not exceeding 10 m2 3
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar recreational areas 4
Catwalks for maintenance access 2 1.5
Corridors
First floor 5
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Mosques 5
Decks (patio and roof)
Same as area served, or for the type of occupancy accommodated
Dining rooms and restaurants 5
Dwellings (see residential)
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2500 mm2) 1.5
Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 650 mm2) 1
Fire escapes 5
Fixed ladders See Section 4.4
Garages (passenger vehicles only) 2 Note (1)
Trucks and buses Note (2) Note (2)
Grandstands (see stadium and arena bleachers)
Gymnasiums, main floors, and balconies 5 Note (4)
Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars See Section 4.4
Hospitals
• Operating rooms, laboratories 3 4.5
• Private rooms 2 4.5
• Wards 2 4.5
• Corridors above first floor 4 4.5
Hotels (see residential)
Libraries
• Reading rooms 3 4.5
• Stack rooms 7.5 Note (3) 4.5
• Corridors above first floor 4 4.5
Manufacturing
• Light 6 9
• Heavy 12 13.5
Marquees and canopies 4
Office buildings
• File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based on
anticipated occupancy:
• Lobbies and first floor corridors 5 9
• Offices 2.5 9
• Corridors above first floor 4.0 9
Penal institutions
Cell blocks 2
Corridors 5
TABLE 4-1:
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS, Lo,
AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS – continued
Uniform Conc.
Occupancy or Use
kN/m2 kN
Residential
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Uninhabitable attics without storage 0.5
Uninhabitable attics with storage 1.0
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 1.5
All other areas except stairs and balconies 2.0
Hotels and multifamily houses
Private rooms and corridors serving them 2.0
Public rooms and corridors serving them 5.0
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 5.0 Note (4)
Roofs See Sections 4.3 and 4.9
Schools
Classrooms 3 4.5
Corridors above first floor 4 4.5
First floor corridors 5 4.5
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings 10
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking 12 36
Note (5) Note (6)
Stadiums and arenas
Bleachers 5 Note (4)
Fixed Seats (fastened to floor) 3 Note (4)
Stairs and exit-ways 5 Note (7)
One- and two-family residences only 2
Storage areas above ceilings 1
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for anticipated
storage)
Light 6
Heavy 12
Stores
Retail
First floor 5 4.5
Upper floors 4 4.5
Wholesale, all floors 6 4.5
Vehicle barriers See Section 4.4
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit-ways) 3
Yards and terraces, pedestrians 5
Notes
(1) Floors in garages or portions of building used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the
uniformly distributed live loads of Table 4-1 or the following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to
passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers, 13.0 kN acting on an area of 100 mm by 100
mm, footprint of a jack; (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck which are used for storing
passenger car only, 10 kN per wheel.
(2) Garages accommodating trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance with an approved method, which
contains provisions for truck and bus loadings.
(3) The loading applies to stack room floors that support nonmobile, double-faced library bookstacks subject to the
following limitations:
a. The nominal bookstack unit height shall not exceed 2300 mm;
b. The nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 300 mm for each face; and
c. Parallel rows of double-faced bookstacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 900 mm wide.
(4) In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying forces applied to each row of
the seats as follows: 0.4 kN/linear m of seat applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 0.15
kN/linear m of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row of seats. The parallel and perpendicular
horizontal swaying forces need not be applied simultaneously.
(5) Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck loadings, shall
also be considered where appropriate.
(6) The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area 100 mm by 100 mm, footprint of a jack.
(7) Minimum concentrated load on stair treads on area of 2500 mm2 is 1.5 kN.
SBC 301 2007 4/7
LIVE LOADS
SECTION 4.11
INTERIOR WALLS AND PARTITIONS
4.11.1 Interior walls and partitions that exceed 1.8 m in height, including their finish
materials, shall have adequate strength to resist the loads to which they are
subjected but not less than a horizontal load of 0.25kN/m2.
TABLE 4-3:
LIVE LOAD ELEMENT FACTOR, KLL
Element KLL
Interior Columns 4
Exterior Columns without cantilever slabs 4
Edge Columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner Columns with cantilever slabs 2
Edge Beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior Beams 2
All Other Members Not Identified Above including: 1
Edge Beams with cantilever slabs
Cantilever Beams
One-way Slabs
Two-way Slabs
Members without provisions for continuous shear transfer
normal to their span
CHAPTER 5
SOIL AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
AND FLOOD LOADS
SECTION 5.1
PRESSURE ON BASEMENT WALLS
Basement walls shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads specified in
Table 5-1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral soil loads unless specified
otherwise in a soil investigation report approved by the authority having
jurisdiction. The lateral pressure from surcharge loads shall be added to the lateral
earth pressure load. The lateral pressure shall be increased if soils with expansion
potential are present at the site as determined by a geotechnical investigation.
SECTION 5.2
UPLIFT ON FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 5.3
FLOOD LOADS
The provisions of this section apply to buildings and other structures located in
areas prone to flooding as defined on a flood hazard map as shown in Figure 5-1.
5.3.1 Definitions. The following definitions apply to the provisions of Section 5.3.
Base Flood. The flood having a 1% chance of being equaled or exceeded in any
given year.
Base Flood Elevation (BFE). The elevation of flooding, including wave height,
having a 1% chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year.
SBC 301 2007 5/1
.
SOLID AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLOOD LOADS
Breakaway Wall. Any type of wall subject to flooding that is not required to
provide structural support to a building or other structure, and that is designed and
constructed such that, under base flood or lesser flood conditions, it will collapse
in such a way that: (1) it allows the free passage of floodwaters, and (2) it does not
damage the structure or supporting foundation system.
Design Flood. The greater of the following two flood events: (1) the Base Flood,
affecting those areas identified as Special Flood Hazard Areas or (2) the flood
corresponding to the area designated as a Flood Hazard Area or otherwise legally
designated.
Design Flood Elevation (DFE). The elevation of the Design Flood, including
wave height, relative to the datum.
Flood Hazard Area. The area subject to flooding during the Design Flood.
Flood Hazard Map. The map delineating flood hazard areas adopted by the
authority having jurisdiction.
Special Flood Hazard Area (Area of Special Flood Hazard). The land in the
floodplain subject to a 1% or greater chance of flooding in any given year. These
areas are designated as A-Zones or V-Zones.
5.3.2.1 Design Loads. Structural systems of buildings or other structures shall be designed,
constructed, connected, and anchored to resist flotation, collapse, and permanent
lateral displacement due to action of flood loads associated with the design flood
(see Section 5.3.3) and other loads in accordance with the load combinations of
Chapter 2.
5.3.2.2 Erosion and Scour. The effects of erosion and scour shall be included in the
calculation of loads on buildings and other structures in flood hazard areas.
5.3.2.3 Loads on Breakaway Walls. Walls and partitions required by Ref. 5-1, to break
away, including their connections to the structure, shall be designed for the largest
of the following loads acting perpendicular to the plane of the wall:
1. The wind load specified in Chapters 6 and 7.
2. The earthquake load specified in Chapters 9 through 16.
3. 0.5kN/m2
The loading at which breakaway walls are intended to collapse shall not exceed
1.0 kN/m2 unless the design meets the following conditions:
5.3.3.1 Load Basis. In flood hazard areas, the structural design shall be based on the
design flood. The local flood elevation shall be determined by the authority having
jurisdiction.
5.3.3.2 Hydrostatic Loads. Hydrostatic loads caused by a depth of water to the level of
the design flood elevation shall be applied over all surfaces involved, both above
and below ground level, except that for surfaces exposed to free water, the design
depth shall be increased by 0.30 m.
Reduced uplift and lateral loads on surfaces of enclosed spaces below the design
flood elevation shall apply only if provision is made for entry and exit of
floodwater.
5.3.3.3 Hydrodynamic Loads. Dynamic effects of moving water shall be determined by a
detailed analysis utilizing basic concepts of fluid mechanics.
Regression equations for flood magnitude are presented below for the three
hydrologic regions of Saudi Arabia, as shown in Figure 5-2. The average velocity
of water V can be obtained by dividing the flood magnitude by the vertical cross
sectional area at where the flood is passing.
For Hydrologic Region 1:
Q50 = 14.40 A0.49472 (Eq. 5-1)
where
Q50 = Flood magnitude in cubic metres per second for 50 years recurrence
interval.
A = Drainage area in square kilometers.
E = Mean basin elevation in thousands of metres above mean sea level.
P = Mean annual precipitation in millimetres as per Table 5-2.
Exception: Where water velocities do not exceed 3.0 m/s, dynamic effects of
moving water shall be permitted to be converted into equivalent hydrostatic loads
by increasing the design flood elevation for design purposes by an equivalent
surcharge depth, dh, on the headwater side and above the ground level only, equal
SBC 301 2007 5/3
.
SOLID AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLOOD LOADS
to:
aV 2
dh = (Eq. 5-4)
2g
where
V = average velocity of water in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
a = coefficient of drag or shape factor (not less than 1.25)
The equivalent surcharge depth shall be added to the design flood elevation design
depth and the resultant hydrostatic pressures applied to, and uniformly distributed
across, the vertical projected area of the building or structure which is
perpendicular to the flow. Surfaces parallel to the flow or surfaces wetted by the
tailwater shall be subject to the hydro-static pressures for depths to the design
flood elevation only.
5.3.3.4 Wave Loads. Wave loads shall be determined by one of the following three
methods: (1) using the analytical procedures outlined in this section, (2) by more
advanced numerical modeling procedures or, (3) by laboratory test procedures
(physical modeling).
Wave loads are those loads that result from water waves propagating over the
water surface and striking a building or other structure. Design and construction of
buildings and other structures subject to wave loads shall account for the following
loads: waves breaking on any portion of the building or structure; uplift forces
caused by shoaling waves beneath a building or structure, or portion thereof; wave
run-up striking any portion of the building or structure; wave-induced drag and
inertia forces; wave-induced scour at the base of a building or structure, or its
foundation. Wave loads shall be included for both V-Zones and A-Zones. In V-
Zones, waves are (0.90 m) high, or higher; in coastal floodplains landward of the
V-Zone, waves are less than high (0.90 m).
Nonbreaking and broken wave loads shall be calculated using the procedures
described in Sections 5.3.3.2 and 5.3.3.3 to calculate hydrostatic and hydrody-
namic loads.
The local stillwater depth shall be calculated using Eq. 5-5, unless more advanced
procedures or laboratory tests permitted by this section are used.
where
BFE = Base Flood Elevation in m
G = Ground elevation in m
5.3.3.4.1 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Pilings and Columns. The net force resulting
from a breaking wave acting on a rigid vertical pile or column shall be assumed to
act at the stillwater elevation and shall be calculated by the following:
FD = 0.5 γ w CDD H b2 (Eq. 5-7)
where
FD = net wave force, in kN.
γ w = unit weight of water, in kN/m3, = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.05
kN/m3 for salt water.
CD = coefficient of drag for breaking waves, = 1.75 for round piles or
columns, and = 2.25 for square piles or columns.
D = pile or column diameter, in m for circular sections, or for a square pile
or column, 1.4 times the width of the pile or column in m.
Hb = breaking wave height, in m.
5.3.3.4.2 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls. Maximum pressures and net forces
resulting from a normally incident breaking wave (depth-limited in size, with Hb =
0.78 ds acting on a rigid vertical wall shall be calculated by the following:
Pmax = Cp γ w ds + 1.2 γ w ds (Eq. 5-8)
and
Ft = 1.1Cp γ w d s2 + 2.4 γ w d s2 (Eq. 5-9)
where
Pmax= maximum combined dynamic (Cp γ w ds) and static (1.2 γ w ds) wave
pressures, also referred to as shock pressures in kN/m2
Ft = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also referred to as
shock, impulse or wave impact force in kN/m, acting near the still-
water elevation
Cp = dynamic pressure coefficient (1.6 < Cp < 3.5) (see Table 5-3)
γ w = unit weight of water, in kN/m3, = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.05
kN/m3 for salt water
ds = stillwater depth in m at base of building or other structure where the
wave breaks.
This procedure assumes the vertical wall causes a reflected or standing wave
against the waterward side of the wall with the crest of the wave at a height of 1.2
ds above the stillwater level. Thus, the dynamic static and total pressure
distributions against the wall are as shown in Figure 5-3.
This procedure also assumes the space behind the vertical wall is dry, with no fluid
balancing the static component of the wave force on the outside of the wall. If free
SBC 301 2007 5/5
.
SOLID AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLOOD LOADS
water exists behind the wall, a portion of the hydrostatic component of the wave
pressure and force disappears (see Figure 5-4) and the net force shall be computed
by Eq. 5-10 (the maximum combined wave pressure is still computed with Eq. 5-
8).
Ft = 1.1 Cp γ w d s2 + 1.9 γ w d s2 (Eq. 5-10)
where
Ft = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also referred to as
shock, impulse, of wave impact force in kN/m, acting near the
stillwater elevation
Cp = dynamic pressure coefficient (1.6 < Cp < 3.5) (see Table 5-3)
γ w = unit weight of water, in kN/m3, = 9.80 kN/m3 for fresh water and 10.00
kN/m3 for salt water
ds = stillwater depth in m at base of building or other structure where the
wave breaks
5.3.3.4.3 Breaking Wave Loads on Nonvertical Walls. Breaking wave forces given by Eq.
5-9 and Eq. 5-10 shall be modified in instances where the walls or surfaces upon
which the breaking waves act are nonvertical. The horizontal component of
breaking wave force shall be given by:
Fnv = Ft sin2 α (Eq. 5-11)
where
Fnv = horizontal component of breaking wave force in kN/m
Ft = net breaking wave force acting on a vertical surface in kN/m
α = vertical angle between nonvertical surface and the horizontal
5.3.3.4.4 Breaking Wave Loads from Obliquely Incident Waves. Breaking wave forces
given by Eq. 5-9 and Eq. 5-10 shall be modified in instances where waves are
obliquely incident. Breaking wave forces from non-normally incident waves shall
be given by:
Foi = Ft sin2 α (Eq. 5-12)
where
Foi = horizontal component of obliquely incident breaking wave force in
kN/m
Ft = net breaking wave force (normally incident waves) acting on a vertical
surface in kN/m
α = horizontal angle between the direction of wave approach and the
vertical surface
5.3.3.4.5 Impact Loads. Impact loads are those that result from debris, and any object
transported by floodwaters striking against buildings and structures, or parts
thereof. Impact loads shall be determined using a rational approach as concentrated
loads acting horizontally at the most critical location at or below the design flood
elevation.
FIGURE 5-1
FLOOD HAZARD MAP
FIGURE 5-2
HYDROLOGIC REGIONS IN SAUDI ARABIA
FIGURE 5-3
NORMALLY INCIDENT BREAKING WAVE PRESSURES AGAINST A VERTICAL WALL (SPACE
BEHIND VERTICAL WALL IS DRY)
FIGURE 5-4
NORMALLY INCIDENT BREAKING WAVE PRESSURES AGAINST A VERTICAL WALL
(STILLWATER LEVEL EQUAL ON BOTH SIDES OF WALL)
TABLE 5-1:
DESIGN LATERAL SOIL LOAD
Design Lateral Soil
Unified Soil
Description of Backfill Material Load (Note A)
Classification
kN/m2/m of depth
Well-graded, clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GW 5.50 Note C
Poorly graded clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GP 5.50 Note C
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand mixes GM 5.50 Note C
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-and-clay mixes GC 7.0 Note C
Well-graded, clean sands; gravelly-sand mixes SW 5.50 Note C
Poorly graded clean sands; sand-gravel mixes SP 5.50 Note C
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixes SM 7.0 Note C
Sand-silt clay mix with plastic fines SM-SC 13.5 Note D
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixes SC 13.5 Note D
Inorganic silts and clayey silts ML 13.5 Note D
Mixture of inorganic silt and clay ML-CL 13.5 Note D
Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity CL 16
Organic silts and silt-clays, low plasticity OL Note B
Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts MH Note B
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH Note B
Organic clays and silty clays OH Note B
Note A. Design lateral soil loads are given for moist conditions for the specified soils at their optimum
densities. Actual field conditions shall govern. Submerged or saturated soil pressures shall include
the weight of the buoyant soil plus the hydrostatic loads.
Note B. Unsuitable as backfill material.
Note C. For relatively rigid walls, as when braced by floors, the design lateral soil load shall be increased
for sand and gravel type soils to 9.5 kN/m2 per metre of depth. Basement walls extending not more
than 2.5 m below grade and supporting light floor systems are not considered as being relatively
rigid walls.
Note D. For relatively rigid walls, as when braced by floors, the design lateral load shall be increased for silt
and clay type soils to 16 kN/m2 per metre of depth. Basement walls extending not more than 2.5 m
below grade and supporting light floor systems are not considered as being relatively rigid walls.
TABLE 5-2:
RAINFALL PRECIPITATION
Mean Annual Precipitation
City (Region)
'P' (mm)
Abha 330
Abqaiq 81
Abu Sa'fah **
Al-Baha 154
Al-Jauf 59
Ar'Ar' (Badana) 73
Berri 90
Dhahran 83
Duba (as Al-Wajih) 28
Hail 130
Rarad 40
Hawta 112
Hofuf 92
Jeddah 54
Jizan 120
Ju'aymah 89
Khamis Mushayt 220
Khurais 81
Medina **
Marjan **
Najran 64
Qasim 135
Qaisumah 121
Qatif 87
Rabigh 60
Ras Tanura 89
Riyadh 116
Safaniya 98
Shaybah 24
Shedgum 81
Tanajib 98
Tabuk 48
Turaif 78
Udhailiyah **
Uthmaniyah **
Yanbu 36
** Data Not Available
TABLE 5-3:
VALUE OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, Cp
Building Category Cp
I 1.6
II 2.8
III 3.2
IV 3.5
CHAPTER 6
WIND LOADS
SECTION 6.1
GENERAL
6.1.1 Scope. Buildings and other structures, including the main wind force-resisting
system and all components and cladding thereof, shall be designed and constructed
to resist wind loads as specified herein.
6.1.2 Allowed Procedures. The design wind loads for buildings and other structures,
including the main wind force-resisting system and component and cladding
elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the following procedures: (1)
Method 1 – Simplified Procedure as specified in Section 7.1 for buildings meeting
the requirements specified therein; (2) Method 2 – Analytical Procedure as
specified in Section 7.2 for buildings meeting the requirements specified therein;
(3) Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure according to Section 7.3.
6.1.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of Each Building Surface. In the
calculation of design wind loads for the main wind force-resisting system and for
components and cladding for buildings, the algebraic sum of the pressures acting
on opposite faces of each building surface shall be taken into account.
6.1.4 Minimum Design Wind Loading. The design wind load, determined by any one
of the procedures specified in Section 6.1.2, shall be not less than specified in this
Section.
SECTION 6.2
DEFINITIONS
Building, Enclosed. A building that does not comply with the requirements for
open or partially enclosed buildings.
SBC 301 2007 6/1
WIND LOADS
Building and Other Structure, Flexible. Slender buildings and other structures
that have a fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
Building, Low-Rise. Enclosed or partially enclosed buildings that comply with the
following conditions:
Building, Open. A building having each wall at least 80% open. This condition is
expressed for each wall by the equation Ao > 0.8Ag where
where
Ao, Ag are as defined for Open Building
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ao, in m2.
Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ag, in m2.
Components and Cladding. Elements of the building envelope that do not qualify
as part of the main wind force-resisting system.
Effective Wind Area. The area used to determine GCp. For component and
cladding elements, the effective wind area in Figures 7.2-7 through 7.2-13 is the
span length multiplied by an effective width that need not be less than one-third
the span length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater
than the area that is tributary to an individual fastener.
Importance Factor, I. A factor that accounts for the degree of hazard to human
life and damage to property.
Mean Roof Height, h. The average of the roof eave height and the height to the
highest point on the roof surface, except that, for roof angles of less than or equal
to 10 degrees, the mean roof height shall be the roof eave height.
Openings. Apertures or holes in the building envelope that allow air to flow
through the building envelope and that are designed as "open" during design winds
as defined by these provisions.
Recognized Literature. Published research findings and technical papers that are
approved.
SECTION 6.3
SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
The following symbols and notations apply only to the provisions of Chapters 6
and 7:
A = effective wind area, in m2;
Af = area of open buildings and other structures either normal to the
wind direction or projected on a plane normal to the wind
direction, in m2;
Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, in m2;
Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls
and roof) not including Ag, in m2;
Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure, in m2;
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls
and roof) not including Ao, in m2;
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope in m2;
a = width of pressure coefficient zone, in m;
B = horizontal dimension of building measured normal to wind
direction, in m;
b = mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 7.2-11 from Table 7.2-1;
b̂ = 3-second gust speed factor from Table 7.2-1;
Cf = force coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for
other structures;
Cp = external pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind
loads for buildings;
c = turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 7.2-2 from Table 7.2-1;
D = diameter of a circular structure or member, in m;
' = depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, in m;
D
G = gust effect factor;
Gf = gust effect factor for main wind force-resisting systems of flexible
buildings and other structures;
GCpn = combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet;
GCp = product of external pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be
used in determination of wind loads for buildings;
GCpf = product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust
effect factor to be used in determination of wind loads for main
wind force-resisting system of low-rise buildings;
GCpi = product of internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be
used in determination of wind loads for buildings;
gQ = peak factor for background response in Eqs. 7.2-1 and 7.2-5;
gR = peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 7.2-5;
gv = peak factor for wind response in Eqs. 7.2-1 and 7.2-5;
H = height of hill or escarpment in Figure 6.4-2, in m;
h = mean roof height of a building or height of other structure, except
that eave height shall be used for roof angle θ of less than or equal
to 10 degrees, in m;
I = importance factor;
Iz = intensity of turbulence from Eq. 7.2-2;
K1, K2, K3 = multipliers in Figure 6.4-2 to obtain Kzt;
Kd = wind directionality factor in Table 6.4-1;
Kh = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z = h;
SBC 301 2007 6/4
WIND LOADS
SECTION 6.4
BASIC WIND PARAMETERS
6.4.1 Basic Wind Speed. The basic wind speed, V, used in the determination of design
wind loads on buildings and other structures shall be taken as shown in Figure 6.4-
1 except as provided in Sections 6.4.1.1 and 6.4.1.2. The wind shall be assumed to
come from any horizontal direction.
6.4.1.1 Special Wind Regions. The basic wind speed shall be increased where records or
experience indicate that the wind speeds are higher than those reflected in Figure
6.4-1. Mountainous terrain, gorges, and special regions shall be examined for
unusual wind conditions. The authority having jurisdiction shall adjust basic wind
speed to account for higher local wind speeds. Such adjustment shall be based on
meteorological information and an estimate of the basic wind speed obtained in
accordance with the provisions of Section 6.4.1.2.
6.4.1.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from Regional Climatic Data. Regional
climatic data shall only be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds given in Figure 6.4-
1 when: (1) approved extreme-value statistical-analysis procedures have been
employed in reducing the data; and (2) the length of record, sampling error,
averaging time, anemometer height, data quality, and terrain exposure of the
anemometer have been taken into account.
6.4.1.3 Wind Directionality Factor. The wind directionality factor, Kd, shall be
determined from Table 6.4-1. This factor shall only be applied when used in
conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4.
6.4.2 Exposure. For each wind direction considered, an exposure category that
adequately reflects the characteristics of ground roughness and surface
irregularities shall be determined for the site at which the building or structure is to
be constructed. Account shall be taken of variations in ground surface roughness
that arises from natural topography and vegetation as well as constructed features.
6.4.2.1 Wind Directions and Sectors. For each selected wind direction at which the wind
loads are to be evaluated, the exposure of the building or structure shall be
determined for the two upwind sectors extending 45 degrees either side of the
selected wind direction. The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined in
accordance with Sections 6.4.2.2 and 6.4.2.3 and the exposure resulting in the
highest wind loads shall be used to represent the winds from that direction.
TABLE 6.4-1:
WIND DIRECTIONALITY FACTOR, Kd
Directionality
Structure Type
Factor Kd*
Buildings
Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85
Arched Roofs
0.85
Trussed Towers
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
All other cross sections 0.95
*Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads specified in Chapter 2. This
factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 2.3
and 2.4.
6.4.2.2 Surface Roughness Categories. A ground surface roughness within each 45-
degree sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site as defined in
Section 6.4.2.3 from the categories defined below, for the purpose of assigning an
exposure category as defined in Section 6.4.2.3.
Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas or other terrain
with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the
size of single-family dwellings or larger.
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
generally less than 10 m.
Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces.
6.4.2.3 Exposure Categories. Exposure B: Exposure B shall apply where the ground
surface roughness condition, as defined by Surface Roughness B, prevails in the
upwind direction for a distance of at least 800 m or 10 times the height of the
building, whichever is greater.
Exception: For buildings whose mean roof height is less than or equal to 10 m, the
upwind distance may be reduced to 450 m.
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where exposures B or D do not
apply.
For a site located in the transition zone between exposure categories, the category
resulting in the largest wind forces shall be used.
6.4.3.1 Wind Speed-Up over Hills, Ridges, and Escarpments. Wind speed-up effects at
isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments constituting abrupt changes in the general
topography, located in any exposure category, shall be included in the design when
buildings and other site conditions and locations of structures meet all of the
following conditions:
1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by
other similar topographic features of comparable height for 100 times
the height of the topographic feature (100 H) or 3 km, whichever is
less. This distance shall be measured horizontally from the point at
which the height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined;
2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind
terrain features within a 3 km radius in any quadrant by a factor of two
or more;
3. The structure is located as shown in Figure 6.4-2 in the upper half of a
hill or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment;
4. H/Lh ≥ 0.2; and
5. H is greater than or equal to 4.5m for Exposures C and D and 18 m for
Exposure B.
6.4.3.2 Topographic Factor. The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation
of design wind loads by using the factor Kzt:
SECTION 6.5
IMPORTANCE FACTOR
SECTION 6.6
ENCLOSURE CLASSIFICATIONS
6.6.1 General. For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all buildings
shall be classified as enclosed, partially enclosed, or open as defined in Section 6.2.
6.6.2 Openings.
A determination shall be made of the amount of openings in the building envelope in
order to determine the enclosure classification as defined in Section 6.6.1.
Regions Regions
Category1 with V = 136-160 with V > 160
km/h km/h
I 0.87 0.77
II 1.00 1.00
IV 1.15 1.15
Iraq
166
Turaif
Jordan 180
165 Ar'ar
Al Jouf
170
184
155 Tabouk
Qaisumah
Duba
190
152
Qaseem
Dhahran
Re
d 152
152
Jeddah
Taif 170
175 Sulayyll
Sea
Bisha
Khamis
Mushayt 152 152
155 Najran
Jizan
Yemen
FIGURE 6.4-1
BASIC 3-SECOND GUST WIND SPEED IN km/h FOR SELECTED CITIES OF SAUDI ARABIA.
ADOPTED FROM SAUDI ARAMCO DATA SAES A-112.
FIGURE 6.4-2
TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR, Kzt
Equations:
Kzt = (1 + K1 K2 K3)2
⎛ x ⎞
K 2 = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎟
⎝ µL h ⎠
K 3 = e − γz / L h
CHAPTER 7
DESIGN WIND LOAD
PROCEDURES
SECTION 7.1
METHOD 1 - SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
7.1.1 Scope. A building whose design wind loads are determined in accordance with
this Section shall meet all the conditions of Section 7.1.1.1 or 7.1.1.2. If a building
qualifies only under Section 7.1.1.2 for design of its components and cladding,
then its main wind force-resisting system shall be designed by Method 2.
7.1.2.1.1 Minimum Pressures. The load effects of the design wind pressures from Section
7.1.2.1 shall not be less than the minimum load case from Section 6.1.4.1
assuming the pressures, ps, for Zones A, B, C, and D all equal to +0.5 kN/m2,
while assuming Zones E, F, G, and H all equal to 0 kN/m2.
7.1.2.1.2 Pressures in Concrete Buildings. In reinforced concrete buildings the additional
edge pressure in Zones A, B, E, and F may be neglected and a uniform pressure as
computed for Zones C, D, G, and H can be taken across the entire width.
7.1.2.2 Components and Cladding. Net design wind pressures pnet, for the components
and cladding of buildings designed using Method 1 represent the net pressures
(sum of internal and external) to be applied normal to each building surface as
shown in Figure 7.1-2. pnet shall be determined by the following equation:
p net = λ I p net10 (Eq. 7.1-2)
Where
λ = adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figure 7.1-
2.
I = importance factor as defined in Section 6.5.
pnet10 = net design wind pressure for exposure B, at h = 10 m and for I = 1.0,
from Figure 7.1-2.
7.1.2.2.1 Minimum Pressures. The positive design wind pressures, pnet, from Section
7.1.2.2 shall not be less than +0.5 kN/m2, and the negative design wind pressures,
pnet, from 7.1.2.2 shall not be less than -0.5 kN/m2.
7.1.3 Air-Permeable Cladding. Design wind loads determined from Figure 7.1-2 shall
be used for all air-permeable cladding unless approved test data or recognized
SBC 301 2007 7/2
DESIGN WIND LOAD PROCEDURE
literature demonstrate lower loads for the type of air-permeable cladding being
considered.
SECTION 7.2
METHOD 2 – ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
7.2.1 Scope. A building or other structure whose design wind loads are determined in
accordance with this Section shall meet all of the following conditions:
7.2.2 Limitations. The provisions of Section 7.2 take into consideration the load
magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of
flexible buildings or other structures. Buildings or other structures not meeting the
requirements of Section 7.2.1, or having unusual shapes or response characteristics
shall be designed using recognized literature documenting such wind load effects
or shall use the wind tunnel procedure according to Section 7.3.
7.2.4.1 Buildings and Other Structures. For each wind direction considered, wind loads
for the design of the main wind force-resisting system (MWFRS) determined from
Figure 7.2-2 shall be based on the exposure categories defined in Section 6.4.2.3.
7.2.4.2 Low-Rise Buildings. Wind loads for the design of the main wind force-resisting
systems for low-rise buildings shall be determined using a velocity pressure qh
based on the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads for any wind direction at
the site when external pressure coefficients GCpf given in Figure 7.2-6 are used.
7.2.5.1 Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Less Than or Equal to 18 m. Components
and cladding for buildings with a mean roof height h of 18 m or less shall be
designed using a velocity pressure qh based on the exposure resulting in the highest
wind loads for any wind direction at the site.
7.2.5.2 Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Greater Than 18 m and Other Structures.
Components and cladding for buildings with a mean roof height h in excess of 18
m and for other structures shall be designed using the exposure resulting in the
highest wind loads for any wind direction at the site.
7.2.7.1 Rigid Structures. For rigid structures as defined in Section 6.2, the gust effect
factor shall be taken as 0.85 or calculated by the formula:
(
⎛ 1 + 1.7 g Q I z Q ) ⎞⎟
G = 0.925⎜⎜ ⎟ (Eq. 7.2-1)
⎝ 1 + 1.7 g v I z ⎠
I z = c(10 / z )1 / 6 (Eq. 7.2-2)
1
Q= 0.63
(Eq. 7.2-3)
⎛ B+h⎞
1 + 0.63⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Lz ⎠
where B, h are defined in Section 6.3; and L z = the integral length scale of
turbulence at the equivalent height given by
⎛⎛ ⎞⎞
⎜ ⎜ 1 + 1 .7 I z g Q Q + g R R
2 2 2 2
⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠⎟
G f = 0.925⎜ (Eq. 7.2-5)
⎜ 1 + 1 .7 g v I z ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
gQ and gv shall be taken as 3.4 and gR is given by
g R = 2 ln (3600 n1 ) +
0.577
(Eq. 7.2-6)
2 ln (3600 n1 )
R n R h R B (0.53 + 0.47 Rl )
1
R= (Eq. 7.2-7)
β
7.47 N 1
Rn = (Eq. 7.2-8)
(1 + 10.3 N1 )5 / 3
n1 L z
N1 = (Eq. 7.2-9)
Vz
Rl =
1
η
−
1
(1 − e η )
−2
for η > 0 (Eq. 7.2-10a)
2η 2
where the subscript l in Eq. 7.2-10a and Eq. 7.2-10b shall be taken as h, B, and L
respectively.
Rl = RB setting η = 4.6 n1 B / V z ;
Rl = RL setting η = 15.4 n1 L / V z ;
β = damping ratio, percent of critical h, B, L are defined in Section 6.3; and
α
⎛ z ⎞ 1
Vz = b ⎜ ⎟ V ( ) (Eq. 7.2-11)
⎝ 10 ⎠ 3.6
where b and α are constants listed in Table 7.2-1 and V is the basic wind speed in
km/h.
7.2.7.3 Limitations Where combined gust effect factors and pressure coefficients (GCp,
GCpi, GCpf) are given in figures and tables, the gust effect factor shall not be
determined separately.
7.2.9.2.1 Main Wind Force-Resisting Systems. External pressure coefficients for main
wind force resisting systems Cp, are given in Figures 7.2-2, 7.2-3, and 7.2-4.
Combined gust effect factor and external pressure coefficients, GCpf, are given in
Figure 7.2-6 for low-rise buildings. The pressure coefficient values and gust effect
factor in Figure 7.2-6 shall not be separated.
7.2.9.2.2 Components and Cladding. Combined gust effect factor and external pressure
coefficients for components and cladding GCp, are given in Figures 7.2-7 through
7.2-13. The pressure coefficient values and gust effect factor shall not be separated.
7.2.9.3 Force Coefficients.
7.2.9.4.1 Main Wind Force-Resisting System. Roof overhangs shall be designed for a
positive pressure on the bottom surface of windward roof overhangs corresponding
to Cp = 0.8 in combination with the pressures determined from using Figures 7.2-2
and 7.2-6.
7.2.9.4.2 Components and Cladding. For all buildings, roof overhangs shall be designed
for pressures determined from pressure coefficients given in Figure 7.2-7 B, C, and
D.
7.2.9.5 Parapets.
7.2.9.5.1 Main Wind Force-Resisting System. The pressure coefficients for the effect of
parapets on the MWFRS loads are given in Section 7.2.10.2.4
7.2.9.5.2 Components and Cladding. The pressure coefficients for the design of parapet
component and cladding elements are taken from the wall and roof pressure
coefficients as specified in Section 7.2.10.4.4.
7.2.10.1 General.
7.2.10.1.1 Sign Convention. Positive pressure acts toward the surface and negative pressure
acts away from the surface.
7.2.10.1.2 Critical Load Condition. Values of external and internal pressures shall be
combined algebraically to determine the most critical load.
7.2.10.1.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 65 m2. Component and cladding elements with
tributary areas greater than 65 m2 shall be permitted to be designed using the
provisions for main wind force resisting systems.
7.2.10.2.3 Flexible Buildings. Design wind pressures for the main wind force-resisting
system of flexible buildings shall be determined from the following equation:
p = qGf Cp – qi (GCpi) (kN/m2) (Eq. 7.2-16)
where q, qi, Cp and (GCpi) are as defined in Section 7.2.10.2.1 and, Gf = gust effect
factor defined in Section 7.2.7.2
7.2.10.2.4 Parapets. The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on main wind force-
resisting systems of rigid, low-rise or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip
roofs shall be determined by the following equation:
pp = qpGCpn (kN/m2) (Eq. 7.2-17)
where
pp = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of the
net pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus (and
SBC 301 2007 7/8
DESIGN WIND LOAD PROCEDURE
minus) signs signify net pressure acting toward (and away from) the
front (exterior) side of the parapet.
qp = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet.
GCpn = combined net pressure coefficient
= +1.8 for windward parapet
= -1.1 for leeward parapet
7.2.10.3 Design Wind Load Cases. The main wind force-resisting system of buildings of
all heights, whose wind loads have been determined under the provisions of
Sections 7.2.10.2.1 and 7.2.10.2.3, shall be designed for the wind load cases as
defined in Figure 7.2-5. The eccentricity e for rigid structures shall be measured
from the geometric center of the building face and shall be considered for each
principal axis (ex, ey). The eccentricity e for flexible structures shall be determined
from the following equation and shall be considered for each principal axis (ex, ey):
eQ + 1.7 I z (g Q QeQ )2 + (g R Re R )2
e= (Eq. 7.2-18)
1.7 I z (g Q Q )2 + (g R R )2
where
eQ = eccentricity e as determined for rigid structures in Figure 7.2-5
eR = distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass of each floor
I z , gQ, Q, gR, R shall be as defined in Section 7.2.7
The sign of the eccentricity e shall be plus or minus, whichever causes the more
severe load effect.
Exception: One-story buildings with h less than or equal to 10m, buildings two
stories or less framed with light-framed construction and buildings two stories or
less designed with flexible diaphragms need only be designed for Load Case 1 and
Load Case 3 in Figure 7.2-5.
7.2.10.4 Components and Cladding.
7.2.10.4.1 Low-Rise Buildings And Buildings with h < 18m. Design wind pressures on
component and cladding elements of low-rise buildings and buildings with h≤18 m
shall be determined from the following equation:
where
q = qz for windward walls calculated at height z above the ground;
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated at height h;
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of
enclosed buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in
partially enclosed buildings; and
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings where height z is defined as the level of the highest
opening in the building that could affect the positive internal
pressure. For positive internal pressure evaluation, qi may
conservatively be evaluated at height h (qi = qh);
(GCp) = external pressure coefficient from Figure 7.2-13;
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient from Figure 7.2-1.
q and qi = shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Section 6.4.2.3.
7.2.10.4.3 Alternative Design Wind Pressure for Components and Cladding in Buildings
with 18m < h < 27m.
Alternative to the requirements of Section 7.2.10.4.2, the design of components
and claddings for building with a mean roof height greater than 18 m and less than
27 m, values from Figures 7.2-7 through 7.2-12 shall be used only if the height to
width ratio is one or less (except as permitted by Note 6 of Figure 7.2-13) and Eq.
7.2-19 is used.
7.2.10.4.4 Parapets. The design wind pressure on the components and cladding elements of
parapets shall be designed by the following equation:
7.2.11 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings and Other Structures. The design wind
force for open buildings and other structures shall be determined by the following
formula:
where
qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z of the centroid of area Af using
exposure defined in Section 6.4.2.3;
G = gust effect factor from Section 7.2.7;
Cf = net force coefficients from Figures 7.2-14 through 7.2-18; and
Af = projected area normal to the wind except where Cf is specified for the
actual surface area, m2.
SECTION 7.3
METHOD 3 – WIND-TUNNEL PROCEDURE
7.3.1 Scope. Wind-tunnel tests shall be used where required by Section 7.2.2. Wind-
tunnel testing shall be permitted in lieu of Methods 1 and 2 for any building or
structure.
7.3.2 Test Conditions. Wind-tunnel tests, or similar tests employing fluids other than
air, used for the determination of design wind loads for any building or other
structure, shall be conducted in accordance with this section. Tests for the
determination of mean and fluctuating forces and pressures shall meet all of the
following conditions:
1. the natural atmospheric boundary layer has been modeled to account for the
variation of wind speed with height;
2. the relevant macro (integral) length and micro length scales of the
longitudinal component of atmospheric turbulence are modeled to
approximately the same scale as that used to model the building or structure;
3. the modeled building or other structure and surrounding structures and
topography are geometrically similar to their full-scale counterparts, except
that, for low-rise buildings meeting the requirements of Section 7.2.1, tests
shall be permitted for the modeled building in a single exposure site as
defined in Section 6.4.2.1;
4. the projected area of the modeled building or other structure and
surroundings is less than 8% of the test section cross-sectional area unless
correction is made for blockage;
5. the longitudinal pressure gradient in the wind-tunnel test section is accounted
for;
6. Reynolds number effects on pressures and forces are minimized; and
7. response characteristics of the wind-tunnel instrumentation are consistent
with the required measurements.
7.3.3 Dynamic Response. Tests for the purpose of deter- mining the dynamic response
of a building or other structure shall be in accordance with Section 7.3.2. The
structural model and associated analysis shall account for mass distribution,
stiffness, and damping.
7.3.4 Limitations.
7.3.4.1 Limitations on Wind Speeds. Variation of basic wind speeds with direction shall
not be permitted unless the analysis for wind speeds conforms to the requirements
of Section 6.4.1.2.
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied to the horizontal and vertical projections, for exposure B, at h= 10 m, for I=1.0.
Adjust to other exposures and heights with adjustment factor λ .
2. The load patterns shown shall be applied to each corner of the building in turn as the reference corner. (See Figure
7.2-6)
3. For the design of the longitudinal MWFRS use θ = 0°, and locate the zone E/F, G/H boundary at the mid-length of
the building.
4. Load cases 1 and 2 must be checked for 25°< θ ≤ 45°. Load case 2 at 25° is provided only for interpolation
between 25° to 30°.
5. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the projected surfaces, respectively.
6. For roof slopes other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
7. The total horizontal load shall not be less than that determined by assuming ps= 0 in zones B & D.
8. The zone pressures represent the following:
Horizontal pressure zones - Sum of the windward and leeward net (sum of internal and external) pressures on vertical
projection of:
A - End zone of wall C - Interior zone of wall
B - End zone of roof D - Interior zone of roof
Vertical pressure zones - Net (sum of internal and external) pressures on horizontal projection of:
E - End zone of windward roof G - Interior zone of windward roof
F - End zone of leeward roof H - Interior zone of leeward roof
9. Where zone E or G falls on a roof overhang on the windward side of the building, use EOH and GOH for the
pressure on the horizontal projection of the overhang. Overhangs on the leeward and side edges shall have the
basic zone pressure applied.
10. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least
horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
FOR BUILDING HEIGHT AND EXPOSURE, λ
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied normal to the surface, for exposure B, at h= 10m, for I=1.0. Adjust to other exposures and
heights with adjustment factor λ
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
4. For effective wind areas between those given, value may be interpolated, otherwise use the value associated
with the lower effective wind area.
5. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least
horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
1 10 0.20 -0.57 0.23 -0.64 0.28 -0.79 0.34 -0.95 0.40 -1.13 0.47 -1.33
2 1 0.25 -1.04 0.28 -1.17 0.35 -1.45 0.43 -1.75 0.50 -2.08 0.59 -2.44
2 2 0.24 -0.93 0.27 -1.04 0.33 -1.29 0.40 -1.56 0.47 -1.86 0.56 -2.18
2 5 0.22 -0.79 0.24 -0.88 0.30 -1.09 0.36 -1.32 0.43 -1.57 0.51 -1.84
2 10 0.20 -0.68 0.23 -0.76 0.28 -0.93 0.34 -1.13 0.40 -1.35 0.47 -1.58
3 1 0.25 -1.57 0.28 -1.76 0.35 -2.17 0.43 -2.63 0.50 -3.13 0.59 -3.68
3 2 0.24 -1.30 0.27 -1.46 0.33 -1.80 0.40 -2.18 0.47 -2.60 0.56 -3.05
3 5 0.22 -0.94 0.24 -1.06 0.30 -1.31 0.36 -1.58 0.43 -1.88 0.51 -2.21
3 10 0.20 -0.68 0.23 -0.76 0.28 -0.93 0.34 -1.13 0.40 -1.35 0.47 -1.58
1 1 0.36 -0.57 0.40 -0.64 0.50 -0.79 0.60 -0.95 0.71 -1.13 0.84 -1.33
1 2 0.33 -0.56 0.37 -0.62 0.45 -0.77 0.55 -0.93 0.65 -1.10 0.77 -1.29
Roof > 7 to 27 degrees
1 5 0.29 -0.53 0.32 -0.60 0.39 -0.74 0.48 -0.89 0.57 -1.06 0.67 -1.24
1 10 0.25 -0.52 0.28 -0.58 0.35 -0.71 0.43 -0.87 0.50 -1.03 0.59 -1.21
2 1 0.36 -0.99 0.40 -1.11 0.50 -1.37 0.60 -1.66 0.71 -1.98 0.84 -2.32
2 2 0.33 -0.91 0.37 -1.02 0.45 -1.26 0.55 -1.53 0.65 -1.82 0.77 -2.14
2 5 0.29 -0.81 0.32 -0.90 0.39 -1.12 0.48 -1.35 0.57 -1.61 0.67 -1.89
2 10 0.25 -0.73 0.28 -0.81 0.35 -1.01 0.43 -1.22 0.50 -1.45 0.59 -1.70
3 1 0.36 -1.47 0.40 -1.64 0.50 -2.03 0.60 -2.46 0.71 -2.92 0.84 -3.43
3 2 0.33 -1.37 0.37 -1.54 0.45 -1.90 0.55 -2.29 0.65 -2.73 0.77 -3.21
3 5 0.29 -1.24 0.32 -1.39 0.39 -1.72 0.48 -2.08 0.57 -2.48 0.67 -2.91
3 10 0.25 -1.15 0.28 -1.29 0.35 -1.59 0.43 -1.92 0.50 -2.29 0.59 -2.69
1 1 0.57 -0.62 0.64 -0.70 0.79 -0.86 0.95 -1.04 1.13 -1.24 1.33 -1.46
1 2 0.56 -0.59 0.62 -0.66 0.77 -0.82 0.93 -0.99 1.10 -1.18 1.29 -1.38
Roof > 27 to 45 degrees
1 5 0.53 -0.55 0.60 -0.61 0.74 -0.76 0.89 -0.92 1.06 -1.09 1.24 -1.28
1 10 0.52 -0.52 0.58 -0.58 0.71 -0.71 0.87 -0.87 1.03 -1.03 1.21 -1.21
2 1 0.57 -0.73 0.64 -0.81 0.79 -1.01 0.95 -1.22 1.13 -1.45 1.33 -1.70
2 2 0.56 -0.69 0.62 -0.78 0.77 -0.96 0.93 -1.16 1.10 -1.39 1.29 -1.63
2 5 0.53 -0.66 0.60 -0.73 0.74 -0.90 0.89 -1.10 1.06 -1.30 1.24 -1.53
2 10 0.52 -0.62 0.58 -0.70 0.71 -0.86 0.87 -1.04 1.03 -1.24 1.21 -1.46
3 1 0.57 -0.73 0.64 -0.81 0.79 -1.01 0.95 -1.22 1.13 -1.45 1.33 -1.70
3 2 0.56 -0.69 0.62 -0.78 0.77 -0.96 0.93 -1.16 1.10 -1.39 1.29 -1.63
3 5 0.53 -0.66 0.60 -0.73 0.74 -0.90 0.89 -1.10 1.06 -1.30 1.24 -1.53
3 10 0.52 -0.62 0.58 -0.70 0.71 -0.86 0.87 -1.04 1.03 -1.24 1.21 -1.46
4 1 0.62 -0.68 0.70 -0.76 0.86 -0.93 1.04 -1.13 1.24 -1.35 1.46 -1.58
4 2 0.59 -0.65 0.67 -0.72 0.82 -0.90 1.00 -1.08 1.18 -1.29 1.39 -1.51
4 5 0.56 -0.61 0.62 -0.68 0.77 -0.84 0.93 -1.02 1.11 -1.22 1.30 -1.43
4 10 0.53 -0.58 0.59 -0.65 0.73 -0.80 0.89 -0.98 1.05 -1.16 1.24 -1.36
Wall
4 50 0.46 -0.52 0.52 -0.58 0.64 -0.71 0.78 -0.87 0.92 -1.03 1.09 -1.21
5 1 0.62 -0.83 0.70 -0.93 0.86 -1.15 1.04 -1.39 1.24 -1.66 1.46 -1.95
5 2 0.59 -0.78 0.67 -0.87 0.82 -1.08 1.00 -1.30 1.18 -1.55 1.39 -1.82
5 5 0.56 -0.70 0.62 -0.79 0.77 -0.97 0.93 -1.18 1.11 -1.40 1.30 -1.64
5 10 0.53 -0.65 0.59 -0.72 0.73 -0.90 0.89 -1.08 1.05 -1.29 1.24 -1.51
5 50 0.46 -0.52 0.52 -0.58 0.64 -0.71 0.78 -0.87 0.92 -1.03 1.09 -1.21
Roof Overhang Net Design Wind Pressure , pnet10 (kN/m2) (Exposure B at h = 10 m with I = 1.0)
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
FOR BUILDING HEIGHT AND EXPOSURE, λ
Main Wind Force Resisting System / Components and Cladding - Method 2 All Heights
Figure 7.2-1 Internal Pressure Coefficient, GCpi Walls & Roofs
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings
Notes:
Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away
from the internal surfaces, respectively.
Values of GCpi shall be used with qZ or qh, as specified in 7.2.10.
Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load
requirements for the appropriate condition:
C
Conditions Rise-to-span P
*When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 ≤ r ≤ 0.3, alternate coefficients given by 6r - 2.1 shall also be used for the
windward quarter.
Notes:
1. Values listed are for the determination of average loads on main wind force resisting systems.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For wind directed parallel to the axis of the arch, use pressure coefficients from Fig. 7.2-2 with wind directed
parallel to ridge.
4. For components and cladding: (1) At roof perimeter, use the external pressure coefficients in Fig. 7.2-7 with θ
based on spring-line slope and (2) for remaining roof areas, use external pressure coefficients of this table multiplied
by 0.87.
Case 1. Full design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the
structure, considered separately along each principal axis.
Case 2. Three quarters of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal
axis of the structure in conjunction with a torsional moment as shown, considered separately for each
principal axis.
Case 3. Wind loading as defined in Case 1, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified value.
Case 4. Wind loading as defined in Case 2, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified
value.
Notes:
1. Design wind pressures for windward and leeward faces shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of 7.2.10.2.1 and 7.2.10.2.3 as applicable for building of all heights.
2. Diagrams show plan views of building.
3. Notation:
Pwx, Pwy: Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
PLX, PLY: Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
e (ex, ey) : Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.
MT: Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the building.
Reference Reference
Corner Corner
Transverse Direction Longitudinal Direction
Torsional Load Cases
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCP for walls shall be reduced by 10% when θ ≤ 100.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least
horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9m is provided around the perimeter of the roof with θ ≤ 70, Zone 3 shall
be treated as Zone 2.
6. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
7. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least
horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 100
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
6. For hip roofs with 7 ο < θ ≤ 27 ο edge/ridge strips and pressure coefficients for ridges of gabled roofs
shall apply on each hip.
7. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25ο Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4%
of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 ο
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC p to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of
least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. On the lower level of flat, stepped roofs shown in Fig. 7.2-8, the zone designations and pressure
coefficients shown in Fig. 7.2-7 B shall apply, except that at the roof-upper wall intersection(s), Zone 3
shall be treated as Zone 2 and Zone 2 shall be treated as Zone 1. Positive values of GCp equal to those
for walls in Fig. 7.2-7 A shall apply on the cross-hatched areas shown in Fig. 7.2-8.
2. Notation:
b: 1.5h1 in Fig. 7.2-8, but not greater than 30.5 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres.
hi: h1 or h2 in Fig. 7.2-8; h = h1 + h2; h1 ≥ 3.1 m; hi /h = 0.3 to 0.7.
W: Building width in Fig. 7.2-8.
W i : W1 or W2 or W3 in Fig. 7.2-8. W = W 1 + W2 or W1 + W2 + W3; Wi /W = 0.25 to 0.75.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 10 ο , values of GC P from Fig. 7.2-7 shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 0.4h, whichever is
smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of least horizontal dimension of a single-span
module or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 ο .
W: Building module width, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 3ο , values of GC P from Fig. 7.2-7B shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than
either 4 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 ο .
W: Building width, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than
either 4 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres.
W: Building width, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 10 ο values of GC P from Fig. 7.2-7 shall be used.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than
either 4 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 ο
W: Building width, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Values denote GCP to be used with qhD + f where hD + f is the height at the top of the dome.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. Each component shall be designed for the maximum positive and negative pressures.
4. Values apply to θ ≤ hD/D ≤ 0.5, 0.2 ≤ f/D ≤ 0.5.
5. θ = 0 degrees on dome springline, θ = 90 degrees at dome center top point. f is measured from
springline to top.
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GC P to be used with appropriate qz or qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, in square metres.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Use qz with positive values of GC P and qh with negative values of GC P.
5. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
6. Coefficients are for roofs with angle θ ≤ 10 ο For other roof angles and geometry, use GCP values from
Fig. 7.2-7 and attendant qh based on exposure defined in 6.4.2.
7. If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9m is provided around the perimeter of the roof with θ ≤ 10 ο Zone
3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8. Notation:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimension, but not less than 0.9 m.
h: Mean roof height, in metres, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 ο .
z: height above ground, in metres.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. Wind forces act normal to the surface. Two cases shall be considered: (1) wind forces directed
inward; and (2) wind forces directed outward.
2. The roof angle shall be assumed to vary ± 100 from the actual angle and the angle resulting in the
greatest force coefficient shall be used.
3. Notation:
B: Dimension of roof measured normal to wind direction, in metres;
L: Dimension of roof measured parallel to wind direction, in metres;
X: Distance to center of pressure from windward edge of roof, in metres; and
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
h/D
Cross-Section Type of Surface
1 7 25
Square (wind normal to face) All 1.3 1.4 2.0
Notes:
1. Design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to
the wind direction. The force shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
ν Cf M/N Cf
≤ 3 1.2 ≤ 6 1.2
5 1.3 10 1.3
8 1.4 16 1.4
10 1.5 20 1.5
20 1.75 40 1.75
30 1.85 60 1.85
≥ 40 2.0 ≥ 80 2.0
Notes:
a. resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign on a vertical line passing through the
geometric center, and
b. resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign at a distance from a vertical line passing
through the geometric center equal to 0.2 times the average width of the sign.
5. Notation:
ν : ratio of height to width
M: larger dimension of sign, in metres; and
N: smaller dimension of sign, in metres.
Rounded Members
ε Flat-Sided
Members D qz ≤ 0.17 D qz > 0.17
Notes:
1. Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are
classified as open signs.
2. The calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the area of all
exposed members and elements projected on a plane normal to the wind
direction. Forces shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind
direction.
3. The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid
area projected normal to the wind direction.
4. Notation:
ε : ratio of solid area to gross area;
D: diameter of a typical round member, in metres;
qz: velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground in kN/m2.
Notes:
1. For all wind directions considered, the area Af consistent with the specified
force coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face projected on the plane of
that face for the tower segment under consideration.
2. The specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or similar flat
sided members.
3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the
specified force coefficients by the following factor when determining wind forces
on such members:
0.51 ε 2 + 0.57, but not > 1.0
4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member
forces and reactions. For towers with square cross-sections, wind forces shall be
multiplied by the following factor when the wind is directed along a tower diagonal:
1 + 0.75 ε , but not > 1.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators,
etc., shall be calculated using appropriate force coefficients for these elements.
6. Notation:
ε : ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under
consideration.
D 11.5 215 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 200 1/8.0 2.5
*
zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is greater of 0.6h or zmin.
For buildings with h ≤ zmin, z shall be taken as zmin.
Notes:
1. Case 1: a. All components and cladding.
b. Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings designed using Figure 7.2-6.
Case 2: a. All main wind force resisting systems in buildings except those in low-rise buildings
designed using Figure 7.2-6.
b. All main wind force resisting systems in other structures.
2. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from the following formula:
CHAPTER 8
RAIN LOADS
SECTION 8.1
SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
SECTION 8.2
ROOF DRAINAGE
Roof drainage systems shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the
SBC. The flow capacity of secondary (overflow) drains or scuppers shall not be less
than that of the primary drains or scuppers.
SECTION 8.3
DESIGN RAIN LOADS
Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load of all rainwater that will
accumulate on it if the primary drainage system for that portion is blocked plus the
uniform load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage
system at its design flow.
ds + dh ≥ 200 mm
If the secondary drainage systems contain drain lines, such lines and their point of
discharge shall be separate from the primary drain lines.
The depth of water, dh, above the inlet of the secondary drainage system (i.e., the
hydraulic head) is a function of the rainfall intensity at the site, the area of roof
serviced by that drainage system, and the size of the drainage system.
The flow rate through a single drainage system is as follows:
The hydraulic head, dh, is related to flow rate, Q, for various drainage systems in
Table 8-1. The hydraulic head, dh, is zero when the secondary drainage system is
simply overflow all along a roof edge.
SECTION 8.4
PONDING INSTABILITY
"
Ponding" refers to the retention of water due solely to the deflection of relatively flat
roofs. Roofs with a slope less than 1.2° (degrees) shall be investigated by structural
analysis to ensure that they possess adequate stiffness to preclude progressive
deflection (i.e., instability) as rain falls on them. The primary drainage system within
an area subjected to ponding shall be considered to be blocked in this analysis.
SECTION 8.5
CONTROLLED DRAINAGE
Roofs equipped with hardware to control the rate of drainage shall be equipped with
a secondary drainage system at a higher elevation that limits accumulation of water
on the roof above that elevation. Such roofs shall be designed to sustain the load of
all rainwater that will accumulate on them to the elevation of the secondary drainage
system, plus the uniform load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the
secondary drainage system at its design flow (determined from Section 8.3).
Such roofs shall also be checked for ponding instability (determined from Section
8.4). Table 8-1 shows flow rate in cubic meters per second of various drainage
systems at various hydraulic heads.
Table 8-1:
Flow rate, Q (m3/sec) of various drainage systems at various hydraulic heads, dh
in millimetres.
HYDRAULIC HEAD dh mm
Drainage System 25 50 75 100 125 175 200
150 mm wide, channel scupper* .0011 .0032 .0057 .0088 .0122 .0202 .0248
600 mm wide, channel scupper .0045 .0126 .0227 .0353 .0490 .0810 .0992
150 mm wide, 100 mm high, closed scupper* .0011 .0032 .0057 .0088 .0112 .0146 .0160
600 mm wide, 100 mm high, closed scupper .0045 .0126 .0227 .0353 .0447 .0583 .0638
150 mm wide, 150 mm high, closed scupper .0011 .0032 .0057 .0088 .0122 .0191 .0216
600 mm wide, 150 mm high, closed scupper .0045 .0126 .0227 .0353 .0490 .0765 .0866
* Channel scuppers are open-topped (i.e., 3-sided). Closed scuppers are 4-sided.
CHAPTER 9
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
SECTION 9.1
GENERAL
9.1.1 Purpose. Chapters 9 through 16 present criteria for the design and construction
of buildings and similar structures subject to earthquake ground motions. The
specified earthquake loads are based on post-elastic energy dissipation in the
structure, and because of this fact, the provisions for design, detailing, and
construction shall be satisfied even for structures and members for which load
combinations that do not contain the earthquake effect indicate larger demands
than combinations including earthquake.
9.1.2.2 Scope. Every building, and portion thereof, shall be designed and constructed to
resist the effects of earthquake motions as prescribed by these provisions. Certain
nonbuilding structures, as described in Chapter 13, are within the scope and shall
be designed and constructed as required for buildings. Additions to existing
structures also shall be designed and constructed to resist the effects of
earthquake motions as prescribed by these provisions. Existing structures and
alterations to existing structures need only comply with these provisions when
required by Chapter 16.
SECTION 9.2
DEFINITIONS
The definitions presented in this Section provide the meaning of the terms used in
Chapter 9 through 16 of these provisions.
Addition. An increase in building area, aggregate floor area, height, or number
of stories of a structure.
Alteration. Any construction or renovation to an existing structure other than an
addition.
Appendage. An architectural component such as a canopy; marquee, ornamental
balcony, or statuary.
Approval. The written acceptance by the authority having jurisdiction of
documentation that establishes the qualification of a material, system,
component, procedure, or person to fulfill the requirements of these provisions
for the intended use.
Architectural Component Support. Those structural members or assemblies of
members, including braces, frames, struts, and attachments that transmit all loads
SBC 301 2007 9/1
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
not including the wind load, earthquake load, or dead load, see Section
10.7.
Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion. The most severe earthquake
effects considered by these standards as defined in Section 9.4.3.
Nonbuilding Structure. A structure, other than a building, constructed of a type
included in Chapter 13 and within the limits of Section 13.1.1.
Occupancy Importance Factor. A factor assigned to each structure according to its
Occupancy Category as prescribed in Section 9.5.
Owner. Any person, agent, firm, or corporation having a legal or equitable interest in
the property.
Partition. A nonstructural interior wall that spans horizontally or vertically from
support to support. The supports may be the basic building frame, subsidiary structural
members, or other portions of the partition system.
P-Delta Effect. The secondary effect on shears and moments of structural members
due to the action of the vertical loads induced by displacement of the structure
resulting from various loading conditions.
Quality Assurance Plan. A detailed written procedure that establishes the systems
and components subject to special inspection and testing. The type and frequency of
testing and the extent and duration of special inspection are given in the quality
assurance plan.
Registered Design Professional. An engineer, registered or licensed to practice
professional engineering.
Roofing Unit. A unit of roofing tile or similar material weighing more than 5 N.
Seismic Design Category. A classification as-signed to a structure based on its
Occupancy Category and the severity of the design earthquake ground motion at the
site as defined in Section 9.6.
Seismic Force-Resisting System. That part of the structural system that has been
considered in the design to provide the required resistance to the seismic forces
prescribed herein.
Seismic Forces. The assumed forces prescribed herein, related to the response of
the structure to earthquake motions, to be used in the design of the structure and its
components.
Seismic Response Coefficient. Coefficient Cs as determined from Section 10.9.2.1.
Shallow Anchor. Anchors with embedment length-to-diameter ratios of less than
8.
Shear Panel. A floor, roof, or wall component sheathed to act as a shear wall or
diaphragm.
Site Class. A classification assigned to a site based on the types of soils present
and their engineering properties as defined in Section 9.4.2.
Site Coefficients. The values of Fa and Fv as indicated in Tables 9.4.3a and
9.4.3b, respectively.
Special Lateral Reinforcement. Reinforcement composed of spirals, closed
stirrups, or hoops and supplementary crossties provided to restrain the concrete
and qualify the portion of the component, where used, as a confined region.
SBC 301 2007 9/6
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Storage Racks. Include industrial pallet racks, moveable shelf racks, and stacker
racks made of cold-formed or hot-rolled structural members. Does not include
other types of racks such as drive-in and drive-through racks, cantilever racks,
portable racks, or racks made of materials other than steel.
Story. The portion of a structure between the top of two successive, finished
floor surfaces and, for the topmost story, from the top of the floor finish to the
top of the roof structural element.
Story Above Grade. Any story having its finished floor surface entirely above
grade, except that a story shall be considered as a story above grade where the
finished floor surface of the story immediately above is more than (2.0 m) above
the grade plane, more than (2.0 m) above the finished ground level for more than
40% of the total structure perimeter, or more than (4.0 m) above the finished
ground level at any point.
Story Drift. The difference of horizontal deflections at the top and bottom of the
story as determined in Section 10.9.7.1.
Story Drift Ratio. The story drift, as determined in Section 10.9.7.1, divided by
the story height.
Story Shear. The summation of design lateral seismic forces at levels above the
story under consideration.
STRENGTH.
Design strength. Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor,
φ.
Nominal strength. Strength of a member or cross-section calculated in
accordance with the requirements and assumptions of the strength design
methods of this Code (or the referenced standards) before application of any
strength reduction factors.
Required strength. Strength of a member, cross-section, or connection
required to resist factored loads or related internal moments and forces in such
combinations as stipulated by this Code.
Structure. That which is built or constructed and limited to buildings and
nonbuilding structures as defined herein.
Structural Observations. The visual observations performed by the registered
design professional in responsible charge (or another registered design profes-
sional) to determine that the seismic force-resisting system is constructed in
general conformance with the construction documents.
Subdiaphragm. A portion of a diaphragm used to transfer wall anchorage forces
to diaphragm crossties.
Testing Agency. A company or corporation that provides testing and/or
inspection services. The person in charge of the special inspector(s) and the
testing services shall be a registered design professional.
Tie-down (hold-down). A device used to resist uplift of the boundary elements
of shear walls. These devices are intended to resist load without significant slip
between the device and the shear wall boundary element or be shown with cyclic
testing to not reduce the wall capacity or ductility.
Torsional Force Distribution. The distribution of horizontal shear through a
SBC 301 2007 9/7
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
rigid diaphragm when the center of mass of the structure at the level under
consideration does not coincide with the center of rigidity (sometimes referred to
as diaphragm rotation).
Toughness. The ability of a material to absorb energy without losing significant
strength.
Utility or Service Interface. The connection of the structure's mechanical and
electrical distribution systems to the utility or service company's distribution
system.
Veneers. Facings or ornamentation of brick, concrete, stone, tile, or similar
materials attached to a backing.
Wall. A component that has a slope of 60 degrees or greater with the horizontal
plane used to enclose or divide space.
Bearing wall. Any wall meeting either of the following classifications:
1. Any metal wall that supports more than (1500 N/m) of vertical load in
addition to its own weight.
2. Any concrete or masonry wall that supports more than (3000 N/m) of
vertical load in addition to its own weight.
Nonbearing wall. Any wall that is not a bearing wall.
Nonstructural wall. All walls other than bearing walls or shear walls.
Shear wall (vertical diaphragm). A wall, bearing or nonbearing, designed to
resist lateral seismic forces acting in the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to
as a vertical diaphragm).
WALL SYSTEM, BEARING. A structural system with bearing walls providing
support for all or major portions of the vertical loads. Shear walls or braced
frames provide seismic force resistance.
SECTION 9.3
SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
The unit dimensions used with the items covered by the symbols shall be
consistent throughout except where specifically noted. The symbols and defini-
tions presented in this Section apply to these provisions as indicated.
A, B, C, D = the Seismic Design Categories as defined in Tables 9.6.a
and 9.6.b
A, B, C, D, E, F = the Site Classes as defined in Section 9.4.2
Ach = cross-sectional area (mm2) of a component measured to the
outside of the special lateral reinforcement
Ao = the area of the load-carrying foundation (m2)
Ash = total cross-sectional area of hoop reinforcement (mm2),
including supplementary crossties, having a spacing of sh
and crossing a section with a core dimension of h c .
Avd = required area of leg (mm2) of diagonal reinforcement
ap = the amplification factor related to the response of a system
or component as affected by the type of seismic attachment,
determined in Section 12.1.3
b = the shortest plan dimension of the structure, in (mm)
SBC 301 2007 9/8
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
measured perpendicular to d
Cd = the deflection amplification factor as given in Table 10.2
Cs = the seismic response coefficient determined in Section
10.9.2 (dimensionless)
Csm = the modal seismic response coefficient determined in
Section 10.10.5 (dimensionless)
Cvx = the vertical distribution factor as determined in Section
10.9.4
c = distance from the neutral axis of a flexural member to the
fiber of maximum compressive strain (mm)
D = the effect of dead load
Dp = relative seismic displacement that the component must be
designed to accommodate as defined in Section 12.1.4
d = overall depth of member (mm) in Chapter 10
dp = the longest plan dimension of the structure, in (mm)
E = the effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced
forces, in Section 10.4
e = the actual eccentricity, (mm), measured in plan between the
center of mass of the structure above the isolation interface
and the center of rigidity of the isolation system, plus
accidental eccentricity, in (mm), taken as 5% of the
maximum building dimension perpendicular to the direction
of force under consideration
Fa = acceleration-based site coefficient (at 0.2-sec period)
Fi , Fn, Fx = the portion of the seismic base shear, V, induced at Level i,
n, or x, respectively, as determined in Section 10.9.4
Fp = the seismic force acting on a component of a structure
Fv = velocity-based site coefficient (at 1.0-sec period)
Fxm, = the portion of the seismic base shear, Vm, induced at Level
x as determined in Section 10.10.6
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete used in design
f S' = ultimate tensile strength (MPa) of the bolt, stud, or insert
leg wires. For A307 bolts or A108 studs, it is permitted to
be assumed to be 415 MPa.
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
g = the acceleration due to gravity
H = thickness of soil
h = the height of a shear wall measured as the maximum clear
height from top of foundation to bottom of diaphragm
framing above, or the maximum clear height from top of
diaphragm to bottom of diaphragm framing above
h = the roof elevation of a structure in Chapter 12
h = the effective height of the building as determined in
Chapter 10
hc = the core dimension of a component measured to the outside
of the special lateral reinforcement (mm)
hi, hn, hx = the height above the base Level i, n, or x, respectively
hsx = the story height below Level x = (hx - h x-1 )
I = the occupancy importance factor in Section 9.5
Ip = the component importance factor as prescribed in Section
12.1.5
SECTION 9.4
SEISMIC GROUND MOTION VALUES
9.4.1 Mapped Acceleration Parameters. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been
divided into seven regions for determining the maximum considered earthquake
ground motion as shown in Figure 9.4.1(a). The parameter SS shall be determined
from the 0.2 second spectral response accelerations shown on Figures 9.4.1(b)
through 9.4.1(i). The parameter S1 shall be determined from the 1.0 second
spectral response accelerations shown on Figures 9.4.1(j) through 9.4.1(q).
Where S1, is less than or equal to 0.04 and SS is less than or equal to 0.15, the
structure is permitted to be assigned Seismic Design Category A.
9.4.2 Site Class. Based on the site soil properties, the site shall be classified as Site
Class A, B, C, D, E or F in accordance with Chapter 14. Where the soil
properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the Site Class, Site
Class D or E shall be used, as per Section 14.1.
2
SDS = SMS (Eq. 9.4.4-1)
3
2
SD1 = S M1 (Eq. 9.4.4-2)
3
TABLE 9.4.3a:
VALUES OF Fa AS A FUNCTION OF SITE CLASS AND MAPPED SHORT PERIOD
MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE SPECTRAL ACCELERATION
Mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake
Spectral Response Acceleration at Short Periods
Site Class SS ≤ 0.25 SS = 0.5 SS = 0.75 SS =1.0 SS ≥ 1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 0.9
F a a a a a
Note: Use straight-line interpolation for intermediate values of SS.
a Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analyses shall be performed
except that for structures with periods of vibration equal to or less than 0.5-seconds, values of Fa
for liquefiable soils may be assumed equal to the values for the site class determined without
regard to liquefaction in Step 3 of Section 14.1.2.
TABLE 9.4.3b:
VALUES OF Fv AS A FUNCTION OF SITE CLASS AND MAPPED 1-SECOND
PERIOD MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE SPECTRAL ACCELERATION
9.4.5 Design Response Spectrum. Where a design response spectrum is required by these
provisions, the design response spectrum curve shall be developed as indicated in
Figure 9.4.5 and as follows:
1. For periods less than or equal to To, the design spectral response acceleration,
Sa, shall be taken as given by Eq. 9.4.5-1:
T
Sa = SDS (0.4 + 0.6 ) (Eq. 9.4.5-1)
To
FIGURE 9.4.5
DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM
2. For periods greater than or equal to To and less than or equal to Ts, the
design spectral response acceleration, Sa, shall be taken as equal to SDS.
3. For periods greater than Ts, the design spectral response acceleration, Sa,
shall be taken as given by Eq. 9.4.5-2:
S D1
Sa = (Eq. 9.4.5-2)
T
SDS = the design spectral response acceleration at short periods
SD1 = the design spectral response acceleration at 1-sec period, in units of
g-sec
T = the fundamental period of the structure (sec)
To = 0.2 SD1/SDS and
TS = SD1/SDS
SECTION 9.5
OCCUPANCY IMPORTANCE FACTOR
Occupancy Category I
I or II 1.0
III 1.25
IV 1.5
SECTION 9.6
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY
Occupancy Category
Value of SDS
I-II III IV
SDS < 0.167g A A A
0.167g ≤ SDS < 0.33g B B C
0.33g ≤ SDS < 0.50g C C D
SDS ≥ 0.50g D D D
Occupancy Category
Value of SD1
I-II III IV
SD1 < 0.067g A A A
0.067g ≤ SD1 < 0.133g B B C
0.133g ≤ SD1 < 0.20g C C D
SD1 ≥ 0.20g D D D
Figure 9.4.1(a): Regions for Determination of the Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Figure 9.4.1(b): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(All Regions)
SBC 301 2007 9/17
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(c): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 1)
SBC 301 2007 9/18
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(d): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in%g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 2)
Figure 9.4.1(e): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 3)
Figure 9.4.1(f): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 4)
Figure 9.4.1(g): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in%g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 5)
SBC 301 2007 9/22
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(h): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 6)
SBC 301 2007 9/23
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(i): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 0.2 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (Ss in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 7)
Figure 9.4.1(j): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(All Regions)
SBC 301 2007 9/25
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(k): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 1)
SBC 301 2007 9/26
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(l): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in % g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 2)
SBC 301 2007 9/27
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(m): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 3)
SBC 301 2007 9/28
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(n): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 4)
Figure 9.4.1(o): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 5)
SBC 301 2007 9/30
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(p): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 6)
SBC 301 2007 9/31
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
Figure 9.4.1(q): Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for the Kingdom of 1 SEC Spectral Response Acceleration (S1 in %g)
(5 Percent of Critical Damping), Site Class B.
(Region 7)
SBC 301 2007 9/32
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 10
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
SECTION 10.1
STRUCTURAL DESIGN BASIS
10.1.1 Basic Requirements. The seismic analysis and design procedures to be used in
the design of structures and their components shall be as prescribed in this
Section. The structure shall include complete lateral and vertical force-resisting
systems capable of providing adequate strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation
capacity to withstand the design ground motions within the prescribed limits of
deformation and strength demand. The design ground motions shall be assumed
to occur along any horizontal direction of a structure. The adequacy of the
structural systems shall be demonstrated through the construction of a
mathematical model and evaluation of this model for the effects of design ground
motions. The design seismic forces, and their distribution over the height of the
structure, shall be established in accordance with one of the applicable
procedures indicated in Section 10.6 and the corresponding internal forces and
deformations in the members of the structure shall be determined. An approved
alternative procedure shall not be used to establish the seismic forces and their
distribution unless the corresponding internal forces and deformations in the
members are determined using a model consistent with the procedure adopted.
Individual members shall be provided with adequate strength to resist the shears,
axial forces, and moments determined in accordance with these provisions, and
connections shall develop the strength of the connected members or the forces
indicated above. The deformation of the structure shall not exceed the prescribed
limits when the structure is subjected to the design seismic forces.
A continuous load path, or paths, with adequate strength and stiffness shall be
provided to transfer all forces from the point of application to the final point of
resistance. The foundation shall be designed to resist the forces developed and
accommodate the movements imparted to the structure by the design ground
motions. The dynamic nature of the forces, the expected ground motion, and the
design basis for strength and energy dissipation capacity of the structure shall be
included in the determination of the foundation design criteria.
Allowable Stress Design is permitted to be used to evaluate sliding, overturning,
and soil bearing at the soil-structure interface regardless of the design approach
used in the design of the structure.
SECTION 10.2
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SELECTION
The basic lateral and vertical seismic force-resisting system shall conform to one
of the types indicated in Table 10.2. Each type is subdivided by the types of
vertical element used to resist lateral seismic forces. The structural system used
shall be in accordance with the Seismic Design Category and height limitations
indicated in Table 10.2. The appropriate response modification coefficient, R ,
system overstrength factor, Ω o , and the deflection amplification factor (Cd)
indicated in Table 10.2 shall be used in determining the base shear, element
SBC 301 2007 10/1
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
design forces, and design story drift. Special framing requirements are indicated
in Section 10.11 and Sections 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 and 11.4 for structures assigned to
the various Seismic Design Categories.
Seismic force-resisting systems that are not contained in Table 10.2 shall be
permitted if analytical and test data are submitted that establish the dynamic
characteristics and demonstrate the lateral force resistance and energy dissipation
capacity to be equivalent to the structural systems listed in Table 10.2 for
equivalent response modification coefficient, R, system overstrength coefficient,
Ω o , and deflection amplification factor, Cd, values.
10.2.1 Dual System. For a dual system, the moment frame shall be capable of resisting
at least 25% of the design seismic forces. The total seismic-force resistance is to
be provided by the combination of the moment frame and the shear walls or
braced frames in proportion to their rigidities.
10.2.3 Seismic Design Categories B and C. The structural framing system for
structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories B and C shall comply with the
structure height and structural limitations in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2:
DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR BASIC SEISMIC
FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEMS
Structural System
Limitations and
Building Height (m)
Limitationsc
Response System Over- Deflection
Modification strength Amplification Seismic Design
Basic Seismic Force-Resisting System Coefficient, Ra Factor, Ω o f Factor, Cdb Category
A&B C Dd
TABLE 10.2: DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR BASIC SEISMIC FORCE-RESISTING
SYSTEMS – continued
Structural System
Limitations and
Building Height (m)
Limitationsc
Basic Seismic Force-Resisting System Response System Over- Deflection
Modification strength Amplification Seismic Design
Coefficient, Ra Factor, Cdb Category
Factor, Ω o f
A&B C Dd
Dual Systems with Special Moment
Frames Capable of Resisting at Least
25% of Prescribed Seismic Forces
Steel eccentrically braced frames, moment 7 2.5 4 NL NL NL
resisting connections, at columns away from
links
TABLE 10.2: DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR BASIC SEISMIC FORCE-RESISTING
SYSTEMS – continued
Structural System
Limitations and
Building Height (m)
Limitationsc
Basic Seismic Force-Resisting System Response System Over- Deflection Seismic Design
Modification strength Amplification Category
Coefficient, Ra Factor, Ω o f Factor, Cdb
A&B C Dd
a
Response modification coefficient, R, for use throughout the code. Note R reduces forces to a strength level, not an
allowable stress level. The given values are approximate and require further study.
b
Deflection amplification factor, Cd, for use in Sections 10.9.7.1 and 10.9.7.2
c
NL = Not Limited and NP = Not Permitted. Heights are measured from the base of the structure as defined in Section
9.2.
d
See Section 10.2.4.1 for a description of building systems limited to buildings with a height of 75 m or less.
e
Ordinary moment frame is permitted to be used in lieu of intermediate moment frame in Seismic Design Categories
B and C.
f
The tabulated value of the overstrength factor, Ω o may be reduced by subtracting 0.5 for structures with flexible
diaphragms but shall not be taken as less than 2.0 for any structure.
g
Steel ordinary moment frames and intermediate moment frames are permitted in single-story buildings up to a height
of 18 m, when the moment joints of field connections are constructed of bolted end plates and the dead load of the
roof does not exceed 0.75 kPa.
h
Steel ordinary moment frames are permitted in buildings up to a height of 10 m where the dead load of the walls,
floors, and roofs does not exceed 0.75 kPa.
i
Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames are permitted in single-story buildings up to a height of 18 m when the
dead load of the roof does not exceed 0.75 kPa and in penthouse structures.
10.2.4 Seismic Design Category D. The structural framing system for a structure
assigned to Seismic Design Category D shall comply with Section 10.2.3 and the
additional provisions of this Section.
10.2.4.1 Interaction Effects. Moment resisting frames that are enclosed or adjoined by
more rigid elements not considered to be part of the seismic force-resisting
system shall be designed so that the action or failure of those elements will not
impair the vertical load and seismic force-resisting capability of the frame. The
design shall provide for the effect of these rigid elements on the structural system
at structure deformations corresponding to the design story drift ( ∆ ) as
determined in Section 10.9.7. In addition, the effects of these elements shall be
considered when determining whether a structure has one or more of the
irregularities defined in Section 10.3.
10.2.4.2 Deformational Compatibility. Every structural component not included in the
seismic force-resisting system in the direction under consideration shall be
designed to be adequate for the vertical load-carrying capacity and the induced
moments and shears resulting from the design story drift ( ∆ ) as determined in
accordance with Section 10.9.7; see also Section 10.12.
SECTION 10.3
DIAPHRAGM FLEXIBILITY, CONFIGURATION
IRREGULARITIES AND REDUNDANCY
10.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility. The structural analysis shall consider the relative
stiffnesses of diaphragms and the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting
system. Unless a diaphragm can be idealized as either flexible or rigid in
accordance with Sections 10.3.1.1, 10.3.1.2 or 10.3.1.3, the structural analysis
shall explicitly include consideration of the stiffness of the diaphragm (i.e. semi-
rigid modeling assumption).
10.3.2.1 Plan Irregularity. Structures having one or more of the irregularity types listed
in Table 10.3.2.1 shall be designated as having plan structural irregularity. Such
structures assigned to the Seismic Design Categories listed in Table 10.3.2.1 shall
comply with the requirements in the sections referenced in that table.
10.3.2.2 Vertical Irregularity. Structures having one or more of the irregularity types
listed in Table 10.3.2.2 shall be designated as having vertical irregularity. Such
SBC 301 2007 10/6
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
structures assigned to the Seismic Design Categories listed in Table 10.3.2.2 shall
comply with the requirements in the sections referenced in that table.
Exception
TABLE 10.3.2.1:
PLAN STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES
Seismic Design
Irregularity Type and Description Reference Category
Section Application
1a. Torsional Irregularity 10.11.4.2 D
Torsional irregularity is defined to exist where the maximum 10.9.5.2 C, D
story drift, computed including accidental torsion, at one end of
the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the
average of the story drifts at the two ends of the structure.
Torsional irregularity requirements in the reference sections apply
only to structures in which the diaphragms are rigid or semirigid.
1b. Extreme Torsional Irregularity 10.11.4.2 D
Extreme Torsional Irregularity is defined to exist where the 10.9.5.2 C and D
maximum story drift, computed including accidental torsion, at
one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.4
times the average of the story drifts at the two ends of the
structure. Extreme torsional irregularity requirements in the
reference sections apply only to structures in which the
diaphragms are rigid or semirigid.
2. Re-entrant Corners 10.11.4.2 D
Plan configurations of a structure and its lateral force-resisting
system contain re-entrant corners, where both projections of the
structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than 15% of the
plan dimension of the structure in the given direction.
3. Diaphragm Discontinuity 10.11.4.2 D
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness,
including those having cutout or open areas greater than 50% of
the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one-story to the next.
4. Out-of-Plane Offsets 10.11.4.2 D,
Discontinuities in a lateral force-resistance path, such as out-of- 10.11.2.11 B, C, D
plane offsets of the vertical elements.
5. Nonparallel Systems 10.11.3.1 C, D
The vertical lateral force-resisting elements are not parallel to or
symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral force-
resisting system.
Seismic Design
Irregularity Type and Description Reference Category
Section Application
la. Stiffness Irregularity: Soft Story 10.6.1 D
A soft story is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than
70% of that in the story above or less than 80% of the
average stiffness of the three stories above.
lb. Stiffness Irregularity: Extreme Soft Story 10.6.1 D
An extreme soft story is one in which the lateral stiffness is
less than 60% of that in the story above or less than 70% of
the average stiffness of the three stories above.
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity 10.6.1 D
Mass irregularity shall be considered to exist where the
effective mass of any story is more than 150% of the
effective mass of an adjacent story. A roof that is lighter than
the floor below need not be considered.
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity 10.6.1 D
Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist
where the horizontal dimension of the lateral force-resisting
system in any story is more than 130% of that in an adjacent
story.
4. In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral Force-Resisting 10.6.1 B, C, D
Elements 10.11.2.11
In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral force-resisting
elements shall be considered to exist where an in-plane offset
of the lateral force-resisting elements is greater than the
length of those elements or there exists a reduction in
stiffness of the resisting element in the story below.
5. Discontinuity in Lateral Strength: Weak Story 10.11.2.2 B, C, D
A weak story is one in which the story lateral strength is less 10.6.1 D
than 80% of that in the story above. The story strength is the
total strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the
story shear for the direction under consideration.
SECTION 10.4
SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS AND COMBINATIONS
The effects on the structure and its components due to seismic forces shall be
combined with the effects of other loads in accordance with the combinations of
load effects given in Chapter 2. For use with those combinations, the earthquake-
induced force effect shall include vertical and horizontal effects as given by Eq.
10.4-1 or 10.4-2, as applicable. The vertical seismic effect term 0.2SDSD need not
be included where SDS is equal to or less than 0.125 in Eqs. 10.4-1, 10.4-2,
10.4.1-1, and 10.4.1-2. The vertical seismic effect term 0.2SDSD need not be
included in Eq. 10.4-2 when considering foundation overturning.
For Eq. 2.3.2-5 in Section 2.3.2 or Eq. 2.4.1-5 and Eq. 2.4.1-6 in Section 2.4.1:
Where
E = the effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced forces
SDS = the design spectral response acceleration at short periods obtained from
Section 9.4.4
D = the effect of dead load, D
QE = the effect of horizontal seismic (earthquake-induced) forces
ρ = the reliability factor as per Section 10.3.3
10.4.1 Special Seismic Load. Where specifically indicated in SBC 301, the special seismic
load of Eq. 10.4.1-1 shall be used to compute E for use in Eq. 2.3.2-5 in Section
2.3.2 or Eq. 2.4.1-5 and Eq. 2.4.1-6 in Section 2.4.1 and the special seismic load of
Eq. 10.4.1-2 shall be used to compute E in Eq. 2.3.2-7 in Section 2.3.2 or Eq. 2.4.1-
8 in Section 2.4.1:
Where
The value of the quantity Ω oQE in Eqs. 10.4.1-1 and 10.4.1-2 need not be taken
greater than the capacity of other elements of the structure to transfer force to the
component under consideration.
Where allowable stress design methodologies are used with the special load of this
Section applied in Eq. 2.4.1-5 or Eq. 2.4.1-6 of Section 2.4.1, allowable stresses are
permitted to be determined using an allowable stress increase of 1.2. This increase
shall not be combined with increases in allowable stresses or load combination
reductions otherwise permitted by SBC 301 or the material reference standard.
SECTION 10.5
DIRECTION OF LOADING
The directions of application of seismic forces used in the design shall be those
which will produce the most critical load effects. It shall be permitted to satisfy
this requirement using the procedures of Section 10.5.1 for Seismic Design
Category A and B, Section 10.5.2 for Seismic Design Category C, and Section
10.5.3 for Seismic Design Category D. All structural components and their
connections shall be provided with strengths sufficient to resist the effects of the
seismic forces prescribed herein. Loads shall be combined as prescribed in
Section 10.4.
10.5.1 Seismic Design Categories A and B. For structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category A and B, the design seismic forces are permitted to be applied
SBC 301 2007 10/10
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
a. The structure shall be analyzed using the equivalent lateral force analysis
procedure of Section 10.9 or the modal response spectrum analysis procedure
of Section 10.10, as permitted under Section 10.6.1, with the loading applied
independently in any two orthogonal directions and the most critical load
effect due to direction of application of seismic forces on the structure may
be assumed to be satisfied if components and their foundations are designed
for the following combination of prescribed loads: 100% of the forces for one
direction plus 30% of the forces for the perpendicular direction; the
combination requiring the maximum component strength shall be used.
SECTION 10.6
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
Exception: For structures designed using the index force analysis procedure of
Section 10.7 or the simplified analysis procedure of Section 10.8, drift need not
be evaluated.
10.6.1 Analysis Procedures. The structural analysis required by Section 10.6 shall
consist of one of the types permitted in Table 10.6.1, based on the structure's
Seismic Design Category, structural system, dynamic properties and regularity,
or as per Section 10.14.
SECTION 10.7
INDEX FORCE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR
SEISMIC DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
See Section 10.6.1 for limitations on the use of this procedure. An index force
analysis shall consist of the application of static lateral index forces to a linear
mathematical model of the structure, independently in each of two orthogonal
directions. The lateral index forces shall be as given by Eq. 10.7-1 and shall be
applied simultaneously at each floor level. For purposes of analysis, the structure
shall be considered to be fixed at the base:
TABLE 10.6.1:
PERMITTED ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Seismic Structural Index Simplified Equivalent Modal
Design Characteristics Force Analysis Lateral Response
Category Analysis Section 10.8 Force Spectrum
Section 10.7 Analysis Analysis
Section 10.9 Section 10.10
A Regular or irregular P P P P
B, C Regular or irregular NP NP P P
D Regular structures with NP NP P P
T< 3.5 Ts
Irregular structures with NP NP P P
T < 3.5 Ts and having
only plan irregularities
type 2, 3, 4, or 5 of
Table 10.3.2.1 or
vertical irregularities
type 4 or 5 of
Table 10.3.2.2
All other structures NP NP NP P
Notes: P - indicates permitted, NP -indicates not permitted
SECTION 10.8
SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR
SEISMIC DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
10.8.1 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear, V, in a given direction shall be
determined in accordance with the following formula:
1.2 S DS
V= W (Eq. 10.8.1)
R
where
10.8.2 Vertical Distribution. The forces at each level shall be calculated using the
following formula:
1.2 S DS
Fx = ωx (Eq. 10.8.2)
R
where
ω x = the portion of the effective seismic weight of the structure, W, at level x
10.8.4 Design Drift. For the purposes of Section 10.12, the design story drift, ∆ , shall
be taken as 1% of the story height unless a more exact analysis is provided.
SECTION 10.9
EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
10.9.1 General. Section 10.9 provides required minimum standards for the equivalent
lateral force procedure of seismic analysis of structures. An equivalent lateral
force analysis shall consist of the application of equivalent static lateral forces to
a linear mathematical model of the structure. The directions of application of
lateral forces shall be as indicated in Section 10.5. The lateral forces applied in
each direction shall be the total seismic base shear given by Section 10.9.2 and
shall be distributed vertically in accordance with the provisions of Section
10.9.4. For purposes of analysis, the structure is considered to be fixed at the
base. See Section 10.6 for limitations on the use of this procedure.
10.9.2 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear (V) in a given direction shall be
determined in accordance with the following equation:
V = Cs W (Eq. 10.9.2-1)
where
Cs = the seismic response coefficient determined in accordance with Section
10.9.2.1.
W = the total dead load and applicable portions of other loads as indicated in
Section 10.7
10.9.2.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient. When the fundamental period of
the structure is computed, the seismic design coefficient (CS) shall be determined
in accordance with the following equation:
S DS
CS = (Eq. 10.9.2.1-1)
R/ I
where
SDS = the design spectral response acceleration in the short period range as
determined from Section 9.4.4
R = the response modification factor in Table 10.2
I = the occupancy importance factor determined in accordance with Section
9.5
The value of the seismic response coefficient, (Cs), need not be greater than the
following equation:
S D1
CS = (Eq. 10.9.2.1-2)
T (R / I )
10.9.3 Period Determination. The fundamental period of the structure (T) in the
direction under consideration shall be established using the structural properties
and deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly
substantiated analysis. The fundamental period (T) shall not exceed the product of
the coefficient for upper limit on calculated period (Cu) from Table 10.9.3.1 and
the approximate fundamental period (Ta) determined from Eq. 10.9.3.2-1. As an
alternative to performing an analysis to determine the fundamental period (T), it
shall be permitted to use the approximate building period, (Ta), calculated in accor-
dance with Section 10.9.3.2, directly.
10.9.3.1 Upper Limit on Calculated Period. The fundamental building period (T)
determined in a properly substantiated analysis shall not exceed the product of the
coefficient for upper limit on calculated period (Cu) from Table 10.9.3.1 and the
SBC 301 2007 10/14
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
where hn is the height in (m) above the base to the highest level of the structure
and the coefficients Ct and x are determined from Table 10.9.3.2.
0.0062
Ta = hn (Eq. 10.9.3.2-2)
Cw
2
n
⎛ hn ⎞
∑
100 Ai
Cw = ⎜ ⎟ (Eq. 10.9.3.2-3)
⎜h ⎟ ⎡ 2⎤
AB i =1 ⎝ i ⎠ ⎛h ⎞
⎢1 + 0.83⎜ i ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜D ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ i ⎠ ⎦
where
AB = the base area of the structure m2
Ai = the area of shear wall "i" in m2
Di = the length of shear wall "i" in m
TABLE 10.9.3.2:
VALUES OF APPROXIMATE PERIOD PARAMETERS Ct AND x
Structure Type Ct x
Moment resisting frame systems of steel in which the frames resist
100% of the required seismic force and are not enclosed or adjoined
0.068 0.8
by more rigid components that will prevent the frames from
deflecting when subjected to seismic forces
Moment resisting frame systems of reinforced concrete in which the
frames resist 100% of the required seismic force and are not enclosed
0.044 0.9
or adjoined by more rigid components that will prevent the frame
from deflecting when subjected to seismic forces
Eccentrically braced steel frames 0.07 0.75
All other structural systems 0.055 0.75
10.9.4 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. The lateral seismic force (Fx) (kN)
induced at any level shall be determined from the following equations:
and
w x h xk
Cvx = n
(Eq. 10.9.4-2)
∑
i =1
wi hik
where
Cvx = vertical distribution factor
V = total design lateral force or shear at the base of the structure,
(kN)
wi and wx = the portion of the total gravity load of the structure (W) located or
assigned to Level i or x
hi and hx = the height (m) from the base to Level i or x
k = an exponent related to the structure period as follows:
for structures having a period of 0.5 sec or less, k = 1
for structures having a period of 2.5 sec or more, k = 2
for structures having a period between 0.5 and 2.5 seconds, k shall
be 2 or shall be determined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2
10.9.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution and Torsion. The seismic design story shear in
any story (Vx) (kN) shall be determined from the following equation:
n
Vx = ∑F
i=x
i (Eq. 10.9.5)
where F i = the portion of the seismic base shear (V) (kN) induced at Level i.
10.9.5.1 Direct Shear. The seismic design story shear (Vx) (kN) shall be distributed to the
various vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system in the story under
consideration based on the relative lateral stiffness of the vertical resisting ele-
10.9.6 Overturning. The structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused
by the seismic forces determined in Section 10.9.4. At any story, the increment of
overturning moment in the story under consideration shall be distributed to the
various vertical elements of the lateral force-resisting system in the same
proportion as the distribution of the horizontal shears to those elements.
The overturning moments at Level x (Mx) (kN.m) shall be determined from the
following equation:
n
Mx = ∑ F (h
i= x
i i − hx ) (Eq. 10.9.6)
where
Fi = the portion of the seismic base shear (V) induced at Level i
h i and h x = the height (m) from the base to Level i or x
10.9.7 Drift Determination and P-Delta Effects. Story drifts and, where required,
member forces and moments due to P-delta effects shall be determined in
accordance with this Section. Determination of story drifts shall be based on the
application of the design seismic forces to a mathematical model of the physical
SBC 301 2007 10/17
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
structure. The model shall include the stiffness and strength of all elements that
are significant to the distribution of forces and deformations in the structure and
shall represent the spatial distribution of the mass and stiffness of the structure.
In addition, the model shall comply with the following:
For determining compliance with the story drift limitation of Section 10.12, the
deflections at the center of mass of Level x ( δ x) (mm) shall be calculated as
required in this Section. For the purposes of this drift analysis only, the upper-
bound limitation specified in Section 9.5.5.3 on the computed fundamental
period, T, in seconds, of the building does not apply for computing forces and
displacements.
Where applicable, the design story drift ( ∆ ) (mm) shall be increased by the
incremental factor relating to the P-delta effects as determined in Section
10.9.7.2.
10.9.7.2 P-Delta Effects. P-delta effects on story shears and moments, the resulting
member forces and moments, and the story drifts induced by these effects are not
required to be considered when the stability coefficient ( θ ) as determined by the
following equation is equal to or less than 0.10:
SBC 301 2007 10/18
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
Px ∆
θ = (Eq. 10.9.7.2-1)
V x hsx C d
where
Px = the total vertical design load at and above Level x. (kN); when
computing Px, no individual load factor need exceed 1.0
∆ = the design story drift as defined in Section 10.9.7.1 occurring
simultaneously with Vx, (mm)
Vx = the seismic shear force acting between Levels x and x - 1, (kN)
hsx = the story height below Level x, (mm)
Cd = the deflection amplification factor in Table 10.2
0.5
θ max = ≤ 0.25 (Eq. 10.9.7.2-2)
β Cd
where β is the ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story between Level
x and x - 1. This ratio may be conservatively taken as 1.0.
When the stability coefficient ( θ ) is greater than 0.10 but less than or equal to
θ max the incremental factor related to P-delta effects (ad) shall be determined by
rational analysis. To obtain the story drift for including the P-delta effect, the
design story drift determined in Section 10.9.7.1 shall be multiplied by 1.0/(1 -
θ ).
When θ is greater than θ max , the structure is potentially unstable and shall be
redesigned.
When the P-delta effect is included in an automated analysis, Eq. 10.9.7.2-2 must
still be satisfied, however, the value of θ computed from Eq. 10.9.7.2-1 using the
results of the P-delta analysis may be divided by (1 + θ ) before checking Eq.
10.9.7.2-2.
SECTION 10.10
MODAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
10.10.1 General. Section 10.10 provides required standards for the modal analysis
procedure of seismic analysis of structures. See Section 10.6 for requirements for
use of this procedure. The symbols used in this method of analysis have the same
meaning as those for similar terms used in Section 10.7, with the subscript m
denoting quantities in the mth mode.
10.10.4 Periods. The required periods, mode shapes, and participation factors of the
structure in the direction under consideration shall be calculated by established
methods of structural analysis for the fixed-base condition using the masses and
elastic stiffnesses of the seismic force-resisting system.
10.10.5 Modal Base Shear. The portion of the base shear contributed by the mth mode
(V m ) shall be determined from the following equations:
V m = C sm W m Eq. (10.10.5-1)
2
⎛ n ⎞
⎜
⎜ ∑ wi φ im ⎟
⎟
Wm = ⎝ n ⎠
i =1
Eq. (10.10.5-2)
∑i =1
wi φ im
2
where
Csm = the modal seismic design coefficient determined below
Wm = the effective modal gravity load
wi = the portion of the total gravity load of the structure at Level i
φ im = the displacement amplitude at the ith level of the structure when
vibrating in its mth mode
4 S D1
Csm = (Eq. 10.10.5-4)
(R / I )Tm2
10.10.6 Modal Forces, Deflections, and Drifts. The modal force ( F xm) at each level
shall be determined by the following equations:
and
w xφ xm
Cvxm = n
(Eq. 10.10.6-2)
∑w φ
i =1
i im
where
Cvxm = the vertical distribution factor in the mth mode
Vm = the total design lateral force or shear at the base in the mth mode
wi and wx = the portion of the total gravity load of the structure (W) located or
assigned to Level i or x
φ xm = the displacement amplitude at the xth level of the structure when
vibrating in its mth mode
φ im = the displacement amplitude at the ith level of the structure when
vibrating in its mth mode
The modal deflection at each level ( δ x m) shall be determined by the following
equations:
C d δ xem
δ xm = (Eq. 10.10.6-3)
I
and
⎛ g ⎞ ⎛⎜ Tm Fxm ⎞
2
δ xem = ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (Eq. 10.10.6-4)
⎝ 4π 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ w x ⎟
⎠
where
Cd = the deflection amplification factor determined from Table 10.2
δ xem = the deflection of Level x in the mth mode at the center of the mass at
Level x determined by an elastic analysis
g = the acceleration due to gravity (m2/sec)
I = the occupancy importance factor deter-mined in accordance with
Section 9.5
Tm = the modal period of vibration, in seconds, of the mth mode of the
structure
Fxm = the portion of the seismic base shear in the mth mode, induced at Level
x, and
wx = the portion of the total gravity load of the structure (W) located or
assigned to Level x
The modal drift in a story ( ∆ m) shall be computed as the difference of the
deflections ( δ xm) at the top and bottom of the story under consideration.
10.10.7 Modal Story Shears and Moments. The story shears, story overturning
moments, and the shear forces and overturning moments in vertical elements of
the structural system at each level due to the seismic forces determined from the
appropriate equation in Section 10.10.6 shall be computed for each mode by
linear static methods.
10.10.8 Design Values. The design value for the modal base shear (Vt), each of the story
shear, moment and drift quantities, and the deflection at each level shall be
determined by combining their modal values as obtained from Sections 10.10.6
and 10.10.7. The combination shall be carried out by taking the square root of the
sum of the squares of each of the modal values or where closely spaced periods in
the translational and torsional modes result in significant cross-correlation of the
modes, the complete quadratic combination (CQC) method, shall be used.
A base shear (V) shall be calculated using the equivalent lateral force procedure
in Section 10.9. For the purpose of this calculation, a fundamental period of the
structure (T), in seconds, shall not exceed the coefficient for upper limit on the
calculated period (Cu) times the approximate fundamental period of the structure
( Ta) . Where the design value for the modal base shear (Vt) is less than 85% of
the calculated base shear (V) using the equivalent lateral force procedure, the
design story shears, moments, drifts, and floor deflections shall be multiplied by
the following modification factor:
V
0.85 (Eq. 10.10.8)
Vt
where
V = the equivalent lateral force procedure base shear, calculated in
accordance with this section and Section 10.9, and
Vt = the modal base shear, calculated in accordance with this section
10.10.11 P-Delta Effects. The P-delta effects shall be determined in accordance with
Section 10.9.7. The story drifts and base shear used to determine the story shears
shall be determined in accordance with Section 10.9.7.1.
SECTION 10.11
DESIGN AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
The design and detailing of the components of the seismic force-resisting system
shall comply with the requirements of this Section. Foundation design shall
conform to the applicable requirements of Section 10.13. The materials and the
systems composed of those materials shall conform to the requirements and
limitations of Sections 11.1 through 11.4 for the applicable category.
10.11.1 Seismic Design Category A. The design and detailing of structures assigned to
Category A shall comply with the requirements of this Section.
10.11.1.1 Load Path Connections. All parts of the structure between separation joints shall
be interconnected to form a continuous path to the seismic force-resisting system,
and the connections shall be capable of transmitting the seismic force (Fp)
induced by the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall
be tied to the remainder of the structure with elements having a design strength
capable of transmitting a seismic force of 0.133 times the short period design
spectral response acceleration coefficient, SDS, times the weight of the smaller
portion or 5% of the portion's weight, whichever is greater. This connection force
does not apply to the overall design of the lateral-force-resisting system.
Connection design forces need not exceed the maxi-mum forces that the structural
system can deliver to the connection.
A positive connection for resisting a horizontal force acting parallel to the
member shall be provided for each beam, girder, or truss to its support. The
connection shall have a minimum strength of 5% of the dead plus live load
reaction. One means to provide the strength is to use connecting elements such as
slabs.
10.11.1.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls. Concrete and masonry walls shall
be anchored to the roof and all floors and members that provide lateral support for
the wall or which are supported by the wall. The anchorage shall provide a direct
connection between the walls and the roof or floor construction. The connections
shall be capable of resisting the horizontal forces specified in Section 10.11.1.1
but not less than a minimum strength level, horizontal force of 4 kN/m of wall
substituted for E in the load combinations.
10.11.2.1 P-Delta Effects. P-delta effects shall be included where required by Section
SBC 301 2007 10/23
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
10.9.7.2.
10.11.2.2 Openings. Where openings occur in shear walls, diaphragms, or other plate-type
elements, reinforcement at the edges of the openings shall be designed to transfer
the stresses into the structure. The edge reinforcement shall extend into the body
of the wall or diaphragm a distance sufficient to develop the force in the
reinforcement. The extension must be sufficient in length to allow dissipation or
transfer of the force without exceeding the shear and tension capacity of the
diaphragm or the wall.
10.11.2.3 Direction of Seismic Load. The direction of application of seismic forces used in
design shall be that which will produce the most critical load effect in each
component. This requirement will be deemed satisfied if the design seismic forces
are applied separately and independently in each of two orthogonal directions.
10.11.2.4 Discontinuities in Vertical System. Structures with a discontinuity in lateral
capacity, vertical irregularity Type 5 as defined in Table 10.3.2.2, shall not be
more than 2 stories or 9 m in height where the "weak" story has a calculated
strength of less than 65% of the story above.
Exception: The limit does not apply where the "weak" story is capable of
resisting a total seismic force equal to Ω o times the design force prescribed in
Section 10.7.
10.11.2.5 Nonredundant Systems. The design of a structure shall consider the potentially
adverse effect that the failure of a single member, connection, or component of
the seismic force-resisting system will have on the stability of the structure; see
Section 1.4.
10.11.2.6 Collector Elements. Collector elements shall be provided that are capable of
transferring the seismic forces originating in other portions of the structure to the
element providing the resistance to those forces.
10.11.2.7 Diaphragms. The deflection in the plane of the diaphragm, as determined by
engineering analysis, shall not exceed the permissible deflection of the attached
elements. Permissible deflection shall be that deflection which will permit the
attached element to maintain its structural integrity under the individual loading
and continue to support the prescribed loads.
Floor and roof diaphragms shall be designed to resist F p where Fp is the larger
of:
1. The portion of the design seismic force at the level of the diaphragm
that depends on the diaphragm for transmission to the vertical
elements of the seismic force-resisting system, or
2. Fp = 0.2SDS I wp + Vpx, (Eq. 10.11.2.7)
where
Fp = the seismic force induced by the parts
I = occupancy importance factor (Table 9.5)
S DS = the short period site design spectral response acceleration coefficient,
Section 9.4.1
wp = the weight of the diaphragm and other elements of the structure
attached to it
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SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
Vpx = the portion of the seismic shear force at the level of the diaphragm,
required to be transferred to the components of the vertical seismic
force-resisting system because of the offsets or changes in stiffness of
the vertical components above or below the diaphragm.
Diaphragms shall be designed for both the shear and bending stresses resulting
from these forces. Diaphragms shall have ties or struts to distribute the wall
anchorage forces into the diaphragm. Diaphragm connections shall be positive,
mechanical, or welded type connections.
At diaphragm discontinuities, such as openings and re-entrant corners, the design
shall ensure that the dissipation or transfer of edge (chord) forces combined with
other forces in the diaphragm is within shear and tension capacity of the
diaphragm.
10.11.2.8 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls. Exterior and interior bearing walls
and their anchorage shall be designed for a force normal to the surface equal to
40% of the short period design spectral response acceleration, SDS, times the
occupancy importance factor, I, multiplied by the weight of wall (W c) associated
with the anchor, with a minimum force of 10% of the weight of the wall.
Interconnection of wall elements and connections to supporting framing systems
shall have sufficient ductility, rotational capacity, or sufficient strength to resist
shrinkage, thermal changes, and differential foundation settlement when
combined with seismic forces. The connections shall also satisfy Section
10.11.1.2.
The anchorage of concrete or masonry walls to supporting construction shall
provide a direct connection capable of resisting the greater of the force 0.4 S DSI
W C as given above or 5.84 S DSI kN/m of wall or the force specified in Section
10.11.1.2. Walls shall be designed to resist bending between anchors where the
anchor spacing exceeds 1200 mm.
10.11.2.9 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures. Supporting columns or piers of inverted
pendulum-type structures shall be designed for the bending moment calculated at
the base determined using the procedures given in Section 10.7 and varying
uniformly to a moment at the top equal to one-half the calculated bending
moment at the base.
10.11.2.10 Anchorage of Nonstructural Systems. When required by Chapter 12, all
portions or components of the structure shall be anchored for the seismic force,
Fp, prescribed therein.
10.11.2.11 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames. Columns, beams,
trusses, or slabs supporting discontinuous walls or frames of structures having
plan irregularity Type 4 of Table 10.3.2.1 or vertical irregularity Type 4 of Table
10.3.2.2 shall have the design strength to resist the maximum axial force that can
develop in accordance with the special seismic loads of Section 10.4.1.
10.11.3.1 Collector Elements. Collector elements shall be provided that are capable of
transferring the seismic forces originating in other portions of the structure to the
element providing the resistance to those forces. Collector elements, splices, and
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SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
their connections to resisting elements shall resist the special seismic loads of
Section 10.4.1.
Exception: In structures or portions thereof braced entirely by light-frame shear
walls, collector elements, splices, and connections to resisting elements need only
be designed to resist forces in accordance with Eq. 10.11.4.4.
The quantity Ω o E in Eq. 10.4.1-1 need not exceed the maximum force that can be
transferred to the collector by the diaphragm and other elements of the lateral
force-resisting system.
where
Fp = the design force in the individual anchors
S DS = the design spectral response acceleration at short periods per Section
9.4.4
I = the occupancy importance factor per Section 9.5
W p = the weight of the wall tributary to the anchor
∑F
i=x
i
Fpx = n
w px (Eq. 10.11.4.4)
∑w
i= x
i
where
Fpx = the diaphragm design force
Fi = the design force applied to Level i
wi = the weight tributary to Level i
wpx = the weight tributary to the diaphragm at Level x
The force determined from Eq. 10.11.4.4 need not exceed 0.4SDSI wpx but shall not
be less than 0.2SDSIwpx. When the diaphragm is required to transfer design seismic
force from the vertical resisting elements above the diaphragm to other vertical
resisting elements below the diaphragm due to offsets in the placement of the
elements or to changes in relative lateral stiffness in the vertical elements, these
forces shall be added to those determined from Eq. 10.11.4.4.
SECTION 10.12
DEFLECTION, DRIFT LIMITS, AND BUILDING SEPARATION
10.12.1 Drift Limits. The design story drift ( ∆ ) as determined in Section 10.9.7 or 10.10.6,
shall not exceed the allowable story drift ( ∆ a) as obtained from Table 10.12 for any
story. For structures with significant torsional deflections, the maximum drift shall
include torsional effects.
10.12.2 Building Separation. All structures shall be separated from adjoining structures.
Separations shall allow for the displacement ( δ x) as determined in Section 10.9.7.1.
Adjacent buildings on the same property shall be separated by at least δ xt where
δ xt = (δ x1 )2 + (δ x 2 )2 (Eq. 10.12)
TABLE 10.12:
ALLOWABLE STORY DRIFT, ∆ aa
Occupancy Category
Structure
I, II III IV
Structures, other than masonry shear wall or masonry wall
frame structures, four stories or less with interior walls, b
partitions, ceilings and exterior wall systems that have been 0.025hsx 0.020hsx 0.015hsx
designed to accommodate the story drifts.
Masonry cantilever shear wall structuresc 0.010hsx 0.010hsx 0.010hsx
Other masonry shear wall structures 0.007hsx 0.007hsx 0.007hsx
Masonry wall frame structures 0.013hsx 0.013hsx 0.010hsx
All other structures 0.020hsx 0.015hsx 0.010hsx
a
hsx is the story height below Level x.
b
There shall be no drift limit for single-story structures with interior walls, partitions, ceilings,
and exterior wall systems that have been designed to accommodate the story drifts. The
structure separation requirement of Section 10.12 is not waived.
c
Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls designed as
vertical elements cantilevered from their base or foundation support which are so constructed
that moment transfer between shear walls (coupling) is negligible.
SECTION 10.13
FOUNDATION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
10.13.1 General. This Section includes only those foundation requirements that are
specifically related to seismic-resistant construction. It assumes compliance with
other basic requirements, which include, but are not limited to, the extent of the
foundation investigation, fills present or to be placed in the area of the structure,
slope stability, subsurface drainage, settlement control, and pile, requirements.
Except as specifically noted, the term "pile" as used in Sections 10.13.4.4 and
10.13.5.4 includes foundation piers, caissons, and piles, and the term "pile cap"
includes the elements to which piles are connected, including grade beams and
mats.
10.13.2 Seismic Design Category A. There are no special requirements for the
foundations of structures assigned to Category A.
10.13.3 Seismic Design Category B. The determination of the site coefficient, Section
9.4.3, shall be documented and the resisting capacities of the foundations,
subjected to the prescribed seismic forces of Chapters 9 and 10, shall meet the
following requirements.
10.13.5.1 Investigation. The owner shall submit to the authority having jurisdiction a
written report that includes an evaluation of the items in Section 10.13.4.1 and
the determination of lateral pressures on basement and retaining walls due to
earthquake motions.
10.13.5.2 Foundation Ties. Individual spread footings founded on soil defined in section
14.1.1 as Site class E or F shall be interconnected by ties. Ties shall conform to
Section 10.13.4.3.
10.13.5.3 Liquefaction Potential and Soil Strength Loss. The geotechnical report
required by Section 10.13.5.1 shall assess potential consequences of liquefaction
and soil strength loss, including estimation of differential settlement, lateral
movement or reduction in foundation soil-bearing capacity, and shall discuss
mitigation measures. Such measures shall be given consideration in the design of
the structure and can include, but are not limited to, ground stabilization,
selection of appropriate foundation type and depths, selection of appropriate
structural systems to accommodate anticipated displacements, or any
combination of these measures.
10.13.5.4 Special Pile and Grade Beam Requirements. Piling shall be designed and
constructed to withstand maximum imposed curvatures from earthquake ground
motions and structure response. Curvatures shall include free-field soil strains
(without the structure) modified for soil-pile-structure interaction coupled with
pile deformations induced by lateral pile resistance to structure seismic forces.
Concrete piles in Site class E or F shall be designed and detailed in accordance
with SBC 304 Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2 and 21.4.4.3 within seven pile
diameters of the pile cap and the interfaces of soft to medium stiff or liquefiable
strata. Refer to Section 15.3.2 for supplementary provisions in addition to those
SBC 301 2007 10/30
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
given in Section 15.3.1. Batter piles and their connections shall be capable of
resisting forces and moments from the special seismic load combinations of
Section 10.4.1. For precast, prestressed concrete piles, detailing provisions as
given in Section 15.3.2.4 shall apply.
Section 21.8.3.3 of SBC 304 need not apply when grade beams have the required
strength to resist the forces from the special seismic loads of Section 10.4.1.
Section 21.8.4.4 (a) of SBC 304 need not apply to concrete piles. Section
21.8.4.4 (b) of SBC 304 need not apply to precast, prestressed concrete piles.
Design of anchorage of piles into the pile cap shall consider the combined effect
of axial forces due to uplift and bending moments due to fixity to the pile cap.
For piles required to resist uplift forces or provide rotational restraint, anchorage
into the pile cap shall be capable of developing the following:
1. In the case of uplift, the lesser of the nominal tensile strength of the
longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile, or the nominal tensile
strength of a steel pile, or 1.3 times the pile pullout resistance, or the
axial tension force resulting from the special seismic loads of Section
10.4.1.
2. In the case of rotational restraint, the lesser of the axial and shear forces
and moments resulting from the special seismic loads of Section 10.4.1
or development of the full axial, bending, and shear nominal strength of
the pile.
Splices of pile segments shall develop the nominal strength of the pile section,
but the splice need not develop the nominal strength of the pile in tension, shear,
and bending when it has been designed to resist axial and shear forces and
moments from the special seismic loads of Section 10.4.1.
Pile moments, shears, and lateral deflections used for design shall be established
considering the interaction of the shaft and soil. Where the ratio of the depth of
embedment of the pile-to-the-pile diameter or width is less than or equal to 6, the
pile may be assumed to be flexurally rigid with respect to the soil.
Pile group effects from soil on lateral pile nominal strength shall be included
where pile center-to-center spacing in the direction of lateral force is less than
eight pile diameters or widths. Pile group effects on vertical nominal strength
shall be included where pile center-to-center spacing is less than three pile
diameters or widths.
SECTION 10.14
SUPPLEMENTARY METHODS OF ANALYSIS
10.14.1 Linear Response History Analysis. A linear response history analysis shall
consist of an analysis of a linear mathematical model of the structure to determine
its response, through methods of numerical integration, to suites of ground
motion acceleration histories compatible with the design response spectrum for
the site. For purposes of analysis, the structure shall be permitted to be
considered to be fixed at the base, or alternatively, it shall be permitted to use
realistic assumptions with regard to the stiffness of foundations.
CHAPTER 11
MATERIAL SPECIFIC SEISMIC DESIGN
AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 11.1
STEEL
SECTION 11.2
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
11.2.1 Reference Documents. The quality and testing of materials and the design and
construction of structural concrete components that resist seismic forces shall
conform to the requirements of SBC 304. Section 15.5 provides the
supplementary provisions for this compatibility. The load combinations of
Section 2.4.1 are not applicable for design of reinforced concrete to resist
earthquake loads.
SECTION 11.3
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
11.3.1 Reference Documents. The design, construction, and quality of composite steel
and concrete components that resist seismic forces shall conform to the relevant
requirements of SBC 304 and SBC 306 and the references listed (Ref. 11.3-1 and
Ref. 11.3-2) except as modified by the provisions of this chapter.
SECTION 11.4
MASONRY
CHAPTER 12
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR
NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
SECTION 12.1
GENERAL
12.1.1.1 Consensus Standards. The cited references (Ref. 12-1 through 12-13) are
consensus standards and are to be considered part of these provisions to the
extent referred to in this chapter.
12.1.1.2 Accepted Standards. The cited references (Ref. 12-14 through 12-21) are
standards developed within the industry and represent acceptable procedures for
design and construction.
12.1.2 Component Force Transfer. Components shall be attached such that the
component forces are transferred to the structure. Component seismic
attachments shall be bolted, welded, or otherwise positively fastened without
consideration of frictional resistance produced by the effects of gravity. A
continuous load path of sufficient strength and stiffness between the component
and the supporting structure shall be provided. Local elements of the supporting
structure shall be designed and constructed for the component forces where they
control the design of the elements or their connections. The component forces
shall be those determined in Section 12.1.3, except that modifications to Fp and
Rp due to anchorage conditions need not be considered. The design documents
shall include sufficient information relating to the attachments to verify
compliance with the requirements of this chapter.
12.1.3 Seismic Forces. Seismic forces (Fp) shall be determined in accordance with Eq.
12.1.3-1:
0.4a p S DS W p ⎛ z⎞
Fp = ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ (Eq. 12.1.3-1)
Rp / I p ⎝ h ⎠
Fp is not required to be taken as greater than
where
Fp = seismic design force centered at the component's center of gravity and
distributed relative to component's mass distribution
SDS = spectral acceleration, short period, as determined from Section 9.4.4
ap = component amplification factor that varies from 1.00 to 2.50 (select
appropriate value from Table 12.2.2 or 12.3.2)
Ip = component importance factor that varies from 1.00 to 1.50 (see Section
12.1.5)
Wp = component operating weight
Rp = component response modification factor that varies from 1.50 to 5.00
(select appropriate value from Tables 12.2.2 or 12.3.2)
z = height in structure of point of attachment of component with respect to
the base. For items at or below the base, z shall be taken as 0. The value
of z/h need not exceed 1.0
h = average roof height of structure with respect to the base
The force (Fp) shall be applied independently, longitudinally and laterally in
combination with service loads associated with the component. Combine
horizontal and vertical load effects as indicated in Section 10.4 substituting F p
for the term QE. The reliability/redundancy factor, ρ , is permitted to be taken
equal to 1.
When positive and negative wind loads exceed F p for nonbearing exterior wall,
these wind loads shall govern the design. Similarly, when the building code
horizontal loads exceed F p for interior partitions, these building code loads shall
govern the design.
For two connection points on the same Structure A or the same structural system,
one at a height h x and the other at a height h y, D p shall be determined as
Dp = δ xA - δ yA (Eq. 12.1.4-1)
where
D p = relative seismic displacement that the component must be designed to
accommodate
δ xA = deflection at building Level x of Structure A, determined by an elastic
analysis as defined in Section 10.9.7.1
δ yA = deflection at building Level y of Structure A, determined by an elastic
analysis as defined in Section 10.9.7.1
δ yB = deflection at building Level y of Structure B, determined by an elastic
analysis as defined in Section 10.9.7.1
h x = height of Level x to which upper connection point is attached
hy = height of Level y to which lower connection point is attached
∆ aA = allowable story drift for Structure A as defined in Table 10.12
∆ aB = allowable story drift for Structure B as defined in Table 10.12
hsx = story height used in the definition of the allowable drift ∆ a in Table
10.12, note that ∆ a/ hsx = the drift index
12.1.5 Component Importance Factor. The component importance factor (Ip) shall be
selected as follows:
Ip = 1.5 for life safety component required to function after an earthquake (e.g.,
fire protection sprinkler system)
Ip = 1.5 for component that contains hazardous content
Ip = 1.5 for storage racks in structures open to the public (e.g., warehouse
retails stores)
Ip = 1.0 for all other components
In addition, for structures in Occupancy Category IV:
Ip = 1.5 for all components needed for continued operation of the facility or
whose failure could impair the continued operation of the facility
12.1.6.1 The force in the connected part shall be determined based on the prescribed forces
for the component specified in Section 12.1.3. Where component anchorage is
provided by shallow expansion anchors, shallow chemical anchors, or shallow
(low deformability) cast-in-place anchors, a value of Rp = 1.5 shall be used in
Section 12.1.3 to determine the forces in the connected part.
12.1.6.2 Anchors embedded in concrete or masonry shall be proportioned to carry the least
of the following:
a. The design strength of the connected part,
b. 1.3 times the force in the connected part due to the prescribed forces, or
SBC 301 2007 12/4
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
c. The maximum force that can be transferred to the connected part by the
component structural system.
12.1.6.3 Determination of forces in anchors shall take into account the expected conditions
of installation including eccentricities and prying effects.
12.1.6.4 Determination of force distribution of multiple anchors at one location shall take
into account the stiffness of the connected system and its ability to redistribute
loads to other anchors in the group beyond yield.
12.1.6.5 Powder driven fasteners shall not be used for tension load applications in Seismic
Design Category D unless approved for such loading.
12.1.6.6 The design strength of anchors in concrete shall be determined in accordance with
the provisions of Section 11.2.
SECTION 12.2
ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENT DESIGN
12.2.4.1 General. Exterior nonstructural wall panels or elements that are attached to or
enclose the structure shall be designed to resist the forces in accordance with Eq.
12.1.3-1 or 12.1.3-2, and shall accommodate movements of the structure resulting
from response to the design basis ground motion, Dp, or temperature changes.
Such elements shall be supported by means of positive and direct structural
supports or by mechanical connections and fasteners. The support system shall be
designed in accordance with the following:
a. Connections and panel joints shall allow for the story drift caused by
relative seismic displacements (Dp) determined in Section 12.1.4, or 13
mm, whichever is greatest.
SBC 301 2007 12/5
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
b. Connections to permit movement in the plane of the panel for story drift
shall be sliding connections using slotted or oversize holes, connections
that permit movement by bending of steel, or other connections that
provide equivalent sliding or ductile capacity.
c. The connecting member itself shall have sufficient ductility and rotation
capacity to preclude fracture of the concrete or brittle failures at or near
welds.
d. All fasteners in the connecting system such as bolts, inserts, welds, and
dowels and the body of the connectors shall be designed for the force
(Fp) determined by Eq. 12.1.3-2 with values of Rp and ap taken from
Table 12.2.2 applied at the center of mass of the panel.
e. Anchorage using flat straps embedded in concrete or masonry shall be
attached to or hooked around reinforcing steel or otherwise terminated so
as to effectively transfer forces to the reinforcing steel or to assure that
pullout of anchorage is not the initial failure mechanism.
TABLE 12.1.7:
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
Required
Section Reference
Component Description Seismic Design
Quality Assurance Design Categories
Exterior wall panels, including anchorage 15.2.4.8 No. 1 12.2.4 D
Suspended ceiling system, including anchorage 15.2.4.8 No. 2 12.2.6 D
Access floors, including anchorage 15.2.4.8 No. 2 12.2.7 D
Steel storage racks, including anchorage 15.2.4.8 No. 2 12.2.9 D
Glass in glazed curtain walls, glazed storefronts, and
interior glazed partitions, including anchorage 15.2.4.8 No. 3 12.2.10 D
HVAC ductwork containing hazardous materials,
including anchorage 15.2.4.9 No. 3 12.3.10 C, D
12.3.11
Piping systems and mechanical units containing 12.3.12
15.2.4.9 No. 2 C, D
flammable, combustible, or highly toxic materials 12.3.13
Anchorage of electrical equipment for emergency or
standby power systems 15.2.4.9 No. 1 12.3.14 C, D
Project-specific requirements for mechanical and
electrical components and their anchorage 15.2.5.5 12.3 C, D
TABLE 12.2.2:
ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENT COEFFICIENTS
12.2.4.2 Glass. Glass in glazed curtain walls and storefronts shall be designed and
installed in accordance with Section 12.2.10.
12.2.6 Suspended Ceilings. Suspended ceilings shall be designed to meet the seismic
force requirements of Section 12.2.6.1. In addition, suspended ceilings shall meet
the requirements of either industry standard construction as modified in Section
12.2.6.2 or integral construction as specified in Section 12.2.6.3.
12.2.6.1 Seismic Forces. Suspended ceilings shall be designed to meet the force
requirements of Section 12.1.3.
The weight of the ceiling, Wp, shall include the ceiling grid and panels; light
fixtures if attached to, clipped to, or laterally supported by the ceiling grid; and
other components which are laterally supported by the ceiling. Wp shall be taken
as not less than 20 N/m2.
The seismic force, Fp, shall be transmitted through the ceiling attachments to the
building structural elements or the ceiling-structure boundary.
Design of anchorage and connections shall be in accordance with these
provisions.
12.2.6.2 Industry Standard Construction. Unless designed in accordance with Section
12.2.6.3, suspended ceilings shall be designed and constructed in accordance with
this Section.
12.2.6.2.1 Seismic Design Category C. Suspended ceilings in Seismic Design Category C
shall be designed and installed in accordance with the CISCA recommendations
for seismic Zones 0-2, (Ref. 12-16), except that seismic forces shall be
determined in accordance with Sections 12.1.3 and 12.2.6.1.
Sprinkler heads and other penetrations in Seismic Design Category C shall have a
minimum of 6 mm clearance on all sides.
12.2.6.2.2 Seismic Design Category D. Suspended ceilings in Seismic Design Category D
shall be designed and installed in accordance with the CISCA recommendations
for seismic Zones 3-4 (Ref. 12-17) and the additional requirements listed in this
subsection.
a. A heavy duty T-bar grid system shall be used.
b. The width of the perimeter supporting closure angle shall be not less
than 50 mm. In each orthogonal horizontal direction, one end of the
ceiling grid shall be attached to the closure angle. The other end in each
horizontal direction shall have a 20 mm clearance from the wall and shall
rest upon and be free to slide on a closure angle.
c. For ceiling areas exceeding 100 m2, horizontal restraint of the ceiling to
the structural system shall be provided. The tributary areas of the
horizontal restraints shall be approximately equal.
Exception: Rigid braces are permitted to be used instead of diagonal
splay wires. Braces and attachments to the structural system above shall
be adequate to limit relative lateral deflections at point of attachment of
ceiling grid to less than 6 mm for the loads prescribed in Section 12.1.3.
d. For ceiling areas exceeding 250 m2, a seismic separation joint or full
height partition that breaks the ceiling up into areas not exceeding 250
m2 shall be provided unless structural analyses are performed of the
ceiling bracing system for the prescribed seismic forces which
demonstrate ceiling system penetrations and closure angles provide
sufficient clearance to accommodate the additional movement. Each area
shall be provided with closure angles in accordance with Item b and hor-
izontal restraints or bracing in accordance with Item c.
e. Except where rigid braces are used to limit lateral deflections, sprinkler
heads and other penetrations shall have a 50 mm over-size ring, sleeve,
SBC 301 2007 12/8
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
or adapter through the ceiling tile to allow for free movement of at least
25 mm in all horizontal directions. Alternatively, a swing joint that can
accommodate 25 mm of ceiling movement in all horizontal directions are
permitted to be provided at the top of the sprinkler head extension.
f. Changes in ceiling plan elevation shall be provided with positive
bracing.
g. Cable trays and electrical conduits shall be supported independently of
the ceiling.
h. Suspended ceilings shall be subject to the special inspection
requirements of Section 15.2.4.8.
12.2.6.3 Integral Ceiling/Sprinkler Construction. As an alternative to providing large
clearances around sprinkler system penetrations through ceiling systems, the
sprinkler system and ceiling grid are permitted to be designed and tied together as
an integral unit. Such a design shall consider the mass and flexibility of all
elements involved, including: ceiling system, sprinkler system, light fixtures, and
mechanical (HVAC) appurtenances. The design shall be performed by a
registered design professional.
12.2.7.1 General. Access floors shall be designed to meet the force provisions of Section
12.1.3 and the additional provisions of this Section. The weight of the access
floor, Wp, shall include the weight of the floor system, 100% of the weight of all
equipment fastened to the floor, and 25% of the weight of all equipment
supported by, but not fastened to the floor. The seismic force, Fp, shall be
transmitted from the top surface of the access floor to the supporting structure.
Overturning effects of equipment fastened to the access floor panels also shall be
considered. The ability of "slip on" heads for pedestals shall be evaluated for
suitability to transfer overturning effects of equipment.
When checking individual pedestals for overturning effects, the maximum
concurrent axial load shall not exceed the portion of Wp assigned to the pedestal
under consideration.
12.2.7.2 Special Access Floors. Access floors shall be considered to be "special access
floors" if they are designed to comply with the following considerations:
1. Connections transmitting seismic loads consist of mechanical fasteners,
concrete anchors, welding, or bearing. Design load capacities comply
with recognized design codes and/or certified test results.
2. Seismic loads are not transmitted by friction, produced solely by the
effects of gravity, powder-actuated fasteners (shot pins), or adhesives.
3. The design analysis of the bracing system includes the destabilizing
effects of individual members buckling in compression.
4. Bracing and pedestals are of structural or mechanical shape produced to
ASTM specifications that specify minimum mechanical properties.
Electrical tubing shall not be used.
5. Floor stringers that are designed to carry axial seismic loads and that are
mechanically fastened to the supporting pedestals are used.
SBC 301 2007 12/9
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
12.2.8 Partitions.
12.2.8.1 General. Partitions that are tied to the ceiling and all partitions greater than 1.8 m
in height shall be laterally braced to the building structure. Such bracing shall be
independent of any ceiling splay bracing. Bracing shall be spaced to limit
horizontal deflection at the partition head to be compatible with ceiling deflection
requirements as determined in Section 12.2.6 for suspended ceilings and Section
12.2.2 for other systems.
12.2.8.2 Glass. Glass in glazed partitions shall be designed and installed in accordance
with Section 12.2.10.
12.2.9 Steel Storage Racks. Steel storage racks sup-ported at the base of the structure
shall be designed to meet the force requirements of Chapter 13. Steel storage
racks supported above the base of the structure shall be designed to meet the
force requirements of Sections 12.1 and 12.2.
12.2.10 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and Glazed Partitions.
12.2.10.1 General. Glass in glazed curtain walls, glazed storefronts, and glazed partitions
shall meet the relative displacement requirement of Eq. 12.2.10.1-1:
∆ fallout = the relative seismic displacement (drift) causing glass fallout from
the curtain wall, storefront wall, or partition (Section 12.2.10.2)
Dp = the relative seismic displacement that the component must be
designed to accommodate (Eq. 12.1.4-1). D p shall be applied over
the height of the glass component under consideration
I = the occupancy importance factor (Table 9.5)
Exceptions:
1. Glass with sufficient clearances from its frame such that physical contact
between the glass and frame will not occur at the design drift, as
demonstrated by Eq. 12.2.10.1-2, shall be exempted from the provisions
of Eq. 12.2.10.1-1:
Dclear ≥ 1.25 Dp (Eq. 12.2.10.1-2)
where
⎛ h p c2 ⎞
Dclear = 2c1 ⎜⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ b p c1 ⎟⎠
hp = the height of the rectangular glass
bp = the width of the rectangular glass
c1 = the clearance (gap) between the vertical glass edges and the frame,
and
c2 = the clearance (gap) between the horizontal glass edges and the
frame
SECTION 12.3
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENT DESIGN
12.3.1 General. Attachments and equipment supports for the mechanical and electrical
systems, components, or elements (hereinafter referred to as "components") shall
meet the requirements of Sections 12.3.2 through 12.3.16.
12.3.3 Mechanical and Electrical Component Period. The fundamental period of the
mechanical and electrical component (and its attachment to the building), Tp,
shall be determined by the following equation provided that the component and
attachment can be reasonably represented analytically by a simple spring and
mass single degree of freedom system:
Wp
Tp = 2 π (Eq. 12.3.3)
Kpg
where
Tp = component fundamental period
Wp = component operating weight
g = gravitational acceleration
Kp = stiffness of resilient support system of the component and attachment,
determined in terms of load per unit deflection at the center of gravity
of the component
Note that consistent units must be used.
Otherwise, determine the fundamental period of the component in seconds (Tp)
from experimental test data or by a properly substantiated analysis.
12.3.5 Component Supports. Mechanical and electrical component supports and the
means by which they are attached to the component shall be designed for the
forces determined in Section 12.1.3 and in conformance with Sections 11.1
through 11.4, as appropriate, for the materials comprising the means of
attachment. Such supports include structural members, braces, frames, skirts,
legs, saddles, pedestals, cables, guys, stays, snubbers, and tethers, as well as
element forged or cast as a part of the mechanical or electrical component. If
standard or proprietary supports are used, they shall be designed by either load
rating (i.e., testing) or for the calculated seismic forces. In addition, the stiffness
of the support, when appropriate, shall be designed such that the seismic load
path for the component performs its intended function.
Component supports shall be designed to accommodate the seismic relative
displacements between points of support determined in accordance with Section
12.1.4.
In addition, the means by which supports are attached to the component, except
when integral (i.e., cast or forged), shall be designed to accommodate both the
forces and displacements determined in accordance with Sections 12.1.3 and
12.1.4. If the value of l p = 1.5 for the component, the local region of the support
attachment point to the component shall be evaluated for the effect of the load
transfer on the component wall.
12.3.7 Utility and Service Lines at Structure Interfaces. At the interface of adjacent
structures or portions of the same structure that may move independently, utility
lines shall be provided with adequate flexibility to accommodate the anticipated
differential movement between the portions that move independently.
Differential displacement calculations shall be determined in accordance with
Section 12.1.4.
TABLE 12.3.2:
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS
12.3.10 HVAC Ductwork. Attachments and supports for HVAC ductwork systems shall
be designed to meet the force and displacement provisions of Sections 12.1.3 and
12.1.4 and the additional provisions of this Section. In addition to their
attachments and supports, ductwork systems designated as having an Ip = 1.5
themselves shall be designed to meet the force and displacement provisions of
Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4 and the additional provisions of this Section. Where
HVAC ductwork runs between structures that could displace relative to one
another and for seismically isolated structures where the HVAC ductwork
crosses the seismic isolation interface, the HVAC ductwork shall be designed to
accommodate the seismic relative displacements specified in Section 12.1.4.
Seismic restraints are not required for HVAC ducts with Ip = 1.0 if either of the
following conditions are met:
SBC 301 2007 12/13
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
a. HVAC ducts are suspended from hangers 300 mm or less in length from
the top of the duct to the supporting structure. The hangers shall be
detailed to avoid significant bending of the hangers and their
attachments,
or
b. HVAC ducts have a cross-sectional area of less than 0.6 m2.
Equipment items installed in-line with the duct system (e.g., fans, heat
exchangers, and humidifiers) weighing more than 350 N shall be supported and
laterally braced independent of the duct system and shall meet the force
requirements of Section 12.1.3. Appurtenances such as dampers, louvers, and
diffusers shall be positively attached with mechanical fasteners. Unbraced piping
attached to in-line equipment shall be provided with adequate flexibility to
accommodate differential displacements.
12.3.11 Piping Systems. Attachments and supports for piping systems shall be designed
to meet the force and displacement provisions of Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4 and
the additional provisions of this Section. In addition to their attachments and
supports, piping systems designated as having Ip = 1.5 themselves shall be
designed to meet the force and displacement provisions of Sections 12.1.3 and
12.1.4 and the additional provisions of this Section. Where piping systems are
attached to structures that could displace relative to one another and for
seismically isolated structures where the piping system crosses the seismic
isolation interface, the piping system shall be designed to accommodate the
seismic relative displacements specified in Section 12.1.4.
Seismic effects that shall be considered in the design of a piping system include
the dynamic effects of the piping system, its contents, and, when appropriate, its
supports. The interaction between the piping system and the supporting
structures, including other mechanical and electrical equipment shall also be
considered.
12.3.11.1 Pressure Piping Systems. Pressure piping systems designed and constructed in
accordance with ASME B31 (Ref. 12-5) shall be deemed to meet the force,
displacement, and other provisions of this Section. In lieu of specific force and
displacement provisions provided in the ASME B31, the force and displacement
provisions of Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4 shall be used.
12.3.11.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems. Fire protection sprinkler systems designed
and constructed in accordance with NFPA 13, (Ref. 12-13) shall be deemed to
meet the other requirements of this Section, except the force and displacement
requirements of Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4 shall be satisfied.
12.3.11.3 Other Piping Systems. Piping designated as having an Ip = 1.5 but not designed
and constructed in accordance with ASME B31 (Ref. 12-5) or NFPA 13 (Ref. 12-
13) shall meet the following:
a. The design strength for seismic loads in combination with other service
loads and appropriate environmental effects shall not exceed the
following:
1. For piping systems constructed with ductile materials (e.g., steel,
aluminum, or copper), 90% of the piping material yield strength.
2. For threaded connections with ductile materials, 70% of the piping
SBC 301 2007 12/14
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
12.3.12 Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Attachments and supports for boilers and
pressure vessels shall be designed to meet the force and displacement provisions
of Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4 and the additional provisions of this Section. In
12.3.16.1 Reference Document. Elevators shall meet the force and displacement provisions
of Section 12.3.2 unless exempted by either Section 9.1.2.1 or Section 12.1.
Elevators designed in accordance with the seismic provisions of (Ref. 12-1) shall
be deemed to meet the seismic force requirements of this Section, except as
modified below.
12.3.16.2 Elevators and Hoistway Structural Sys-tem. Elevators and hoistway structural
systems shall be designed to meet the force and displacement provisions of
Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4.
12.3.16.3 Elevator Machinery and Controller Supports and Attachments. Elevator
machinery and controller supports and attachments shall be designed to meet with
the force and displacement provisions of Sections 12.1.3 and 12.1.4.
12.3.16.4 Seismic Controls. Seismic switches shall be provided for all elevators addressed
by Section 12.3.16.1 including those meeting the requirements of the ASME
reference, provided they operate with a speed of 46 m/min or greater.
Seismic switches shall provide an electrical signal indicating that structural
motions are of such a magnitude that the operation of elevators may be impaired.
Upon activation of the seismic switch, elevator operations shall conform to
provisions of (Ref. 12-1) except as noted below. The seismic switch shall be
located at or above the highest floor serviced by the elevators. The seismic switch
shall have two horizontal perpendicular axes of sensitivity. Its trigger level shall
be set to 30% of the acceleration of gravity.
In facilities where the loss of the use of an elevator is a life safety issue, the
elevator shall only be used after the seismic switch has triggered provided that:
1. The elevator shall operate no faster than the service speed,
2. Before the elevator is occupied, it is operated from top to bottom and
back to top to verify that it is operable, and
3. The individual putting the elevator back in service shall ride the elevator
from top to bottom and back to top to verify acceptable performance.
12.3.16.5 Retainer Plates. Retainer plates are required at the top and bottom of the car and
counterweight.
CHAPTER 13
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR
NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
SECTION 13.1
GENERAL
13.1.2 Design. The design of nonbuilding structures shall provide sufficient stiffness,
strength, and ductility consistent with the requirements specified herein for
buildings to resist the effects of seismic ground motions as represented by these
design forces:
a. Applicable strength and other design criteria shall be obtained from other
portions of the seismic provisions of this Code or its reference documents.
b. When applicable strength and other design criteria are not contained in, or
referenced by the seismic provisions of this Code, such criteria shall be
obtained from reference documents. Where reference documents define
acceptance criteria in terms of allowable stresses as opposed to strength, the
design seismic forces shall be obtained from this section and used in
combination with other loads as specified in Section 2.4 of this Code and
used directly with allowable stresses specified in the reference documents.
Detailing shall be in accordance with the reference documents.
Nonbuilding structures that are not similar to buildings shall be designed using
either the equivalent lateral force procedure in accordance with Section 10.9, the
modal analysis procedure in accordance with Section 10.10. The linear response
history analysis and the nonlinear response history analysis as per Section 10.14,
or the procedure prescribed in the specific reference document.
SECTION 13.2
REFERENCE STANDARDS
13.2.1 Consensus Standards. The cited references (Ref. 13.2-1 through 13.2-22) are
consensus standards and are to be considered part of the requirements of Chapter
9 through 12 to the extent referred to in Chapter 13.
13.2.2 Accepted Standards. The cited references (Ref. 13.2-23 through 13.2-31) are
standards developed within the industry and represent acceptable procedures for
design and construction.
SECTION 13.3
NONBUILDING STRUCTURES SUPPORTED BY
OTHER STRUCTURES
13.3.1 Less Than 25 % Combined Weight Condition. For the condition where the
weight of the nonbuilding structure is less than 25 % of the combined weight of
the nonbuilding structure and supporting structure, the design seismic forces of the
nonbuilding structure shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 12 where the
values of Rp and ap shall be determined in accordance to Section 12.1. The
supporting structure shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of
Chapter 10 or 13.5 as appropriate with the weight of the nonbuilding structure
considered in the determination of the seismic weight, W.
13.3.2 Greater than or Equal to 25 % Combined Weight Condition. For the condition
where the weight of the nonbuilding structure is equal to or greater than 25 percent
of the combined weight of the nonbuilding structure and supporting structure, an
analysis combining the structural characteristics of both the nonbuilding structure
and the supporting structures shall be performed to determine the seismic design
forces as follows:
TABLE 13.2.3:
STANDARDS, INDUSTRY STANDARDS, AND REFERENCES
Application Reference
Steel Storage Racks RMI [25]
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ANSI/NFPA 59A [22], DOT Title 49CFR Part 193 [26]
ANSI/API 2510, 7th Edition [9], ANSI/NFPA 30 [19],
LPG (Propane, Butane, etc.)
ANSI/NFPA 58 [20], ANSI/NFPA 59 [21]
Ammonia ANSI K61.1 [5]
Liquefied Natural Gas ANSI/NFPA 59A [22], DOT Title 49CFR Part 193 [26]
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
ASME B31.8 [13]
Systems
Cast-in-Place Concrete Stacks and Chimneys ACI 307 [1]
SECTION 13.4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
13.4.1 Design Basis. Nonbuilding structures having specific seismic design criteria
established in reference documents shall be designed using the standards as
amended herein. When reference documents are not cited herein, nonbuilding
structures shall be designed in compliance with Sections 13.5 and 13.6 to resist
minimum seismic lateral forces that are not less than the requirements of Section
10.9 with the following additions and exceptions:
Exception:
Tanks and vessels that are designed to the following reference
documents AWWA 13.2-16, D103-97, Appendix E and Appendix L as
modified by this Code, shall be subject to the larger of the minimum
base shear values defined by the reference document or the following
equation:
Cs = 0.01 (Eq. 13.4-2)
Minimum base shear requirements need not apply to the convective
(sloshing) component of liquid in tanks.
SDS = the site design response acceleration as determined from Section 9.4.4
W = non building structure operating weight
I = the importance factor determined in accordance with Section 13.4.1.1.
The force shall be distributed with height in accordance with Section 10.9.4.
13.4.3 Loads. The weight W for nonbuilding structures shall include all dead load as
defined for structures in Section 10.7: For purposes of calculating design seismic
forces in nonbuilding structures, W also shall include all normal operating contents
for items such as tanks, vessels, bins, hoppers, and the contents of piping.
13.4.4 Fundamental Period. The fundamental period of the nonbuilding structure shall
be determined using the structural properties and deformation characteristics of the
resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis as indicated in Section
10.9.3. Alternatively, the fundamental period T may be computed from the
following equation:
∑w δ i i
2
i =1
T = 2π n
(Eq. 13.4-4)
g ∑fδ i i
i =1
The values of fi represent any lateral force distribution in accordance with the
principles of structural mechanics. The elastic deflections, δ i, shall be calculated
using the applied lateral forces, fi.
Equations 10.9.3.2-1, 10.9.3.2-1a, 10.9.3.2-2 and 10.9.3.2-3 shall not be used for
determining the period of a nonbuilding structure.
13.4.5 Drift Limitations. The drift limitations of Section 10.12 need not apply to
nonbuilding structures if a rational analysis indicates they can be exceeded without
adversely affecting structural stability or attached or interconnected components
and elements such as walkways and piping. P-delta effects shall be considered
when critical to the function or stability of the structure.
13.4.7 Deflection Limits and Structure Separation. Deflection limits and structure
separation shall be determined in accordance with this Code unless specifically
amended in Chapter 13.
SECTION 13.5
NONBUILDING STRUCTURES SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS
13.5.2.1 Design Basis. In addition to the provisions of 13.5.1, pipe racks supported at the
base of the structure shall be designed to meet the force requirements of Section
10.9 or 10.10.
Displacements of the pipe rack and potential for interaction effects (pounding of
the piping system) shall be considered using the amplified deflections obtained
from the following equation:
C d δ xe
δx = (Eq.13.5-1)
I
where
13.5.3 Steel Storage Racks. In addition to the provisions of 13.5.1, steel storage racks
shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Sections 13.5.3.1 through
13.5.3.4. Alternatively, steel storage racks shall be permitted to be designed in
accordance with the method defined in Section 2.7 "Earthquake Forces" of where
the following changes are included:
1. The values of Ca and Cv used shall equal SDS/2.5 and SD1, respectively,
where SDS and SD1 are determined in accordance with Section 9.4.4 of this
Code.
2. The importance factor for storage racks in structures open to the public,
such as warehouse retail stores, shall be taken equal to 1.5.
3. For storage racks located at or below grade, the value of Cs used shall not
be less than 0.14 SDS. For storage racks located above grade, the value of
Cs used shall not be less than the value for Fp determined in accordance
with Section 12.1.3 of this Code where Rp is taken as equal to R from and
ap is taken as equal to 2.5.
13.5.3.1 General Requirements. Steel storage racks shall satisfy the force requirements of
this section.
Exception: Steel storage racks supported at the base are permitted to be
designed as structures with an R of 4, provided that the seismic
requirements of this Code are met. Higher values of R are permitted to be
used when the detailing requirements of reference documents listed in 11.1
are met. The importance factor for storage racks in structures open to the
SBC 301 2007 13/7
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
Table 13.4-1:
Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures Similar to Buildings.
Structural System and
Nonbuilding Structure Type R Ωo Cd Height Limits (m)a
A&B C D
Building frame system:
Notes:
a NL = no limit and NP = not permitted. Height shall be measured from the base.
b Steel ordinary braced frames are permitted in pipe racks up to 20 m.
c Steel ordinary moment frames and intermediate moment frames are permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 20 m where the
moment joints of field connections are constructed of bolted end plates.
d Steel ordinary moment frames and intermediate moment frames are permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 11 m.
Table 13.4-2:
Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures NOT Similar to Buildings.
Structural System and
Nonbuilding Structure Type R Ωo Cd Height Limits (m)a
A&B C D
Steel Storage Racks 3 2 3.5 NL NL NL
Elevated tanks, vessels, bins, or hoppers:
Table 13.4-2:
Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures NOT Similar to Buildings (Contd…..).
Structural System and
Nonbuilding Structure Type R Ωo Cd Height Limits (m)a
A&B C D
Trussed towers (freestanding or guyed),
2 2 2.5 NL NL NL
guyed stacks and chimneys
Cooling towers:
13.5.4.1 General. Electrical power generating facilities are power plants that generate
electricity by steam turbines, combustion turbines, diesel generators, or similar
turbo machinery.
13.5.4.2 Design Basis. In addition to the provisions of 13.5.1, electrical power generating
facilities shall be designed using this Code and the appropriate factors contained in
Section 13.4.
13.5.5.1 General. In addition to the provisions of 13.5.1, structural towers which support
tanks and vessels shall be designed to meet the provisions of Section 13.3. In
addition, the following special considerations shall be included:
a. The distribution of the lateral base shear from the tank or vessel onto the
supporting structure shall consider the relative stiffness of the tank and
resisting structural elements.
b. The distribution of the vertical reactions from the tank or vessel onto the
supporting structure shall consider the relative stiffness of the tank and
resisting structural elements. When the tank or vessel is supported on
grillage beams, the calculated vertical reaction due to weight and
overturning shall be increased at least 20 percent to account for non-
uniform support. The grillage beam and vessel attachment shall be
designed for this increased design value.
c. Seismic displacements of the tank and vessel shall consider the
SBC 301 2007 13/10
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
13.5.6.1 General. Piers and wharves are structures located in waterfront areas that project
into a body of water or parallel the shore line.
13.5.6.2 Design Basis. In addition to the provisions of 13.5.1, piers and wharves that are
accessible to the general public, such as cruise ship terminals and piers with retail
or commercial offices or restaurants, shall be designed to comply with this Code.
The design shall account for the effects of liquefaction and soil failure collapse
mechanisms, as well as consider all applicable marine loading combinations, such
as mooring, berthing, wave and current on piers and wharves as required.
Structural detailing shall consider the effects of the marine environment.
SECTION 13.6
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING
STRUCTURES NOT SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS
Nonbuilding structures that do not have lateral and vertical seismic force-resisting
systems that are similar to buildings shall be designed as modified by this section
and the specific reference documents. Loads and load distributions shall not be less
demanding than those determined in this Code. The combination of load effects, E,
shall be determined in accordance with Section 10.4.
Exception: The redundancy factor, ρ , per Section. 10.3.3 shall be taken as 1.
13.6.1 Earth-Retaining Structures. This section applies to all earth-retaining walls. The
applied seismic forces shall be determined in accordance with Section 10.13.5.1
with a geotechnical analysis prepared by a registered design professional.
The occupancy category shall be determined by the proximity of the retaining wall
to buildings and other structures. If failure of the retaining wall would affect an
adjacent structure, the occupancy category shall not be less than that of the
adjacent structure, as determined from Table 1.6-1. Earth-retaining walls are
permitted to be designed for seismic loads as either yielding or non-yielding walls.
Cantilevered reinforced concrete retaining walls shall be assumed to be yielding
walls and shall be designed as simple flexural wall elements.
13.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys. Stacks and chimneys shall be permitted to be either lined
or unlined, and shall be constructed from concrete, steel, or masonry. Steel stacks,
concrete stacks, steel chimneys, concrete chimneys, and liners shall be designed to
resist seismic lateral forces determined from a substantiated analysis using
reference documents. Interaction of the stack or chimney with the liners shall be
considered. A minimum separation shall be provided between the liner and
chimney equal to Cd times the calculated differential lateral drift.
13.6.4 Special Hydraulic Structures. Special hydraulic structures are structures that are
contained inside liquid containing structures. These structures are exposed to
liquids on both wall surfaces at the same head elevation under normal operating
conditions. Special hydraulic structures are subjected to out-of-plane forces only
during an earthquake when the structure is subjected to differential hydrodynamic
fluid forces. Examples of special hydraulic structures include: separation walls,
baffle walls, weirs, and other similar structures.
13.6.4.1 Design Basis. Special hydraulic structures shall be designed for out-of-phase
movement of the fluid. Unbalanced forces from the motion of the liquid must be
applied simultaneously "in front of" and "behind" these elements.
Structures subject to hydrodynamic pressures induced by earthquakes shall be
designed for rigid body and sloshing liquid forces and their own inertia force. The
height of sloshing shall be determined and compared to the freeboard height of the
structure.
Interior elements, such as baffles or roof supports, also shall be designed for the
effects of unbalanced forces and sloshing.
13.6.5.1 Freeboard. Sloshing of the liquid within the secondary containment area shall be
considered in determining the height of the impound. Where the primary
containment has not been designed with a reduction in the structure category (i.e.,
no reduction in importance factor I) as permitted by Section 1.5.2, no freeboard
provision is required. Where the primary containment has been designed for a
reduced structure category (i.e., importance factor I reduced) as permitted by
Section 1.5.2, a minimum freeboard, δ S, shall be provided where
SECTION 13.7
TANKS AND VESSELS
13.7.1 General. This section applies to all tanks, vessels, bins and silos, and similar
containers storing liquids, gases, and granular solids supported at the base
(hereafter referred to generically as tanks and vessels). Tanks and vessels covered
herein include reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, aluminum, and
fiber-reinforced plastic materials. Tanks supported on elevated levels in buildings
shall be designed in accordance with Section 13.3.
13.7.2 Design Basis. Tanks and vessels storing liquids, gases, and granular solids shall be
designed in accordance with this Code and shall be designed to meet the
requirements of the applicable reference documents listed in Table 13.2.
Resistance to seismic forces shall be determined from a substantiated analysis
based on the applicable reference documents listed in Table 13.2.
where
Di = inside tank diameter (m)
HL = liquid height inside the tank (m).
y = distance from base of the tank to level being investigated (m).
γL = unit weight of stored liquid (kN/m3)
13.7.3 Strength and Ductility. Structural components and members that are part of the
lateral support system shall be designed to provide the following:
assumed. For attachment points located above the support or foundation elevation,
the displacements in Table 13.7-1 shall be increased to account for drift of the tank
or vessel relative to the base of support.
The piping system and tank connection shall also be designed to tolerate Cd times
the displacements given in Table 13.7-1 without rupture, although permanent
deformations and inelastic behavior in the piping supports and tank shell is
permitted. For attachment points located above the support or foundation
elevation, the displacements in Table 13.7-1 shall be increased to account for drift
of the tank or vessel.
The values given in Table 13.7-1 do not include the influence of relative
movements of the foundation and piping anchorage points due to foundation
movements (e.g., settlement, seismic displacements). The effects of the foundation
movements shall be included in the piping system design including the
determination of the mechanical loading on the tank or vessel, and the total
displacement capacity of the mechanical devices intended to add flexibility.
The anchorage ratio, J, for self-anchored tanks shall comply with the criteria
shown in Table 13.7-2 and is defined as:
M rw
J= (Eq. 13.7-2)
D 2
(wt + wa )
where
Ws
wt = + wr (Eq. 13.7-3)
πD
wr = roof load acting on the shell in pounds per foot of shell circumference.
Only permanent roof loads shall be included. Roof live load shall not be
included.
wa = maximum weight of the tank contents that may be used to resist the shell
overturning moment in pounds per foot of shell circumference. Usually
consists of an annulus of liquid limited by the bending strength of the
tank bottom or annular plate.
Mrw = the overturning moment applied at the bottom of the shell due to the
seismic design loads in foot-pounds (also known as the ring-wall
moment)
D = tank diameter in feet
Ws = total weight of tank shell in pounds
13.7.5 Anchorage. Tanks and vessels at grade shall be permitted to be designed without
anchorage when they meet the requirements for unanchored tanks in reference
documents. Tanks and vessels supported above grade on structural towers or
building structures shall be anchored to the supporting structure.
The following special detailing requirements shall apply to steel tank anchor bolts
in seismic regions where SDS > 0.5, or where the structure is classified as
Occupancy Category IV.
Table 13.7- 1:
Minimum Design Displacements for Piping Attachments.
Displacements
Condition
(mm)
Mechanically-Anchored Tanks and Vessels
Upward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation 25
Downward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation 12
Range of horizontal displacement (radial and tangential) relative to support or 12
foundation
If designed for seismic loads in accordance with this Code but not covered by a
reference document:
For tanks and vessels with a diameter less than 12 m 200
For tanks and vessels with a diameter equal to or greater than 12 m 300
13.7.6.1 General. Ground-supported, flat bottom tanks storing liquids shall be designed to
resist the seismic forces calculated using one of the following procedures:
a. The base shear and overturning moment calculated as if tank and the entire
contents are a rigid mass system per Section 13.4.2 of this Code, or
b. Tanks or vessels storing liquids in Occupancy Category IV, or with a
diameter greater than 6 m shall be designed to consider the hydrodynamic
pressures of the liquid in determining the equivalent lateral forces and
lateral force distribution per the applicable reference documents listed in
S D1T L
S ai = (Eq. 13.7-9)
Ti 2
Notes:
a. When a reference document is used in which the spectral acceleration for
the tank shell, and the impulsive component of the liquid is independent of
Ti, then Sai = SDS.
b. Eq. 13.7-8 and Eq. 13.7-9 shall not be less than the minimum values
required in Section 13.4.1 Item 2 multiplied by R/I.
c. For tanks in Occupancy Category IV, the value of the importance factor
(I) used for freeboard determination only shall be taken as 1.0.
d. For tanks in Occupancy Categories I, II and III, the value of TL used for
freeboard determination shall be permitted to be set equal to 4 seconds.
The value of the importance factor (I) used for freeboard determination for
tanks in Occupancy Categories I, II and III shall be the value determined
from Table 9.5.
e. Impulsive and convective seismic forces for tanks are permitted to be
combined using the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method
in lieu of the direct sum method shown in Section 13.7.6 and its related
subsections.
Sac = the spectral acceleration of the sloshing liquid based on the sloshing
period Tc and 0.5 percent damping
For Tc ≤ TL:
1.5 S D1
S ac = (Eq. 13.7-10)
Tc
For Tc > TL:
1.5 S D1T L
S ac = (Eq. 13.7-11)
Tc2
where
D
Tc = 2π (Eq. 13.7-12)
⎛ 3.68H ⎞
3.68 g tan h ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
and where
D = the tank diameter in meters, H = liquid height in m, and g = acceleration
due to gravity in consistent units
Wi = impulsive weight (impulsive component of liquid, roof and equipment,
shell, bottom, and internal components)
Wc = the portion of the liquid weight sloshing
as follows:
For cylindrical tanks, Di shall be the inside diameter of the tank; for
rectangular tanks, the term Di shall be replaced by the longer longitudinal
plan dimension of the tank, L.
b. The effects of sloshing shall be accommodated by means of one of the
following:
1. A minimum freeboard in accordance with Table 13.7-3.
2. A roof and supporting structure designed to contain the sloshing liquid
in accordance with subsection c below.
3. For open-top tanks or vessels only, an overflow spillway around the
tank or vessel perimeter.
c. If the sloshing is restricted because the freeboard is less than the computed
sloshing height, then the roof and supporting structure shall be designed
for an equivalent hydrostatic head equal to the computed sloshing height
less the freeboard. In addition, the design of the tank shall use the confined
portion of the convective (sloshing) mass as an additional impulsive mass.
13.7.6.1.3 Equipment and Attached Piping. Equipment, piping, and walkways or other
appurtenances attached to the structure shall be designed to accommodate the
displacements imposed by seismic forces. For piping attachments, see Section
13.7.4.
13.7.6.1.4 Internal Components. The attachments of internal equipment and accessories
which are attached to the primary liquid or pressure retaining shell or bottom, or
provide structural support for major components (e.g., a column supporting the
roof rafters) shall be designed for the lateral loads due to the sloshing liquid in
addition to the inertial forces by a substantiated analysis method.
13.7.6.1.5 Sliding Resistance. The transfer of the total lateral shear force between the tank or
vessel and the subgrade shall be considered:
a. For unanchored flat bottom steel tanks, the overall horizontal seismic shear
force is permitted to be resisted by friction between the tank bottom and the
foundation or subgrade. Unanchored storage tanks shall be designed such that
sliding will not occur when the tank is full of stored product. The maximum
calculated seismic base shear, V, shall not exceed:
V < W tan 30° (Eq. 13.7-14)
W shall be determined using the effective weight of the tank, roof, and
contents after reduction for coincident vertical earthquake. Lower values of the
friction factor shall be used if the design of the tank bottom to supporting
foundation does not justify the friction value above (e.g., leak detection
membrane beneath the bottom with a lower friction factor, smooth bottoms,
etc).
uniformly supported annulus under the shell. Uniform support shall be provided by
one of the following methods:
a. Shimming and grouting the annulus
b. Using fiberboard or other suitable padding
c. Using butt-welded bottom or annular plates resting directly on the
foundation
d. Using closely spaced shims (without structural grout) provided that the
localized bearing loads are considered in the tank wall and foundation to
prevent local crippling and spalling.
Anchored tanks shall be shimmed and grouted. Local buckling of the steel shell for
the peak compressive force due to operating loads and seismic overturning shall be
considered.
13.7.7.1 Welded Steel. Welded steel water storage tanks and vessels shall be designed in
accordance with the seismic requirements of ANSI/ AWWA D100-96 except that
the design input forces shall be modified as follows: The equations for base shear
and overturning moment are defined by the following equations for allowable
stress design procedures:
For Ts < Tc ≤ TL
⎡ ⎤
V ACT =
S DS
( ) Ts
⎢ W s + Wr + W f + W1 + 1.5 W2 ⎥
1.4 (R / I ) ⎣
(Eq 13.7-16)
Tc ⎦
S DS ⎡ Ts ⎤
M = ⎢(W s X s + W r H t + W1 X 1 ) + 1.5 W 2 X 2 ⎥ (Eq 13.7-17)
1.4 (R / I ) ⎣ Tc ⎦
For Tc > TL
⎡ ⎤
V ACT =
S DS I
( ) Ts TL
⎢ W s + W r + W f + W1 + 1.5 2 W 2 ⎥ (Eq 13.7-18)
1.4 R ⎢⎣ Tc ⎥⎦
S DS I ⎡ Ts TL ⎤
M = ⎢(W s X s + W r H t + W1 X 1 ) + 1.5 2 W 2 X 2 ⎥ (Eq 13.7-19)
1.4 R ⎣⎢ Tc ⎦⎥
a. Substitute the above equations for Eqs. 13-4 and 13-8 of ANSI/AWWA D100-
96 where SDS and Ts are defined in Section 9.4.4, TL is defined in Section
9.4.5, and R is defined in Table l3.4-2.
b. The hydrodynamic seismic hoop tensile stress is defined in Eqs. 13-20 through
13-25 in ANSI/AWWA D100-96. When using these equations, substitute Eq.
ZI
13.7-20 for directly into the equations.
Rw
S DS
(Eq. 13.7-20)
2.5 [1.4 (R / I )]
c. Sloshing height shall be calculated per Section 13.7.6.1.2 instead of Eq. 13-26
of ANSI/AWWA D100-96.
13.7.7.2 Bolted Steel. Bolted steel water storage structures shall be designed in accordance
with the seismic requirements of ANSI/AWWA D103-97 except that the design
input forces shall be modified in the same manner shown in Section 13.7.7.1 of
this Code requirement.
13.7.7.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. Reinforced and prestressed concrete tanks
shall be designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of ACI 530.3-01
except that the design input forces for allowable stress design procedures shall be
modified as follows:
a. For TI < To, and TI > Ts substitute the term Sa/[1.4 (R/I)] where Sa is defined in
Section 9.4.5, Subsections 1, 2, or 3, for the terms in the appropriate equations
as shown below:
ZC I
For shear and overturning moment equations of ANSI/AWWA D110-
(R1 / I )
95
ZC I
For shear and overturning moment equations of ANSI/AWWA D115-
(RW / I )
95
ZSC i
For in the base shear and overturning moment equations of ACI
(R i
/ I)
530.3-01
S DS ZC I ZSC i
b. For To ≤ TI ≤ Ts, substitute the terms for terms and
1.4 (R / I ) (Ri / I ) ( Ri / I )
ZC c ZC c ZSC c
c. For all values of Tc (or Tw), , and are replaced by
(Rc / I ) (RW / I) (Rc / I )
1.5 S D1 I T L 1.5 S DS ITS T L
or
Tc2 Tc2
where
Sa, SD1, SDS, To, Ts and TL are defined in Section 9.4.5 of this Code.
13.7.8.1 Welded Steel. Welded steel petrochemical and industrial tanks and vessels storing
liquids shall be designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of API 620-
02 and API 650-01 except that the design input forces for allowable stress design
procedures shall be modified as follows:
a. When using the equations in Section E.3 of API 650-01, substitute into the
equation for overturning moment M (where SDS, Ts and TL are defined in
Section 9.4.5 of this Code requirement. Thus,
In the range Ts < Tc ≤ TL,
M = SDSI[0.24(WsXs +WtHt +W1X1) + 0.80 C2TsW2X2]
(Eq. 13.7-21)
where
0.75 S
C2 = and S = 1.0
Tc
In the range Tw > TL, and
M = SDSI[0.24(WsXs +WtHt +W1X1) + 0.71 C2TsW2X2]
(Eq. 13.7-22)
where
0.8438 STL
C2 = and S = 1.0
Tc2
13.7.8.2 Bolted Steel. Bolted steel tanks used for storage of production liquids. API 12B-
95 covers the material, design, and erection requirements for vertical, cylindrical,
aboveground bolted tanks in nominal capacities of 100 to 10,000 barrels for
production service. Unless required by the building official having jurisdiction,
these temporary structures need not be designed for seismic loads. If design for
seismic load is required, the loads may be adjusted for the temporary nature of the
anticipated service life.
13.7.8.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. Reinforced concrete tanks for the storage
of petrochemical and industrial liquids shall be designed in accordance with the
force requirements of Section 13.7.7.3.
13.7.9.3.1 Increased Lateral Pressure. The increase in lateral pressure on the tank wall
shall be added to the static design lateral pressure but shall not be used in the
determination of pressure stability effects on the axial buckling strength of the tank
shell.
13.7.9.3.2 Effective Mass. A portion of a stored granular mass will act with the shell (the
effective mass). The effective mass is related to the physical characteristics of the
product, the height-to-diameter (H/D) ratio of the tank, and the intensity of the
seismic event. The effective mass shall be used to determine the shear and
overturning loads resisted by the tank.
13.7.9.3.3 Effective Density. The effective density factor (that part of the total stored mass of
product which is accelerated by the seismic event) shall be determined in
accordance ACI 313-97.
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SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
13.7.9.3.4 Lateral Sliding. For granular storage tanks that have a steel bottom and are
supported such that friction at the bottom to foundation interface can resist lateral
shear loads, no additional anchorage to prevent sliding is required. For tanks
without steel bottoms (i.e., the material rests directly on the foundation), shear
anchorage shall be provided to prevent sliding.
13.7.9.3.5 Combined Anchorage Systems. If separate anchorage systems are used to
prevent over-turning and sliding, the relative stiffness of the systems shall be
considered in determining the load distribution.
13.7.9.4 Welded Steel Structures. Welded steel granular storage structures shall be
designed in accordance with the seismic provisions of this Code. Component
allowable stresses and materials shall be per ANSI/AWWA D100-96, except the
allowable circumferential membrane stresses and material requirements in API
650-01 shall apply.
13.7.9.5 Bolted Steel Structures. Bolted steel granular storage structures shall be designed
in accordance with the seismic provisions of this section. Component allowable
stresses and materials shall be per ANSI/AWWA D103-97.
13.7.9.6 Reinforced Concrete Structures. Reinforced concrete structures for the storage
of granular materials shall be designed in accordance with the seismic force
requirements of this Code and the requirements of ACI 313-97.
13.7.9.7 Prestressed Concrete Structures. Prestressed concrete structures for the storage
of granular materials shall be designed in accordance with the seismic force
provisions of this Code and the requirements of ACI 313-97.
13.7.10 Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular Materials
13.7.10.1 General. This section applies to tanks, vessels, bins, and hoppers that are elevated
above grade where the supporting tower is an integral part of the structure, or
where the primary function of the tower is to support the tank or vessel. Tanks and
vessels that are supported within buildings, or are incidental to the primary
function of the tower, are considered mechanical equipment and shall be designed
in accordance with Chapter 12 of this Code requirement.
Elevated tanks shall be designed for the force and displacement requirements of
the applicable reference document, or Section 13.4.
13.7.10.2 Effective Mass. The design of the supporting tower or pedestal, anchorage, and
foundation for seismic over-turning shall assume the material stored is a rigid mass
acting at the volumetric center of gravity. The effects of fluid-structure interaction
may be considered in determining the forces, effective period, and mass centroids
of the system if the following requirements are met:
a. The sloshing period, Tc is greater than 3T where T = natural period of the
tank with confined liquid (rigid mass) and supporting structure.
b. The sloshing mechanism (i.e., the percentage of convective mass and
centroid) is determined for the specific configuration of the container by
detailed fluid-structure interaction analysis or testing.
Soil-structure interaction may be included in determining T Section 10.14.
13.7.10.3 P-Delta Effects. The lateral drift of the elevated tank shall be considered as
follows:
a. The design drift, the elastic lateral displacement of the stored mass center
of gravity shall be increased by the factor, Cd for evaluating the additional
load in the support structure.
b. The base of the tank shall be assumed to be fixed rotationally and laterally.
c. Deflections due to bending, axial tension, or compression shall be
considered. For pedestal tanks with a height-to-diameter ratio less than 5,
shear deformations of the pedestal shall be considered.
d. The dead load effects of roof mounted equipment or platforms shall be
included in the analysis.
e. If constructed within the plumbness tolerances specified by the reference
document, initial tilt need not be considered in the P-delta analysis.
13.7.10.4 Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower. For post supported tanks and
vessels which are cross-braced:
a. The bracing shall be installed in such a manner as to provide uniform
resistance to the lateral load (e.g., pretensioning or tuning to attain equal
sag).
b. The additional load in the brace due to the eccentricity between the post to
tank attachment and the line of action of the bracing shall be included.
c. Eccentricity of compression strut line of action (elements that resist the
tensile pull from the bracing rods in the seismic force-resisting systems)
with their attachment points shall be considered.
d. The connection of the post or leg with the foundation shall be designed to
resist both the vertical and lateral resultant from the yield load in the
bracing assuming the direction of the lateral load is oriented to produce the
maximum lateral shear at the post to foundation interface. Where multiple
rods are connected to the same location, the anchorage shall be designed
to resist the concurrent tensile loads in the braces.
13.7.10.5 Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling Failure. Shell structures that
support substantial loads may exhibit a primary mode of failure from localized or
general buckling of the support pedestal or skirt during seismic loads. Such
structures may include single pedestal water towers, skirt-supported process
vessels, and similar single member towers. Where the structural assessment
concludes that buckling of the support is the governing primary mode of failure,
structures and components in Occupancy Category IV shall be designed to resist
the seismic forces as follows:
a. The seismic response coefficient for this evaluation shall be per Section
10.9.2.1 of this Code with I/R set equal to 1.0. Soil-structure and fluid-
structure interaction may be utilized in determining the Structural
response. Vertical or orthogonal combinations need not be considered.
b. The resistance of the structure or component shall be defined as the critical
buckling resistance of the element; i.e., a factor of safety set equal to 1.0.
c. The anchorage and foundation shall be designed to resist the load
determined in (a). The foundation shall be proportioned to provide a
stability ratio of at least 1.2 for the overturning moment. The maximum
toe pressure under the foundation shall not exceed the lesser of the
ultimate bearing capacity or 3 times the allowable bearing capacity. All
SBC 301 2007 13/25
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
13.7.10.6.1 Analysis Procedures. The equivalent lateral force procedure shall be permitted. A
more rigorous analysis shall also be permitted. Analysis of single pedestal
structures shall be based on a fixed-base, single degree-of-freedom model. All
mass, including the liquid, shall be considered rigid unless the sloshing mechanism
(i.e., the percentage of convective mass and centroid) is determined for the specific
configuration of the container by detailed fluid-structure interaction analysis or
testing. The inclusion of soil-structure interaction shall be permitted.
13.7.10.6.2 Structure Period. The fundamental period of vibration of the structure shall be
established using the structural properties and deformational characteristics of the
resisting elements in a substantiated analysis. The period used to calculate the
seismic response coefficient shall not exceed 4.0 sec. See ANSI/AWWA D100-96
for guidance on computing the fundamental period of cross-braced structures.
13.7.10.7 Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks. Concrete pedestal (composite) elevated
water storage structures shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of
ACI 371R-98 and except that the design input forces shall be modified as follows:
In Eq. 4-8a of ACI 371R-98,
1.2 C v
For Ts < T ≤ 2.5 sec, replace the term with
RT 2 / 3
S D1
(Eq. 13.7-24)
T (R / I )
2.5 C a
In Eq. 4-8b of ACI 371R-98, replace the term with
R
S DS
(Eq. 13.7-25)
(R / I )
In Eq. 4-9 of ACI 371R-98, replace the term 0.5Ca with
0.2 SDS (Eq. 13.7-26)
13.7.10.7.1 Analysis Procedures. The equivalent lateral force procedure shall be permitted
for all concrete pedestal tanks and. shall be based on a fixed-base, single degree-
of-freedom model. All mass, including the liquid, shall be considered rigid unless
SBC 301 2007 13/26
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
the sloshing mechanism (i.e., the percentage of convective mass and centroid) is
determined for the specific configuration of the container by detailed fluid-
structure interaction analysis or testing. Soil structure interaction may be included
as per Section 10.14. A more rigorous analysis shall be permitted.
13.7.10.7.2 Structure Period. The fundamental period of vibration of the structure shall be
established using the uncracked structural properties and deformational
characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis. The
period used to calculate the seismic response coefficient shall not exceed 2.5 sec.
13.7.11.1 General. Attachments to the pressure boundary, supports, and lateral force-
resisting anchorage systems for boilers and pressure vessels shall be designed to
meet the force and displacement requirements of Sections 15.3 or 15.4 and the
additional requirements of this section. Boilers and pressure vessels categorized as
Occupancy Category III or IV shall be designed to meet the force and
displacement requirements of Sections 13.3 or 13.4.
13.7.11.2 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers or pressure vessels designed and
constructed in accordance with ASME BPVC-03 shall be deemed to meet the
requirements of this section provided that the force and displacement requirements
of Sections 13.3 or 13.4 are used with appropriate scaling of the force and
displacement requirements to the working stress design basis.
13.7.11.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory. Attachments to the
pressure boundary for internal and external ancillary components (refractory,
cyclones, trays, etc.) shall be designed to resist the seismic forces specified in this
Code to safeguard against rupture of the pressure boundary. Alternatively, the
element attached may be designed to fail prior to damaging the pressure boundary
provided that the consequences of the failure do not place the pressure boundary in
jeopardy. For boilers or vessels containing liquids, the effect of sloshing on the
internal equipment shall be considered if the equipment can damage the integrity
of the pressure boundary.
13.7.11.4 Coupling of Vessel and Support Structure. Where the mass of the operating
vessel or vessels supported is greater than 25 percent of the total mass of the
combined structure, the structure and vessel designs shall consider the effects of
dynamic coupling between each other. Coupling with adjacent, connected
structures such as multiple towers shall be considered if the structures are
interconnected with elements that will transfer loads from one structure to the
other.
13.7.11.5 Effective Mass. Fluid-structure interaction (sloshing) shall be considered in
determining the effective mass of the stored material providing sufficient liquid
surface exists for sloshing to occur and the Tc is greater than 3T. Changes to or
variations in material density with pressure and temperature shall be considered.
13.7.11.6 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers and pressure vessels designated as
Occupancy Category IV but are not designed and constructed in accordance with
the requirements of ASME BPVC-03 shall meet the following requirements:
The seismic loads in combination with other service loads and appropriate
environmental effects shall not exceed the material strength shown in Table 13.7-
4.
SBC 301 2007 13/27
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
Consideration shall be made to mitigate seismic impact loads for boiler or vessel
components constructed of non-ductile materials or vessels operated in such a way
that material ductility is reduced (e.g., low temperature applications).
13.7.11.7 Supports and Attachments for Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Attachments to
the pressure boundary and support for boilers and pressure vessels shall meet the
following requirements:
a. Attachments and supports transferring seismic loads shall be constructed of
ductile materials suitable for the intended application and environmental
conditions.
b. Seismic anchorages embedded in concrete shall be ductile and detailed for
cyclic loads.
c. Seismic supports and attachments to structures shall be designed and
constructed so that the support or attachment remains ductile throughout the
range of reversing seismic lateral loads and displacements.
d. Vessel attachments shall consider the potential effect on the vessel and the
support for uneven vertical reactions based on variations in relative stiffness
of the support members, dissimilar details, non-uniform shimming, or
irregular supports. Uneven distribution of lateral forces shall consider the
relative distribution of the resisting elements, the behavior of the connection
details, and vessel shear distribution.
The requirements of Sections 13.4 and 13.7.10.5 shall also be applicable to this
section.
13.7.12.1 General. Attachments to the pressure or liquid boundary, supports, and lateral
force-resisting anchorage systems for liquid and gas spheres shall be designed to
meet the force and displacement requirements of Sections 13.3 or 13.4 and the
additional requirements of this section. Spheres categorized as Occupancy
Category III or IV shall themselves be designed to meet the force and
displacement requirements of Sections 13.3 or 13.4.
13.7.12.2 ASME Spheres. Spheres designed and constructed in accordance with Section
VIII of ASME BPVC-03 shall be deemed to meet the requirements of this section
providing the force and displacement requirements of Sections 13.3 or 13.4 are
used with appropriate scaling of the force and displacement requirements to the
working stress design basis.
13.7.12.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory. Attachments to the
pressure or liquid boundary for internal and external ancillary components
(refractory, cyclones, trays, etc.) shall be designed to resist the seismic forces
specified in this Code to safeguard against rupture of the pressure boundary.
Alternatively, the element attached to the sphere could be designed to fail prior to
damaging the pressure or liquid boundary providing the consequences of the
failure does not place the pressure boundary in jeopardy. For spheres containing
liquids, the effect of sloshing on the internal equipment shall be considered if the
equipment can damage the pressure boundary.
13.7.12.4 Effective Mass. Fluid-structure interaction (sloshing) shall be considered in
determining the effective mass of the stored material providing sufficient liquid
surface exists for sloshing to occur and the Tc is greater than 3T. Changes to or
variations in fluid density shall be considered.
13.7.12.5 Post and Rod Supported. For post supported spheres that are cross-braced:
a. The requirements of Section 13.7.10.4 shall also be applicable to this
section.
b. The stiffening effect of (reduction in lateral drift) from pretensioning of
the bracing shall be considered in determining the natural period.
c. The slenderness and local buckling of the posts shall be considered.
d. Local buckling of the sphere shell at the post attachment shall be
considered.
e. For spheres storing liquids, bracing connections shall be designed and
constructed to develop the minimum published yield strength of the brace.
For spheres storing gas vapors only, bracing connection shall be designed
for Ω o times the maximum design load in the brace. Lateral bracing
connections directly attached to the pressure or liquid boundary are
prohibited.
13.7.12.6 Skirt Supported. For skirt-supported spheres, the following requirements shall
apply:
a. The provisions of Section 13.7.10.5 shall also apply.
b. The local buckling of the skirt under compressive membrane forces due to
axial load and bending moments shall be considered.
c. Penetration of the skirt support (manholes, piping, etc.) shall be designed
and constructed to maintain the strength of the skirt without penetrations.
13.7.13.1 General. The seismic design of the tanks and facilities for the storage of liquefied
hydrocarbons and refrigerated liquids is beyond the scope of this section. The
design of such tanks is addressed in part by various reference documents listed in
SBC 301 2007 13/29
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURAL
Section 13.2.
Exception: Low pressure, welded steel storage tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon
gas (e.g., LPG, butane, etc.) and refrigerated liquids (e.g., ammonia) shall be
designed in accordance with .the requirements of Section 13.7.8 and API 620-02.
CHAPTER 14
SITE CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE
FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 14.1
GENERAL
14.1.1 Site Class Definitions. The site shall be classified as one of the following
classes:
A = Hard rock with measured shear wave velocity, υ s > 1500 m/s
C= Very dense soil and soft rock with 370 m/s ≤ υ s ≤ 760 m/s or N or
N ch > 50 or s u ≥ 100 kPa
E= A soil profile with υ s < 180 m/s or any profile with more than 3 m of
soft clay. Soft clay is defined as soil with PI > 20,w ≥ 40%, and s u
< 25 kPa
F= Soils requiring site-specific evaluations:
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic
loading such as liquefiable soils, quick and highly sensitive clays,
collapsible weakly cemented soils.
Exception: For structures having fundamental periods of vibration
equal to or less than 0.5-sec, site-specific evaluations are not
required to determine spectral accelerations for liquefiable soils.
Rather, the Site Class may be determined in accordance with
Section 14.1.2 and the corresponding values of Fa and Fv
determined from Tables 9.4.3a and 9.4.3b.
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays (H > 3 m of peat and/or highly
organic clay where H = thickness of soil).
3. Very high plasticity clays (H > 8 m with PI > 75).
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays (H > 37 m).
Exception: When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to
determine the Site Class, Class D shall be used. Site Class E shall be used
when the authority having jurisdiction determines that Site Class E is present
at the site or in the event that Site E is established by geotechnical data.
[1] ASTM. "Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of
Soils." ASTM D1586-84, 1984.
[2] ASTM. "Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity
Index of Soils." ASTM D4318-93, 1993.
[3] ASTM. "Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock." ASTM D2216-92, 1992.
[4] ASTM. "Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of
Cohesive Soil." ASTM D2166-91, 1991.
[5] ASTM. "Test Method for Unconsolidated, Undrained Compressive
Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression." ASTM D2850-87,
1987.
S i t e Class υs N o r N ch su
A > 1500 m/s not applicable not applicable
Hard rock
B 760 to 1500 m/s not applicable not applicable
Rock
C 370 to 760 m/s > 50 > 100 kPa
Very dense soil
and soft rock
D 180 to 370 m/s 15 to 50 50 to 100 kPa
Stiff soil
E <180 m/s < 15 <50 kPa
Soil Any profile with more than 3 m of soil having the following
characteristics:
- Plasticity index PI > 20,
- Moisture content w ≥ 40%, and
- Undrained shear strength su < 25 kPa
F Soils requiring site-specific evaluation 1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays
3. Very high plasticity clays
4. Very thick soft/medium clays
Note: When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the Site Class, Class D
or E shall be used.
14.1.2 Steps for Classifying a Site. The Site Class of a site shall be determined using
the following steps:
Step 1: Check for the four categories of Site Class F requiring site-specific
evaluation. If the site corresponds to any of these categories, classify
the site as Site Class F and conduct a site-specific evaluation.
Step 2: Check for the existence of a total thickness of soft clay > 3 m where a
soft clay layer is defined by s u < 25 kPa, w ≥ 40%, and PI > 20. If
this criterion is satisfied, classify the site as Site Class E.
Step 3: Categorize the site using one of the following three methods with υ s ,
N , and s u computed in all cases as specified by the definitions in
Section 14.1.3.
a. The υ s method:
Determine υ s for the top 30 m of soil. Compare the value of υ s with those
given in Section 14.1.1 and Table 14.1.1 and assign the corresponding Site
Class.
υ s for rock, Site Class B, shall be measured on-site or estimated by a
geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist/seismologist for
competent rock with moderate fracturing and weathering.
υ s for softer and more highly fractured and weathered rock shall be
measured on-site or shall be classified as Site Class C.
The rock categories, Site Classes A and B, shall not be assigned to a site if
there is more than 3 m of soil between the rock surface and the bottom of
the spread footing or mat foundation.
b. The N method:
Determine N for the top 30 m of soil. Compare the value of N with those
given in Section 14.1.1 and Table 14.1.1 and assign the corresponding Site
Class.
c. The s u method:
For cohesive soil layers, determine s u for the top 30 m of soil. For
cohesionless soil layers, determine N ch for the top 30 m of soil.
Cohesionless soil is defined by a PI<20 where cohesive soil is defined by a
PI > 20. Compare the values of s u and N ch with those given in Section
14.1.1 and Table 14.1.1 and assign the corresponding Site Class. When the
N ch and s u criteria differ, assign the category with the softer soil. (Site
Class E soil is softer than D).
14.1.3 Definitions of Site Class Parameters. The definitions presented below apply to
the upper 30 m of the site profile. Profiles containing distinctly different soil
layers shall be subdivided into those layers designated by a number that ranges
from 1 to n at the bottom where there are a total of n distinct layers in the upper
30 m. Where some of the n layers are cohesive and others are not, k is the
number of cohesive layers and m is the number of cohesionless layers. The
symbol i refers to any one of the layers between 1 and n.
v si is the shear wave velocity in m/s.
SBC 301 2007 14/3
SITE CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
∑d i
i =1
vs = n
(Eq. 14.1.3-1)
∑υ
di
si
i =1
n
whereby ∑d i is equal to 30 m
i =1
Ni is the standard penetration resistance, ASTM D1586-84 not to exceed
100 blows/300 mm as directly measured in the field without corrections.
N is:
n
∑d
i =1
i
N= n
(Eq. 14.1.3-2)
∑
di
i =1
Ni
N ch is:
ds
N ch = m
(Eq. 14.1.3-3)
∑
di
i =1
Ni
m
whereby ∑d
i =1
i = ds . (Use only di and N i for cohesionless soils.)
s ui is the undrained shear strength in kPa, not to exceed 240 kPa, ASTM D2166-91
or ASTM D2850-87.
s u is
dc
su = k
(Eq. 14.1.3-4)
∑
di
i =1
s ui
k
whereby ∑d
i =1
i = dc
dc is the total thickness (30 - ds) of cohesive soil layers in the top 30 m
PI is the plasticity index, ASTM D4318-93
ω is the moisture content in percent, ASTM D2216-92
CHAPTER 15
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS
SECTION 15.1
PURPOSE
These provisions are not directly related to computation of earthquake loads, but
they are deemed essential for satisfactory performance in an earthquake when
designing with the loads determined from Chapters 9 through 13, due to the
substantial cyclic inelastic strain capacity assumed to exist by the load procedures
given in the aforementioned chapters. These supplemental provisions form an
integral part of SBC 301.
SECTION 15.2
QUALITY ASSURANCE
This section provides minimum requirements for quality assurance for seismic
force-resisting systems and other designated seismic systems. These
requirements supplement the testing and inspection requirements contained in the
reference standards given in Chapters 11 through 13.
15.2.1 Scope. As a minimum, the quality assurance provisions apply to the following:
15.2.3 Quality Assurance Plan. A quality assurance plan shall be submitted to the
authority having jurisdiction.
15.2.3.1 Details of Quality Assurance Plan. The quality assurance plan shall specify the
designated seismic systems or seismic force-resisting system in accordance with
Section 15.2 that are subject to quality assurance. The registered design
professional in responsible charge of the design of a seismic force-resisting
system and a designated seismic system shall be responsible for the portion of the
quality assurance plan applicable to that system. The special inspections and
special tests needed to establish that the construction is in conformance with these
provisions shall be included in the portion of the quality assurance plan applicable
to the designated seismic system. The quality assurance plan shall include:
1. The seismic force-resisting systems and designated seismic systems in
accordance with this chapter that are subject to quality assurance.
2. The special inspections and testing to be provided as required by these
provisions and the reference standards in Chapter 11 through 13.
3. The type and frequency of testing.
4. The type and frequency of special inspections.
5. The frequency and distribution of testing and special inspection reports.
6. The structural observations to be performed.
7. The frequency and distribution of structural observation reports.
15.2.3.2 Contractor Responsibility. Each contractor responsible for the construction of a
seismic force-resisting system, designated seismic system, or component listed in
the quality assurance plan shall submit a written contractor's statement of
responsibility to the regulatory authority having jurisdiction and to the owner
prior to the commencement of work on the system or component. The contractor's
statement of responsibility shall contain the following:
1. Acknowledgment of awareness of the special requirements contained in
the quality assurance plan.
2. Acknowledgment that control will be exercised to obtain conformance
with the design documents approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
3. Procedures for exercising control within the contractor's organization, the
method and frequency of reporting, and the distribution of the reports.
4. Identification and qualifications of the person(s) exercising such control
and their position(s) in the organization.
15.2.4 Special Inspection. The building owner shall employ a special inspector(s) to
observe the construction of all designated seismic systems in accordance with the
quality assurance plan for the following construction work:
15.2.4.6.2 Periodic special inspection is required for installation and tightening of fully
tensioned high-strength bolts in slip-critical connections and in connections
subject to direct tension. Bolts in connections identified as not being slip-critical
or subject to direct tension need not be inspected for bolt tension other than to
ensure that the plies of the connected elements have been brought into snug
contact.
15.2.5 Testing. The special inspector(s) shall be responsible for verifying that the
special test requirements are performed by an approved testing agency for the
types of work in designated seismic systems listed below.
15.2.5.1.1 Examine certified mill test reports for each shipment of reinforcing steel used to
resist flexural and axial forces in reinforced concrete intermediate and special
moment frames and boundary members of reinforced concrete shear walls or
reinforced masonry shear walls and determine conformance with construction
documents.
15.2.5.1.2 Where ASTM A615 or Saudi equivalent reinforcing steel is used to resist
earthquake-induced flexural and axial forces in special moment frames and in
wall boundary elements of shear walls in structures of Seismic Design Category
D, verify that the requirements of Section 21.2.5.1 of SBC 304 have been
satisfied.
15.2.5.1.3 Where ASTM A615 reinforcing steel or Saudi equivalent is to be welded, verify
that chemical tests have been performed to determine weldability in accordance
with Section 3.5.2 of SBC 304.
15.2.5.2 Structural Concrete. Samples of structural concrete shall be obtained at the
project site and tested in accordance with the requirements of SBC 304.
15.2.5.3 Structural Masonry. Quality assurance testing of structural masonry shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Ref. 11.4-1.
15.2.5.4 Structural Steel. The testing needed to establish that the construction is in
conformance with these provisions shall be included in a quality assurance plan.
The minimum testing contained in the quality assurance plan shall be as required
in Ref. 11.1-1 and the following requirements:
15.2.5.4.1 Base Metal Testing. Base metal thicker than 38 mm, when subject to through-
thickness weld shrinkage strains, shall be ultrasonically tested for discontinuities
behind and adjacent to such welds after joint completion. Any material
discontinuities shall be accepted or rejected on the basis of ASTM A435,
Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasound Examination of Steel Plates, or
ASTM A898, Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasound Examination for Rolled
Steel Shapes (Level 1 Criteria), and criteria as established by the registered
design professional(s) in responsible charge and the construction documents.
15.2.5.5 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment. As required to ensure compliance with
the seismic design provisions herein, the registered design professional in
responsible charge shall clearly state the applicable requirements on the
construction documents. Each manufacturer of these designated seismic system
components shall test or analyze the component and its mounting system or
anchorage as required and shall submit a certificate of compliance for review and
acceptance by the registered design professional in responsible charge of the
design of the designated seismic system and for approval by the authority having
jurisdiction. The basis of certification shall be by actual test on a shaking table,
by three-dimensional shock tests, by an analytical method using dynamic
characteristics and forces, by the use of experience data (i.e., historical data
demonstrating acceptable seismic performance), or by more rigorous analysis
providing for equivalent safety. The special inspector shall examine the
designated seismic system and shall determine whether its anchorages and label
conform with the certificate of compliance.
15.2.7 Reporting and Compliance Procedures. Each special inspector shall furnish to
the authority having jurisdiction, the registered design professional in respon-
sible charge, the owner, the persons preparing the quality assurance plan, and the
contractor copies of regular weekly progress reports of his observations, noting
therein any uncorrected deficiencies and corrections of previously reported
deficiencies. All deficiencies shall be brought to the immediate attention of the
contractor for correction. At completion of construction, each special inspector
shall submit a final report to the authority having jurisdiction certifying that all
inspected work was completed substantially in accordance with approved
construction documents. Work not in compliance shall be described in the final
report. At completion of construction, the building contractor shall submit a final
report to the authority having jurisdiction certifying that all construction work
incorporated into the seismic force-resisting system and other designated seismic
systems was constructed substantially in accordance with the approved
construction documents and applicable workmanship requirements. Work not in
compliance shall be described in the final report. The contractor shall correct all
deficiencies as required.
SECTION 15.3
SUPPLEMENTARY FOUNDATION REQUIREMENTS
15.3.1 Special Pile Requirements for Category C. All concrete piles and concrete-
filled pipe piles shall be connected to the pile cap by embedding the pile
reinforcement in the pile cap for a distance equal to the development length as
specified in SBC 304 as modified by Section 15.5 of this Code or by the use of
field-placed dowels anchored in the concrete pile. For deformed bars, the
development length is the full development length for compression or tension, in
the case of uplift, without reduction in length for excess area.
Hoops, spirals, and ties shall be terminated with seismic hooks as defined in
Section 21.1 of SBC 304.
Where required for resistance to uplift forces, anchorage of steel pipe (round HSS
sections), concrete-filled steel pipe or H piles to the pile cap shall be made by
means other than concrete bond to the bare steel section.
3m below ground, or throughout the flexural length of the pile, whichever length
is greatest. The flexural length shall be taken as the length of pile to a point where
the concrete section cracking moment multiplied by the resistance factor 0.4
exceeds the required factored moment at that point. There shall be a minimum of
four longitudinal bars with transverse confinement reinforcement in the pile in
accordance with Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2, and 21.4.4.3 of SBC 304. Such
transverse confinement reinforcement shall extend the full length of the pile in
Site Classes E or F, a minimum of seven times the least pile dimension above and
below the interfaces of soft to medium stiff clay or liquefiable strata, and three
times the least pile dimension below the bottom of the pile cap in Site Classes
other than E or F.
In other than Site Classes E or F, it shall be permitted to use a transverse spiral
reinforcement ratio of not less than one-half of that required in Section
21.4.4.1(a) of SBC 304 throughout the remainder of the pile length. Tie spacing
throughout the remainder of the pile length shall not exceed 12 longitudinal-bar-
diameters, one-half the diameter of the section, or 300 mm. Ties shall be a
minimum of 10 mm bars for up to diameter 500 mm piles and 12 mm bars for
piles of larger diameter.
15.3.2.2 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles. Reinforcement requirements are the same as for
uncased concrete piles.
Exception: Spiral welded metal-casing of a thickness not less than No. 14
gauge can be considered as providing concrete confinement equivalent to the
closed ties or equivalent spirals required in an uncased concrete pile,
provided that the metal casing is adequately protected against possible dele-
terious action due to soil constituents, changing water levels, or other factors
indicated by boring records of site conditions.
15.3.2.4 Precast Prestressed Piles. In addition to the requirements for Seismic Design
Category C, the following requirements shall be met:
1. Requirements of SBC 304, Chapter 21, need not apply.
2. Where the total pile length in the soil is 10 m or less, the lateral
transverse reinforcement in the ductile region shall occur through the
length of the pile. Where the pile length exceeds 10 m, the ductile pile
region shall be taken as the greater of 10 m or the distance from the
underside of the pile cap to the point of zero curvature plus three times the
least pile dimension.
3. In the ductile region, the center-to-center spacing of the spirals or hoop
reinforcement shall not exceed one-fifth of the least pile dimension, six
times the diameter of the longitudinal strand, or 200 mm, whichever is
smaller.
SBC 301 2007 15/8
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS
where
ρ s = volumetric ratio (vol. spiral/vol. core
f c' ≤ 40 MPa
f yh = yield strength of spiral reinforcement 580 MPa
A g = pile cross-sectional area, mm2
A ch = core area defined by spiral outside diameter, mm2
P = axial load on pile resulting from the load combination 1.2D + 0.5L +
1.0E, kN
This required amount of spiral reinforcement is permitted to be obtained by
providing an inner and outer spiral.
Outside of the length of the pile requiring transverse reinforcement, the spiral or
hoop reinforcement with a volumetric ratio not less than one-half of that required
for transverse confinement reinforcement shall be provided.
15.3.2.5 Steel Piles. The connection between the pile cap and steel piles or unfilled steel
pipe piles shall be designed for a tensile force equal to 10% of the pile
compression capacity.
Exceptions: Connection tensile capacity need not exceed the strength
required to resist the special seismic loads of Section 10.4. Connections
need not be provided where the foundation or supported structure does
not rely on the tensile capacity of the piles for stability under the design
seismic forces.
SECTION 15.4
SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS FOR STEEL
15.4.1 General. The design, construction, and quality of steel components that resist
seismic forces shall conform to the requirements of the references listed in
Section 11.1 except as modified by the requirements of this section.
15.4.2 Seismic Requirements for Steel Structures. Steel structures and structural
elements therein that resist seismic forces shall be designed in accordance with
the requirements of Sections 15.4.3 and 15.4.4 for the appropriate Seismic
Design Category.
15.4.5.1 Ref. 11.1-2-Revised Section A5.1.3 of Ref. 11.1-2 by deleting the reference to
earthquake or seismic loads in the sentence permitting the 0.75 factor. Seismic
load combinations shall be as determined by this Code.
15.4.6.1 Boundary Members. All boundary members, chords, and collectors shall be
designed to transmit the axial force induced by the specified loads of Chapters 9
through 13.
15.4.6.2 Connections. Connections of diagonal bracing members, top chord splices,
boundary members, and collectors shall have a design strength equal to or greater
than the nominal tensile strength of the members being connected or Ω ο times
the design seismic forces. The pullout resistance of screws shall not be used to
resist seismic forces.
15.4.6.3 Braced Bay Members. In stud systems where the lateral forces are resisted by
braced frames, the vertical and diagonal members of braced bays shall be
anchored such that the bottom tracks are not required to resist tensile forces by
bending of the track or track web. Both flanges of studs in a bracing bay shall be
braced to prevent lateral torsional buckling. In braced shear walls, the vertical
boundary members shall be anchored so the bottom track is not required to resist
uplift forces by bending of the track web.
15.4.6.4 Diagonal Braces. Provision shall be made for pre-tensioning or other methods of
installation of tension-only bracing to prevent loose diagonal straps.
15.4.6.5 Shear Walls. Nominal shear values for wall sheathing materials are given in
Table 15.4.6.5. Design shear values shall be determined by multiplying the
nominal values therein by a factor of 0.55. In structures over 1 story in height, the
assemblies in Table 15.4.6.5 shall not be used to resist horizontal loads
contributed by forces imposed by masonry or concrete construction.
Panel thicknesses shown in Table 15.4.6.5 shall be considered to be minimums.
No panels less than 50 mm. wide shall be used. Plywood or oriented strand board
structural panels shall be of a type that is manufactured using exterior glue.
Framing members, blocking, or strapping shall be provided at the edges of all
sheets. Fasteners along the edges in shear panels shall be placed not less than 10
mm in from panel edges. Screws shall be of sufficient length to ensure
penetration into the steel stud by at least two full diameter threads.
The height-to-length ratio of wall systems listed in Table 15.4.6.5 shall not
exceed 2:1.
Perimeter members at openings shall be provided and shall be detailed to
distribute the shearing stresses. Wood sheathing shall not be used to splice these
members.
Wall studs and track shall have a minimum uncoated base thickness of not less
than 0.85 mm and shall not have an uncoated base metal thickness greater than
1.22 mm. Panel end studs and their uplift anchorage shall have the design
strength to resist the forces determined by the seismic loads.
SBC 301 2007 15/11
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS
15.4.7 Seismic Requirements for Steel Deck Diaphragms. Steel deck diaphragms
shall be made from materials conforming to the requirements of Ref. 11.1-2 or
11.1-3. Nominal strengths shall be determined in accordance with approved
analytical procedures or with test procedures pre-pared by a registered design
professional experienced in testing of cold-formed steel assemblies and approved
by the authority having jurisdiction. Design strengths shall be determined by
multiplying the nominal strength by a resistance factor, φ equal to 0.60 for
mechanically connected diaphragms and equal to 0.50 for welded diaphragms.
The steel deck installation for the building, including fasteners, shall comply
with the test assembly arrangement. Quality standards established for the
nominal strength test shall be the minimum standards required for the steel deck
installation, including fasteners.
15.4.8 Steel Cables. The design strength of steel cables shall be determined by the
provisions of Ref. 11.1-5 except as modified by this section. Ref. 11.1-5, Section
5d, shall be modified by substituting 1.5(T4) when T4 is the net tension in cable
due to dead load, prestress, live load, and seismic load. A load factor of 1.1 shall
be applied to the prestress force to be added to the load combination of Section
3.1.2 of Ref. 11.1-5.
SECTION 15.5
SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS FOR CONCRETE
The supplemental provisions for Concrete have already been incorporated in
SBC 304.
SECTION 15.6
SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS FOR MASONRY
15.6.1 For the purposes of design of masonry structures using the earthquake loads
given in this Code, several amendments to the reference standard are necessary.
15.6.3 The anchorage forces given in Section 1.13.3.2 of the reference standard shall
not be interpreted to replace the anchorage forces given in Chapters 9 through 13
of this Code.
15.6.4 To qualify for the R factors given in Chapters 9 through 13 of this Code, the
requirements of the reference standard shall be satisfied and amended as follows:
Ordinary and detailed plain masonry shear walls shall be designed according to
Sections 2.1 and 2.2 of the reference standard. Detailed plain masonry shear
walls shall be reinforced as a minimum as required in Section 1.13.5.3.3 of the
reference standard.
Ordinary, intermediate, and special reinforced masonry shear walls shall be
designed according to Sections 2.1 and 2.3 of the reference standard. Ordinary
and intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls shall be reinforced as a
minimum as required in Section 1.13.5.3.3 of the reference standard. In addition,
intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls shall have vertical reinforcing bars
spaced no farther apart than 1200 mm. Special reinforced masonry shear walls
SBC 301 2007 15/12
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS
15.6.4.1 Method A. Method A is permitted to be used where the story drift does not
exceed 0.010h, as given in Table 10.12 and if the extreme compressive fiber
strains are less than 0.0035 mm/mm for clay masonry and 0.0025 mm/mm for
concrete masonry.
1. When walls are subjected to in-plane forces, and for columns and beams,
the critical strain condition corresponds to a strain in the extreme tension
reinforcement equal to five times the strain associated with the
reinforcement yield stress, fy.
2. When walls are subjected to out-of-plane forces, the critical strain
condition corresponds to a strain in the reinforcement equal to 1.3 times
the strain associated with reinforcement yield stress, fy.
The strain at the extreme compression fiber shall be assumed to be 0.0035
mm/mm for clay masonry and 0.0025 mm/mm for concrete masonry.
15.6.4.2 Method B. Method B is permitted to be used where story drift does not exceed
0.013hsx as given in Table 10.12.
1. Boundary members shall be provided at the boundaries of shear walls
when the compressive strains in the wall exceed 0.002. The strain shall
be determined using factored forces and R equal to 1.5.
2. The minimum length of the boundary member shall be three times the
thickness of the wall, but shall include all areas where the compressive
strain per Section 15.6.4.2 item 1, is greater than 0.002.
3. Lateral reinforcement shall be provided for the boundary elements. The
lateral reinforcement shall be a minimum of 10 mm closed ties at a
maximum spacing of 200 mm on center within the grouted core, or
equivalent approved confinement, to develop an ultimate compressive
strain of at least 0.006.
f m'
4. The maximum longitudinal reinforcement ratio shall not exceed 0.15 .
fy
15.6.5 Where allowable stress design is used for load combinations including
earthquake, Eq. 2.4.1-3 and Eq. 2.4.1-5 of Section 2.4.1 of this Code shall
replace combinations (c) and (e) of Section 2.1.1.1.1 of the reference standard.
CHAPTER 16
EXISTING BUILDING
PROVISIONS
SECTION 16.1
ADDITIONS TO EXISTING STRUCTURES
16.1.1 Additions shall not be permitted unless the existing structures have been designed
according to this code.
16.1.3 An addition that is not structurally independent from an existing structure shall be
designed and constructed such that the entire structure conforms to the seismic
force-resistance requirements for new structures unless the following three
conditions are complied with:
1. The addition shall comply with the requirements for new structures.
2. The addition shall not increase the seismic forces in any structural element
of the existing structure by more than 5% unless the capacity of the element
subject to the increased forces is still in compliance with these provisions.
3. The addition shall not decrease the seismic resistance of any structural
element of the existing structure unless the reduced resistance is equal to or
greater than that required for new structures.
SECTION 16.2
CHANGE OF USE
Exceptions:
1. When a change of use results in a structure being reclassified from
Occupancy Category I or II to Occupancy Category III and the structure is
located in a seismic map area where SDS < 0.33, compliance with these
provisions is not required.
2. Specific seismic detailing provisions of Chapter 15 required for a new
structure are not required to be met when it can be shown that the level of
performance and seismic safety is equivalent to that of a new structure.
Such analysis shall consider the regularity, over-strength, redundancy, and
ductility of the structure within the context of the existing and retrofit (if
any) detailing provided.
SECTION 16.3
MULTIPLE USES
Structures having multiple uses shall be assigned the classification of the use having
the highest Occupancy Category except in structures having two or more portions
which are structurally separated in accordance with Section 10.12, each portion
shall be separately classified. Where a structurally separated portion of a structure
provides access to, egress from, or shares life safety components with another
portion having a higher Occupancy Category, both portions shall be assigned the
higher Occupancy Category.
REFERENCED STANDARDS
These are the standards referenced within SBC 301. The standards are listed herein by the
promulgating agency of the standard, the standard identification, the effective date and title. The
application of the referenced standards shall be as specified in SBC.
Ref. 4-1 ANSI. (1988). "American National Standard Practice for the Inspection of
Elevators, Escalators, and Moving Walks (Inspectors' Manual)." ANSI A17.2.
Ref. 4-2 ANSI/ASME. (1993). "American National Standard Safety Code for Elevators
and Escalators." ANSI/ASME A17.1.
Ref. 5-1 ASCE. (1998). "Flood Resistant Design and Construction." SEI/ASCE 24-98.
Ref. 7.4-1 Standard Test Method for Performance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls,
Doors and Storm Shutters Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed to Cyclic Pressure
Differentials, ASTM E1886-97, ASTM Inc., West Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
Ref. 7.4-2 Specification Standard for Performance of Exterior Windows, Glazed Curtain
Walls, Doors and Storm Shutters Impacted by Windborne Debris in Hurricanes,
ASTM E 1996-99, ASTM Inc., West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
Ref. 11.1-1 American Institute of Steel Construction, Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel
Buildings, Part I, 1997, including Supplement 2, November 10, 2000.
Ref. 11.1-2 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members, 1996, including Supplement No. 1, July 30,
1999.
Ref. 11.1-3 ASCE, Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural
Members, ASCE 8-90, 1990.
Ref. 11.1-4 Steel Joist Institute, Standard Specification, Load Tables and Weight Tables for
Steel Joists and Joist Girders, 1994.
Ref. 11.1-5 ASCE, Structural Applications for Steel Cables for Buildings, ASCE 19-95, 1995.
Ref. 11.3-1 American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Seismic Provisions for
Structural Steel Buildings, Including Supplement No. 1 (February 15, 1999, July
1997, Parts I and II.
Ref. 11.3-2 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members, 1996, including Supplement 2000.
Ref. 11.4-1 American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures, ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99, 1999 and Specifications for
Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-99/ ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-99, 1999.
Ref. 12-1 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), ASME A17.1, Safety Code
For Elevators and Escalators, 1996.
Ref. 12-2 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Boiler And Pressure Vessel
Code, including addendums through 1997.
Ref. 12-3 American Society For Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM C635, Standard
Specification for the Manufacture, Performance, and Testing of Metal Suspension
Systems For Acoustical Tile And Lay-in Panel Ceilings, 1997.
Ref. 12-4 American Society For Testing And Materials (ASTM), ASTM C636, Standard
Practice for Installation of Metal Ceiling Suspension Systems for Acoustical Tile
And Lay-in Panels, 1996.
Ref. 12-5 American National Standards Institute/American Society :of Mechanical
Engineers, ASME B31.1-98, Power Piping.
SBC 301 2007 Referenced Standards/1
REFERENCED STANDARDS
Ref. 12-6 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.3-96, Process Piping.
Ref. 12-7 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.4-92, Liquid
Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous
Ammonia, and Alcohols.
Ref. 12-8 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.5-92, Refrigeration
Piping.
Ref. 12-9 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.9-96, Building Services
Piping.
Ref. 12-10 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.11-89 (Reaffirmed
1998), Slurry Transportation Piping Systems.
Ref. 12-11 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME B31.8-95, Gas Transmission
and Distribution Piping Systems.
Ref. 12-12 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), Standard 344,
Recommended Practice for Seismic Qualification of Class 1E Equipment for
Nuclear Power Generating Stations, 1987.
Ref. 12-13 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), NFPA-13, Standard for the
Installation of Sprinkler Systems, 1999.
Ref. 12-14 American Society of Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (ASHRAE),
"Seismic Restraint Design," 1999.
Ref. 12-15 Manufacturer's Standardization Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry (MSS).
SP-58, "Pipe-hangers and Supports - Materials, Design, and Manufacture," 1988.
Ref. 12-16 Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association (CISCA),
"Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay-in Panel Ceilings,"
Seismic Zones 0-2, 1991.
Ref. 12-17 Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association (CISCA),
"Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay-in Panel Ceilings,"
Seismic Zones 3-4, 1991.
Ref. 12-18 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA),
HVAC Duct Construction Standards, Metal and Flexible, 1995.
Ref. 12-19 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA),
Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards, 1980.
Ref. 12-20 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA),
Seismic Restraint Manual Guidelines for Mechanical Systems, 1991, including
Appendix B, 1998.
Ref. 12-21 American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA), "Recommended
Dynamic Test Method for Determining the Seismic Drift Causing Glass Fallout
from a Wall System," Publication No. AAMA 501.6-2001.
Ref. 13.2-1 ACI. (1995). "Standard Practice for the Design and Construction of Cast-In-Place
Reinforced Concrete Chimneys." ACI 307.
Ref. 13.2-2 ACI. (1997). "Standard Practice for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials." ACI 313.
Ref. 13.2-3 ACI. (1999). "Standard Practice for the Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing
Concrete Structures." ACI 350.3/350.3R.
Ref. 13.2-4 ACI. (1998). "Guide to the Analysis, Design, and Construction of Concrete-
Pedestal Water Towers." ACI 371R.
Ref. 13.2-5 ANSI "Safety Requirements for the Storage and Handling of Anhydrous
SBC 301 2007 Referenced Standards/2
REFERENCED STANDARDS
Ref. 13.2-28 U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command. "Piers and Wharves." NAVFAC
DM-25.1
Ref. 13.2-29 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1992). "Seismic Design for
Buildings." Army TM 5-809-10/ NAVFAC P-355/Air Force AFM 88-3, Chapter
13.
Ref. 13.2-31 Compressed Gas Association (CGA). (1999). "Guide for Flat-Bottomed
LOX/LIN/LAR Storage Tank Systems." 1st Edition.
INDEX
ISBN: 9960-9885-4-6
201 Architectural
301 Structural – Loading and Forces
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code is a set of legal, administrative and technical systems that
establish building construction in the Kingdom on scientific and engineering bases with the
aim of ensuring the minimum requirements of safety and public health. It started with the
issuance of the Royal Decree No. 7/B/3230 dated 11th June 2000 so as to form a national
committee composed of representatives of Saudi universities and the governmental and
private sectors. In the beginning of September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the
general plan of the National Committee to prepare a unified building code for the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.
To choose a reference code on which a Saudi Building Code is to be based, a number
of Arab and International experiences, building standards, regulations and plans of the
governmental departments and authorities have been studied. The National Committee has
also been acquainted with the results of the national researches and the international codes,
such as the regulations of the International Code Council (ICC) issued in U.S.A., European
Code (EC), Arab Codes, the Canadian Building Code (NBC). It has also sought the opinions
of specialists in relevant Saudi universities, governmental and private sectors through holding
a questionnaire, a symposium and specialized workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has
been chosen. It has also endorsed the use of the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) in respect of the electrotechnical regulations and requirements, the codes of the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) for concrete and masonry structures, the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) for loading and forces and the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) for steel structures.
The SBC code requirements materials have been done so with the permission of the
ICC, ACI, ASCE and IEC. These bodies are not responsible for any modifications or changes
that the SBC has made to accommodate local conditions.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and
construction industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the
universities and research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to
code content by holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of
experts from inside and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of
April 2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base
Code with the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of
soil and properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers
Decree No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-
committees started preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code Structural Requirements for Testing and Inspection (SBC
302) were based on Chapter 17 and Section 109 of the International Building Code (IBC).
International Code Council (ICC) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions
of ICC codes and standards in the SBC, and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to
SBCNC or to any other party or entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes
to such documents. These documents were modified to suit the Saudi Arabian environment
and conditions with due recognition of the material and practices in current use in the
Kingdom.
The development process of SBC 302 followed the methodology approved by the
Saudi Building Code National Committee. Many changes and modifications were
implemented on Chapter 17 and Section 109. These changes range from replacing sections
with new ones, inserting additional sections such as precast concrete constructions, and
special inspections for wind requirements, removing irrelevant topics such as wood
construction, and wall panels and veneers.
** Partially.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 General
1.1 Scope
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Inspections
1.4 Alternative Materials, Design and Methods of Construction and Equipment
1.5 Approvals
REFERENCED STANDARDS
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
1.1.0 The Saudi Building Code for Structural Tests and Inspections referred to as SBC
302, provides minimum requirements for Structural Tests and Inspections. SBC
302 shall govern the quality, workmanship and requirements for:
1. Approval procedures of inspection agencies, fabricators and others
required in SBC 302,
2. Special inspection of the materials, installation, fabrication, erection or
placement of components and connections requiring special expertise to
ensure compliance with approved construction documents and referenced
standards,
3. Seismic and wind resistant constructions,
4. New building materials or method of construction not provided for in the
SBC.
Materials of construction and tests shall conform to the applicable standards listed
in SBC 301 through SBC 306.
SECTION 1.2
DEFINITIONS
1.2.0 The following words and terms shall, for the purposes of this code and as used
elsewhere in the SBC, have the meanings shown herein.
indicates that the product or material has been inspected and evaluated by an
approved agency (see 1.5.5 and “Label”, “Manufacturer’s designation” and
“Mark”).
Special conditions not covered by the structural code. New building materials,
equipment, appliances, systems or methods of construction not covered by the
SBC, and any material of questioned suitability proposed for use in the construction
of a building or structure.
SECTION 1.3
INSPECTIONS
1.3.1 General. Construction or work for which a permit is required shall be subject to
inspection by the building official and such construction or work shall remain
accessible and exposed for inspection purposes until approved. Approval as a result
of an inspection shall not be construed to be an approval of a violation of the
provisions of this code or of other ordinances of the jurisdiction. Inspections
presuming to give authority to violate or cancel the provisions of this code or of
other ordinances of the jurisdiction shall not be valid. It shall be the duty of the
SBC 302 2007 1/2
GENERAL
permit applicant to cause the work to remain accessible and exposed for
inspection purposes. Neither the building official nor the jurisdiction shall be liable
for expense entailed in the removal or replacement of any material required to
allow inspection.
1.3.2 Preliminary inspection. Before issuing a permit, the building official is
authorized to examine or cause to be examined buildings, structures, sites and
approved drawings and specifications for which an application has been filed.
1.3.3 Required inspections. The building official, upon notification, shall make the
inspections set forth in Sections 1.3.3.1 through 1.3.3.6.
1.3.3.1 Footing and foundation inspection. Footing and foundation inspections shall be
made after excavations for the foundations are complete and any required
reinforcing steel is in place. Inspection shall include shoring of adjacent building
structures, dewatering, and compaction if required. For concrete foundations, any
required forms shall be in place prior to inspection. Materials for the foundation
shall be on the job, except where concrete is ready mixed in accordance with
ASTM C 94, the concrete need not be on the job.
1.3.3.2 Concrete slab and under-floor inspection. Concrete slab and under-floor
inspections shall be made after in-slab or under-floor reinforcing steel and
building service equipment, conduit, piping accessories and other ancillary
equipment items are in place, but before any concrete is placed or floor
sheathing installed, including the sub floor.
1.3.3.3 Fire-resistant penetrations. Protection of joints and penetrations in fire-
resistance-rated assemblies shall not be concealed from view until inspected and
approved.
1.3.3.4 Energy efficiency inspections. Inspections shall be made to determine
compliance with SBC 601 and shall include, but not be limited to, inspections for:
envelope insulation R and U values, fenestration U value, duct system R value, and
HVAC and water-heating equipment efficiency.
1.3.3.5 Special inspections. For special inspections, see chapter 2.
1.3.3.6 Final inspection. The final inspection shall be made after all work required by the
building permit is completed.
1.3.4 Inspection agencies. The building official is authorized to accept reports of
approved inspection agencies, provided such agencies satisfy the requirements as
to qualifications and reliability.
1.3.5 Inspection requests. It shall be the duty of the holder of the building permit or
their duly authorized agent to notify the building official when work is ready for
inspection. It shall be the duty of the permit holder to provide access to and means
for inspections of such work that are required by this code.
1.3.6 Approval required. Work shall not be done beyond the point indicated in each
successive inspection without first obtaining the approval of the building official.
The building official, upon notification, shall make the requested inspections and
shall either indicate the portion of the construction that is satisfactory as
completed, or notify the permit holder or his or her agent wherein the same fails to
comply with this code. Any portions that do not comply shall be corrected and such
portion shall not be covered or concealed until authorized by the building official.
SBC 302 2007 1/3
GENERAL
SECTION 1.4
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS, DESIGN AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
AND EQUIPMENT
1.4.1 General. The provisions of this code are not intended to prevent the installation of
any material or to prohibit any design or method of construction not specifically
prescribed by this code, provided that any such alternative has been approved. An
alternative material, design or method of construction shall be approved where the
building official finds that the proposed design is satisfactory and complies with
the intent of the provisions of this code, and that the material, method or work
offered is, for the purpose intended, at least the equivalent of that prescribed in this
code in quality, strength, effectiveness, fire resistance, durability and safety.
1.4.1.1 Research reports. Supporting data, where necessary to assist in the approval of
materials or assemblies not specifically provided for in this code, shall consist of
valid research reports from approved sources.
1.4.1.2 Tests. Whenever there is insufficient evidence of compliance with the provisions
of this code, or evidence that a material or method does not conform to the
requirements of this code, or in order to substantiate claims for alternative
materials or methods, the building official shall have the authority to require tests
as evidence of compliance to be made at no expense to the jurisdiction. Test
methods shall be as specified in this code or by other recognized test standards. In
the absence of recognized and accepted test methods, the building official shall
approve the testing procedures. Tests shall be performed by an approved agency.
Reports of such tests shall be retained by the building official for the period
required for retention of public records.
SECTION 1.5
APPROVALS
1.5.1 Approved agency. An approved agency shall provide all information as necessary
for the building official to determine that the agency meets the applicable
requirements.
1.5.1.1 Independent. An approved agency shall be objective and competent. The agency
shall also disclose possible conflicts of interest so that objectivity can be
confirmed.
1.5.1.2 Equipment. An approved agency shall have adequate equipment to perform
required tests. The equipment shall be periodically calibrated.
1.5.1.3 Personnel. An approved agency shall employ (experienced professional engineers
and qualified technicians) educated in conducting, supervising and evaluating tests
and/or inspections.
1.5.3 Approved record. For any material, appliance, equipment, system or method of
construction that has been approved, a record of such approval, including the
conditions and limitations of the approval, shall be kept on file in the building
SBC 302 2007 1/4
GENERAL
1.5.4.1 Research and investigation. Sufficient technical data shall be submitted to the
building official to substantiate the proposed use of any material or assembly. If it is
determined that the evidence submitted is satisfactory proof of performance for the
use intended, the building official shall approve the use of the material or assembly
subject to the requirements of SBC. The cost offsets, reports and investigations
required under these provisions shall be paid by the permit applicant.
1.5.4.2 Research reports. Supporting data, where necessary to assist in the approval of
materials or assemblies not specifically provided for in SBC, shall consist of valid
research reports from approved sources.
1.5.5 Labeling. Where materials or assemblies are required by SBC to be labeled, such
materials and assemblies shall be labeled by an approved agency in accordance
with 1.5.1. Products and materials required to be labeled shall be labeled in
accordance with the procedures set forth in Sections 1.5.5.1 through 1.5.5.3.
1.5.5.1 Testing. An approved agency shall test a representative sample of the product or
material being labeled to the relevant standard or standards. The approved agency
shall maintain a record of the tests performed. The record shall provide sufficient
details to verify compliance with the test standard.
1.5.5.2 Inspection and identification. The approved agency shall periodically perform
an inspection, which shall be in-plant if necessary, of the product or material that is
to be labeled. The inspection shall verify that the labeled product or material is
representative of the product or material tested.
1.5.5.3 Label information. The label shall contain the manufacturer’s or distributor’s
identification, model number, serial number or definitive information describing
the product or material’s performance characteristics and approved agency’s
identification.
1.5.6.1 Follow-up inspection. The permit applicant shall provide for special inspections of
fabricated items in accordance with Section 2.2.
1.5.6.2 Test and inspection records. Records of test and special inspection shall be
preserved by the special inspector (inspection agency) for 5 years after completion
of the project. Copies of necessary test and inspection records shall be filed with
the building official.
SBC 302 2007 1/5
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS
CHAPTER 2
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS
SECTION 2.1
GENERAL
2.1.0 Where application is made for construction as described in this chapter, the owner or
the registered design professional in responsible charge acting as the owner’s agent
shall employ one or more special inspectors to provide inspections during
construction on the types of work listed under Chapter 2. The special inspector
shall be a qualified person who shall demonstrate competence, to the satisfaction
of the building official, for inspection of the particular type of construction or
operation requiring special inspection. These inspections are in addition to the
inspections specified in Section 1.3.
Exceptions:
1. Special inspections are not required for work of a minor nature as
approved by the building official.
2. Unless otherwise required by the building official, special inspections are
not required for occupancies in Group R-3 and occupancies in Group U
that are accessory to a residential occupancy including, but not limited to,
those listed in SBC 201.
2.1.1 Building permit requirement. The permit applicant shall submit a statement of
special inspections prepared by the registered design professional in responsible
charge in accordance with construction documents and other related provisions, as
a condition for permit issuance. This statement shall include a complete list of
materials and work requiring special inspections by this chapter, the inspections
to be performed and a list of the individuals, approved agencies or firms
intended to be retained for conducting such inspections.
2.1.2 Report requirement. Special inspectors shall keep records of inspections. The
special inspector shall furnish inspection reports to the building official, and to
the registered design professional in responsible charge. Reports shall indicate that
work inspected was done in conformance to approved construction documents.
Discrepancies shall be brought to the immediate attention of the contractor for
correction. If the discrepancies are not corrected, the discrepancies shall be brought
to the attention of the building official and to the registered design professional in
responsible charge prior to the completion of that phase of the work. A final report
documenting required special inspections and correction of any discrepancies noted
in the inspections shall be submitted no later than 3 months of the completion of
the work.
SECTION 2.2
INSPECTION OF FABRICATORS
2.2.1 Fabrication and implementation procedures. The special inspector shall verify
that the fabricator maintains detailed fabrication and quality control procedures that
SBC 302 2007 2/1
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS
provide a basis for inspection control of the workmanship and the fabricator’s
ability to conform to approved construction documents and referenced standards.
The special inspector shall review the procedures for completeness and adequacy
relative to the code requirements for the fabricator’s scope of work.
Exception: Special inspections as required by Section 2.2 shall not be required
where the fabricator is approved in accordance with Section 2.2.2.
2.2.2 Fabricator approval. Special inspections required by this code are not required
where the work is done on the premises of a fabricator registered and approved to
perform such work without special inspection. Approval shall be based upon review
of the fabricator’s written procedural and quality control manuals and periodic
auditing of fabrication practices by an approved special inspection agency. At
completion of fabrication, the approved fabricator shall submit a certificate of
compliance to the building official stating that the work was performed in
accordance with the approved construction documents.
SECTION 2.3
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
2.3.0 The special inspections for steel elements of buildings and structures shall be as
required by this section and Table 2.3.
Exceptions:
1. Special inspection of the steel fabrication process shall not be required where the
fabricator does not perform any welding, thermal cutting or heating operation of any
kind as part of the fabrication process. In such cases, the fabricator shall be required
to submit a detailed procedure for material control that demonstrates the fabricator’s
ability to maintain suitable records and procedures such that, at any time during
the fabrication process, the material specification, grade and mill test reports
for the main stress-carrying elements are capable of being determined.
2. The special inspector need not be continuously present during welding of the
following items, provided the materials, welding procedures and qualifications of
welders are verified prior to the start of the work; periodic inspections are made of
the work in progress and a visual inspection of all welds is made prior to
completion or prior to shipment of shop welding.
a. Single-pass fillet welds not exceeding 8 mm in size.
b. Floor and roof deck welding.
c. Welded studs when used for structural diaphragm.
d. Welded sheet steel for cold-formed steel framing members such as studs and
joists.
e. Welding of stairs and railing systems.
2.3.1 Welding. Welding inspection shall be in compliance with AWS D1.1. The basis for
welding inspector qualification shall be AWS D1.1.
2.3.2 Details. The special inspector shall perform an inspection of the steel frame to verify
compliance with the details shown on the approved construction documents, such
as bracing, stiffening, member locations and proper application of joint details at
each connection.
2.3.3.1 General. While the work is in progress, the special inspector shall determine that
the requirements for bolts, nuts, washers and paint; bolted parts and installation and
tightening in such standards are met. For bolts requiring pre-tensioning, the special
inspector shall observe the pre-installation testing and calibration procedures
when such procedures are required by the installation method or by project plans
or specifications; determine that all plies of connected materials have been drawn
together and properly snugged and monitor the installation of bolts to verify that the
selected procedure for installation is properly used to tighten bolts. For joints
required to be tightened only to the snug-tight condition, the special inspector
need only verify that the connected materials have been drawn together and
properly snugged.
TABLE 2.3
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
CONTINUOUS PERIODIC
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during task REFERENCE STANDARD
listed listed
SECTION 2.4
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
2.4.0 Concrete construction. The special inspections and verifications for concrete
construction for compliance with approved design drawings and with SBC
requirements shall be as required by this section and Table 2.4.
Exception: Special inspections shall not be required for minor constructions such
as fence walls, driveways and nonstructural concrete elements.
TABLE 2.4
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
CONTINUOUS PERIODIC
REFERENCE
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during task
STANDARD
listed listed
1. Inspection of structural layout and members dimensions
for compliance with approved design drawings and
construction tolerances − X −
2. Inspection of reinforcing steel, including prestressing
X SBC 304 (3.5, 7.1-7.7)
tendons, and placement.
3. Inspection of formwork X SBC 304 (6.1-6.2)
4. Inspection of concrete mix
a. Verify the use of required design mix X SBC 304 (4, 5.2-5.4)
b. Verify that the delivery is from certified batch X
plant
5. At the time fresh concrete is sampled to fabricate ASTM C 172
specimens for strength tests, perform slump and X ASTM C 31
determine the temperature of the concrete. SBC 304 (5.6, 5.8)
6. Inspection of concrete placement for proper application X
SBC 304 (5.9, 5.10)
techniques.
7. Inspection of curing techniques and hot weather
X SBC 304 (5.11-5.13)
requirements.
8. Inspection of prestressed concrete:
a. Application of prestressing forces. X SBC 304 (18.20)
b. Grouting of bonded prestressing tendons in the X
SBC 304 (18.18.4)
seismic-force-resisting system.
9. Verification of in-situ concrete strength, prior to
stressing of tendons in post-tensioned concrete and
X SBC 304 (6.2)
prior to removal of shores and forms from beams and
structural slabs.
SECTION 2.5
PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
2.5.0 The special inspections and verifications for the precast concrete elements for
compliance with the approved design drawings, shop drawings, the approved
manufacturer procedure and SBC requirements shall be as required by this section
and Table 2.5.
Exception: Special inspection shall not be required for non-structural precast
elements such as curb stones, and pavers.
TABLE 2.5
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION
CONTINUOUS PERIODIC
REFERENCE
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during task
STANDARD
listed listed
1. Shop drawings shall be reviewed for compliances X
with the contract specifications and drawings
prior to fabrication.
2. Form work, rebar, location of lifting hooks and X SBC 304 (3.5, 7.1-7.7,
embedded items including pre-stressed tendons 16.7)
and post tension duct.
3. Concrete mix design approval and verify the use X SBC 304 (4, 5.2-5.4)
of the approved concrete mix.
4.
a. Conveying and placing concrete techniques. X SBC 304 (5.9 & 5.10)
b. Samples of the concrete to determine slump X ACI 301, Section
test, temperature, air and the strength of the 1.6.4.2.d, e, f & g
mix.
5. Precast with pretension
a. Verification of tendons for prestressed X SBC 304 (3.5)
reinforcement.
b. Verification tensile stresses in the tendons X SBC 304 (18.18)
and measurement of tendon elongation.
c. Verification of anchorage end blocks X SBC 304 (18.13.2)
strength to support prestressing forces.
6. Curing techniques including curing by high X SBC 304 (5.11 & 5.13)
pressure steam to accelerate strength gain and
reduce time of curing.
X ACI 301 Section 5.3.3
7. Finishing
& 5.3.4
8. Precast with post-tension
a. Verification of the concrete strength before X
the post tension takes place.
b. Verification of ducts and end anchorage X ACI 301, Section 9.2
materials.
c. Verification of the profile of ducts in the X SBC 304 (18.15)
member as per design drawings.
d. Verification of prestressing force and X SBC 304 (18.18)
measurement of tendon elongation.
e. Grouting of ducts. X SBC 304 (18.16)
f. Verification of anchorage and couplers. X SBC 304 (18.19)
9. Transportation
a. Verification of precast elements transported X SBC 304 (16.6)
position consistent with their shape and
design to avoid excessive handling stress.
b. Verification of concrete strength before X SBC 304 (16.6)
transportation. Member should have
attained 85% of the concrete compressive
strength.
10. Storage and handling at the job site. X SBC 304 (16.9)
11. Lifting and erection of the elements. X
12. Connection type and technique. X SBC 306, AWS (D1.1),
Refer to Table 2.3 ASTM A 325, ASTM
A490,H-strength,
ASTM A 307 Regular
SECTION 2.6
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
2.6.0 The special inspection and verifications for masonry construction shall be as
required by this section and table 2.6.
Exception: Special inspections shall not be required for minor construction such
as fence walls.
TABLE 2.6
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
REFERENCE STANDARD
Continuous Periodic
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during ACI 530.1/ASCE
SBC 305
listed task listed 6/TMS 602
SECTION 2.7
SOIL AND FOUNDATIONS
2.7.0 The special inspections for existing site soil conditions, fill placement and load-
bearing requirements shall be as required by this section and Table 2.7. The
approved soils report, required by Section 2.2 SBC 303, shall be used to determine
compliance.
TABLE 2.7
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF SOIL AND FOUNDATIONS
Continuous Periodic REFERENCE STANDARD
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during task
listed listed SBC 303 ASTM
1. Geotechnical Investigation Chapter 2 D-420
a. Particle Size Analysis of Soils X D-422, D-1140
b. Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit X D4318
c. Standard Penetration Test X D-1586
d. Soil Classification X D-2487
2. Earthwork Chapter 3
a. Excavation X
b. Backfill - Compaction
b.1 Moisture Density Relations X D-698, D-1557
b.2 Density by Nuclear Methods X D-2922
c. Drainage X Chapter 13
3. Dewatering X Chapter 13
4. Bearing Capacity Chapter 4
a. Plate Load Test X D-1194
b. Field Vane Test in Cohesive Soils X D-2573
c. Direct Shear Strength X D-3080
5. Footings and Foundations X Chapters 5, 6, 8,
9, 10, 11, 12
6. Retaining Walls X Chapter 7
7. Damp proofing & Waterproofing X Chapter 13
8. Pier & Pile Foundations Chapter 14
a. Friction Cone Penetration Test X D-3441
b. (Testing) Pile under Axial Load X D-1143
9. Expansive & Collapsible Soils X Chapter 2
10. Sabkha Soils X SBC 302 (2.7.5)
11. Random & Artificial Backfill X SBC 302 (2.7.4)
2.7.1 Site preparation. Prior to placement of the prepared fill, the special inspector
shall determine that the site has been prepared in accordance with the approved
soils report.
2.7.2 During fill placement. During placement and compaction of the fill material, the
special inspector shall determine that the material being used and the maximum lift
thickness comply with the approved report, as specified in Section 3.10 SBC 303.
2.7.3 Evaluation of in-place density. The special inspector shall determine, at the
approved frequency, that the in-place dry density of the compacted fill complies
with the approved report.
2.7.5 Sabkha soils. Building foundations built over Sabkha soils, encountered in many
locations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, should be protected. Special precaution
shall be taken regarding the control of humidity in the ground. Replacement of
Sabkha soils shall be considered where possible.
2.7.6 Pile foundations. A special inspector shall be present when pile foundations are
being installed and during tests. The special inspector shall make and submit to the
building official records of installation of each pile and results of load tests.
Records shall include the cutoff and tip elevation of each pile relative to a
permanent reference.
2.7.7 Pier foundations. Special inspection is required for pier foundations for buildings
assigned to Seismic Design Category C or D.
SECTION 2.8
SPRAYED FIRE-RESISTANT MATERIALS
2.8.0 Special inspections for sprayed fire-resistant materials applied to structural
elements and decks shall be in accordance with Section 2.8.1 through 2.8.5.
Special inspections shall be based on the fire-resistance design as designated
in the approved construction documents.
2.8.2 Application. The substrate shall have a minimum ambient temperature before and
after application as specified in the approved manufacturer’s written instructions.
The area for application shall be ventilated during and after application as required
by the approved manufacturer’s written instructions.
2.8.3 Thickness. The average thickness of the sprayed fire-resistant materials applied to
structural elements shall not be less than the thickness required by the approved
fire-resistant design. Thickness shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E
605. Samples of the sprayed fire-resistant materials shall be selected in accordance
with Section 2.8.3.1 and 2.8.3.2.
2.8.3.1 Floor, roof and wall assemblies. The thickness of the sprayed fire-resistant
material applied to floor, roof and wall assemblies shall be determined in
accordance with ASTM E 605, taking the average of not less than four
measurements for each 100 m2 of the sprayed area on each floor or part thereof.
2.8.3.2 Structural framing members. The thickness of the sprayed fire-resistant material
applied to structural members shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E 605.
Thickness testing shall be performed on not less than 25 percent of the structural
members on each floor.
2.8.4 Density. The density of the sprayed fire-resistant material shall not be less than the
density specified in the approved fire-resistant design. Density of the sprayed fire-
resistant material shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E 605.
2.8.5 Bond strength. The cohesive/adhesive bond strength of the cured sprayed fire-
resistant material applied to structural elements shall not be less than 7 kN/m2. The
cohesive/adhesive bond strength shall be determined in accordance with the field test
specified in ASTM E 736 by testing in-place samples of the sprayed fire-resistant
material selected in accordance with 2.8.5.1 and 2.8.5.2.
2.8.5.1 Floor, roof and wall assemblies. The test samples for determining the cohesive/
adhesive bond strength of the sprayed fire-resistant materials shall be selected
from each floor, roof and wall assembly at the rate of not less than one sample for
SBC 302 2007 2/8
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS
2.8.5.2 Structural framing members. The test samples for determining the cohesive/
adhesive bond strength of the sprayed fire-resistant materials shall be selected
from beams, girders, joists, trusses and columns at the rate of not less than one
sample for each type of structural framing member for each 1000 m2 of floor area
or part thereof in each story.
CHAPTER 3
SEISMIC AND WIND RESISTANT CONSTRUCTIONS
SECTION 3.1
SCOPE
The provisions of this chapter apply to Quality assurance, Special inspections and
Testing for Seismic Resistance and Special inspections for Wind requirements.
Provisions in chapter 15 SBC 301 shall apply when not in conflict with the seismic
provisions of this chapter.
SECTION 3.2
QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR SEISMIC RESISTANCE
3.2.1 Scope. A quality assurance plan for seismic requirements shall be provided in
accordance with Section 3.2.2 for the following:
1. The seismic-force-resisting systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category C or D.
2. Designated seismic systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category
D.
3. The following additional systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category C:
a. Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) ductwork
containing hazardous materials and anchorage of such ductwork.
b. Piping systems and mechanical units containing flammable,
combustible or highly toxic materials.
c. Anchorage of electrical equipment used for emergency or standby
power systems.
4. The following additional systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category D:
a. Systems required for Seismic Design Category C.
b. Exterior wall panels and their anchorage.
c. Suspended ceiling systems and their anchorage.
d. Access floors and their anchorage.
e. Steel storage racks and their anchorage, where the factor, Ip,
determined in Section 12.15, SBC 301, is equal to 1.5.
Exceptions:
A quality assurance plan is not required for structures designed and constructed
in accordance with the following:
1. The structure is constructed of light framed cold-formed steel; the design
spectral response acceleration at short periods, SDS, as determined in Section
9.4 SBC 301, does not exceed 0.5g, and the height of the structure does
not exceed 10000 mm above grade plane; or
3.2.2 Quality assurance plan preparation. The design of each designated seismic
system shall include a quality assurance plan prepared by a registered
professional structural engineer. The quality assurance plan shall identify the
following:
1. The designated seismic systems and seismic-force-resisting systems that are
subject to quality assurance in accordance with Section 3.2.1.
2. The special inspections and testing to be provided as required by Chapter 2
and section 3.4 and other applicable sections of SBC, including the
applicable standards referenced by SBC.
3. The type and frequency of testing required.
4. The type and frequency of special inspections required.
5. The required frequency and distribution of testing and special inspection
reports.
SECTION 3.3
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS FOR SEISMIC RESISTANCE
3.3.1 General. Special inspection as specified in this section is required for the
following, where required in Section 2.1. Special inspections itemized in Section
3.3.2 through 3.3.6 are required for the following:
1. The seismic-force-resisting systems in structures assigned to Seismic
Design Category C or D, as determined in Section 9.6, SBC 301.
2. Designated seismic systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category D.
3. Architectural, mechanical and electrical components in structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category C or D that are required in Section
3.3.5 and 3.3.6.
3.3.4 Storage racks and access floors. Periodic special inspection during the anchorage
of access floors and storage racks 2500 mm or greater in height in structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category D.
3.3.5 Architectural components. Periodic special inspection during the erection and
fastening of exterior cladding, interior and exterior nonbearing walls and interior and
exterior veneer in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D.
Exceptions:
1. Special inspection is not required for architectural components in
structures 9000 mm or less in height.
2. Special inspection is not required for cladding and veneer weighing 250
N/m2 or less.
3. Special inspection is not required for interior nonbearing walls
weighing 750 N/m2 or less.
3.3.6.1 Component inspection. Special inspection required for the installation of the
following components, where the component has a Component Importance Factor
of 1.0 or 1.5 in accordance with Section 12.1.5 SBC 301, shall maintain an
approved quality control program. Evidence of the quality control program shall
be permanently identified on each piece of equipment by a label.
1. Equipment using combustible energy sources.
2. Electrical motors, transformers, switchgear unit substations and motor
control centers.
3. Reciprocating and rotating-type machinery.
4. Piping distribution systems 75 mm and larger.
5. Tanks, heat exchangers and pressure vessels.
3.3.6.2 Component and attachment testing. The component manufacturer shall test or
analyze the component and the component mounting system or anchorage for the
design forces in SBC 301 for those components having a Component Importance
Factor of 1.0 or 1.5 in accordance with SBC 301. The manufacturer shall submit a
certificate of compliance for review and acceptance by the registered design
professional responsible for the design, and for approval by the building official.
The basis of certification shall be by test on a shaking table, by three-dimensional
shock tests, by an analytical method using dynamic characteristics and forces from
SBC 301 or by more rigorous analysis. The special inspector shall inspect the
component and verify that the label, anchorage or mounting conforms to the
certificate of compliance.
SECTION 3.4
STRUCTURAL TESTING FOR SEISMIC RESISTANCE
TABLE 3.4
MINIMUM TESTS AND SUBMITTALS
Certificates of compliance used in masonry construction.
Verification of f m' prior to construction and every 500 square meters
during construction.
Verification of proportions of materials in mortar and grout as
delivered to the site.
3.4.2 Testing for seismic resistance. The tests specified in Section 3.4.3 through 3.4.5
are required for the following:
1. The seismic-force-resisting systems in structures assigned to Seismic
SBC 302 2007 3/4
SEISMIC AND WIND RESISTANT CONSTRUCTIONS
3.4.3 Reinforcing and prestressing steel. Certified mill test reports shall be provided for
each shipment of reinforcing and prestressing steel used to resist flexural, shear and
axial forces in reinforced concrete intermediate frames, special moment frames and
boundary elements of special reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry shear
walls.
3.4.4 Structural steel. The testing shall be as required by AISC 341 and the additional
requirements herein. The acceptance criteria for nondestructive testing shall be as
required in AWS D1.1 or specified by the registered design professional.
SECTION 3.5
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS FOR WIND REQUIREMENTS
TABLE 3.5
REQUIRED VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION OF STRUCTURAL
CONNECTIONS
Continuous Periodic
References
VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION during task during task
Standard
listed listed
1. Roof connections and roof framing X SBC 306
connections
2. Wall connections to roof and floor X SBC 306
diaphragms and framing.
3. Roof and floor diaphragm systems, including X SBC 306
collectors, drag struts and boundary elements.
4. Vertical windforce-resisting systems, X SBC 306
including braced frames, moment frames and
shear walls.
5. Windforce-resisting system connections to the X SBC 306
foundation.
6. Fabrication and installation of components X
and assemblies required to meet the impact- SBC 306
resistance requirements.
7. Precast concrete wall elements during the X SBC 306
erection.
CHAPTER 4
SPECIAL CONDITIONS
SECTION 4.1
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS AND TEST PROCEDURES
4.1.1 Conformance to standards. The design strengths and permissible stresses of any
structural material that are identified by a manufacturer’s designation as to
manufacture and grade by mill tests, or the strength and stress grade is otherwise
confirmed to the satisfaction of the building official, shall conform to the
specifications and methods of design of accepted engineering practice or the
approved rules in the absence of applicable standards.
4.1.2 New materials. For new materials that are not specifically provided for in this
code, the design strengths and permissible stresses shall be established by tests as
provided for in Section 4.1.3.
4.1.3 Test procedure. In the absence of approved rules or other approved standards, the
building official shall make, or cause to be made, the necessary tests and
investigations; or the building official shall accept duly authenticated reports from
approved agencies in respect to the quality and manner of use of new materials or
assemblies as provided for in Section 1.4. The cost of all tests and other
investigations required under the provisions of this code shall be borne by the
permit applicant.
SECTION 4.2
TEST SAFE LOAD
SECTION 4.3
IN-SITU LOAD TESTS
4.3.2 Test standards. Structural components and assemblies shall be tested in accordance
with the appropriate material standards listed in SBC. In the absence of a standard
that contains an applicable load test procedure, the test procedure shall be developed
by a registered design professional and approved. The test procedure shall simulate
loads and conditions of application that the completed structure or portion thereof
will be subjected to in normal use.
4.3.3 In-situ load tests. In-situ load tests shall be conducted in accordance with Section
4.3.3.1 or 4.3.3.2 and shall be supervised by a registered design professional. The
test shall simulate the applicable loading conditions specified in SBC 301 as
necessary to address the concerns regarding structural stability of the building,
structure or portion thereof.
4.3.3.1 Load test procedure specified. Where a specialized code or standard listed in SBC
contains an applicable load test procedure and acceptance criteria, the test
procedure and acceptance criteria in the standard shall apply. In the absence of
specific load factors or acceptance criteria, the load factors and acceptance criteria
in Section 4.3.3.2 shall apply.
4.3.3.2 Load test procedure not specified. In the absence of applicable load test
procedures contained within a standard referenced by this code or acceptance
criteria for a specific material or method of construction, such existing structure
shall be subjected to a test procedure developed by a registered design professional
that simulates applicable loading and deformation conditions. For components
that are not a part of the seismic-load-resisting system, the test load shall be equal
to two times the unfactored design loads. The test load shall be left in place for a
period of 24 hours. The structure shall be considered to have successfully met the
test requirements where the following criteria are satisfied:
1. Under the design load, the deflection shall not exceed the limitations
specified in SBC 301.
2. Within 24 hours after removal of the test load, the structure shall have
recovered not less than 75 % of the maximum deflection.
3. During and immediately after the test, the structure shall not show
evidence of failure.
SECTION 4.4
PRECONSTRUCTION LOAD TESTS
4.4.2 Load test procedures specified. Where specific load test procedures, load
factors and acceptance criteria are included in the applicable design standards
listed in SBC, such test procedures, load factors and acceptance criteria shall apply.
In the absence of specific test procedures, load factors or acceptance criteria, the
corresponding provisions in Section 4.4.3 shall apply.
4.4.3 Load test procedures not specified. Where load test procedures are not specified
in the applicable design standards listed in SBC, the load-bearing and deformation
capacity of structural components and assemblies shall be determined on the basis
of a test procedure developed by a registered design professional that simulates
applicable loading and deformation conditions. For components and assemblies
that are not a part of the seismic-load-resisting system, the test shall be as specified
in Section 4.4.3.1. Load tests shall simulate the applicable loading conditions
specified in SBC 301.
4.4.3.2 Deflection. The deflection of structural members under the design load shall not
exceed the limitations in SBC 301.
4.4.4 Wall and partition assemblies. Load-bearing wall and partition assemblies shall
sustain the test load both with and without window framing. The test load shall
include all design load components. Wall and partition assemblies shall be tested
both with and without door and window framing.
4.4.5 Test specimens. Test specimens and construction shall be representative of the
materials, workmanship and details normally used in practice. The properties of the
materials used to construct the test assembly shall be determined on the basis of
tests on samples taken from the load assembly or on representative samples of the
materials used to construct the load test assembly. Required tests shall be conducted
or witnessed by an approved agency.
These are the standards referenced within SBC 302. The standards are listed herein by the
promulgating agency of the standard, the standard identification, the effective date and title.
The application of the referenced standards shall be as specified in SBC.
2. American Concrete Institute (ACI), "Specifications for Structural Concrete", ACI 301,
Farmington Hills, MI 483333-9094.
4. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC), “Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings” LRFD 1999, Chicago, IL 60601-
2001.
7. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM A 6/A 6M-01b Specification for
General Requirements for Rolled Steel, Structural Steel Bars, Plates, Shapes, and
Sheet Piling), West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
8. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM A 307-00 Specification for
Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength).
10. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM C 31/31M—98 Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field).
11. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM C 172—99 Practice for Sampling
Freshly Mixed Concrete).
12. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D 422—98 Test Method for
Particle-size Analysis of Soils).
13. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D1143—81 (1994) E01 Test
Method for Piles Under Static Axial Compressive Load).
14. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D1557-00 Test Method for
Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (2,700kN
m/m3).
SBC 302 2007 References/1
15. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D1586-99 Specification for
Penetration Test and Split-barrel Sampling of Soils).
16. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D2487-00 Practice for
Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System).
17. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM E 605-00 Test Method for
Thickness and Density of Sprayed Fire-resistive Material (SFRM) Applied to
Structural Members)
18. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM E 736—00 Test Method for
Cohesion/Adhesion of Sprayed Fire-resistive Materials Applied to Structural
Members)
19. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM A325M-93 Standard
Specification for High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints)
20. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM A490-97 Standard Specification
for Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts for Structural Steel Joints).
21. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D420 Standard Guide to Site
Characterization for Engineering, Design, and Construction Purposes).
22. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D1140 Standard Test Methods
for Amount of Material in Soils Finer than No. 200 (75 µm ) Sieve).
23. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D4318-05 Standard Test Methods
for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils)
24. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D698 Standard Test Methods for
Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (600kN-m/m3)
25. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D2922-01 Standard Test Methods
for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth).
26. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM, (D1194-94 Standard Test
Method for Bearing Capacity of Soil for Static Load and Spread Footings).
27. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D2573-01Standard Test Method
for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil).
28. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D3080-04 Standard Test Method
for Direct Shear Test of Soils under Consolidated Drained Conditions).
29. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D3441-05 Standard Test Method
for Mechanical Cone Penetration Tests of Soil).
ISBN: 9960-9885-2-X
Gratitude
In appreciation and gratitude to The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and Prime Minister
King Abdullah Bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud
And to the Crown Prince, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defence and Aviation and
Inspector General
Prince Sultan Bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud
For their continuous support and gracious consideration,
The Saudi Building Code National Committee is honored to present the first issue of
The Saudi Building Code (SBC).
201 Architectural
301 Structural – Loading and Forces
302 Structural – Testing and Inspection
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code is a set of legal, administrative and technical systems that
establish building construction in the Kingdom on scientific and engineering bases with the
aim of ensuring the minimum requirements of safety and public health. It started with the
issuance of the Royal Decree No. 7/B/3230 dated 11th June 2000 so as to form a national
committee composed of representatives of Saudi universities and the governmental and
private sectors. In the beginning of September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the
general plan of the National Committee to prepare a unified building code for the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.
To choose a reference code on which a Saudi Building Code is to be based, a number
of Arab and International experiences, building standards, regulations and plans of the
governmental departments and authorities have been studied. The National Committee has
also been acquainted with the results of the national researches and the international codes,
such as the regulations of the International Code Council (ICC) issued in U.S.A., European
Code (EC), Arab Codes, the Canadian Building Code (NBC). It has also sought the opinions
of specialists in relevant Saudi universities, governmental and private sectors through holding
a questionnaire, a symposium and specialized workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has
been chosen. It has also endorsed the use of the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) in respect of the electrotechnical regulations and requirements, the codes of the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) for concrete and masonry structures, the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) for loading and forces and the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) for steel structures.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and
construction industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the
universities and research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to
code content by holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of
experts from inside and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of
April 2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base
code with the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of
soil and properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers
Decree No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-
committees started preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code Structural Requirements for Soil and Foundations (SBC
303) were developed based on Chapter 18 of the International Building Code (IBC) 2003
edition published by ICC, and a number of national and international documents. International
Code Council (ICC) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions of ICC codes
and standards in the SBC, and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any
other party or entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents.
The development of the SBC 303 followed the methodology that was approved by the Saudi
Building Code National Committee. Modifications to the IBC documents were intended to
draft a comprehensive set of provisions that are consistent with and inclusive of Chapter 18 of
the IBC, and in the meantime accounts, to the best possible extent, for materials,
environmental conditions, and construction practices prevailing in the Kingdom.
Throughout the development of the document, several key aspects were considered,
among them are the current local practice of geotechnical engineering and the causes related
to soil and foundations problems.
Most topics of the IBC documents have been substantially revised and modified
except pile and pier foundations which are viewed in detail in the original document and they
were approved without modifications. The main revisions included parts pertaining to site
investigation, excavation, grading and backfill, shallow footings, and damp proofing and
SBC 303 2007 Preface/1
PREFACE
waterproofing. A glossary of relevant terms has been included in Chapter 1, and a number of
regulations scattered throughout the IBC document have been revised to reflect the local
practice.
Some sections in the IBC have been extended to become entire new chapters in the
SBC 303, as for the case of retaining walls, design for expansive soil, and design for vibratory
loads. Particularly, design for expansive soil has been thoroughly enhanced with the additions
of foundation systems that are common in local construction practice, and by emphasizing
pre- and post-construction detailing which are usually overlooked and lead to many sequential
problems. Sabkha and collapsible soils were not covered in the IBC document, yet these two
soil formations are abundantly found on vast areas throughout the Kingdom and historically
have created problems for structures. Thus, besides provisions relevant to identification and
testing of these soil formations, which have been added to Chapter 2 “Site Investigations”, an
entire chapter has been devoted for each soil type, covering all aspects relevant to design and
construction of foundations systems on such problematic soil formations.
It is noteworthy to point out that out of the seventeen chapters that comprise the SBC
303 document, six were entirely new and five were substantially revised. The newly-
introduced materials account for almost sixty percent of the SBC 303 document, and
excluding the pile and pier portion. This proportion approaches about seventy five percent.
Although the provisions presume the existence of certain standard conditions, more often
than not every project has a unique combination of variables, and for that reason, all attempts
have been made to make these requirements flexible.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL
1.1 Scope
1.2 Design
1.3 Definitions
REFERENCES
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
1.1.0 The Saudi Building Code for Soils and foundations referred to as SBC 303,
provides minimum requirements for footing and foundation systems in those areas
not subject to scour or water pressure by wind and wave action. Buildings and
foundations subject to such scour or water pressure loads shall be designed in
accordance with SBC 301. This requirement shall govern in all matters pertaining
to design, construction, and material properties wherever this requirement is in
conflict with requirements contained in other standards referenced in this
requirement.
SECTION 1.2
DESIGN
1.2.0 Allowable bearing pressures, allowable stresses and design formulas provided in
this code shall be used with the allowable stress design load combinations
specified in Section 2.4 SBC 301. The quality and design of materials used
structurally in excavations, footings and foundations shall conform to the
requirements specified in SBC 301, SBC 304, SBC 305, and SBC 306 of the Saudi
Building Code. Excavations and fills shall also comply with SBC 201.
SECTION 1.3
DEFINITIONS
1.3.0 The following words and terms shall, for the purposes of this code, have the
meanings shown herein.
Active Zone. Active zone is the upper zone of the soil deposit which is affected by
the seasonal moisture content variations.
Alarm Level. Alarm level is the vibration level at which a machine is considered
to have developed a defect that will result in related downtime. This level is
usually higher than the acceptance level to allow for conservatism and machinery
variance and is recommended as 1.5 times the acceptance level but may be varied,
depending on specific experience or operational requirements.
Belled Piers. Belled piers are cast-in-place concrete piers constructed with a base
that is larger than the diameter of the remainder of the pier. The belled base is
designed to increase the load-bearing area of the pier in end bearing and to resist
upward heave in expansive soils.
Building Official. Building official means the officer or other designated authority
charged with the administration and enforcement of this code, or his duly
authorized representatives.
Caisson Piles. Caisson piles are cast-in-place concrete piles extending into
bedrock. The upper portion of a caisson pile consists of a cased pile that extends
to the bedrock. The lower portion of the caisson pile consists of an uncased socket
drilled into the bedrock.
Collapsible Soils. Collapsible soils are deposits that are characterized by sudden
and large volume decrease at constant stress when inundated with water. These
deposits are comprised primarily of silt or fine sand-sized particles with small
amounts of clay, and may contain gravel. Collapsible soils have low density, but
are relatively stiff and strong in their dry state.
Concrete-Filled Steel Pipe and Tube Piles. Concrete-filled steel pipe and tube
piles are constructed by driving a steel pipe or tube section into the soil and filling
the pipe or tube section with concrete. The steel pipe or tube section is left in
place during and after the deposition of the concrete.
Contact Pressure. Contact pressure or soil pressure is the pressure acting at and
perpendicular to the contact area between footing and soil, produced by the weight
of the footing and all forces acting on it.
Driven Uncased Piles. Driven uncased piles are constructed by driving a steel
shell into the soil to shore an unexcavated hole that is later filled with concrete.
The steel casing is lifted out of the hole during the deposition of the concrete.
Enlarged Based Piles. Enlarged base piles are cast-in-place concrete piles
constructed with a base that is larger than the diameter of the remainder of the pile.
The enlarged base is designed to increase the load-bearing area of the pile in end
bearing.
Erosion. Erosion is the wearing away of the ground surface as a result of the
movement of wind and water.
Expansive Soil. Expansive soil is a soil or rock material that has a potential for
shrinking or swelling under changing moisture conditions. These soils are known
to exist in many locations in the Kingdom such as Al-Ghatt, Tabuk, Tyma, Al-
Madinah Al-Munuwarah, Al-Hafouf, and Sharora.
Factor of Safety. Factor of safety is the ratio of ultimate bearing capacity to the
allowable load-bearing.
Flexural Length. Flexural length is the length of the pile from the first point of
zero lateral deflection to the underside of the pile cap or grade beam.
Footing. Footing is that portion of the foundation of a structure which spreads and
transmits loads directly to the soil.
Influence Zone. Influence zone is the zone under the foundation lying inside the
vertical stress contours of value 0.1 of applied pressure.
Mat Area. Mat area is the contact area between mat foundation and supporting
soil.
Net Pressure. Net pressure is the pressure that can be applied to the soil in
addition to the overburden due to the lowest adjacent grade.
Pressed Edge. Pressed edge is the edge of footing or mat along which the greatest
soil pressure occurs under the condition of overturning.
Retaining Walls. Retaining walls are structures that laterally support and provide
stability for soils or other materials, where existing conditions do not provide
stability with neither natural nor artificial slope.
Rocks. Rocks are natural aggregate of minerals or mineraloids that are connected
together by strong bondings or attractive forces and have some degree of chemical
and mineralogical constancy.
Sabkhas. Sabkhas are salt bearing arid climate sediments covering vast areas of
the coasts of Saudi Arabia. These soils either border partially land-locked seas or
cover a number of continental depressions. The development of this material is due
to low wave energy allowing the settlement of silt and clay particles to take place
and then be loosely cemented by soluble material. Varying quantities of calcium
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium sulphate and calcium, magnesium, and
sodium chlorides are found. The sabkha sediments are highly variable in lateral
and vertical extent; various soil types, primarily composed of clays, silts, fine
sands, and organic matter are interlayered at random. In general, sabkha sediments
are characterized by high void ratios and low dry densities. Accordingly, upon
wetting sabkha soil is renowned for being highly compressible material with low
bearing resistance, and hence considered among the poorest of foundation
materials. Sabkha terrains are known to exist in many locations in the Kingdom
such as Jubail, Rastanura, Abqaiq, Dammam, and Shaibah along the Arabian Gulf
coast. They are prevailed in Jeddah, Jizan, Qunfudah, Al-Lith, Rabigh, and Yanbu
along the Western coast as well as in Wadi As-Sirhan, around Qasim, and around
Riyadh.
Shallow Foundations. Shallow foundations are foundations with their depths less
or equal to their widths.
Slope. Slope is the inclined surface of any part of the earth’s surface.
Spread Footing. Spread footing is a concrete pad supporting column load. It can
take a rectangular, square or a circular shape and having a uniform or tapered
thickness not less than 250 mm.
Spring Constant. Spring constant is the soil resistance in load per unit deflection
obtained as the product of the contributory area and coefficient of vertical
subgrade reaction.
Steel-Cased Piles. Steel-cased piles are constructed by driving a steel shell into
the soil to shore an unexcavated hole. The steel casing is left permanently in place
and filled with concrete.
Total Core Recovery. Total core recovery, TCR, is the total length of rock pieces
recovered divided by the total length of core advance.
Transient Dynamic Force. Transient dynamic force is any dynamic force which
is short term in nature such as starting torques or short circuit moments in
electrical machinery, hydraulic forces, resonance forces of low-tuned or mixed
systems during start-up or shut-down.
foundation is simply not be strong enough or stable enough, the use of the
structure has changed, the properties of the soil supporting the foundation may
have changed or was mischaracterized during planning, the construction of nearby
structures necessitates the excavation of soil supporting existing foundation.
Underpinning is accomplished by extending the foundation in depth or in breadth
so it either rests on a stronger soil stratum or distributes its load across a greater
area.
Wall Footing. Wall footing is strip footing supporting wall such that the
centerlines of the footing and the wall coincide.
Water Table. Water table is the planar surface between the zone of saturation and
the zone of aeration. Also known as free-water elevation; free water surface;
groundwater level; groundwater surface, groundwater table; level of saturation;
phreatic surface; plane of saturation; saturated surface; water level; and waterline.
Weep Holes. Weep holes are openings used in retaining walls to permit passage of
water from the backfill to the front.
CHAPTER 2
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
SECTION 2.1
GENERAL
2.1.0 Site investigations shall be conducted in conformance with Sections 2.2 through
2.6. Where required by the building official, the classification and investigation of
the soil shall be made by a registered design professional.
2.1.1 Objectives. Site investigation shall be planned and executed to determine the
following:
1. Lateral distribution and thickness of the soil and rock strata within the zone
of influence of the proposed construction.
2. Suitability of the site for the proposed work.
3. Proposal of best method for construction on the site.
4. Physical and engineering properties of the soil and rock formations.
5. Groundwater conditions with consideration of seasonal changes and the
effects of extraction due to construction.
6. Hazardous conditions including unstable slopes, active or potentially active
faults, regional seismicity, floodplains, ground subsidence, collapse, and
heave potential.
7. Changes that may arise in the environment and the effects of these changes
on the proposed and adjacent buildings.
8. Advice on the suitability of alternative location for the proposed building, if
exists.
9. Thorough understanding of all subsurface conditions that may affect the
proposed building.
SECTION 2.2
SCOPE
2.2.0 The owner or applicant shall submit a site investigation to the building official where
required in Sections 2.2.1 through 2.2.6.
Exception:
The building official need not require a site investigation where satisfactory data
from adjacent areas is available that demonstrates an investigation is not necessary
for any of the conditions in Sections 2.2.1 through 2.2.5.
No site investigation report is needed if the building meets the following combined
criteria:
1. The net applied load on the foundation is less than 50 kPa.
2. There are no dynamic or vibratory loads on the building.
3. Questionable or problematic soil is not suspected underneath the building.
4. Cavities are not suspected underneath the footing of the building.
SBC 303 2007 2/1
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
2.2.1 Questionable soil. Where the safe-sustaining power of the soil is in doubt, or
where a load-bearing value superior to that specified in this code is claimed, the
building official shall require that the necessary investigation be made. Such
investigation shall comply with the provisions of Sections 2.4 through 2.6.
2.2.2 Problematic soils. In areas likely to have expansive, collapsible, or sabkha soils, the
building official shall require site investigation to determine where such soils do
exist.
2.2.4 Rock strata. Where subsurface explorations at the project site indicate variations or
doubtful characteristics in the structure of the rock upon which foundations are to
be constructed, a sufficient number of borings shall be made to a depth of not less
than 3 m below the level of the foundations to provide assurance of the soundness of
the foundation bed and its load-bearing capacity.
2.2.4.1 Rock cavities. In areas of karst formations, the building official shall require site
investigation to determine the potential sizes and locations of cavities underneath
the building. If cavities are encountered, such investigation shall recommend
remedies and construction procedures.
SECTION 2.3
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
2.3.0 Where required, soils shall be classified in accordance with Sections 2.3.1, 2.3.2,
2.3.3, or 2.3.4.
2.3.1 General. For the purposes of this section, the definition and classification of soil
materials for use in Table 4.1 shall be in accordance with ASTM D 2487.
2.3.2 Expansive soils. Soils meeting all four of the following provisions shall be
considered expansive. Compliance with Items 1, 2 and 3 shall not be required if the
test prescribed in Item 4 is conducted:
1. Plasticity index of 15 or greater, determined in accordance with ASTM D
4318.
2. More than 10 percent of the soil particles pass a No. 200 sieve (75
micrometers), determined in accordance with ASTM D 422.
3. More than 10 percent of the soil particles are less than 5 micrometers in size,
determined in accordance with ASTM D 422.
4. Expansion index greater than 20, determined in accordance with ASTM D
4829.
2.3.3 Collapsible soils. Soils meeting all four of the following provisions shall be
considered collapsible. Compliance with Items 1, 2 and 3 shall not be required if
the test prescribed in Item 4 is conducted:
1. Desiccated Alluvial (Wadi) soils
2. Dry field density less than 17 kN/m3 determined in accordance with ASTM
D1556
3. Clay content 10 to 30 percent, determined in accordance with ASTM D422
4. Collapse index greater than 1percent, determined in accordance with ASTM
D5333.
2.3.4 Sabkha soils. Soils meeting the following shall be suspected as sabkha soils:
1. Very soft, with SPT values in the range of 0 to 8, determined in accordance
with ASTM D1586.
2. Precipitated salts of different sizes, shape, and composition within the
sediments.
3. High soluble salt content.
4. Soil exhibits significant variations in its chemical composition.
5. Soil exhibits high degree of variability of its sediments in both vertical and
lateral extent within a considerably short distance.
6. Upon wetting soil becomes impassible.
SECTION 2.4
INVESTIGATION
2.4.0 Soil investigation shall be based on observation and any necessary tests of the
materials disclosed by borings, test pits or other subsurface exploration made in
appropriate locations. Additional studies shall be made as necessary to evaluate
slope stability, soil strength, position and adequacy of load-bearing soils, the effect
of moisture variation on soil-bearing capacity, compressibility, liquefaction,
expansiveness, and collapsibility.
2.4.1 Exploratory boring. The scope of the site investigation including the number
and types of borings or soundings, the equipment used to drill and sample,
the in-situ testing equipment and the laboratory testing program shall be determined
by a registered design professional. In areas likely to have problematic soils, field
explorations shall include:
1. Investigations of soils between the ground surface and the bottom of the
foundation, as well as materials beneath the proposed depth of foundation.
2. Evaluations and interpretations of the environmental conditions that would
contribute to moisture changes and their probable effects on the behavior of
such soils.
2.4.2 Number of boreholes. The minimum number of boreholes in a given site shall be
taken in accordance with Table 2.1 and its provisions. The values included in
Table 2.1 shall be considered as minimum guideline.
2.4.3 Depth of boreholes. The depth of boreholes shall cover all strata likely to be
affected by the loads from the building and adjacent buildings. The minimum
depth of boreholes shall be taken from Table 2.1.
SECTION 2.5
SOIL BORING AND SAMPLING
2.5.0 The soil boring and sampling procedure and apparatus shall be in accordance with
generally accepted engineering practice. The registered design professional shall
have a fully qualified representative on the site during all boring and sampling
operations.
2.5.1 Soil boring and sampling of expansive soils. In areas likely to have expansive
soils the following shall be taken into considerations:
1. Air drilling shall be used to maintain the natural moisture contents of the
samples more effectively.
2. The use of lubricant that might react with the soil and change its properties
shall be avoided.
2.5.2 Soil boring and sampling of collapsible soils. In areas likely to have collapsible
soils the following shall be taken into considerations:
1. Air drilling shall be used to maintain the natural moisture contents of the
samples.
2. The depth of sampling shall be at least as deep as the probable depth to
which moisture changes will occur but shall not be less than 2 times the
minimum width of footing to a maximum of 30 meters and a minimum of
three base diameters beneath the base of shaft foundations.
3. Undisturbed samples shall be obtained at intervals of not greater than 1500
mm of depth.
4. In the event undisturbed samples cannot be obtained from a borehole, test
pits shall be excavated to sufficient depth and dry density of the soil shall be
measured at various horizons in the pit.
5. Where possible, hand carved undisturbed samples taken in a vertical
direction shall be obtained for odometer testing. Alternately, plate load test in
unsoaked and soaked conditions shall be performed to determine the most
critical collapse potential below foundation level.
2.5.3 Soil boring and sampling of sabkha soils. In areas likely to have sabkha soils the
following shall be taken into considerations:
1. A full chemical analyses on soil and ground water to determine the average
and range of the aggressive compounds and the variation in content with
depth.
2. Grading of sabkha shall be determined by using wet sieving with non-polar
solvent (sabkha brine, methylene chloride)
3. Basic properties including moisture content and specific gravity shall be
determined by using oven drying at 60 ° C in accordance with ASTM D854
and ASTM D2216.
SECTION 2.6
REPORTS
2.6.0 The soil classification and design load-bearing capacity shall be shown on the
construction document. Where required by the building official, a written report of
the investigation shall be submitted that includes, but need not be limited to, the
following information:
1. Introduction with location map depicting adjacent buildings, existing roads,
and utility lines.
2. Climatic conditions such as rain rate, storm water discharge, etc. if relevant
effect is suspected on the soil or rock formations.
3. Description of site topography and relevant geological information.
4. A plot showing the location of test borings and/or excavation pits.
5. A complete record of the soil samples.
6. A complete record of the borehole log with the standard penetration test,
SPT, values at the corresponding depths for soil samples and RQD and TCR
values for rock samples.
7. A record of the soil profile.
8. Elevation of the water table, if encountered and recommended procedures for
dewatering, if necessary.
9. Brief description of conducted laboratory and field tests (or its SASO or
ASTM standards, or equivalent standard number) and a summary of the
results.
10. Recommendations for foundation type and design criteria, including but not
limited to: bearing capacity of natural or compacted soil; provisions to
mitigate the effects of problematic soils (expansive, collapsible, sabkha,
etc.); mitigation of the effects of liquefaction, differential settlement and
varying soil strength; and the effects of adjacent loads. The recommendations
for foundation design must be based on the facts stated in the report, i.e. on
the borehole records and test data. They must not be based on conjecture.
11. Expected total and differential settlements.
12. Pile and pier foundation information in accordance with Section 14.2.
13. Combined footings and mats information in accordance with Section 8.1.
14. Special design and construction provisions for footings or foundations
founded on problematic soils in accordance with Chapters 9, 10, and 11, as
necessary.
15. Compacted fill material properties and testing in accordance with Section
3.10.
16. Recommended sites for waste material disposal.
17. Suitability of excavated material for reuse as fill material in site.
TABLE 2.1
MINIMUM NUMBER AND MINIMUM DEPTHS OF
BOREHOLES FOR BUILDINGSa,b,c,d,e
f
f MINIMUM DEPTH
MINIMUM DEPTH OF
NO. OF BUILT AREA NO. OF OF ONE THIRD OF
STORIES (m2) BOREHOLES TWO THIRDS OF THE
THE BOREHOLES
BOREHOLES (m)
(m)
< 600 3 4 6
CHAPTER 3
EXCAVATION, GRADING AND FILL
SECTION 3.1
GENERAL
3.1.0 Proper safety precautions shall be considered at all stages of excavation. Special
care, measures, and techniques shall be followed for excavation below
groundwater table.
The investigation and report provisions of Chapter 2 shall be expanded to include,
but need not be limited to, the following:
1. Property limits and accurate contours of existing ground and details of terrain
and area drainage.
2. Limiting dimensions, elevations or finish contours to be achieved by the
grading, and proposed drainage channels and related construction.
3. Detail plans of all surface and subsurface drainage devices, walls, cribbing,
and other protective devices to be constructed with, or as a part of, the
proposed work.
4. Location of any buildings or structures on the property where the work is to
be performed and the location of any buildings or structures on adjacent land
which are within 5 m of the property or which may be affected by the
proposed grading operations.
5. Conclusions and recommendations regarding the effect of geologic
conditions on the proposed construction, and the adequacy of sites to be
developed by the proposed grading.
SECTION 3.2
COMMENCEMENT
3.2.0 Excavation, grading and fill shall not be commenced without first having obtained
a permit from the building official.
Exception: Permit shall not be required for the following:
1. Grading in an isolated, self-contained area if there is no apparent danger to
private or public property.
2. Exploratory excavations under the direction of geotechnical engineers.
3. An excavation which (a) is less than 600 mm in depth, or (b) which does not
create a cut slope greater than 1500 mm in height and steeper than three units
horizontal to two units vertical.
4. A fill less than 300 mm in depth and placed on natural terrain with a slope
flatter than five units horizontal to one unit vertical, or less than 1 m in
depth, not intended to support structures, does not exceed 40 cubic meters on
any one lot and does not obstruct a drainage course.
SECTION 3.3
EXCAVATIONS NEAR FOOTINGS OR FOUNDATIONS
3.3.0 Excavations for buildings shall be carried out as not to endanger life or property.
Excavations for any purposes shall not remove lateral support from any footing or
foundation without first underpinning or protecting the footing or foundation
against settlement or lateral translation. Proper underpinning, sequence of
construction, and method of shoring shall be approved by a registered design
professional and carried out immediately after start of excavation. Underpinning
system shall be periodically checked for safety assurance.
SECTION 3.4
SLOPE LIMITS
3.4.0 Slopes for permanent fill shall not be steeper than one unit vertical in two units
horizontal (50-percent slope). Cut slopes for permanent excavations shall not be
steeper than one unit vertical in two units horizontal (50-percent slope). Deviation
from the foregoing limitations for cut slopes shall be permitted only upon the
presentation of a soil investigation report acceptable to the building official and
shows that a steeper slope will be stable and not create a hazard to public or
private property.
SECTION 3.5
SURCHARGE
3.5.0 No fill or other surcharge loads shall be placed adjacent to any building or
structure unless such building or structure is capable of withstanding the additional
loads caused by the fill or surcharge. Existing footings or foundations which can
be affected by any excavation shall be underpinned adequately or otherwise
protected against settlement and shall be protected against later movement.
SECTION 3.6
PLACEMENT OF BACKFILL
3.6.0 The excavation outside the foundation shall be backfilled with soil that is free of
organic material, construction debris, cobbles and boulders or a controlled low-
strength material (CLSM). The ground surface shall be prepared to receive fill by
removing vegetation, noncomplying fill, topsoil and other unsuitable materials.
The backfill shall be placed in lifts and compacted, in a manner that does not
damage the foundation or the waterproofing or damp proofing material. Special
inspections of compacted fill shall be in accordance with Section 2.7 SBC 302.
Exception: Controlled low-strength material need not be compacted.
SECTION 3.7
SITE GRADING
3.7.0 The ground immediately adjacent to the foundation shall be sloped away from the
building at a slope of not less than one unit vertical in 20 units horizontal (5
percent slope) for a minimum distance of 3 m measured perpendicular to the face
of the wall or an approved alternate method of diverting water away from the
foundation shall be used.
Exception: Where climate or soil conditions warrant, the slope of the ground
away from the building foundation is permitted to be reduced to not less than one
unit vertical in 50 units horizontal (2 percent slope).
The procedure used to establish the final ground level adjacent to the foundation
shall account for additional settlement of the backfill.
SECTION 3.8
GRADING DESIGNATION
3.8.0 The faces of cut and fill slopes shall be prepared and maintained to control against
erosion. All grading in excess of 3500 cubic meters shall be performed in
accordance with the approved grading plan prepared by a registered design
professional, and shall be designated as “engineering grading”. Grading involving
less than 3500 cubic meters shall be designated as “regular grading” unless
required by the building official to be considered as “engineering grading”.
For engineering grading, grading plan shall be prepared and approved by a
registered design professional. For regular grading, the building official may
require inspection and testing by an approved agency. Where the building official
has cause to believe that geologic factors may be involved, the grading operation
shall conform to “engineering grading” requirements.
SECTION 3.9
GRADING AND FILL IN FLOODWAYS
3.9.0 In floodways shown on the flood hazard map established in SBC 301 Section 5.3,
grading and/or fill shall not be approved unless it has been demonstrated through
hydrologic and hydraulic analyses performed by a registered design professional in
accordance with standard engineering practice that the proposed grading or fill, or
both, will not result in any increase levels during the occurrence of the design
flood.
SECTION 3.10
COMPACTED FILL MATERIAL
3.10.0 Where footings will bear on compacted fill material, the compacted fill shall
comply with the provisions of an approved report, which shall contain, but need
not be limited to, the following:
1. Specifications for the preparation of the site prior to placement of compacted
fill material.
2. Specifications for material to be used as compacted fill.
3. Test method to be used to determine the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of the material to be used as compacted fill.
4. Maximum allowable thickness of each lift of compacted fill material.
5. Field test method for determining the in-place dry density of the compacted
fill.
6. Minimum acceptable in-place dry density expressed as a percentage of the
maximum dry density determined in accordance with Item 3.
SBC 303 2007 3/3
EXCAVATION, GRADING AND FILL
SECTION 3.11
CONTROLLED LOW-STRENGTH MATERIAL (CLSM)
3.11.0 Where footings will bear on controlled low-strength material (CLSM), the CLSM
shall comply with the provisions of an approved report, which shall contain, but
need not be limited to, the following:
1. Specifications for the preparation of the site prior to placement of the CLSM.
2. Specifications for the CLSM.
3. Laboratory or field test method(s) to be used to determine the compressive
strength or bearing capacity of the CLSM.
4. Test methods for determining the acceptance of the CLSM in the field.
5. Number and frequency of field tests required to determine compliance with
Item 4.
CHAPTER 4
ALLOWABLE LOAD-BEARING VALUES OF SOILS
SECTION 4.1
DESIGN
4.1.0 The presumptive load-bearing values provided in Table 4.1 shall be used with the
allowable stress design load combinations specified in Section 2.4 of SBC 301.
SECTION 4.2
PRESUMPTIVE LOAD-BEARING VALUES
4.2.0 The maximum allowable foundation pressure, lateral pressure or lateral sliding
resistance values for supporting soils at or near the surface shall not exceed the
values specified in Table 4.1 unless data to substantiate the use of a higher value
are submitted and approved by the building official. In case of thin soft layers
existing between layers of high bearing values, the foundation shall be designed
according to the bearing capacity of the thin soft layers.
Presumptive load-bearing values shall apply to materials with similar physical
characteristics and depositional conditions.
Mud, organic silt, organic clays, peat or unprepared fill shall not be assumed to
have a presumptive load-bearing capacity unless data to substantiate the use of
such a value are submitted.
Exception: A presumptive load-bearing capacity is permitted to be used where the
building official deems the load-bearing capacity of mud, organic silt or
unprepared fill is adequate for the support of lightweight and temporary structures.
TABLE 4.1
ALLOWABLE FOUNDATION AND LATERAL PRESSURE
LATERAL LATERAL SLIDING
ALLOWABLE
BEARING
FOUNDATION
CLASS OF MATERIALS (kPa/m below Coefficient Resistance
PRESSURE b c
a natural of friction (kPa)
(kPa) a
grade)
1. Crystalline bedrock 600 200 0.70 −
2. Sedimentary and foliated rock 200 60 0.35 −
3. Sandy gravel and/or gravel (GW
and GP)
150 30 0.35 −
4. Sand, silty sand, clayey sand,
silty gravel and clayey gravel 100 25 0.25 −
(SW, SP, SM, SC, GM and GC)
5. Clay, sandy clay, silty clay,
clayey silt, silt and sandy silt 75d 15 − 6
(CL, ML, MH and CH)
a. An increase of one-third is permitted when using the alternate load combinations in SBC 301 Section
2.4 that include wind or earthquake loads.
b. Coefficient to be multiplied by the dead load.
c. Lateral sliding resistance value to be multiplied by the contact area, as limited by Section 4.3.
d. Where the building official determines that in-place soils with an allowable bearing capacity of less
than 70 kPa are likely to be present at the site, the allowable bearing capacity shall be determined by a
site investigation in accordance with Chapter 2.
SECTION 4.3
LATERAL SLIDING RESISTANCE
4.3.1 Increases in allowable lateral sliding resistance. The resistance values derived
from Table 4.1 are permitted to be increased by the tabular value for each
additional 300 mm of depth to a maximum of 15 times the tabular value.
Isolated poles for uses such as flagpoles or signs and poles used to support
buildings that are not adversely affected by a 13 mm motion at the ground surface
due to short-term lateral loads are permitted to be designed using lateral-bearing
values equal to two times the tabular values.
SECTION 4.4
COMPUTED LOAD-BEARING VALUES
4.4.0 It shall be permitted to obtain the ultimate bearing capacity from appropriate
laboratory and/or field tests including, but need not be limited to, standard
penetration test conforming to ASTM D1586 and plate load test conforming to
ASTM D1194. Where the soil to a deep depth is homogeneous soil, the plate load
test shall be conducted at the level of footing bottom. In case the soil medium is
made of several layers, the test shall be conducted at each layer to a depth equal to
not less than twice the width of footing measured from the bottom of footing. In
case there is a large difference between the footing width and plate size, plates of
different sizes shall be used to establish the relationship between width and load-
bearing.
It shall be permitted to use formulae in the computations of ultimate bearing
capacity that are of common use in geotechnical engineering practice or based on a
sound engineering judgment and subject to approval to the building official.
4.4.1 Effect of water table. The submerged unit weight shall be used as appropriate to
determine the actual influence of the groundwater on the bearing capacity of the
soil. The foundation design shall consider the buoyant forces when groundwater is
above or expected to rise above the foundation level.
CHAPTER 5
SPREAD FOOTINGS
SECTION 5.1
GENERAL
5.1.0 Spread footings shall be designed and constructed in accordance with Sections 5.1
through 5.6. Footings shall be built on undisturbed soil, compacted fill material or
CLSM. Compacted fill material shall be placed in accordance with Section 3.10.
CLSM shall be placed in accordance with Section 3.11.
The bottom surface of footings is permitted to have a slope not exceeding one unit
vertical in 10 units horizontal (10 percent slope). Footings shall be stepped where
it is necessary to change the elevation of the top surface of the footing or where the
surface of the ground slopes more than one unit vertical in 10 units horizontal (10
percent slope).
SECTION 5.2
DEPTH OF FOOTINGS
5.2.0 The minimum depth of footing below the natural ground level shall not be less
than 1.2 m for cohesionless soils, 1.5 m for silty and clay soils and 600 mm to
1200 mm for rocks depending on strength and integrity of the rock formations.
Where applicable, the depth of footings shall also conform to Sections 5.2.1
through 5.2.3.
5.2.1 Adjacent footings. Footings on granular soil shall be so located that the line
drawn between the lower edges of adjoining footings shall not have a slope steeper
than 30 degrees (0.52 rad) with the horizontal, unless the material supporting the
higher footing is braced or retained or otherwise laterally supported in an approved
manner or a greater slope has been properly established by engineering analysis
that is accepted by the building official.
5.2.2 Shifting or moving soils. Where it is known that the shallow subsoils are of a
shifting or moving character, footings shall be carried to a sufficient depth to
ensure stability.
5.2.3 Stepped footings. Footings for all buildings where the surface of the ground
slopes more than one unit vertical in ten units horizontal (10 percent slope) shall
be level or shall be stepped so that both top and bottom of such footing are level.
SECTION 5.3
FOOTINGS ON OR ADJACENT TO SLOPES
5.3.0 The placement of buildings and structures on or adjacent to slopes steeper than one
unit vertical in three units horizontal shall conform to Sections 5.3.1 through 5.3.5.
5.3.1 Building clearance from ascending slopes. In general, buildings below slopes
shall be set a sufficient distance from the slope to provide protection from slope
drainage, erosion and shallow failures. Except as provided for in Section 5.3.5 and
Figure 5.1, the following criteria will be assumed to provide this protection. Where
the existing slope is steeper than one unit vertical in one unit horizontal (100
percent slope), the toe of the slope shall be assumed to be at the intersection of a
horizontal plane drawn from the top of the foundation and a plane drawn tangent
to the slope at an angle of 45 degrees (0.79 rad) to the horizontal. Where a
retaining wall is constructed at the toe of the slope, the height of the slope shall be
measured from the top of the wall to the top of the slope.
5.3.2 Footing setback from descending slope surface. Footings on or adjacent to slope
surfaces shall be founded in firm material with an embedment and set back from
the slope surface sufficient to provide vertical and lateral support for the footing
without detrimental settlement. Except as provided for in Section 5.3.5 and Figure
5.1, the following setback is deemed adequate to meet the criteria. Where the slope
is steeper than one unit vertical in one unit horizontal (100 percent slope), the
required setback shall be measured from imaginary plane 45 degrees (0.79 rad) to
the horizontal, projected upward from the toe of the slope.
5.3.3 Pools. The setback between pools regulated by this code and slopes shall be equal
to one-half the building footing setback distance required by this section. That
portion of the pool wall within a horizontal distance of 2100 mm from the top of
the slope shall be capable of supporting the water in the pool without soil support.
H/2 BUT NEED NOT EXCEED 5M MAX H/3 BUT NEED NOT
EXCEED 12M MAX
FIGURE 5.1
FOUNDATION CLEARANCES FROM SLOPES
5.3.4 Foundation elevation. On graded sites, the top of any exterior foundation shall
extend above the elevation of the street gutter at point of discharge or the inlet of
an approved drainage device a minimum of 300 mm plus 2 percent. Alternate
elevations are permitted subject to the approval of the building official, provided it
can be demonstrated that required drainage to the point of discharge and away
from the structure is provided at all locations on the site.
5.3.5 Alternate setback and clearance. Alternate setbacks and clearances are
permitted, subject to the approval of the building official. The building official is
permitted to require an investigation and recommendation of a registered design
professional to demonstrate that the intent of this section has been satisfied. Such
an investigation shall include consideration of material, height of slope, slope
gradient, load intensity and erosion characteristics of slope material.
SECTION 5.4
DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
5.4.0 Spread footings shall be designed and constructed in accordance with Sections
5.4.1 through 5.4.4.
5.4.1 General. Footings shall be so designed that the allowable bearing capacity of the
soil is not exceeded, and that total and differential settlements are tolerable. The
design of footings shall be under the direct supervision of a registered design
professional who shall certify to the building official that the footing satisfies the
design criteria. The minimum width of footings shall be 300 mm. Footings in areas
with expansive soils shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of
Chapter 9. Footings in areas with collapsible soils shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of Chapter 10. Footings in areas with sabkha soils shall be
designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 11. Footings subject to
vibratory loads shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 12.
5.4.1.1 Design loads. Footings shall be designed for the most unfavorable effects due to
the combinations of loads specified in SBC 301 Section 2.4. The dead load shall
include the weight of foundations, footings and overlying fill. Reduced live loads,
as specified in SBC 301 Section 4.8, are permitted to be used in designing
footings.
5.4.1.2 Eccentric loads. When the footings are subjected to moments or eccentric loads,
the maximum stresses shall not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil
specified in Chapter 4. The centeroid of the loads exerted on the footings shall
coincide with the centeroid of the footing area, and if not possible the eccentricity
shall not exceed 1/6 times the dimension of the footing in both sides. For the
purpose of estimating the ultimate load-bearing, use shall be made of the effective
width taken as the actual width minus twice the eccentricity.
5.4.1.3 Inclined loads. For design of footings subjected to inclined loads, it shall be
permitted to use the following simplified formula or any method of analysis,
subject to the approval of the building official.
V H
+ < 1.0 (Equation 5-1)
Pv Ph
where:
V = Vertical component of inclined load.
H = Horizontal component of inclined load.
Pv = Allowable vertical load.
Ph = Allowable horizontal load.
Horizontal component shall not exceed soil passive resistance along the footing
vertical edge and friction resistance at the footing soil interface taking a factor of
safety of 2.
5.4.1.4 Adjacent loads. Where footings are placed at varying elevations the effect of
adjacent loads shall be included in the footing design.
5.4.1.5 Design settlements. Settlements shall be estimated by a registered design
professional based on methods of analysis approved by the building official. The
least value found from Tables 5.1 and 5.2 shall be taken as the allowable
differential settlement.
SBC 303 2007 5/3
SPREAD FOOTINGS
TABLE 5.1
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TOTAL SETTLEMENT
TOTAL SETTLEMENT
FOOTING TYPE (mm)
CLAY SAND
Spread Footings 60 40
Mat Foundations 80 60
TABLE 5.2
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANGULAR DISTORTIONa
5.4.2 Concrete footings. The design, materials and construction of concrete footings
shall comply with Sections 5.4.2.1 through 5.4.2.8 and the provisions of SBC 304
where applicable.
Exception: Where a specific design is not provided, concrete footings supporting
walls of light-frame construction are permitted to be designed in accordance with
Table 5.3.
5.4.2.1 Concrete strength. Concrete in footings shall have a specified compressive
strength ( f c' ) of not less than 20 MPa at 28 days.
5.4.2.2 Footing seismic ties. Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category D
in accordance with Chapters 9 through 16, SBC 301, individual spread footings
founded on soil defined in Section 9.4.2, SBC 301 as Site Class E or F shall be
interconnected by ties. Ties shall be capable of carrying, in tension or
SBC 303 2007 5/4
SPREAD FOOTINGS
compression, a force equal to the product of the larger footing load times the
seismic coefficient S DS divided by 10 unless it is demonstrated that equivalent
restraint is provided by reinforced concrete beams within slabs on grade or
reinforced concrete slabs on grade.
TABLE 5.3
FOOTINGS SUPPORTING WALLS OF LIGHT-FRAME
CONSTRUCTION a, b, c, d, e
NUMBER OF FLOORS WIDTH OF THICKNESS OF
SUPPORTED BY THE FOOTING FOOTING
FOOTINGf (mm) (mm)
1 300 150
2 375 150
3 450 200
a. Depth of footings shall be in accordance with Section 5.2.
b. The ground under the floor is permitted to be excavated to the elevation of the top of
the footing.
c. Interior-stud-bearing walls are permitted to be supported by isolated footings. The
footing width and length shall be twice the width shown in this table, and footings
shall be spaced not more than 1800 mm on center.
d. See SBC 304 Chapter 21 for additional requirements for footings of structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category C or D.
e. For thickness of foundation walls, see Chapter 6.
f. Footings are permitted to support a roof in addition to the stipulated number of floors.
Footings supporting roof only shall be as required for supporting one floor.
5.4.2.3 Placement of concrete. Concrete footings shall not be placed through water
unless a tremie or other method approved by the building official is used. Where
placed under or in the presence of water, the concrete shall be deposited by
approved means to ensure minimum segregation of the mix and negligible
turbulence of the water.
5.4.2.4 Protection of concrete. Water shall not be allowed to flow through the deposited
concrete.
5.4.2.5 Forming of concrete. Concrete footings are permitted to be cast against the earth
where, in the opinion of the building official, soil conditions do not require
forming. Where forming is required, it shall be in accordance with Chapter 6 of
SBC 304.
5.4.2.6 Minimum concrete cover to reinforcement. When the concrete of footings is
poured directly on the ground or against excavation walls the minimum concrete
cover to reinforcement shall not be less than 75 mm. This cover shall also satisfy
other requirements with regard to concrete exposure conditions presented in SBC
304.
5.4.2.7 Dewatering. Where footings are carried to depths below water level, the footings
shall be constructed by a method that will provide the depositing or construction of
sound concrete in the dry.
5.4.3 Steel grillage footings. Grillage footings of structural steel shapes shall be
separated with approved steel spacers and be entirely encased in concrete with at
least 150 mm on the bottom and at least 100 mm at all other points. The spaces
between the shapes shall be completely filled with concrete or cement grout.
SECTION 5.5
DESIGNS EMPLOYING LATERAL BEARING
5.5.0 Designs to resist both axial and lateral loads employing posts or poles as columns
embedded in earth or embedded in concrete footings in the earth shall conform to
the requirements of Sections 5.5.1 through 5.5.3.
5.5.1 Limitations. The design procedures outlined in this section are subject to the
following limitations:
1. The frictional resistance for structural walls and slabs on silts and clays shall
be limited to one-half of the normal force imposed on the soil by the weight of
the footing or slab.
2. Posts embedded in earth shall not be used to provide lateral support for
structural or nonstructural materials such as plaster, masonry or concrete
unless bracing is provided that develops the limited deflection required.
5.5.2 Design criteria. The depth to resist lateral loads shall be determined by the design
criteria established in Sections 5.5.2.1 through 5.5.2.3, or by other methods
approved by the building official.
5.5.2.1 Nonconstrained. The following formula shall be used in determining the depth of
embedment required to resist lateral loads where no constraint is provided at the
ground surface, such as rigid floor or rigid ground surface pavement, and where no
lateral constraint is provided above the ground surface, such as a structural
diaphragm.
where:
d = Depth of embedment in earth in meter but not over 3600 mm for purpose
of computing lateral pressure.
h = Distance in meter from ground surface to point of application of “ P ”.
A = 2.34 P S1 b
P = Applied lateral force in kN.
S1 = Allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure as set forth in Section 4.3 based on
a depth of one-third the depth of embedment in kPa.
b = Diameter of round post or footing or diagonal dimension of square post or
footing, meter.
5.5.2.2 Constrained. The following formula shall be used to determine the depth of
embedment required to resist lateral loads where constraint is provided at the
ground surface, such as a rigid floor or pavement.
or alternatively
d 2 = 4.25 ( M g S 3 b) (Equation 5-4)
SBC 303 2007 5/6
SPREAD FOOTINGS
where:
M g = moment in the post at grade, in kN-m.
S 3 = Allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure as set forth in Section 4.3 based on a
depth equal to the depth of embedment in kPa.
5.5.2.3 Vertical load. The resistance to vertical loads shall be determined by the
allowable soil-bearing pressure set forth in Table 4.1.
5.5.3 Backfill. The backfill in the space around columns not embedded in poured
footings shall be by one of the following methods:
1. Backfill shall be of concrete with compressive strength of 15 MPa at 28 days.
The hole shall not be less than 100 mm larger than the diameter of the column
at its bottom or 100 mm larger than the diagonal dimension of a square or
rectangular column.
2. Backfill shall be of clean sand. The sand shall be thoroughly compacted by
tamping in layers not more than 200 mm in depth.
3. Backfill shall be of controlled low-strength material (CLSM) placed in
accordance with Section 3.11.
SECTION 5.6
SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 6
FOUNDATION WALLS
SECTION 6.1
GENERAL
6.1.0 Concrete and masonry foundation walls shall be designed in accordance with SBC
304 or SBC 305. Foundation walls that are laterally supported at the top and
bottom and within the parameters of Tables 6.1 through 6.3 are permitted to be
designed and constructed in accordance with Sections 6.2 through 6.6.
SECTION 6.2
FOUNDATION WALL THICKNESS
6.2.0 The minimum thickness of concrete and masonry foundation walls shall comply
with Sections 6.2.1 through 6.2.3.
6.2.1 Thickness based on walls supported. The thickness of foundation walls shall not
be less than the thickness of the wall supported, except that foundation walls of at
least 200 mm nominal width are permitted to support brick-veneered frame walls
and 250 mm cavity walls provided the requirements of Section 6.2.2 are met.
Corbelling of masonry shall be in accordance with Section 4.2, SBC 305. Where a
200 mm wall is corbelled, the top corbel shall be a full course of headers at least
150 mm in length, extending not higher than the bottom of the floor framing.
TABLE 6.1
200-mm CONCRETE AND MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS WITH REINFORCING
WHERE EFFECTIVE DEPTH d ≥ 125 mma,b,c
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT
HEIGHT OF
WALL Soil classes and lateral soil loadsa (kPa per meter below natural grade)
UNBALANCED
HEIGHT GW, GP, SW and SP GM, GC, SM, SM-SC SC, MH, ML-CL and
BACKFILL
(mm) soils and ML soils Inorganic CL soils
(mm)
(5) (7) (9)
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1000 o.c.
2100
1800 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c.
2100 Dia 12 at1000 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1000 o.c.
2400 1800 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c.
2100 Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c. Dia 18 at 1000 o.c.
2400 Dia 16 at 1000 o.c. Dia 18 at 1000 o.c. Dia 22 at 1000 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1200 o.c.
1800 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c.
2700
2100 Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c. Dia 22 at 1200 o.c.
2400 Dia 16 at 1000 o.c. Dia 22 at 1200 o.c. Dia 25 at 1200 o.c.
2700 Dia 18 at 1000 o.c. Dia 25 at 1200 o.c. Dia 25 at 800 o.c.
a. For design lateral soil loads, see SBC 301 Section 5.1. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification
System and design lateral soil loads are for moist soil conditions without hydrostatic pressure.
b. Provisions for this table are based on construction requirements specified in Section 6.3.
c. For alternative reinforcement, see Section 6.4.
6.2.2 Thickness based on soil loads, unbalanced backfill height and wall height. The
thickness of foundation walls shall comply with the requirements of Table 6.1, 6.2
or 6.3. When using the tables, masonry shall be laid in running bond and the
mortar shall be Type M or S.
TABLE 6.2
250-mm CONCRETE AND MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS WITH
REINFORCING WHERE EFFECTIVE DEPTH d ≥ 175 mma,b,c
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT
HEIGHT OF Soil classes and lateral soil loada (kPa per meter below natural grade)
WALL
UNBALANCED GW, GP, SW and SP GM, GC, SM, SM-SC SC, MH, ML-CL and
HEIGHT
BACKFILL soils and ML soils Inorganic CL soils
(5) (7) (9)
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c.
2100
1800 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 1000 o.c.
2100 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 16 at 1400 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
2400 1800 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1400 o.c.
2100 Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 800 o.c. Dia 18 at 1400 o.c.
2400 Dia 16 at 1400 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c. Dia 22 at 1400 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
1800 Dia12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1000 o.c. Dia 12 at 800 o.c.
2700
2100 Dia 12 at 1000 o.c. Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c.
2400 Dia 12 at 800 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 400 o.c.
2700 Dia16 at 1000 o.c. Dia 18 at 1000 o.c. Dia 22 at 1000 o.c.
a. For design lateral soil loads, see SBC 301 Section 5.1. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification
System and design lateral soil loads are for moist soil conditions without hydrostatic pressure.
b. Provisions for this table are based on construction requirements specified in Section 6.3.
c. For alternative reinforcement, see Section 6.4.
TABLE 6.3
300-mm CONCRETE AND MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS WITH REINFORCING
WHERE EFFECTIVE DEPTH d ≥ 225 mma,b,c
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT
HEIGHT OF
WALL Soil classes and lateral soil loada (kPa per meter below natural grade)
UNBALANCED
HEIGHT GW, GP, SW and SP GM, GC, SM, SM-SC SC, MH, ML-CL and
BACKFILL
(mm) soils and ML soils Inorganic CL soils
(mm)
(5) (7) (9)
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c.
2100
1800 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1600 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c.
2100 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1200 o.c. Dia 16 at 1400 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c.
2400 1800 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 16 at 1800 o.c.
2100 Dia 12 at 1600 o.c. Dia 16 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 800 o.c.
2400 Dia 16 at 1200 o.c. Dia 12 at 800 o.c. Dia 16 at 1000 o.c.
1200 (or less) Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c.
1500 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1600 o.c.
1800 Dia 12 at 1800 o.c. Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 16 at 1600 o.c.
2700
2100 Dia 12 at 1400 o.c. Dia 12 at 1000 o.c. Dia 18 at 1600 o.c.
2400 Dia 12 at 1600 o.c. Dia 18 at 1600 o.c. Dia 18 at 1200 o.c.
2700 Dia 16 at 1400 o.c. Dia 22 at 1800 o.c. Dia 18 at 1000 o.c.
a. For design lateral soil loads, see SBC 301 Section 5.1. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil
Classification System and design lateral soil loads are for moist soil conditions without hydrostatic pressure.
b. Provisions for this table are based on construction requirements specified in Section 6.3.
c. For alternative reinforcement, see Section 6.4.
Unbalanced backfill height is the difference in height of the exterior and interior
finish ground levels. Where an interior concrete slab is provided, the unbalanced
backfill height shall be measured from the exterior finish ground level to the top of
the interior concrete slab.
6.2.3 Rubble stone. Foundation walls of rough or random rubble stone shall not be less
than 400 mm thick. Rubble stone shall not be used for foundations for structures in
Seismic Design Category C or D.
SECTION 6.3
FOUNDATION WALL MATERIALS
6.3.0 Foundation walls constructed in accordance with Table 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 shall
comply with the following:
1. Vertical reinforcement shall have minimum yield strength of 420 MPa.
2. The specified location of the reinforcement shall equal or exceed the effective
depth distance, d, noted in Tables 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 and shall be measured from
the face of the soil side of the wall to the center of vertical reinforcement. The
reinforcement shall be placed within the tolerances specified in ACI
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 402, Article 3.4 B7 of the specified location.
3. Concrete shall have a specified compressive strength of not less than 20 MPa
at 28 days.
4. Grout shall have a specified compressive strength of not less than 15 MPa at
28 days.
5. Hollow masonry units shall comply with ASTM C 90 and be installed with
Type M or S mortar.
SECTION 6.4
ALTERNATIVE FOUNDATION WALL REINFORCEMENT
6.4.1 In lieu of the reinforcement provisions in Table 6.1, 6.2 or 6.3, alternative
reinforcing bar sizes and spacings having an equivalent cross-sectional area of
reinforcement per linear meter of wall are permitted to be used, provided the
spacing of reinforcement does not exceed 1.8 m and reinforcing bar sizes do not
exceed Dia 36 mm.
SECTION 6.5
HOLLOW MASONRY WALLS
6.5.1 At least 100 mm of solid masonry shall be provided at girder supports at the top of
hollow masonry unit foundation walls.
SECTION 6.6
SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS
6.6.0 Tables 6.1 through 6.3 shall be subject to the following limitations in Sections
6.6.1 and 6.6.2 based on the seismic design category assigned to the structure as
defined in Chapters 9 through 16 of SBC 301.
6.6.1 Seismic requirements for concrete foundation walls. Concrete foundation walls
designed using Tables 6.1 through 6.3 shall be subject to the following limitations:
1. Seismic Design Categories A and B. No limitations, except provide not less
than two Dia 16 mm bars around window and door openings. Such bars shall
extend at least 600 mm beyond the corners of the openings.
SBC 303 2007 6/3
FOUNDATION WALL
6.6.2 Seismic requirements for masonry foundation walls. Masonry foundation walls
designed using Tables 6.1 through 6.3 shall be subject to the following limitations:
1. Seismic Design Categories A and B. No additional seismic requirements.
2. Seismic Design Category C. A design using Tables 6.1 through 6.3 subject to
the seismic requirements of Section 6.1.4 SBC 305.
3. Seismic Design Category D. A design using Tables 6.1 through 6.3 subject to
the seismic requirements of Section 6.1.5 SBC 305.
SECTION 6.7
FOUNDATION WALL DRAINAGE
6.7.1 Foundation walls shall be designed to support the weight of the full hydrostatic
pressure of undrained backfill unless a drainage system is installed in accordance
with Sections 13.4.2 and 13.4.3.
SECTION 6.8
PIER AND CURTAIN WALL FOUNDATIONS
6.8.1 Except in Seismic Design Category D, pier and curtain wall foundations are
permitted to be used to support light-frame construction not more than two stories
in height, provided the following requirements are met:
1. All load-bearing walls shall be placed on continuous concrete footings
bonded integrally with the exterior wall footings.
2. The minimum actual thickness of a load-bearing masonry wall shall not be
less than 100 mm nominal or 90 mm actual thickness, and shall be bonded
integrally with piers spaced 1800 mm on center (o.c.).
3. Piers shall be constructed in accordance with SBC 305 and the following:
a) The unsupported height of the masonry piers shall not exceed 10 times
their least dimension.
b) Where structural clay tile or hollow concrete masonry units are used for
piers supporting beams and girders, the cellular spaces shall be filled
solidly with concrete or Type M or S mortar.
Exception: Unfilled hollow piers are permitted where the unsupported
height of the pier is not more than four times its least dimension.
c) Hollow piers shall be capped with 100 mm of solid masonry or concrete
or the cavities of the top course shall be filled with concrete or grout.
4. The unbalanced fill for 100 mm foundation walls shall not exceed 600 mm
for solid masonry, and 300 mm for hollow masonry.
SECTION 6.9
SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 7
RETAINING WALLS
SECTION 7.1
GENERAL
7.1.1 SCOPE. This Chapter shall apply to all matters pertaining to design and
construction of rigid gravity, semi gravity, cantilever, buttressed, and counterfort
retaining walls. For special types of retaining walls, provisions of this code shall
apply where applicable. General safeguards during construction shall comply with
provisions of Chapter 3.
SECTION 7.2
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES
7.2.0 Computations of lateral earth pressures shall comply with the provisions of
Sections 7.2.1 through 7.2.6. Wall movements set forth in Table 7.1 shall be
considered the magnitude required for active and passive conditions to exist. Soil
permeability characteristics, boundary drainage and loading conditions, and time
shall be considered in selection of strength parameters. In soils where partial
drainage occurs during the time of construction, analysis shall be performed for
short-term and long-term conditions, and the wall shall be designed for the worse
conditions.
7.2.1 Wall friction. Wall friction and vertical movement, slope of the wall in the
backside and sloping backfill shall be considered in determining the lateral
pressures applied against the wall. Unless data to substantiate the use of other
values are submitted and approved by a registered design professional, the values
set forth in Tables 7-2 and 7-3 shall be used in computations that include effects of
wall friction.
TABLE 7.1
MAGNITUDE OF ROTATION TO REACH FAILURE
ROTATION (δ H )
a
SOIL TYPE AND CONDITION
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Dense cohesionless soil 0.0005 0.002
Loose cohesionless soil 0.002 0.006
Stiff cohesive soil 0.01 0.02
Soft cohesive soil 0.02 0.04
a. δ = Horizontal translation at the top of the wall.
H = Height of the wall
TABLE 7.2
ULTIMATE FRICTION FACTORS FOR DISSIMILAR MATERIALS
7.2.2 Wall movement. The effect of wall movement on the earth pressure coefficients
shall conform to the provisions of Sections 7.2.2.1 and 7.2.2.2.
7.2.2.1 Rotation. If the wall is free at the top and there are no other structures associated
with, wall tilting shall not exceed 0.1 times the height of the wall. Where the actual
estimated wall rotation is less than the value required to fully mobilize active or
passive conditions set forth in Table 7-1, the earth pressure coefficient shall be
adjusted in accordance with Figure 7.1.
TABLE 7.3
ULTIMATE ADHESION FOR DISSIMILAR MATERIALS
COHESION ADHESION
INTERFACE MATERIALS
(kPa) (kPa)
Very soft cohesive soil 0 - 10 0 - 10
Soft cohesive soil 10 - 25 10 - 25
Medium stiff cohesive soil 25 - 50 25 - 35
Stiff cohesive soil 50 - 100 35 - 45
Very stiff cohesive soil 100 - 200 45 - 60
FIGURE 7.1
EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT ON WALL PRESSURES (NAFAC, 1986)
7.2.2.3 Restrained wall. Where wall is prevented from even slight movement, the earth
pressure shall be considered to remain at rest conditions.
7.2.2.4 Basement and other below grade walls. Pressures on walls below grade shall be
computed based on restrained conditions that prevail, type of backfill, and the
amount of compaction. The provisions of Chapter 6 shall apply where applicable.
7.2.2.5 Wall on rock. Where the wall is founded on rock, sufficient rotation of the base
and wall so that active pressure is developed, shall be accomplished by placing
150 to 300 mm thick earth pad beneath the base and by constructing the stem with
sufficient flexibility to yield with the soil pressure.
7.2.4 Surcharge. Stability shall be checked with and without surcharge. Lateral pressure
on wall due to point and line loads shall be computed based on the assumption of
an unyielding rigid wall and the lateral pressures are set equal to double the values
obtained by elastic equations. The applicability of the assumption of an unyielding
rigid wall shall be evaluated for each specific wall.
For uniform surcharge loading it shall be permitted to compute lateral stress by
treating the surcharge as if it were backfill and multiplying the vertical stress at
any depth by the appropriate earth pressure coefficient. It shall be permitted for
design purposes to considerer a distributed surface load surcharge on the order of
15 kPa to account for construction materials and equipment stored within 5 to 10
meters from the wall. Where construction equipment is anticipated within 2 meters
of the wall, it must be accounted for separately.
7.2.5 Compaction. For backfill of granular soils compacted in a confined wedge behind
the wall, the horizontal pressure beyond those represented by active or at-rest
values shall be computed in accordance with Figure 7.2.
Compaction-induced pressures shall not be considered in bearing, overturning and
sliding analyses and need only be considered for structural design. Backfill shall
be brought up equally on both sides until the lower side finished grade is reached
and precautions shall be taken to prevent overcompaction which will cause
excessive lateral forces to be applied to the wall.
Clays and other fine-grained soils, as well as granular soils, with amount of clay
and silt greater than 15 percent shall not be used as a backfill behind retaining
wall. Where they must be used, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated based
on at-rest conditions, with due consideration to potential poor drainage conditions
and swelling. Where loose hydraulic fill is used it shall be placed by procedures
which permit runoff of wash water and prevent building up of large hydrostatic
pressures.
FIGURE 7.2
HORIZONTAL PRESSURE ON WALLS FROM COMPACTION EFFORT (NAFAC, 1986)
7.2.6 Earthquake loading. For retaining walls assigned to Seismic Design Category C
or D, provisions of SBC 301 and SBC 304 shall apply when not in conflict with
the provisions of Chapter 7.
The combined resultant active force due to initial static pressure and increase in
pressure from ground motion shall be computed from the following formula
1 cos 2 θ *
PAE = γH k A ( β , θ )(1 − k v )
2 * *
(Equation 7-1)
2 cosψ cos 2 θ
where:
PAE = Combined resultant active force.
H = Wall height.
θ = Slope of wall back with respect to vertical
β = Inclination of soil surface (upward slopes away from the wall are positives).
θ * = ( θ + ψ ) = Modified slope of wall back.
β * = ( β +ψ ) = Modified inclination of soil surface.
γ = unit weight of soil.
ψ = seismic inertia angle given as follows
⎛ kh ⎞
ψ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Equation 7-2)
⎝ 1 − kv ⎠
where:
SECTION 7.3
BEARING CAPACITY
7.3.1 The allowable soil pressure shall be determined in accordance with the provisions
of Chapter 4. The determination of the allowable bearing pressure shall be made
according to the bearing capacity of a foundation subjected to eccentric loads. The
bearing capacity shall be checked for the same loading conditions as determined
by the overturning analysis for each case analyzed. Where the wall is founded on
sloped ground, methods for determination of ultimate bearing capacity that deal
with this situation shall be used. The factor of safety with respect to bearing
capacity shall not be less than 3.
For walls founded on rocks, high toe pressure that may cause breaking the toe
from the remainder of the base shall be avoided by proportioning the footing so
that the resultant falls near its center.
SECTION 7.4
STABILITY
7.4.0 Retaining walls shall be designed to ensure stability against overturning, sliding,
and stability of supporting ground. Stability analyses shall conform to the
provisions of Sections 7.4.1 through 7.4.4.
7.4.1 Sliding stability. The base shall be at least 1000 mm below ground surface in
front of the wall. Sliding stability shall be adequate without including passive
pressure at the toe. Where insufficient sliding resistance is available, one provision
shall be taken including, but need not be limited to, increasing the width of the
SBC 303 2007 7/5
RETAINING WALLS
wall base, founding the wall on piles or lowering the base of the wall. If the wall is
supported by rock or very stiff clay, it shall be permitted to install a key below the
foundation to provide additional resistance to sliding. The key shall conform to the
provisions of Section 7.4.4. The factor of safety against sliding shall not be less
than 1.5 for cohesionless backfill and 2.0 for cohesive backfill.
7.4.3 Deep-seated sliding. Where retaining walls are underlain by weak soils, the
overall stability of the soil mass containing the retaining wall shall be checked
with respect to the most critical surface of sliding. The stability analysis shall be
made for after construction and for long-term conditions. The factor of safety for
the overall stability of the soil mass containing the wall shall not be less than 2.
7.4.4 Wall with key. Prior to performing an overturning analysis, the depth of the key
and width of the base shall be determined from the sliding stability analysis. For a
wall with a horizontal base and a key, it shall be permitted to assume the shearing
resistance of the base to be zero and the horizontal resisting force acting on the key
is that required for equilibrium. For a wall with a sloping base and a key, the
horizontal force required for equilibrium shall be assumed to act on the base and
the key In both cases the resisting soil force down to the bottom of the toe shall be
computed using at-rest earth pressure if the material on the resisting side will not
lose its resistance characteristics with any probable change in water content or
environmental conditions and will not be eroded or excavated during the life of the
wall.
SECTION 7.5
WALL DIMENSIONS
7.5.1 Thickness of the upper part of the wall shall not be less than 300 mm, where as
thickness of the lower part of the wall shall be enough to resist shear without
reinforcement. Depth of wall foundation shall be located below line of seasonal
changes and shall be deep enough to provide adequate bearing capacity and soil
sliding resistance. The wall foundation shall be proportioned such that the wall
does not slide or overturn, the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is not
exceeded, and that total and differential settlements are tolerable. The base and
other dimensions shall be such that the resultant falls within the middle third of the
base. Where additional front clearance is needed, it shall be permitted to construct
counterfort retaining walls without a toe provided that the sliding and overturning
stability requirements stated in Sections 7.4.1 and 7.4.2 are met.
SBC 303 2007 7/6
RETAINING WALLS
SECTION 7.6
WALL CONSTRUCTION
7.6.0 Concrete shall not be placed through water unless a tremie or other method
approved by the building official is used. Where placed under or in the presence of
water, the concrete shall be deposited by approved means to ensure minimum
segregation of the mix and negligible turbulence of the water and that will provide
the depositing or construction of sound concrete in the dry.
7.6.1 Minimum concrete cover to reinforcement. When the concrete of retaining
walls is poured directly on the ground or against excavation walls the minimum
concrete cover to reinforcement shall not be less than 75 mm and not less than 40
mm when concrete is poured against lean concrete or vertical forms. This cover
shall also satisfy other requirements with regard to concrete exposure conditions
presented in SBC 304.
7.6.2 Joints. Construction and expansion joints shall be provided where needed.
Construction joints shall be constructed into a retaining wall between successive
pours of concrete both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal construction joints
shall be kept to a minimum and the top surface of each lift shall be cleaned and
roughened before placing the next lift. Long walls shall have expansion joints at
intervals of 10 meters. Where vertical-expansion joints are considered, they shall
be placed along the wall at spacing of 20 to 30 meters. Reinforcing steel and other
fixed metal embedded or bonded to the surface of the concrete shall not extend
through the expansion joint. For cantilever concrete walls, it shall be permitted to
locate the vertical expansion joints only on the stem, and the footing is a
continuous placement.
The thickness of joint filler necessary to provide stress relief at a joint shall be
determined from the estimated initial contraction and subsequent expansion from
maximum temperature variation.
7.6.3 Drainage. Regardless of the drainage system used, the wall must have an adequate
factor of safety assuming the drainage system is inoperative. Where drainage
measures are considered they shall be designed by a registered design professional
and subject to the approval of the building official. As a minimum, there shall be
weep holes with pockets of coarse-grained material at the back of the wall, and a
gutter shall be provided for collecting runoff. All retaining walls shall have
adequate surface drainage to dispose of surface water. A layer of impervious soil
shall be placed on top of the soil backfill to reduce surface infiltration of rainfall. It
shall be permitted to use inclined and horizontal drains in conjunction with back
drain.
The weep holes shall be of sufficient size and be carefully surrounded with a
granular filter or by the use of filter fabric on the backfill side and directly
surrounding the entrance to the weep holes. The weep holes shall be spaced not
more than 3 m apart vertically and horizontally. Where longitudinal drains along
the back face are used, a layer of free-draining granular material shall be placed
along the back of the wall and surrounding the drain pipes opening. The gradation
of the filter shall satisfy the following piping or stability criterion.
d15 F
≤5 (Equation 7-4)
d 85 B
where:
d15 F = size of filter material at 15 percent passing.
d 85 B = size of protected soil at 85 percent passing.
and
d 50 F
≤ 25 (Equation 7-5)
d 50 B
where:
d 50 F = size of filter material at 50 percent passing.
d 50 B = size of protected soil at 50 percent passing.
The filter material shall be more permeable than the material being drained and the
following condition shall be met
d15 F
4< < 20 (Equation 7-6)
d15 B
where:
d15 B = size of filter protected soil at 15 percent passing.
Where a blanket of well-graded sand and gravel that is placed along the back of
the wall it shall satisfied the requirements of Equations 7-4 through 7-6. Where
longitudinal drains are used within drainage blanket, they shall be large enough to
carry the discharge and have adequate slope to provide sufficient velocity to
remove sediment from the drain. Segregation of sand and gravel during
construction shall be avoided. Filter or drain materials contaminated by muddy
water, dust, etc. shall be replaced and filter materials subject to cementation shall
be rejected.
In lieu of a granular filter, it shall be permitted to use prefabricated geocomposite
drains with adequate filter flow capacity and acceptable retention. The size of filter
material at 50 percent passing, d 50 F , shall not be less than the diameter of the hole
for circular openings and shall be 1.2 times slot width for slotted openings. The
drainage composite manufacture’s recommendations for backfilling and
compaction near the composite shall be followed.
CHAPTER 8
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
SECTION 8.1
GENERAL
8.1.0 Analysis and design of combined footings and mats shall conform to all
requirements of ACI 336.2R Suggested Analysis and Design Procedures for
Combined Footings and Mats except as modified by Chapter 8. All provisions of
SBC 303 not specifically excluded, and not in conflict with the provisions of
Chapter 8 shall apply to combined footings and mats, where applicable. Design of
combined or mat foundations shall be based on the Strength Design Method of
SBC 304.
Combined footings and mats shall be designed and constructed on the basis of a
site investigation as defined in Chapter 2, unless the building official ascertains
that sufficient data upon which to base the design and installation is available. The
investigation and report provisions of Chapter 2 shall be expanded to include, but
need not be limited to, the following:
1. Values for modulus of subgrade reaction.
2. Recommended combined footings shapes.
SECTION 8.2
LOADINGS
8.2.1 Combined footings and mats shall be designed for the most unfavorable effects
due to the combinations of loads specified in SBC 301 Section 2.4. The dead load
shall include the weight of foundations, footings and overlying fill. Reduced live
loads, as specified in Section 4.8 SBC 301, are permitted to be used in designing
footings. Strength design of reinforced concrete systems and elements shall
comply with load combinations specified in SBC 304.
SECTION 8.3
CONCRETE
8.3.1 Material, construction, and placement of concrete shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Section 5.4.2. For mats construction joints shall be carefully located
at sections of low shear stress or at the center lines between columns. An elapse of
at least 24 hours shall be left between pours of adjacent areas. If bar splicing is
needed, sufficient overlapping shall be provided. The concrete shall be strong
enough to transfer the shear stress across the joint. If necessary, the mat may be
thickened to provide sufficient strength in the joints.
SECTION 8.4
CONTACT PRESSURE
8.4.0 Soil contact pressure acting on a combined footing or mat and the internal stresses
produced by them shall be determined from one of the load combinations given in
Section 2.4 SBC 301, whichever produces the maximum value for the element
under investigation.
The combinations of unfactored loads which will produce the greatest contact
pressure on a base area of given shape and size shall be selected. The allowable
soil pressure shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 4.
Loads shall include the vertical effects of moments caused by horizontal
components of these forces and by eccentrically applied vertical loads. Buoyancy
of submerged parts where this reduces the factor of safety or increases the contact
pressures, as in flood conditions shall be considered.
The maximum unfactored design contact pressures shall not exceed the allowable
soil pressure as obtained from Chapter 4 or cause settlements that exceed the
values set forth in Table 5.1 and 8.3. Where wind or earthquake forces form a part
of the load combination, the allowable soil pressure may be increased as allowed
by the Saudi Building Code or approved by the building official.
In determination of the contact pressures and associated subgrade response, the
validity of simplifying assumptions and the accuracy of any resulting
computations shall be approved by the building official and evaluated on the basis
of the following variables:
1. The increased unit pressures developed along the edges of rigid footings on
cohesive soils and at the center for rigid footings on cohesionless soils.
2. The effect of embedment of the footing on pressure variation.
3. Consideration in the analysis of the behavior of the foundations immediately
after the structure is built as well as the effects of long-term consolidation of
deep soil layers.
4. Consideration of size of the footing in determination of the modulus of
subgrade reaction of soil.
5. The variation of contact pressures from eccentric loading conditions.
6. Consideration of the influence of the stiffness of the footing and the
superstructure on deformations that can occur at the contact surface and the
corresponding variation on contact pressure and redistribution of reactions
occurring within the superstructure frame.
8.4.1 Distribution of soil reactions. Contact pressures at the base of combined footings
and mats shall be determined in accordance with Sections 8.4.1.1 through 8.4.1.3.
8.4.1.1 General. Except for unusual conditions, the contact pressures at the base of a
combined footings and mats may be assumed to follow either a distribution
governed by elastic subgrade reaction or a straight-line distribution. At no place
SBC 303 2007 8/2
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
shall the calculated contact pressure exceed the allowable bearing capacity as
determined from Chapter 4.
8.4.1.2 Straight-line distribution of contact pressure. It shall be permitted to assume a
linear distribution for soil contact pressure if continuous footings meet the
requirement of Section 8.7.1 and mats conform to the requirements of Section
8.9.3.2.
8.4.1.2.1 Contact pressure over total base area. If the resultant of all forces is such that all
portions of the foundation contact area are in compression, the maximum and
minimum soil pressure may then be calculated from the following formula, which
applies only to the rectangular base areas and only when eccentricity is located
along one of the principal axes of the footing
q max,min =
∑ P ⎛⎜1 ± 6e ⎞⎟ (Equation 8-1)
BL ⎝ L⎠
where:
qmax = Maximum soil contact pressure.
qmin = Minimum soil contact pressure.
P = Any force acting perpendicular to base area.
B = Foundation width or width of beam column element.
e = Eccentricity of resultant of all vertical forces with center of footing area (e
≤ L/6).
L = Foundation base length or length of beam column element.
For footings with eccentricity about both axes, soil pressure is obtained from
q=
∑ P ⎛⎜1 ± 6e x
±
6e y ⎞
⎟ (Equation 8-2)
BL ⎜⎝ L B ⎟⎠
where:
q = Soil contact pressure.
ex = Eccentricity of resultant of all vertical forces with respect to the x-axis.
ey = Eccentricity of resultant of all vertical forces with respect to the y-axis.
P = Any force acting perpendicular to base area.
8.4.1.2.2 Contact pressure over part of area. The soil pressure distribution shall be
assumed to be triangular and the resultant has the same magnitude and colinear,
but acts in the opposite direction of the resultant of the applied forces.
The maximum soil pressure at the footing edge under this condition shall be
calculated from the following expression
2P ⎛ L ⎞
qult = ⎜ − e⎟ (Equation 8-3)
3B ⎝ 2 ⎠
The minimum soil pressure at distance L1 is set equal to zero, where L1 is the
footing effective length measured from the pressed edge to the position at which
the contact pressure is zero and is given by
⎛L ⎞
L1 = 3⎜ − e ⎟ (Equation 8-4)
⎝2 ⎠
Equations 8-3 and 8-4 are applied based on the assumption that no tensile stresses
exist between footing and soil and for cases where the resultant force falls out of
the middle third of the base.
8.4.1.3 Distribution of contact pressure governed by the modulus of subgrade
reaction. It shall be permitted to get the distribution of contact pressure based on
modulus of subgrade reaction obtained from Section 8.4.1.3.2. The thickness shall
be sized for shear without using reinforcement. The flexural steel is then obtained
by assuming a linear soil pressure distribution and using simplified procedures in
which the foundation satisfies static equilibrium. The flexural steel may also be
obtained by assuming that the foundation is an elastic member interacting with an
elastic soil.
8.4.1.3.1 Beams on elastic foundations. If the combined footing is assumed to be a flexible
slab, it may be analyzed as a beam on elastic foundation. It shall be permitted to
analyze a beam on elastic foundation using the discrete element method, the finite
element method, or other methods approved by the building official.
8.4.1.3.2 Estimating the modulus of subgrade reaction. The value for modulus of
subgrade reaction may be obtained from one of the methods in Sections 8.4.1.3.2.1
through 8.4.1.3.2.3. It shall be permitted to use a constant value for the modulus of
subgrade reaction except where the rigidity of the footing and superstructure is
considered small, the decrease in the value of modulus of subgrade reaction, k s ,
with increasing applied load shall be taken into consideration.
8.4.1.3.2.1 Presumptive modulus of subgrade reaction values. It shall be permitted to use
values for the modulus of subgrade reaction for supporting soils as set forth in
Table 8.1 and 8.2 to determine about the correct order of magnitude of the
subgrade modulus obtained from Sections 8.4.1.3.2.1 through 8.4.1.3.2.5. The
tables’ values shall be used only as a representative guide.
8.4.1.3.2.2 Modulus of subgrade reaction from plate load test. For mat foundations, this
soil property shall not be estimated on the basis of field plate load tests and shall
be obtained using subgrade reaction theory, but shall be modified to individually
consider dead loading, live loading, size effects, and the associated subgrade
response. Zones of different constant subgrade moduli shall be considered to
provide a more accurate estimate of the subgrade response as compared to that
predicted by a single modulus of subgrade reaction.
TABLE 8.1
PRESUMPTIVE MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION VALUES FOR
COHESIONLESS SOILS
TABLE 8.2
PRESUMPTIVE MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION
VALUES FOR COHESIVE SOILS
SHEAR STRENGTH FROM MODULUS OF
CONSISTENCY UNCONFINED SUBGRADE REACTION
COMPRESSION TEST (kPa) (kN/m3)
Stiff 105-215 25000
Very stiff 215-430 50000
Rigid > 430 100000
The value for the modulus of subgrade reaction for use in elastic foundation
analysis may be estimates from a plate load test carried out in accordance with
ASTM D1194. Since plate load tests are of necessity on small plates, great care
must be exercised to insure that results are properly extrapolated. The modulus of
subgrade reaction from plate load test shall be converted to that of mat using the
following formula
n
⎛ Bp ⎞
k s = k p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Equation 8-5)
⎝ Bm ⎠
where:
ks = Coefficient (or modulus) of vertical subgrade reaction; generic term
dependent on dimensions of loaded area.
kp = Coefficient of subgrade reaction from a plate load test.
Bm = Mat width.
Bp = Plate width.
n = Factor that ranges from 0.5 to 0.7.
Allowance shall be made for the depth of compressible strata beneath the mat and
if it is less than about four times the width of footing, lower values shall be used
for n.
8.4.1.3.2.3 Modulus of subgrade reaction from elastic parameters. It shall be permitted to
estimate the value for the modulus of subgrade reaction based on laboratory or in
situ tests to determine the elastic parameters of the foundation material. This shall
be done by numerically integrating the strain over the depth of influence to obtain
a settlement ∆H and back computing k s as
q
ks = (Equation 8-6)
∆H
where:
q = Applied pressure.
∆H = Settlement.
Several values of strain shall be used in the influence depth of approximately four
times the largest dimension of the base.
It shall be permitted to estimate the modulus of subgrade reaction based on
laboratory measured modulus of elasticity such that
Es
ks = (Equation 8-7)
B (1 −ν 2 )
where:
ν = Poisons ratio for soil.
E s = Modulus of Elasticity for soil.
8.4.1.3.2.4 Modulus of subgrade reaction from load bearing. In the absence of a more
rigorous data, it shall be permitted to consider a value for the modulus of subgrade
reaction equal to 120 times the allowable load bearing. The value for k s shall be
verified from in situ tests in case of sensitive and important structures.
8.4.1.3.2.5 Time-dependent subgrade response. Consideration shall be given to the time-
dependent subgrade response to the loading conditions. An iterative procedure
may be necessary to compare the mat deflections with computed soil response.
Since the soil response profile is based on contact stresses which are in turn based
on mat loads, flexibility, and modulus of subgrade reaction, iterations shall be
made until the computed mat deflection and soil response converge within
acceptable tolerance.
SECTION 8.5
SETTLEMENT
8.5.0 Settlements of combined footings and mats shall conform to the provisions of
Sections 8.5.1 through 8.5.3.
8.5.1 General. The combinations of unfactored loads which will produce the greatest
settlement or deformation of the foundation, occurring either during and
immediately after the load application or at a later date, shall be selected. Loadings
at various stages of construction such as dead load or related internal moments and
forces, stage dead load consisting of the unfactored dead load of the structure and
foundation at a particular time or stage of construction, and stage service live load
consisting of the sum of all unfactored live loads at a particular stage of
construction, shall be evaluated to determine the initial settlement, long-term
settlement due to consolidation, and differential settlement of the foundation.
8.5.2 Total settlements. Total settlement of combined footings and mats shall not
exceed the value set forth in Table 5.1.
8.5.3 Differential settlement. Differential settlements for combined footings shall not
exceed the values set forth in Table 5.2. For mats the differential settlement shall
be taken as three-fourths the total settlement if this is not more than 50 mm or
determined based on relative stiffness, k r , as shown in Table 8.3.
SECTION 8.6
COMBINED FOOTINGS
8.6.0 Combined footings shall be designed and constructed in accordance with Sections
8.6.1 through 8.6.3.
8.6.1 Rectangular-shaped footings. The length and width of rectangular-shaped
footings shall be established such that the maximum contact pressure at no place
SBC 303 2007 8/6
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
exceeds the allowable soil pressure as obtained from Chapter 4. All moments shall
be calculated about the centeroid of the footing area and the bottom of the footing.
All footing dimension shall be computed on the assumption that the footing acts as
a rigid body.
TABLE 8.3
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS OF MATS
DIFFERENTIAL
kr SHAPE
SETTLEMENT (mm)
Rectangular base 0.5 × ∆ H a
0
Square base 0.35 × ∆ H
0.5 0.1 × ∆ H
> 0.5 Rigid mat: no differential settlement
a. ∆ H = Total settlement estimated based on approved methods of analysis
but shall not exceed values in Table 5.1.
When the resultant of the columns load, including consideration of the moments
from lateral forces, coincides with centeroid of the footing area, it shall be
permitted to assume that the contact pressure is uniform over the entire area of the
footing. The resultant of the load of the two columns shall not fall outside the
middle third of the footing. In case where this provision cannot be fulfilled the
contact pressure may be assumed to follow a linear distribution such that it varies
from a maximum at the pressed edge to a minimum either beneath the footing or at
the opposite edge to zero at a distance that is equal three times the distance
between the point of action of the resultant of loads and the pressed edge..
Consideration shall be given to horizontal forces that can generate vertical
components to the foundation due, but need not be limited to, wind, earth pressure,
and unbalanced hydrostatic pressure. A careful examination of the free body must
be made with the geotechnical engineer to fully define the force systems acting on
the foundation before the structural analyses are attempted.
8.6.3 Strap footings. The strap shall be rigid enough to avoid rotation of the exterior
footing and the footings shall be proportioned for approximately equal soil
pressure. A large difference in footing width shall be avoided to reduce differential
settlement. It shall be permitted to consider the strap to be rigid if it has a moment
of inertia that is not less than four times that of the footing to which it is attached.
The width of the strap shall be equal to the smallest column width.
Shear reinforcement in the strap shall not be used to increase rigidity. If the depth
of footing is restricted, the depth of the strap may be increased to obtain the
necessary rigidity. The strap shall be out of contact with soil. The strap shall be
securely attached to the column and footing by dowels so that the system acts as a
unit. The footings shall be proportioned so that the least lateral dimensions are
within 300 to 600 mm of each other and the soil pressures are approximately
equal.
where:
FS = Factor of safety.
c = Distance from resultant of vertical forces to overturning edge.
ν = Distance from the pressed edge to Rν min .
M0 = Overturning moment.
Rν min = Least resultant of all forces acting perpendicular to base area under any
condition of loading simultaneous with the overturning moment.
Both cases of rectangular and triangular distribution of the soil pressure along the
pressed edge of the footing shall be considered and the value for FS shall not be
less than 1.5.
SECTION 8.7
CONTINUOUS FOOTINGS
8.7.1 Design for rigid structures. Continuous strip footings supporting structures
which, because of their stiffness, will not allow the individual columns to settle
differentially may be designed using the rigid body assumption with a linear
distribution of soil pressure determined based on statics.
8.7.1.1 Rigidity check based on relative stiffness. If the analysis of the relative stiffness
of the footing yields a value greater than 0.5 the footing can be considered rigid
and the variation of soil pressure shall be determined on the basis of simple statics.
If the relative stiffness factor is found to be equal or less than 0.5, the footing shall
be designed as a flexible member using the foundation modulus approach as
described under Section 8.7.2. The relative stiffness shall be determined as
EI B
kr = (Equation 8-9)
Es B 3
where
k r = Relative stiffness.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material used in the superstructure.
SBC 303 2007 8/8
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
Eah3
EI B = E f I f + ∑ EI bi + ∑ (Equation 8-10)
12
where
h = Wall height.
a = Wall thickness.
Ef = Modulus of elasticity for footing.
Ibi = Moment of inertia for any member making up the frame resistance
perpendicular to B.
If = Moment of inertia per one unit width of the foundation.
8.7.1.2 Rigidity check based on column spacing. If the average of two adjacent spans in
a continuous strip having adjacent loads and column spacings that vary by not
more than 20 percent of the greater value, and is less than 1.75/ λ , the footing can
be considered rigid and the variation of soil pressure shall be determined on the
basis of simple statics. The characteristic coefficient λ is given by
ksb
λ=4 (Equation 8-11)
4Ec I
where:
b = Width of continuous footing or a strip of mat between centers of
adjacent bays.
Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete.
I = Moment of inertia of the strip of width b.
ks = Modulus of subgrade reaction of soil.
If the average length of two adjacent spans as limited above is greater than 1.75/ λ ,
the beam-on-elastic foundation method noted in Section 8.7.2 shall be used. For
general cases falling outside the limitations given above, the critical spacing at
which the subgrade modulus theory becomes effective shall be determined
individually.
8.7.2 Design for flexible footings. A flexible continuous footing (either isolated or
taken from a mat) shall be analyzed as a beam-on-elastic foundation. Thickness
shall be established on the basis of allowable wide beam or punching shear
without use of shear reinforcement.
The evaluation of moments and shears can be simplified from the procedure
involved in the classical theory of a beam supported by subgrade reactions, if the
footing meets the following basic requirements
1. The minimum number of bays is three.
2. The variation in adjacent column loads is not greater than 20 percent.
SECTION 8.8
GRID FOUNDATIONS
8.8.1 Grid foundations shall be designed and constructed in accordance with provisions
of Sections 8.7. Grid foundations shall be analyzed as independent strips using
column loads proportioned in direct ratio to the stiffness of the strips acting in each
direction.
SECTION 8.9
MAT FOUNDATIONS
8.9.1 General. Mats shall be designed and constructed in accordance with Sections
8.9.1 through 8.9.3. Mats may be designed and analyzed as either rigid bodies or
as flexible plates supported by an elastic foundation (the soil). In the analysis and
design of mats a number of factors shall be considered that include, but need not
be limited to, the following:
1. Reliability of proposed value for the modulus of subgrade reaction obtained in
accordance with Section 8.4.1.3.2.
2. Finite soil-strata thickness and variations in soil properties both horizontally
and vertically.
3. Mat shape.
4. Variety of superstructure loads and assumptions in their development.
5. Effect of superstructure stiffness on mat and vice versa.
The design and construction of mats shall be under the direct supervision of a
registered design professional having sufficient knowledge and experience in
foundation slab engineering, who shall certify to the building official that the mats
as constructed satisfy the design criteria.
8.9.3 Design. A mat may be designed using the Strength Design Method of SBC 304.
Analyses and designs using computer programs shall be permitted provided design
assumptions, user input, and computer-generated output are submitted. The mat
plan shall be proportioned using unfactored loads and any overturning moments.
The pressure diagram is considered linear and computed from Equation 8-2 and
SBC 303 2007 8/10
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
shall be less than allowable load bearing. Loads shall include the effect of any
column moments and any overturning moment due to wind or other effects. Any
moments applied to the mat from columns or overturning, etc., shall be included
when computing the eccentricity.
The contact pressure shall not exceed the allowable load bearing determined from
Chapter 4. The allowable soil pressure may be furnished as one or more values
depending on long-term loading or including transient loads such as wind. The soil
pressure furnished by the geotechnical engineer shall be factored to a pseudo
“ultimate” value by multiplying the allowable pressure by the ratio of the sum of
factored design loads to the sum of the unfactored design loads.
8.9.3.1 Mat thickness The minimum mat thickness based on punching shear at critical
columns shall be computed based on column load and shear perimeter. The depth
of the mat shall be found without using shear reinforcement and determined on the
basis of diagonal-tension shear as noted in SBC 304 Chapter 15. Investigation of a
two-sided (corner column) or three-sided diagonal tension shear perimeter shall be
made for columns adjacent to mat edge. An investigation for wide-beam or
diagonal tension shall be made for perimeter load-bearing walls.
8.9.3.2 Rigid design. It shall be permitted to design mats as rigid body with linear
distribution for contact pressure if the mat, superstructure, or both is rigid enough
not to allow differential settlement for columns. The reinforcing steel for bending
is designed by treating the mat as a rigid body and considering strips both ways, if
the following criteria are met:
1. Column spacing is less than 1.75/ λ or the mat is very thick.
2. Relative stiffness k r as noted in Equation 8-9 is greater than 0.5.
3. Variation in column loads and spacing is not over 20 percent
These strips are analyzed as combined footings with multiple columns loaded with
the soil pressure on the strip, and column reactions equal to the factored (or
unfactored) loads obtained from the superstructure analysis. Consideration shall be
given to the shear transfer between strips to satisfy a vertical load summation.
8.9.3.3 Flexible design. For mats not meeting the criteria of Section 8.9.3.2, it shall be
designed as a flexible plate in accordance with Sections 8.9.3.3.1 and 8.9.3.3.2.
8.9.3.3.1 Uniform loads and spacings. If variation in adjacent column loads and in
adjacent spans is not greater than 20 percent it shall be permitted to analyze mats
as continuous footings that can be analyzed according to the provisions of Section
8.7.2. The mat shall be divided into strips the width of each is equal to the distance
between adjacent bays. Each strip shall be analyzed independently considering
column loads in both directions. The contact pressure is equal to the average
contact pressure evaluated for each strip in each direction.
8.9.3.3.2 Nonuniform loads and spacings. If columns have irregular spacings or loads,
mats may be analyzed based on theory of modulus subgrade reaction, elastic, plate
method, finite difference method, finite grid method, finite element method, or any
other method approved by the building official.
8.9.4 Circular mats or plates. For tall structure, differential settlements shall be
carefully controlled to avoid toppling when the line of action of gravity forces falls
out of the base. The plate depth shall be designed for wide-beam or diagonal-
tension shear as appropriate.
8.9.5 Ring foundations. For ring foundations used for water-tower structures,
transmission towers, television antennas, and various other possible
superstructures, analysis and designed shall be carried out using advanced method
of analysis and carried out by a registered design profession knowledgeable in
geotechnical and structural engineering.
SECTION 8.10
SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS
8.10.1 For combined footings and mats of structures assigned to Seismic Design Category
C or D, provisions of SBC 301 and SBC 304 shall apply when not in conflict with
the provisions of Chapter 5. Strips between adjacent columns shall be capable of
carrying, in tension or compression, a force equal to the product of the larger
column load times the seismic coefficient SDS divided by 10 unless it is
demonstrated that equivalent restraint is provided by the strips.
CHAPTER 9
DESIGN FOR EXPANSIVE SOILS
SECTION 9.1
GENERAL
9.1.0 Scope. Provisions of this chapter shall apply to building foundation systems in
expansive soil areas. Foundation design and construction shall be based on a site
investigation as defined in Chapter 2, unless the building official ascertains that
sufficient data upon which to base the design and construction of the foundation
system is available.
SECTION 9.2
LOADINGS
9.2.1 Footings shall be designed for the most unfavorable effects due to the
combinations of loads specified in Section 2.4 SBC 301. The dead load shall
include the weight of foundations, footings and overlying fill. Reduced live loads,
as specified in SBC 301 Section 4.8, are permitted to be used in designing
footings. Strength design of reinforced concrete systems and elements shall
comply with load combinations specified in SBC 304.
SECTION 9.3
DESIGN
9.3.0 SCOPE. Design for expansive soils shall be in accordance with the provisions of
Sections 9.3.1 through 9.3.5. Provisions of Chapters 5 and 8 not specifically
excluded and not in conflict with the provisions of Chapter 9 shall apply, where
applicable.
TABLE 9.1
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPANSION POTENTIAL
0 – 20 Very low
21– 50 Low
51 – 90 Medium
91 –130 High
9. Mushrooming of the pier near the top shall be avoided. Cylindrical cardboard
at/or extended above the top of the concrete shall be used to prevent formation
of mushroomed piers.
9.3.2.3.2 Reinforcement. Reinforcing steel shall extend the entire length of the pier and
shall be hooked into the belled bottom, if used, and into the grade beam at the top.
The area of the steel shall be designed to resist all tensile loads to which the pier
may be subjected but shall not be less than a minimum of 1 percent of the cross-
sectional area of the pier.
9.3.3 Removal of expansive soil. Where expansive soil is removed in lieu of designing
footings or foundations in accordance with Section 9.3.2.1, 9.3.2.2, or 9.3.2.3, the
soil shall be removed to a depth sufficient to ensure constant moisture content in
the remaining soil. Fill material shall not contain expansive soils and shall comply
with Sections 3.6 and 3.10 or 3.11. If the expansive strata are not entirely
removed, the fill material shall be impermeable enough not to provide access for
water into expansive grades or foundation soils.
Exception: Expansive soil need not be removed to the depth of constant moisture,
provided the confining pressure in the expansive soil created by the fill and
supported structure exceeds the swell pressure.
9.3.4 Stabilization. Where the active zone of expansive soils is stabilized in lieu of
designing footings or foundations in accordance with Section 9.3.2.1, 9.3.2.2, or
9.3.2.3, the soil shall be stabilized by chemical, installation of moisture barriers,
pre-wetting or other techniques designed by a geotechnical engineer
knowledgeable in unsaturated soil mechanics and approved by the building
official. In pre-wetting technique, the effect of strength loss shall be evaluated to
ensure that strength criteria are met. Limitations and implementation procedures of
the contemplated stabilization technique shall receive careful consideration and
thorough evaluation.
content directly below the structure, care shall be taken to seal joints, seams,
rips, or holes in the barrier. Horizontal moisture barriers may take different
forms including, but not necessarily limited to, membranes, rigid paving
(concrete aprons, etc.), or flexible paving (asphalt membranes, etc.).
7. If vertical moisture barriers are used around the perimeter of the building they
shall be installed at least one meter from the foundation to a depth equal to or
greater than the depth of seasonal moisture variation (active zone). Buried
vertical barriers may consist of polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polymer-
modified asphalt or any other approved methods or materials.
8. If the structure has a basement, the backfill shall consist of non-expansive soils
and it shall comply with Sections 3.6 and 3.10 or 3.11.
SECTION 9.4
PRE-CONSTRUCTION INSPECTIONS
SECTION 9.5
INSPECTION PRIOR TO PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE
SECTION 9.6
CONCRETE
9.6.1 Material, construction, and placement of concrete shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Section 5.4.2 and Section 8.3.
CHAPTER 10
DESIGN FOR COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
SECTION 10.1
GENERAL
10.1.0 SCOPE. Provisions of this chapter shall apply to building foundation systems on
collapsible soil areas. Foundation design and construction shall be based on a site
investigation as defined in Chapter 2, unless the building official ascertains that
sufficient data upon which to base the design and construction of the foundation
system is available.
SECTION 10.2
LOADINGS
10.2.1 Footings shall be designed for the most unfavorable effects due to the
combinations of loads specified in Section 2.4 SBC 301. The dead load shall
include the weight of foundations, footings and overlying fill. Reduced live loads,
as specified in SBC 301 Section 4.8, are permitted to be used in designing
footings. Strength design of reinforced concrete systems and elements shall
comply with load combinations specified in SBC 304.
SECTION 10.3
DESIGN
10.3.0 Design for collapsible soils shall be in accordance with the provisions of Sections
10.3.1 through 10.3.3. Provisions of Chapters 5 and 8 not specifically excluded
and not in conflict with the provisions of Chapter 10 shall apply, where applicable.
H
ρ= Ic (Equation 10-1)
100
where:
H = Thickness of the soil layer.
Ic = Collapse potential, determined using a predetermined applied vertical stress
applied to a soil specimen taken from the soil layer as follows.
d f − di
Ic = × 100 (Equation 10-2)
ho
where:
di = Specimen height at the appropriate stress level before wetting.
df = Specimen height at the appropriate stress level after wetting.
ho = Initial specimen height.
TABLE 10.2
BREA INFILTRATION FIELD TEST PROCEDURE
1. Excavate a trench or test pit to the desired depth of testing and provide a smooth flat surface for
testing. Do not backfill to achieve smoothness.
2. At a distance no less than 3 plate diameters (3D) from the trench or test pit excavated in step 1,
excavate a shallow infiltration pit to a depth of 60 to 100 mm and a diameter of 2D. This pit for
the preliminary rate-of-infiltration test shall be separated by 3D from the supports of the
reference beam. Measure the depth of the dry infiltration pit at the center.
3. Fill the infiltration pit with water and note the time at which wetting was commenced. Add water
during infiltration as needed to keep the bottom of the pit covered.
4. After an infiltration time, tp, of about 10 to 20 minutes, remove the excess water from the test pit,
quickly excavate at the center of the pit to locate the depth of wetting, and measure down to the
wetting front. The depth of wetting from the preliminary infiltration test (Zwp) is equal to depth
of wetting front minus the original depth of the dry pit.
5. The infiltration coefficient for the preliminary test (Cip) is computed as
Where: Zwp = depth of infiltration for the preliminary infiltration
test, mm.
Cip= Zwp/(tp)1/2 Cip = infiltration coefficient for the preliminary infiltration
test, mm/min1/2.
tp = time duration of infiltration for the preliminary
infiltration test, min.
TABLE 10.3
BREA PLATE LOAD TEST PROCEDURE (BPLT)
1. For the BPLT, choose the target depth of infiltration (Ztar), equal 0.5D.
2. Compute target time of infiltration (ttar) from: ttar = (Ztar/Cip)2
3. Place the loading plate on a smooth flat surface and twist and tap lightly. The bottom of the loading plate may
be coated with 5-10 mm of quick setting epoxy before placing it on the soil.
4. Construct a berm to hold water in preparation for ponding. The outside diameter of the ponded water shall be
about 2D.
5. Install the reference beam to rest on firm supports located at least 3D from center of loading plate.
6. Attach displacement gauges so that they touch the loading plate on opposite sides and approximately equidistant
from the center of the plate.
7. Install the loading jack and reaction column.
8. Apply a seating load of 3 to 8 kPa and zero the displacement gauges. It may be convenient to use the weight of
the loading jack and plate as the seating load.
9. Increase load to 15 kPa. Wait one minute and take displacement readings.
10. Commence wetting and note starting time. Maintain water level 10 to 20 mm above the top of the plate.
11. Continue wetting until ttar (computed from step 2) has elapsed. Read displacement gauges, note time and
increase load to 40 kPa.
12. Wait ∆ t minutes, read displacement gauges, note time, increase load to 100 kPa. The time increment ∆ t may
be chosen as the larger of 2 minutes or 0.1ttar. For convenience, ∆ t may be rounded to the nearest minute.
13. Wait ∆ t minutes, read displacement gauges, note time, increase load to 200 kPa.
14. Wait ∆ t minutes, read displacement gauges, note time, increase load to 400 kPa.
15. Wait ∆ t minutes, read displacement gauges, note time, remove load from the plate, remove the plate and
quickly excavate to determine the final depth (Zwfinal) and note the corresponding time tfinal.
TABLE 10.4
DATA REDUCTION FOR DESIGN CURVE CONSTRUCTION
1. In column-1, description of the test stage. This will give meaning to column-2 (time column).
2. In column-2, time shall be recorded.
3. In column-3, elapsed time (tw) shall be computed. Elapsed time is set equal to zero when ponding is commenced.
4. In column-4, pressure reading on the jack shall be recorded. A load cell could be substituted for the pressure gauge on the jack.
5. In column-5, the added load on the plate shall be recorded.
6. In column-6, the total load on the plate shall be recorded. This is obtained by adding column-5 to the weight (in kN) of the jack and the
loading plate.
7. In column-7, the left and right displacement gauges readings shall be recorded.
8. In column-8, the displacement, ∆ H, for the left and right gauges shall be recorded. They are obtained by subtracting the initial gauge
readings at seating load from each subsequent reading.
9. In column-9, the average displacement ( ∆ Have) is obtained by averaging the ∆ H values from the left and right reading in column-8.
10. In column-10, the depth of wetting (Zw) shall be computed by first determining Citest from: Citest = (Zwfinal)/(tfinal)1/2 and then use it with tw
to get Zw from: Zw = (Citest)(tw) ½ .
11. In column-11, Zw/D shall be computed (column-10 divided by plate diameter).
12. In column-12, the influence factors IF and IS obtained from the below figure at Zw/D shall be recorded.
13. In column-13, the contact pressure (qcon) shall be calculated by dividing column-6 by the plate area.
14. In column-14, the average stress within the wetted zone (qave) shall be calculated by multiplying column-13 (qcon) by column-12 (IF for
first loading or IS for subsequent loadings).
15. In column-15, the average strain ( ε ave) shall be computed by dividing column-9 ( ∆ Have) by column-10 (Zw) and multiplying the result
by 100.
16. Plot qave versus ε ave for different tests on the same diagram. Obtain the average of all tests and sketch a DESIGN CURVE.
AVERAGE INFLUENCE FACTORS FOR THE
1
IS : FOR SUBSEQUENT LOADINGS
0.9
IF : FOR THE FIRST LOADING
0.8
0.7
WETTED ZONE:
0.6
IF
I 0.5
0.4
IS
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.33 0.66 0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98
Zw/D
(min.) (min.) (kN) (kN) Left Right Left Right (mm) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (percent)
Seating load
applied
Dry loading
Wetting
commenced
etc.
10.3.1.2.2 Design based on SPLT. From the load-deformation curve obtained from standard
plate load test under soaked condition in accordance with Section 10.3.1.1.2, the
where:
δ p = Settlement of test plate.
δ D = Design settlement of prototype foundation taken to be equal to half the
allowable settlement value given from Section 5.4.1.5.
Bo = Width of prototype footing.
Bp = Width of test plate.
Based on the obtained allowable load bearing, the foundation system shall be
designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapters 5 and 8, where applicable.
Limitations. In determining the bearing pressure for the specified tolerable
differential settlement, the validity and accuracy of any resulting computations
shall be approved by the building official and evaluated on the basis of the
following variables:
1. Dependence of the amount of settlement on the extent of the wetting front and
availability of water, which can rarely be predicted prior to collapse.
2. The influence depth set to be four times the footing width is significantly
different for the model versus prototype footing.
3. Increase soil stiffness due to increased confinement with depth.
10.3.1.2.3 Design based on BPLT. Design of spread and strip footings shall conform to the
provisions of Section 10.3.1.2.3.1 and mats shall be designed in accordance with
the provisions of Section 10.3.1.2.3.2.
10.3.1.2.3.1 Spread and continuous footings. Spread and continuous footings are permitted to
be used without modifications in areas with low collapse potential, as determined
in accordance with Table 10.5. In areas with higher collapse potential, strip
footings are permitted, provided that the requirements for additional distortion
resistance specified in Table 10.8 are met.
10.3.1.2.3.2 Stiffened mat foundations. The design procedure for mat foundations in
collapsible soils is summarized in Table 10.9. The mat shall be designed and
constructed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 8, where applicable, and
the requirements for additional distortion resistance specified in Table 10.8 shall
be met.
TABLE 10.5
DESIGN OF SPREAD AND STRIP FOOTINGS ON COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
1. From Table 10.6, use strain under the plate corresponding to stress of 100 kPa ( ε100 ) to classify the site
with respect to collapse potential.
2. Pre-wetting is required for very high collapse potential, and permitted but not required for high collapse
potential.
3. When pre-wetting is chosen or required, the DESIGN CURVE constructed in Table 10.4 is replaced with
a recompression design curve whose strain values are everywhere 15percent of those on the original
design curve, and the site is reclassified accordingly.
4. Use Tables 10.6 and 10.7 to obtain required design parameters Df (foundation depth), Dwdes (depth of
wetted bulb), foundation type, required distortion resistance, ∆H diff /L and ∆H diff / ∆H tot .
5. From Table 10.7 use column spacing, L, to compute ∆H diff , then compute ∆H tot from the same table.
6. Compute Zw = Dwdes – Df.
7. Compute maximum allowable ε ave = ∆H tot / Zw.
8. Compute the overburden pressure (Podes) at Dwdes.
9. From the DESIGN CURVE get allowable ε ave corresponding to Podes.
10. If ε ave ≥ allowable ε ave from step-7, change Df, foundation type or stiffness level and recalculate.
11. If ε ave < allowable ε ave , use allowable ε ave in the DESIGN CURVE to get allowable Ptot, then find qave
as follows: qave = allowable Ptot - Podes
12. Assume a first trial value of B (footing width). Compute Zw/B, find Iave from the Figure below and
compute qall as follows: qall = allowable qave/Iave
13. Use the trial value of B, footing shape and column load to compute qcon. If qcon ≈ qall, then B value is
accepted, otherwise change B and iterate until convergence, then proceed with structural design.
14. In case of no convergence or if B or qall are not acceptable, increase Df, change footing type, change
distortion stiffness or a combination of those.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
INFLUENCE FACTOR 0.6
FOR AVERAGE I a v e 0.5
STRESS WITHIN 0.4
squa re or c ir c ula r f oot ing
WETTED ZONE VS. 0.3
st rip foot ing
Zw / B or Zw / D
10.3.3 Stabilization. Where collapsible soils are stabilized in lieu of designing footings or
foundations in accordance with Section 10.3.1, the soil shall be stabilized by
compaction, pre-wetting, vibroflotation, chemical, or other techniques designed by a
geotechnical engineer knowledgeable in unsaturated soil mechanics and approved by
the building official. The provisions of Section 9.3.5 shall also be considered, where
applicable. In pre-wetting technique, the effect of strength loss shall be evaluated to
ensure that strength criteria are met. Great care must be exercised when using pre-
wetting near existing structures that underlain by collapsible soils, particularly if the
soil has strong stratification, as in the case of many alluvial soils, and injected water
may flow horizontally more than it does vertically. Limitations and implementation
procedures of the contemplated stabilization technique shall receive careful
consideration and thorough evaluation.
TABLE 10.6
MINIMUM DESIGN PARAMETERS AS A FUNCTION OF COLLAPSE POTENTIAL
TABLE 10.7
REQUIRED MINIMUM RATIOS OF DIFFERENTIAL TO TOTAL SETTLEMENT
AS A FUNCTION OF FOUNDATION TYPE AND DISTORTION STIFFNESS
TABLE 10.8
REQUIREMENTS FOR EXTRA DISTORTION RESISTANCE
Distortion Type of Extra Extra Extra Steel Extra Steel Extra Steel in
Stiffness Foundation Concrete in Concrete in in Footing in Wall and Foundation
Grade Beam Footing Floor Column
Level 0 Refers to standard design and requires no extra distortion resistance
Spread 10percent 10percent
Footing higher thicker
2 bars − 3 bars
Strip 10percent 10percent
Level I
Footing higher thicker
2 bars − 3 bars
15percent, see
Mat − − − Figure 10.1 −
Spread 20percent 20percent
Footing higher thicker
3 bars − 6 bars
Strip 20percent 20percent
Level II
Footing higher thicker
3 bars − 6 bars
25percent, see
Mat − − − Figure 10.1 −
SECTION 10.4
INSPECTIONS
10.4.1 A pre-construction site inspection shall be conducted to verify that the provisions
of Section 9.4 have been met.
SECTION 10.5
CONCRETE
10.5.1 Material, construction, and placement of concrete shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Section 5.4.2 and Section 8.3. Prior to the placement of concrete, an
inspection of the beam geometrics, reinforcements and other details of the design
shall be made to verify conformance with the design plans.
Wall
100 D
100 D
FIGURE 10.1
EXTRA STEEL IN WALL AND FLOOR FOR MAT FOUNDATION
TABLE 10.9
DESIGN OF MAT FOUNDATION ON COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
1. From Table 10.6, use strain under the plate corresponding to stress of 100 kPa ( ε100 ) to classify the site
with respect to collapse potential.
2. Pre-wetting is required for very high collapse potential, and permitted but not required for high collapse
potential.
3. When pre-wetting is chosen or required, the DESIGN CURVE is replaced with a recompression design
curve whose strain values are everywhere 15percent of those on the original design curve, and the site is
reclassified accordingly.
4. Use Tables 10.6 and 10.7 to obtain required design parameters Df (foundation depth), Dwdes (depth of wetted
bulb), foundation type, required distortion resistance, ∆H diff /L and ∆H diff / ∆H tot .
5. Compute ∆H tot .
6. Compute Zw = Dwdes – Df.
7. Compute maximum allowable ε ave = ∆H tot / Zw.
8. Compute the overburden pressure (Podes) at 1/3 of the way from the base of the foundation to Dwdes. For mat
foundations, only a fraction of the Podes acts on the soil during wetting as seen from Table below.
9. The average contact stress under a mat, qcon, is governed by the weight of the structure including the mat and
the footprint of the structure. Only Df and distortion stiffness can be changed in pursuit of an acceptable
design.
10. Compute qcon, Zw/B and estimate Iave from Table 10.5, using the curve for square footing or interpolate
between the curves as a function of the shape of structure in plan (length/width ≥ 4 can be interpreted as
strip).
11. Compute qave = Iave × qcon
12. Compute Podes = a × Po, where the factor 'a' represent percentage of overburden stress acting on the
wetted soil under mats and is obtained as
Zw/B factor a
0 - 0.1 0.1
0.1 - 0.3 0.3
0.3 - 0.6 0.5
Note: Podes= aPo= That portion of the overburden stress assumed to produce strain upon wetting.
CHAPTER 11
DESIGN FOR SABKHA SOILS
SECTION 11.1
GENERAL
11.1.0 SCOPE. Provisions of this chapter shall apply to building foundation systems in
sabkha soil areas. Foundation design and construction shall be based on a site
investigation as defined in Chapter 2, unless the building official ascertains that
sufficient data upon which to base the design and construction of the foundation
system is available.
SECTION 11.2
LOADINGS
11.2.1 Footings shall be designed for the most unfavorable effects due to the
combinations of loads specified in SBC 301 Section 2.4. The dead load shall
include the weight of foundations, footings and overlying fill. Reduced live loads,
as specified in SBC 301 Section 4.8, are permitted to be used in designing
footings. Strength design of reinforced concrete systems and elements shall
comply with load combinations specified in SBC 304.
SECTION 11.3
DESIGN
11.3.0 Design for sabkha soils shall conform to the provisions of Sections 11.3.1 through
11.3.2. Provisions of Chapters 5 and 8 not specifically excluded and not in conflict
with the provisions of Chapter 11 shall apply, where applicable.
11.3.2 Foundations. For heavy structures, mat or deep foundations shall be considered,
and provisions of Chapter 8 and Chapters 14 through 17 shall govern, where
applicable.
For lightly loaded buildings and structures founded on sabkha soil areas, and
provided that water table is always kept beneath the foundation level, it shall be
permitted to design and construct footings or foundations in accordance with
Sections 11.3.2.1 through 11.3.2.3, subject to the approval of building official, and
under a direct supervision of a geotechnical engineer knowledgeable in sabkha
soils.
Alternate foundation designs shall be permitted subject to the provisions of
Section 11.1.1. Footing or foundation design need not comply with Section
11.3.1and 11.3.2 where the soil is removed in accordance with Section 11.6, nor
where the building official approves stabilization of the soil in accordance with
Section 11.7, nor where the superstructure is design by a registered design
professional to accommodate the potential settlements.
11.3.2.1 Water table below 5 meters depth
Where groundwater is 5 meters below the ground surface level, external and
internal walls have to be supported by a concrete strip foundation. Water
infiltration shall be prevented under the floor slabs by installing heavy duty
polythene sheeting, or other approved materials, as shown in Figure 11.1(a). Joints
in the polythene sheeting shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s installation instructions. Strip foundation shall be supported by
lean mix concrete to prevent contamination of the wet concrete when poured.
11.3.2.2 Water table between 2.5 and 5 meters depth
Where groundwater is between 2.5 meters and 5 meters below the ground surface
level, provisions of Section 11.3.2.1 shall be satisfied. Slab floors have to be
supported by a strip foundation as illustrated in Figure 11.1(b). Coarse, durable
gravels shall be placed beneath the floor slab and around the strip foundation.
11.3.2.3 Water table between ground level and 2.5 meters depth
Where groundwater is between ground level and 2.5 meters, the provisions of
Section 11.3.2.2 shall be fulfilled. Further, the strip foundation and the floor slab
shall also be underlain by a rolled coarse gravel capillary cut-off, not less than 150
mm thick, resting on a compacted fill blanket as illustrated in Figure 11.1(c).
SECTION 11.4
REQUIRED PREVENTIVE MEASURES
11.4.1 The applicable provisions of Section 9.3.5 and Chapter 13 shall be expanded to
include, but need not be limited to, the following:
1. Domestic and irrigation water shall be strictly controlled, especially where low
density sands cemented with sodium chloride. Protection by drainage around
major structures shall be considered to reduce the risks associated with
rainstorms or burst water mains.
2. There shall be external protection against corrosion for all pipelines, fittings
and valves, whether steel, ductile iron, or asbestos-cement. Ductile iron pipe
work shall be factory coated with a bituminous coating compatible with a
specified pipe wrapping material. Steel pipe work shall be factory coated with
either a thermosetting, fusion bonded, dry powder epoxy coating not less than
300 micrometers thick or a catalyst-cured epoxy coating applied in three coats,
to a total cured dry film thickness of 240 micrometers. Ductile iron, steel and
asbestos-cement pipe work shall then be wrapped with heavy duty self-
adhesive, rubber bitumen compound with PVC carrier strip. The pipe work
shall be sleeved with 0.2 mm thick polyethylene sleeving.
FIGURE 11.1
SHALLOW FOUNDATION DESIGN STRATEGIES
(a) WATER TABLE BELOW 5 m DEPTH;
(b) WATER TABLE BETWEEN 2.5 m AND 5 m DEPTH;
(c) WATER TABLE BETWEEN GROUND LEVEL AND 2.5 m DEPTH.
SECTION 11.5
CONCRETE
11.5.0 Material, construction, and placement of concrete shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Section 5.4.2 and Section 8.3, where applicable.
11.5.1 Concrete protection. Concrete shall satisfy the durability criteria of SBC 304
Chapter 4. Protection against salt attack on foundation materials, buried pipes, and
metal objects shall be provided by using sulphate resistance cement. Concrete used
in the construction of foundation on sabkha formations shall be made from Type V
Portland cement, with minimum cement content of 370 kg/m3, and maximum
water cement ratio of 0.4 for corrosion protection and 0.45 for sulfate protection.
Reinforcement type shall be epoxy coated and a minimum cover to reinforcement
of 75 mm shall be stringently enforced.
SECTION 11.6
REMOVAL OF SABKHA SOILS
SECTION 11.7
STABILIZATION
CHAPTER 12
DESIGN FOR VIBRATORY LOADS
SECTION 12.1
GENERAL
12.1.1 Where machinery operations or other vibrations are transmitted through the
foundation, the foundations and support structures shall be designed according to
Sections 12.2 through 12.4.7. Foundations and support structures designed for
machinery vibrations must be capable of withstanding dynamic loading due to
machinery vibrations and all other loadings to which they may be subjected with
stresses not exceeding the allowable-load bearing values specified in Chapter 4.
SECTION 12.2
LOADS AND FORCES
12.2.0 All concrete sections shall be proportioned to resist the sum of the static loads and
dynamic forces as described in Sections 12.2.1 through 12.2.3.
12.2.1 Static loads. Static loads shall consist of all dead and live loads on the foundation,
etc., thermal and fluid forces from process piping, loads due to temperature
differentials, wind loads and any other sustained loads.
12.2.3 Steady state dynamic forces. Information on steady state dynamic forces shall be
furnished by the equipment manufacturer(s). For reciprocating machinery the
supplied information shall include weights of the machine and all auxiliary
equipment with exact location of centers of gravity, number of revolutions per
minute (Operating speed or range of operating speeds), diagrams showing all
primary and secondary forces and moments, and curves of free forces and
moments against crank angle degrees.
For rotating machinery the equipment manufacturer(s) shall supply the weights of
the machine, rotor and auxiliary equipment with exact location of centers of
gravity, range of operating speeds, possible unbalanced forces and points of
application (for operating conditions based on alarm level).
Where there is no manufacturer information available, the steady state dynamic
force for rotating machinery can be estimated as follows:
where:
FD = Steady state dynamic force in kN.
W = Total mass of the rotating part in kg.
rpm = Machine speed in revolutions per minute.
SECTION 12.3
SOIL BEARING PRESSURES, PILE CAPACITIES
AND SETTLEMENTS
12.3.1 Foundation adequacy for static bearing capacity and settlement considerations
shall be checked by a registered design professional. In addition, effect of dynamic
loading on foundation soil shall be investigated. In-situ or laboratory testing to
establish appropriate dynamic parameters of the foundation soils, whether in-situ
treated or untreated, or compacted fill, shall be carried out by an approved agency.
If a requirement for piles is established, appropriate dynamic parameters for the
piles shall be determined by an approved agency.
The site investigation report shall give insight to the expected dynamic behavior of
the soil or piles. As a minimum the report should give the density, Poisson’s ratio,
dynamic modulus of sub-grade reaction or dynamic pile spring constant and the
shear modulus for soils, or the equivalent fixate level of piles.
Unless foundation settlement calculations for dynamic loads show otherwise, the
allowable soil bearing pressures shall not exceed 50% of the allowable bearing
pressure permitted for static loads, as determined from Chapter 4, for high-tuned
foundations and 75% for low-tuned foundations. The allowable soil bearing
pressure shall be reduced for heavy machinery foundations to provide a factor of
safety against excessive settlement due to vibration.
SECTION 12.4
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
12.4.0 Foundation and support structures designed for machinery vibrations shall meet
the provisions of Sections 12.4.1 through 12.4.7
12.4.1 General. The provisions of Chapters 5 and 8 shall be expanded to include the
following:
1. Support structures or foundations for centrifugal rotating machinery greater
than 500 horsepower shall be designed for the expected dynamic forces using
dynamic analysis procedures. For units less than 500 horsepower, in the
absence of a detailed dynamic analysis, the foundation weight shall be at least
three times the total machinery weight, unless specified otherwise by the
Manufacturer.
2. For reciprocating machinery less than 200 horsepower, in the absence of a
detailed dynamic analysis, the foundation weight shall be at least five times the
total machinery weight, unless specified otherwise by the Manufacturer.
3. All coupled elements of the machinery train shall be mounted on a common
foundation or support structure.
SBC 303 2007 12/2
DESIGN FOR VIBRATORY LOADS
12.4.2 Reinforced concrete. The structural design of all reinforced concrete shall be in
accordance with SBC 304 when not in conflict with the provisions of Chapter 12.
The following provisions shall be satisfied:
1. The minimum compressive strength of concrete at 28 days shall not be less
than 28 MPa.
2. All faces of concrete shall be reinforced bi-axially. For deformed bars, the
reinforcement in each direction shall not be less than 0.0018 times the gross
area perpendicular to the direction of reinforcement.
Exception: In the event that a foundation size greater than 1200 mm thick is
required for stability, rigidity, or damping, the minimum reinforcing steel may
be as recommended in ACI 207.2R Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and
Reinforcement on Cracking of Massive Concrete with a suggested minimum
reinforcement of Dia 22 mm bars at 300 mm on center.
3. Main reinforcement in piers shall not be less than 1 percent nor more than 8
percent of the cross-sectional area of the piers. Main reinforcement in pedestals
shall not be less than 1 2 percent.
4. Minimum tie size in piers shall be 12 mm.
5. Maximum tie spacing in piers shall be the smallest of 8-bar diameters, 24-tie
diameters or 1/3 the least dimension of the pier.
6. Slabs with thickness of 500 mm or more shall be provided with shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement in accordance with applicable provisions of SBC
304.
7. When foundation thickness is greater than 1200 mm thick, mix and placement
of concrete shall conform to the provisions of ACI 207.2R and SBC 304.
12.4.3 Anchor bolts. Anchor bolts shall be in accordance with SAES-Q-005. When
specified, the diameter, steel quality, projection and installation method shall be as
required by the machine manufacturer. Requirements for anchor bolt coating shall
be in compliance with Saudi Aramco Materials System Reports 12-SAMSS-007
Fabrication of Structural and Miscellaneous Steel and requirements for double nuts
shall be in compliance with Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-Q-005
Concrete Foundations.
The foundation design engineer shall verify the capacity of any vendor furnished
or detailed anchor bolts. Unless otherwise specified by the equipment
manufacturer, equipment shall be installed on mounting plate(s), and the direct
attachment of equipment feet to the foundation using the anchor bolts shall not be
permitted. Mounting plates shall be of sufficient strength and rigidity to transfer
the applied forces to the foundation. Grouting shall be in accordance with Saudi
Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-Q-011 Epoxy Grout for machinery Support
and machine manufacturer’s instructions.
The drawing shall clearly indicate the locations and types of the anchor bolts and
sleeves, the anchor bolt diameter, the depth of embedment into the foundation of
the anchor bolts, the length of the anchor bolts threads, and the length of the
anchor bolt projections.
The minimum thickness of the concrete foundations shall not be less than
(0.60+L/30) where L is the length of foundation in meters parallel to the machine
bearing axis in meters. Piers shall not be used unless absolutely required by
operation or maintenance or if required by machine vendor specification. Block
foundations for reciprocating machines shall have a minimum of 50 % of the block
thickness embedded in the soil, unless otherwise specified by the equipment
manufacturer.
12.4.6 Permissible frequency ratios. The ratio between the operating frequency of the
machinery, f, and each natural frequency of the machine foundation system, fn
shall not lie in the range of 0.7 to 1.3. Accordingly, for high-tuned systems, f/fn,
SBC 303 2007 12/5
DESIGN FOR VIBRATORY LOADS
shall be less than 0.7 and for low-tuned systems f/fn shall be greater than 1.3. A
need for exceptions shall be approved by a registered design professional.
12.4.7 Permissible vibration. Where Manufacturer’s vibration criteria are not available,
the maximum velocity of movement during steady-state normal operation shall be
limited to 3 mm per second for centrifugal machines and 4 mm per second for
reciprocating machines. For rocking and torsional mode calculation the vibration
velocities shall be computed with the dynamic forces of the machinery train
components assumed in phase and 180 degrees out of phase.
CHAPTER 13
DAMP PROOFING AND WATERPROOFING
SECTION 13.1
SCOPE
13.1.0 Walls or portions thereof that retain earth and enclose interior spaces and floors
below grade, and underground water-retention structures shall be waterproofed
and damp proofed in accordance with provisions of this Chapter, with the
exception of those spaces containing groups other than residential and institutional
where such omission is not detrimental to the building or occupancy.
Ventilation for crawl spaces shall comply with Section 7.3.4 SBC 201.
13.1.1 Story above grade. Where a basement is considered a story above grade and the
finished ground level adjacent to the basement wall is below the basement floor
elevation for 25 percent or more of the perimeter, the floor and walls shall be
damp proofed in accordance with Section 13.2 and a foundation drain shall be
installed in accordance with Section 13.4.2. The foundation drain shall be installed
around the portion of the perimeter where the basement floor is belowground level.
The provisions of Sections 2.2.3, 13.3 and 13.4.1 shall not apply in this case.
13.1.2 Under-floor space. The finished ground level of an under-floor space such as a
crawl space shall not be located below the bottom of the footings. Where there is
evidence that the ground-water table rises to within 150 mm of the ground level at
the outside building perimeter, or that the surface water does not readily drain
from the building site, the ground level of the under-floor space shall be as high as
the outside finished ground level, unless an approved drainage system is provided.
The provisions of Sections 2.2.3, 13.2, 13.3 and 13.4.1 shall not apply in this case.
13.1.2.1 Flood hazard areas. For buildings and structures in flood hazard areas, as
established in SBC 301 Section 5.3, the finished ground level of an under-floor
space such as a crawl space shall be equal to or higher than the outside finished
ground level.
Exception: Under-floor spaces of Group R-3 buildings that meet the requirements
of FEMA/ FIA-TB-11.
13.1.3 Groundwater control. Where the ground-water table is lowered and maintained
at an elevation not less than 150 mm below the bottom of the lowest floor, the
floor and walls shall be damp proofed in accordance with Section 13.2. The design
of the system to lower the ground-water table shall be based on accepted principles
of engineering that shall consider, but not necessarily be limited to, permeability of
the soil, rate at which water enters the drainage system, rated capacity of pumps,
head against which pumps are to operate and the rated capacity of the disposal area
of the system.
SECTION 13.2
DAMP PROOFING REQUIRED
13.2.0 Where hydrostatic pressure will not occur as determined by Section 2.2.3, floors
and walls shall be damp proofed in accordance with this Section.
13.2.1 Floors. Damp proofing materials for floors shall be installed between the floor and
the base course required by Section 13.4.1, except where a separate floor is
provided above a concrete slab. Where installed beneath the slab, damp proofing
shall consist of not less than 0.15 mm polyethylene with joints lapped not less than
150 mm, or other approved methods or materials. Where permitted to be installed
on top of the slab, damp proofing shall consist of mopped-on bitumen, not less
than 0.10 mm polyethylene, or other approved methods or materials. Joints in the
membrane shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
installation instructions.
13.2.2 Walls. Damp proofing materials for walls shall be installed on the exterior surface
of the wall, and shall extend from the top of the footing to above ground level.
Damp proofing shall consist of a bituminous material, 16 N/m2 of acrylic modified
cement, 3.0 mm coat of surface-bonding mortar complying with ASTM C 887,
any of the materials permitted for waterproofing by Section 13.3.2 or other
approved methods or materials.
13.2.2.1 Surface preparation of walls. Prior to application of damp proofing materials on
concrete walls, holes and recesses resulting from the removal of form ties shall be
sealed with a bituminous material or other approved methods or materials. Unit
masonry walls shall be parged on the exterior surface belowground level with not
less than 10 mm of Portland cement mortar. The parging shall be coved at the
footing.
Exception: Parging of unit masonry walls is not required where a material is
approved for direct application to the masonry.
SECTION 13.3
WATERPROOFING REQUIRED
13.3.0 Where the ground-water investigation required by Section 2.2.3 indicates that a
hydrostatic pressure condition exists, and the design does not include a ground-
water control system as described in Section 13.1.3, walls and floors shall be
waterproofed in accordance with this Section.
13.3.1 Floors. Floors required to be water proofed shall be of concrete, designed and
constructed to withstand the hydrostatic pressures to which the floors will be
subjected.
Waterproofing shall be accomplished by placing a membrane of rubberized
asphalt, butyl rubber, or not less than 0.15 mm polyvinyl chloride with joints
lapped not less than 150 mm or other approved materials under the slab. Joints in
the membrane shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
installation instructions.
13.3.3 Joints and penetrations. Joints in walls and floors, joints between the wall and
floor and penetrations of the wall and floor shall be made water-tight utilizing
approved methods and materials.
SECTION 13.4
SUBSOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEM
13.4.0 Where a hydrostatic pressure condition does not exist, damp proofing shall be
provided and a base shall be installed under the floor and a drain installed around
the foundation perimeter. A subsoil drainage system designed and constructed in
accordance with Section 13.1.3 shall be deemed adequate for lowering the ground-
water table.
13.4.1 Floor base course. Floors of basements, except as provided for in Section 13.1.1,
shall be placed over a floor base course not less than 100 mm in thickness that
consists of gravel or crushed stone containing not more than 10 percent of material
that passes through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
Exception: Where a site is located in well-drained gravel or sand/gravel mixture
soils, a floor base course is not required.
13.4.2 Foundation drain. A drain shall be placed around the perimeter of a foundation.
It shall satisfy the requirements of Equations 7-4 through 7-6 or in lieu it shall
consist of gravel or crushed stone containing not more than 10-percent material
that passes through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. The drain shall extend a minimum of
300 mm beyond the outside edge of the footing. The thickness shall be such that
the bottom of the drain is not higher than the bottom of the base under the floor,
and that the top of the drain is not less than 150 mm above the top of the footing.
The top of the drain shall be covered with an approved filter membrane material.
Where a drain tile or perforated pipe is used, the invert of the pipe or tile shall not
be higher than the floor elevation. The top of joints or the top of perforations shall
be protected with an approved filter membrane material. The pipe or tile shall be
placed on not less than 50 mm of gravel or crushed stone complying with Section
13.4.1, and shall be covered with not less than 150 mm of the same material.
13.4.3 Drainage discharge. The floor base and foundation perimeter drain shall
discharge by gravity or mechanical means into an approved drainage system that
complies with the SBC 701.
Exception: Where a site is located in well-drained gravel or sand/gravel mixture
soils, a dedicated drainage system is not required.
SECTION 13.5
UNDERGROUND WATER-RETENTION STRUCTURES
13.5.2 Design and construction. For design and constructions of underground water-
retention structures, provisions of SBC 304 and ACI 350 Environmental
Engineering Concrete Structures shall govern, where applicable.
CHAPTER 14
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
PIER AND PILE FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 14.1
DESIGN
14.1.1 Piles are permitted to be designed in accordance with provisions for piers in
Chapter 14 and Sections 17.3 through 17.10 where either of the following
conditions exists, subject to the approval of the building official:
1. Group R-3 and U occupancies not exceeding two stories of light-frame
construction, or
2. Where the surrounding foundation materials furnish adequate lateral support
for the pile.
SECTION 14.2
GENERAL
14.2.1 Pier and pile foundations shall be designed and installed on the basis of a site
investigation as defined in Chapter 2, unless the building official ascertains that
sufficient data upon which to base the design and installation is available.
The investigation and report provisions of Chapter 2 shall be expanded to include,
but not be limited to, the following:
1. Recommended pier or pile types and installed capacities.
2. Recommended center-to-center spacing of piers or piles.
3. Driving criteria.
4. Installation procedures.
5. Field inspection and reporting procedures (to include procedures for
verification of the installed bearing capacity where required).
6. Pier or pile load test requirements.
7. Durability of pier or pile materials.
8. Designation of bearing stratum or strata.
9. Reductions for group action, where necessary.
SECTION 14.3
SPECIAL TYPES OF PILES
14.3.1 The use of types of piles not specifically mentioned herein is permitted, subject to
the approval of the building official, upon the submission of acceptable test data,
calculations and other information relating to the structural properties and load
capacity of such piles. The allowable stresses shall not in any case exceed the
limitations specified herein.
SECTION 14.4
PILE CAPS
14.4.1 Pile caps shall be of reinforced concrete, and shall include all elements to which
piles are connected, including grade beams and mats. The soil immediately below
the pile cap shall not be considered as carrying any vertical load. The tops of piles
shall be embedded not less than 75 mm into pile caps and the caps shall extend at
least 100 mm beyond the edges of piles. The tops of piles shall be cut back to
sound material before capping.
SECTION 14.5
STABILITY
14.5.1 Piers or piles shall be braced to provide lateral stability in all directions. Three or
more piles connected by a rigid cap shall be considered braced, provided that the
piles are located in radial directions from the centeroid of the group not less than
60 degrees (1 radian) apart. A two-pile group in a rigid cap shall be considered to
be braced along the axis connecting the two piles. Methods used to brace piers or
piles shall be subject to the approval of the building official.
Piles supporting walls shall be driven alternatively in lines spaced at least 300 mm
apart and located symmetrically under the center of gravity of the wall load
carried, unless effective measures are taken to provide for eccentricity and lateral
forces, or the wall piles are adequately braced to provide for lateral stability. A
single row of piles without lateral bracing is permitted for one-and two-family
dwellings and lightweight construction not exceeding two stories or 10 m in
height, provided the centers of the piles are located within the width of the
foundation wall.
SECTION 14.6
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
14.6.1 Piers or piles shall be installed in such a manner and sequence as to prevent
distortion or damage to piles being installed or already in place to extent that such
distortion or damage affects the structural integrity of the piles.
SECTION 14.7
SPLICES
14.7.1 Splices shall be constructed so as to provide and maintain true alignment and
position of the component parts of the pier or pile during installation and
subsequent thereto and shall be of adequate strength to transmit the vertical and
lateral loads and moments occurring at the location of the splice during driving
and under service loading. Splices shall develop not less than 50% of the least
capacity of the pier or pile in bending. In addition, splices occurring in the upper 3
m of the embedded portion of the pier or pile shall be capable of resisting at
allowable working stresses the moment and shear that would result from an
assumed eccentricity of the pier or pile load of 75 mm, or the pier or pile shall be
braced in accordance with Section 14.5 to other piers or piles that do not have
splices in the upper 3 m of embedment.
SECTION 14.8
ALLOWABLE PIER OR PILE LOADS
14.8.1 Determination of allowable loads. The allowable axial and lateral loads on piers
or piles shall be determined by an approved formula, load tests or method of
analysis.
14.8.2 Driving criteria. The allowable compressive load on any pile where determined
by the application of an approved driving formula shall not exceed 360 kN. For
allowable loads above 360 kN, the wave equation method of analysis shall be used
to estimate pile drivability of both driving stresses and net displacement per blow
at the ultimate load. Allowable loads shall be verified by load tests in accordance
with Section 14.8.3. The formula or wave equation load shall be determined for
gravity-drop or power-actuated hammers and the hammer energy used shall be the
maximum consistent with the size, strength and weight of the driven piles. The use
of a follower is permitted only with the approval of the building official. The
introduction of fresh hammer cushion or pile cushion material just prior to final
penetration is not permitted.
14.8.3 Load tests. Where design compressive loads per pier or pile are greater than those
permitted by Section 14.10, or where the design load for any pier or pile
foundation is in doubt, control test piers or piles shall be tested in accordance with
ASTM D 1143 or ASTM D 4945. At least one pier or pile shall be test loaded in
each area of uniform subsoil conditions. Where required by the building official,
additional piers or piles shall be load tested where necessary to establish the safe
design capacity. The resulting allowable loads shall not be more than one-half of
the ultimate load capacity of the test piers or pile as assessed by one of the
published methods listed in Section 14.8.3.1 with consideration for the test type,
duration and subsoil. The ultimate load capacity shall be determined by a
registered design professional, but shall be no greater than two times the test load
that produces a settlement of 7 mm. In subsequent installation of the balance of
foundation piles, all piles shall be deemed to have a supporting capacity equal to
the control pile where such piles are to the same type, size and relative length as
the test pile; are installed using the same or comparable methods and equipment as
the test pile; are installed in similar subsoil conditions as the test pile; and, for
driven piles, where the rate of penetration (e.g., net displacement per blow) of such
piles is equal to or less than that of the test pile through a comparable driving
distance.
14.8.3.1 Load test evaluation. It shall be permitted to evaluate pile load tests with any of
the following methods:
1. Davison Offset Limit.
2. Brinch-Hansen 90% Criterion.
3. Chin-Konder Extrapolation.
4. Other methods approved by the building official.
maximum of 25 kPa, unless a greater value is allowed by the building official after
a soil investigation as specified in Chapter 2 is submitted. Frictional resistance and
bearing resistance shall not be assumed to act simultaneously unless recommended
by a soil investigation as specified in Chapter 2.
14.8.5 Uplift capacity. Where required by the design, the uplift capacity of a single pier
or pile shall be determined by an approved method of analysis based on a
minimum factor of safety of three or by load tests conducted in accordance with
ASTM D 3689. The maximum allowable uplift load shall not exceed the ultimate
load capacity as determined in Section 14.8.3 divided by a factor of safety of two.
For pile groups subjected to uplift, the allowable working uplift load for the group
shall be the lesser of:
1. The proposed individual pile uplift working load times the number of piles in
the group.
2. Two-thirds of the effective weight of the pile group and the soil contained
within a block defined by the perimeter of the group and the length of the pile.
14.8.6 Load-bearing capacity. Piers, individual piles and groups of piles shall develop
ultimate load capacities of at least twice the design working loads in the designated
load-bearing layers. Analysis shall show that no soil layer underlying the
designated load-bearing layers causes the load-bearing capacity safety factor to be
less than two.
14.8.7 Bent piers or piles. The load-bearing capacity of piers or piles discovered to have
a sharp or sweeping bend shall be determined by an approved method of analysis
or by load testing a representative pier or pile.
14.8.8 Overloads on piers or piles. The maximum compressive load on any pier or pile
due to mislocation shall not exceed 110 % of the allowable design load.
SECTION 14.9
LATERAL SUPPORT
14.9.1 General. Any soil other than fluid soil shall be deemed to afford sufficient lateral
support to the pier or pile to prevent buckling and to permit the design of the pier
or pile in accordance with accepted engineering practice and the applicable
provisions of this code.
14.9.2 Unbraced piles. Piles standing unbraced in air, water or in fluid soils shall be
designed as columns in accordance with the provisions of this code. Such piles
driven into firm ground can be considered fixed and laterally supported at 1.5 m
below the ground surface and in soft material at 3 m below the ground surface
unless otherwise prescribed by the building official after a foundation investigation
by an approved agency.
14.9.3 Allowable lateral load. Where required by the design, the lateral load capacity of
a pier, a single pile or a pile group shall be determined by an approved method of
analysis or by lateral load tests to at least twice the proposed design working load.
The resulting allowable load shall not be more than one-half of that test load that
produces a gross lateral movement of 25 mm at the ground surface.
SECTION 14.10
USE OF HIGHER ALLOWABLE PIER OR PILE STRESSES
14.10.1 Allowable stresses greater than those specified for piers or for each pile type in
Chapters 14 and 15 are permitted where supporting data justifying such higher
stresses is filed with the building official. Such substantiating data shall include:
1. A soil investigation in accordance with Chapter 2.
2. Pier or pile load tests in accordance with Section 14.8.3, regardless of the load
supported by the pier or pile.
The design and installation of the pier or pile foundation shall be under the direct
supervision of a registered design professional knowledgeable in the field of soil
mechanics and pier or pile foundations who shall certify to the building official
that the piers or piles as installed satisfy the design criteria.
SECTION 14.11
PILES IN SUBSIDING AND CALCAREOUS AREAS
14.11.1 Piles in subsiding areas. Where piles are driven through subsiding fills or other
subsiding strata and derive support from underlying firmer materials, consideration
shall be given to the downward frictional forces that may be imposed on the piles
by the subsiding upper strata.
Where the influence of subsiding fills is considered as imposing loads on the pile,
the allowable stresses specified in this chapter are permitted to be increased where
satisfactory substantiating data are submitted.
14.11.2 Piles in calcareous soils. Where piles are driven through calcareous soils and
derive support from frictional forces developed between the pile and the
surrounding soil, consideration shall be given to loss of frictional forces due to
driving. For bored cast in-situ piles within calcareous soils where support is
derived from both friction and tip resistance, consideration shall be given to the
possibility of presence of voids/cavities below the tip of the bored pile.
SECTION 14.12
SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
14.12.1 The settlement of piers, individual piles or groups of piles shall be estimated based
on approved methods of analysis. The predicted settlement shall cause neither
harmful distortion of, nor instability in, the structure, nor cause any stresses to
exceed allowable values.
SECTION 14.13
PREEXCAVATION
14.13.1 The use of jetting, augering or other methods of preexcavation shall be subject to
the approval of the building official. Where permitted, preexcavation shall be
carried out in the same manner as used for piers or piles subject to load tests and in
such a manner that will not impair the carrying capacity of the piers or piles
already in place or damage adjacent structures. Pile tips shall be driven below the
preexcavated depth until the required resistance or penetration is obtained.
SECTION 14.14
INSTALLATION SEQUENCE
14.14.1 Piles shall be installed in such sequence as to avoid compacting the surrounding
soil to the extent that other piles cannot be installed properly, and to prevent
ground movements that are capable of damaging adjacent structures.
SECTION 14.15
USE OF VIBRATORY DRIVERS
14.15.1 Vibratory drivers shall only be used to install piles where the pile load capacity is
verified by load tests in accordance with Section 14.8.3. The installation of
production piles shall be controlled according to power consumption, rate of
penetration or other approved means that ensure pile capacities equal or exceed
those of the test piles.
SECTION 14.16
PILE DRIVABILITY
14.16.1 Pile cross sections shall be of sufficient size and strength to withstand driving
stresses without damage to the pile, and to provide sufficient stiffness to transmit
the required driving forces.
SECTION 14.17
PROTECTION OF PILE MATERIALS
14.17.1 Where boring records or site conditions indicate possible deleterious action on pier
or pile materials because of soil constituents, changing water levels or other
factors, the pier or pile materials shall be adequately protected by materials,
methods or processes approved by the building official. Protective materials shall
be applied to the piles so as not to be rendered ineffective by driving. The
effectiveness of such protective measures for the particular purpose shall have
been thoroughly established by satisfactory service records or other evidence.
SECTION 14.18
USE OF EXISTING PIERS OR PILES
14.18.1 Piers or piles left in place where a structure has been demolished shall not be used
for the support of new construction unless satisfactory evidence is submitted to the
building official, which indicates that the piers or piles are sound and meet the
requirements of this code. Such piers or piles shall be load tested or redriven to
verify their capacities. The design load applied to such piers or piles shall be the
lowest allowable load as determined by tests or redriving data.
SECTION 14.19
HEAVED PILES
14.19.1 Piles that have heaved during the driving of adjacent piles shall be redriven as
necessary to develop the required capacity and penetration, or the capacity of the
pile shall be verified by load tests in accordance with Section 14.8.3.
SECTION 14.20
IDENTIFICATION
14.20.1 Pier or pile materials shall be identified for conformity to the specified grade with
this identity maintained continuously from the point of manufacture to the point of
installation or shall be tested by an approved agency to determine conformity to
the specified grade. The approved agency shall furnish an affidavit of compliance
to the building official.
SECTION 14.21
PIER OR PILE LOCATION PLAN
14.21.1 A plan showing the location and designation of piers or piles by an identification
system shall be filed with the building official prior to installation of such piers or
piles. Detailed records for piers or individual piles shall bear an identification
corresponding to that shown on the plan.
SECTION 14.22
SPECIAL INSPECTION
14.22.1 Special inspections in accordance with Sections 2.7.6 and 2.7.7, SBC 302 shall be
provided for piles and piers, respectively.
SECTION 14.23
SEISMIC DESIGN OF PIERS OR PILES
transverse steel ratio for confinement shall not be less than one-half of that
required for columns.
For resistance to uplift forces, anchorage of steel pipe (round HSS sections),
concrete-filled steel pipe or H-piles to the pile cap shall be made by means other
than concrete bond to the bare steel section.
Exception: Anchorage of concrete-filled steel pipe piles is permitted to be
accomplished using deformed bars developed into the concrete portion of the pile.
Splices of pile segments shall develop the full strength of the pile, but the splice
need not develop the nominal strength of the pile in tension, shear and bending
when it has been designed to resist axial and shear forces and moments from the
load combinations of Section 2.5 SBC 301.
14.23.1.2 Design details. Piers or pile moments, shears and lateral deflections used for
design shall be established considering the nonlinear interaction of the shaft and
soil, as recommended by a registered design professional. Where the ratio of the
depth of embedment of the pile-to-pile diameter or width is less than or equal to
six, the pile may be assumed to be rigid.
Pile group effects from soil on lateral pile nominal strength shall be included
where pile center-to-center spacing in the direction of lateral force is less than
eight pile diameters. Pile group effects on vertical nominal strength shall be
included where pile center-to-center spacing is less than three pile diameters. The
pile uplift soil nominal strength shall be taken as the pile uplift strength as limited
by the frictional force developed between the soil and the pile.
Where a minimum length for reinforcement or the extent of closely spaced
confinement reinforcement is specified at the top of the pier or pile, provisions
shall be made so that those specified lengths or extents are maintained after pier or
pile cutoff.
14.23.2 Seismic design category D. Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Design
Category D in accordance with SBC 301 Chapters 9 through 16, the requirements
for Seismic Design Category C given in Section 14.23.1 shall be met, in addition
to the following. Provisions of SBC 304 shall apply when not in conflict with the
provisions of Chapter 14 through 17.
14.23.2.1 Design details for piers, piles and grade beams. Piers or piles shall be designed
and constructed to withstand maximum imposed curvatures from earthquake
ground motions and structure response. Curvatures shall include free-field soil
strains modified for soil-pile-structure interaction coupled with pier or pile
deformations induced by lateral pier or pile resistance to structure seismic forces.
Concrete piers or piles on Site Class E or F sites shall be designed and detailed in
accordance with Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2 and 21.4.4.3 of SBC 304 within seven
pile diameters of the pile cap and the interfaces of soft to medium stiff clay or
liquefiable strata. For precast prestressed concrete piles, detailing provisions as
given in Sections 15.2.3.2.1 and 15.2.3.2.2 shall apply.
Grade beams shall be designed as beams in accordance with SBC 304, Chapter 21.
When grade beams have the capacity to resist the forces from the load
combinations in Section 2.5 SBC 301, they need not conform to Chapter 21 SBC
304.
14.23.2.2 Connection to pile cap. For piles required to resist uplift forces or provide
rotational restraint, design of anchorage of piles into the pile cap shall be provided
considering the combined effect of axial forces due to uplift and bending moments
due to fixity to the pile cap. Anchorage shall develop a minimum of 25% of the
strength of the pile in tension. Anchorage into the pile cap shall be capable of
developing the following:
1. In the case of uplift, the lesser of the nominal tensile strength of the
longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile, or the nominal tensile strength of
a steel pile, or the pile uplift soil nominal strength factored by 1.3 or the axial
tension force resulting from the load combinations of Section 2.5 SBC 301.
2. In the case of rotational restraint, the lesser of the axial and shear forces, and
moments resulting from the load combinations of Section 2.5 SBC 301 or
development of the full axial, bending and shear nominal strength of the pile.
14.23.2.3 Flexural strength. Where the vertical lateral-force-resisting elements are
columns, the grade beam or pile cap flexural strengths shall exceed the column
flexural strength.
The connection between batter pile and grade beams or pile caps shall be designed
to resist the nominal strength of the pile acting as a short column. Batter piles and
their connection shall be capable of resisting forces and moments from the load
combinations of Section 2.5 SBC 301.
CHAPTER 15
DRIVEN PILE FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 15.1
PRECAST CONCRETE PILES
15.1.1 General. The materials, reinforcement and installation of precast concrete piles
shall conform to Sections 15.1.1.1 through 15.1.1.4.
15.1.1.1 Design and manufacture. Piles shall be designed and manufactured in
accordance with accepted engineering practice to resist all stresses induced by
handling, driving and service loads.
15.1.1.2 Minimum dimension. The minimum lateral dimension shall be 200 mm. Corners
of square piles shall be chamfered.
15.1.1.3 Reinforcement. Longitudinal steel shall be arranged in a symmetrical pattern and
be laterally tied with steel ties or wire spiral spaced not more than 100 mm apart,
center to center, for a distance of 600 mm from the ends of the pile; and not more
than 150 mm elsewhere except that at the ends of each pile, the first five ties or
spirals shall be spaced 25 mm center to center. The gage of ties and spirals shall
be as follows:
a. For piles having a diameter of 400 mm or less, wire shall not be smaller than 6
mm (No. 5 gage).
b. For piles having a diameter of 400 mm and less than 500 mm, wire shall not be
smaller than 6 mm (No. 4 gage).
c. For piles having a diameter of 500 mm and larger, wire shall not be smaller
than 7 mm (No. 3 gage).
15.1.1.4 Installation. Piles shall be handled and driven so as not to cause injury or
overstressing, which affects durability or strength.
15.1.2 Precast nonprestressed piles. Precast nonprestressed concrete piles shall conform
to Sections 15.1.2.1 through 15.1.2.5.
15.1.2.1 Materials. Concrete shall have a 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) of
not less than 20 MPa.
15.1.2.2 Minimum reinforcement. The minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement
shall be 0.8 percent of the concrete section and shall consist of at least four bars.
15.1.2.2.1 Seismic reinforcement in seismic design category C. Where a structure is
assigned to Seismic Design Category C in accordance with SBC 301 Chapters 9
through 16, the following shall apply. Longitudinal reinforcement with a minimum
steel ratio of 0.01 shall be provided throughout the length of precast concrete piles.
Within three pile diameters of the bottom of the pile cap, the longitudinal
reinforcement shall be confined with closed ties or spirals of a minimum 10 mm
diameter. Ties or spirals shall be provided at a maximum spacing of eight times
the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, not to exceed 150 mm. Throughout
the remainder of the pile, the closed ties or spirals shall have a maximum spacing
of 16 times the smallest longitudinal-bar diameter, not to exceed 200 mm.
15.1.2.2.2 Seismic reinforcement in seismic design category D. Where a structure is
assigned to Seismic Design Category D in accordance with Chapters 9 through 16
SBC 303 2007 15/1
DRIVEN PILE FOUNDATIONS
SBC 301, the requirements for Seismic Design Category C in Section 15.1.2.2.1
shall apply except as modified by this section. Transverse confinement
reinforcement consisting of closed ties or equivalent spirals shall be provided in
accordance with Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2 and 21.4.4.3 of SBC 304 within three
pile diameters of the bottom of the pile cap. For other than liquefiable sites and
where spirals are used as the transverse reinforcement, it shall be permitted to use
a volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement of not less than one-half that required by
Section 21.4.4.1(a) of SBC 304.
15.1.2.3 Allowable stresses. The allowable compressive stress in the concrete shall not
exceed 33 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) applied to the
gross cross-sectional area of the pile. The allowable compressive stress in the
reinforcing steel shall not exceed 40 percent of the yield strength of the steel ( f y )
or a maximum of 210 MPa. The allowable tensile stress in the reinforcing steel
shall not exceed 50 percent of the yield strength of the steel ( f y ) or a maximum of
165 MPa.
15.1.2.4 Installation. A precast concrete pile shall not be driven before the concrete has
attained a compressive strength of at least 75 percent of the 28-day specified
compressive strength ( f c' ), but not less than the strength sufficient to withstand
handling and driving forces.
15.1.2.5 Concrete cover. Reinforcement for piles that are not manufactured under plant
conditions shall have a concrete cover of not less than 50 mm.
Reinforcement for piles manufactured under plant control conditions shall have a
concrete cover of not less than 30 mm for Dia 16 mm bars and smaller, and not
less than 40 mm for Dia 18 mm through Dia 36 mm bars except that longitudinal
bars spaced less than 40 mm clear distance apart shall be considered bundled bars
for which the minimum concrete cover shall be equal to that for the equivalent
diameter of the bundled bars.
Reinforcement for piles exposed to seawater shall have a concrete cover of not less
than 75 mm.
15.1.3 Precast prestressed piles. Precast prestressed concrete piles shall conform to the
requirements of Sections 15.1.3.1 through 15.1.3.5.
15.1.3.1 Materials. Prestressing steel shall conform to ASTM A416. Concrete shall have a
28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) of not less than 35 MPa.
15.1.3.2 Design. Precast prestressed piles shall be designed to resist stresses induced by
handling and driving as well as by loads. The effective prestress in the pile shall
not be less than 3 MPa for piles up to 9 meters in length, 4 MPa for piles up to 15
meters in length and 5 MPa for piles greater than 15 m in length.
Effective prestress shall be based on an assumed loss of 210 MPa in the
prestressing steel. The tensile stress in the prestressing steel shall not exceed the
values specified in SBC 304.
15.1.3.2.1 Design in seismic design category C. Where a structure is assigned to Seismic
Design Category C in accordance with SBC 301 Chapters 9 through 16, the
following shall apply. The minimum volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement shall
not be less than 0.007 or the amount required by the following formula for the
upper 6000 mm of the pile.
SBC 303 2007 15/2
DRIVEN PILE FOUNDATIONS
At least one-half the volumetric ratio required by Equation 15-1 shall be provided
below the upper 6000 mm of the pile.
The pile cap connection by means of dowels as indicated in Section 14.23.1 is
permitted. Pile cap connection by means of developing pile reinforcing strand is
permitted provided that the pile reinforcing strand results in a ductile connection.
15.1.3.2.2 Design in seismic design category D. Where a structure is assigned to Seismic
Design Category D, in accordance with Chapters 9 through 16, SBC 301, the
requirements for Seismic Design Category C in Section 15.1.3.2.1 shall be met, in
addition to the following:
1. Requirements in Chapter 21, SBC 304, need not apply, unless specifically
referenced.
2. Where the total pile length in the soil is 10 meters or less, the lateral transverse
reinforcement in the ductile region shall occur through the length of the pile.
Where the pile length exceeds 10 m, the ductile pile region shall be taken as
the greater of 10 m or the distance from the underside of the pile cap to the
point of zero curvature plus three times the least pile dimension.
3. In the ductile region, the center-to-center spacing of the spirals or hoop
reinforcement shall not exceed one-fifth of the least pile dimension, six times
the diameter of the longitudinal strand, or 200 mm, whichever is smaller.
4. Circular spiral reinforcement shall be spliced by lapping one full turn and
bending the end of the spiral to a 90-degree hook or by use of a mechanical or
welded splice complying with Section 12.14.3 of SBC 304.
5. Where the transverse reinforcement consists of circular spirals, the volumetric
ratio of spiral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region shall comply with
the following:
where:
Ash = 0.3shc ( f c' / f yh )(Ag/Ach -1.0)[0.5 + 1.4P/( f c' Ag)] (Equation 15-5)
where:
f yh = ≤ 480 MPa.
hc = Cross-sectional dimension of pile core measured center to center of hoop
reinforcement, mm.
s = Spacing of transverse reinforcement measured along length of pile, mm.
Ash = Cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement, mm2.
f c' = Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa.
The hoops and cross ties shall be deformed bars not less than Dia 10 mm in size.
Rectangular hoop ends shall terminate at a corner with seismic hooks.
Outside of the length of the pile requiring transverse confinement reinforcing, the
spiral or hoop reinforcing with a volumetric ratio not less than one-half of that
required for transverse confinement reinforcing shall be provided.
15.1.3.3 Allowable stresses. The maximum allowable design compressive stress, f c , in
concrete shall be determined as follows:
where:
f c' = The 28-day specified compressive strength of the concrete.
f pc = The effective prestress stress on the gross section.
15.1.3.4 Installation. A prestressed pile shall not be driven before the concrete has attained
a compressive strength of at least 75 percent of the 28-day specified compressive
strength ( f c' ), but not less than the strength sufficient to withstand handling and
driving forces.
15.1.3.5 Concrete cover. Prestressing steel and pile reinforcement shall have a concrete
cover of not less than 30mm for square piles of 300 mm or smaller size and 40 mm
for larger piles, except that for piles exposed to seawater, the minimum protective
concrete cover shall not be less than 70 mm.
SECTION 15.2
STRUCTURAL STEEL PILES
15.2.1 General. Structural steel piles shall conform to the requirements of Sections
15.2.2 through 15.2.5.
15.2.2 Materials. Structural steel piles, steel pipe and fully welded steel piles fabricated
from plates shall conform to ASTM A36, ASTM A252, ASTM A283, ASTM
A572, ASTM A588 or ASTM A913.
15.2.3 Allowable stresses. The allowable axial stresses shall not exceed 35 percent of
the minimum specified yield strength ( f y ).
Exception: Where justified in accordance with Section 14.10, the allowable axial
stress is permitted to be increased above 0.35 f y , but shall not exceed 0.5 f y .
15.2.4 Dimensions of H-piles. Sections of H-piles shall comply with the following:
1. The flange projections shall not exceed 14 times the minimum thickness of
metal in either the flange or the web and the flange widths shall not be less
than 80 percent of the depth of the section.
2. The nominal depth in the direction of the web shall not be less than 200 mm.
3. Flanges and web shall have a minimum nominal thickness of 10 mm.
15.2.5 Dimensions of steel pipe piles. Steel pipe piles driven open ended shall have a
nominal outside diameter of not less than 200 mm. The pipe shall have a minimum
of 220 mm2 of steel in cross section to resist each 1360 N-m of pile hammer
energy or the equivalent strength for steels having a yield strength greater than 240
MPa. Where pipe wall thickness less than 5 mm is driven open ended, a suitable
cutting shoe shall be provided.
CHAPTER 16
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
PILE FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 16.1
GENERAL
16.1.0 The materials, reinforcement and installation of cast-in-place concrete piles shall
conform to Sections 16.1.1 through 16.1.3.
16.1.1 Materials. Concrete shall have a 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) of
not less than 20 MPa. Where concrete is placed through a funnel hopper at the top
of the pile, the concrete mix shall be designed and proportioned so as to produce a
cohesive workable mix having a slump of not less than 100 mm and not more than
150 mm. Where concrete is to be pumped, the mix design including slump shall
be adjusted to produce a pumpable concrete.
16.1.2 Reinforcement. Except for steel dowels embedded 1.5 m or less in the pile and as
provided in Section 16.3.4, reinforcement where required shall be assembled and
tied together and shall be placed in the pile as a unit before the reinforced portion
of the pile is filled with concrete except in augered uncased cast-in-place piles.
Tied reinforcement in augered uncased cast-in-place piles shall be placed after
piles are concreted, while the concrete is still in a semifluid state.
16.1.2.1 Reinforcement in seismic design category C. Where a structure is assigned to
Seismic Design Category C in accordance with Chapters 9 through 16, SBC 301,
the following shall apply. A minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.0025
shall be provided for uncased cast-in-place concrete drilled or augered piles, piers
or caissons in the top one-third of the pile length, a minimum length of 3 m below
the ground or that required by analysis, whichever length is greatest. The
minimum reinforcement ratio, but no less than that ratio required by rational
analysis, shall be continued throughout the flexural length of the pile. There shall
be a minimum of four longitudinal bars with closed ties (or equivalent spirals) of a
minimum 10 mm diameter provided at 16-longitudinal-bar diameter maximum
spacing. Transverse confinement reinforcing with a maximum spacing of 150 mm
or 8-longitudinal-bar diameters, whichever is less, shall be provided within a
distance equal to three times the least pile dimension of the bottom of the pile cap.
16.1.2.2 Reinforcement in seismic design category D. Where a structure is assigned to
Seismic Design Category D in accordance with SBC 301 Chapters 9 through 16,
the requirements for Seismic Design Category C given above shall be met, in
addition to the following. A minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.005
shall be provided for uncased cast-in-place drilled or augered concrete piles, piers
or caissons in the top one-half of the pile length, a minimum length of 3 m below
ground or throughout the flexural length of the pile, whichever length is greater.
The flexural length shall be taken as the length of the pile to a point where the
concrete section cracking moment strength multiplied by 0.4 exceeds the required
moment strength at that point. There shall be a minimum of four longitudinal bars
with transverse confinement reinforcing provided in the pile in accordance with
Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2 and 21.4.4.3 of SBC 304 three times the least pile
dimension of the bottom of the pile cap. It shall be permitted to use a transverse
spiral reinforcing ratio of not less than one-half of that required in Section 21.4.4.1
SBC 303 2007 16/1
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILE FOUNDATIONS
(a) of SBC 304 for other than liquefiable sites. Tie spacing throughout the
remainder of the concrete section shall not exceed 12-longitudinal-bar diameters,
one-half the least dimension of the section, nor 300 mm. Ties shall be a minimum
of Dia 10 mm bars for piles with a least dimension up to 500 mm, and Dia 12 mm
for larger piles.
16.1.3 Concrete placement. Concrete shall be placed in such a manner as to ensure the
exclusion of any foreign matter and to secure a full-sized shaft. Concrete shall not
be placed through water except where a tremie or other approved method is used.
When depositing concrete from the top of the pile, the concrete shall not be
chutted directly into the pile but shall be poured in a rapid and continuous
operation through a funnel hopper centered at the top of the pile.
SECTION 16.2
ENLARGED BASE PILES
16.2.0 Enlarged base piles shall conform to the requirements of Sections 16.2.1 through
16.2.5.
16.2.1 Materials. The maximum size for coarse aggregate for concrete shall be 20 mm.
Concrete to be compacted shall have a zero slump.
16.2.2 Allowable stresses. The maximum allowable design compressive stress for
concrete not placed in a permanent steel casing shall be 25% of the 28-day
specified compressive strength ( f c' ). Where the concrete is placed in a permanent
steel casing, the maximum allowable concrete stress shall be 33% of the 28-day
specified compressive strength ( f c' ).
16.2.4 Load-bearing capacity. Pile load-bearing capacity shall be verified by load tests
in accordance with Section 14.8.3.
16.2.5 Concrete cover. The minimum concrete cover shall be 70 mm for uncased shafts
and 25 mm for cased shafts.
SECTION 16.3
DRILLED OR AUGERED UNCASED PILES
16.3.0 Drilled or augered uncased piles shall conform to Sections 16.3.1 through 16.3.5.
16.3.1 Allowable stresses. The allowable design stress in the concrete of drilled uncased
piles shall not exceed 33 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength
SBC 303 2007 16/2
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILE FOUNDATIONS
( f c' ). The allowable design stress in the concrete of augered cast-in-place piles
shall not exceed 25 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ). The
allowable compressive stress of reinforcement shall not exceed 34 percent of the
yield strength of the steel or (175 MPa).
16.3.2 Dimensions. The pile length shall not exceed 30 times the average diameter. The
minimum diameter shall be 300 mm.
Exception: The length of the pile is permitted to exceed 30 times the diameter,
provided that the design and installation of the pile foundation are under the direct
supervision of a registered design professional knowledgeable in the field of soil
mechanics and pile foundations. The registered design professional shall certify to
the building official that the piles were installed in compliance with the approved
construction documents.
16.3.3 Installation. Where pile shafts are formed through unstable soils and concrete is
placed in an open-drilled hole, a steel liner shall be inserted in the hole prior to
placing the concrete. Where the steel liner is withdrawn during concreting, the
level of concrete shall be maintained above the bottom of the liner at a sufficient
height to offset any hydrostatic or lateral soil pressure.
Where concrete is placed by pumping through a hollow-stem auger, the auger shall
be permitted to rotate in a clockwise direction during withdrawal. The auger shall
be withdrawn in a continuous manner in increments of about 300 mm each.
Concreting pumping pressures shall be measured and maintained high enough at
all times to offset hydrostatic and lateral earth pressures. Concrete volumes shall
be measured to ensure that the volume of concrete placed in each pile is equal to or
greater than the theoretical volume of the hole created by the auger. Where the
installation process of any pile is interrupted or a loss of concreting pressure
occurs, the pile shall be redrilled to 1500 mm below the elevation of the tip of the
auger when the installation was interrupted or concrete pressure was lost and
reformed. Augered cast-in-place piles shall not be installed within six pile
diameters center to center of a pile filled with concrete less than 12 hours old,
unless approved by the building official. If the concrete level in any completed
pile drops during installation of an adjacent pile, the pile shall be replaced.
16.3.4 Reinforcement. For piles installed with a hollow-stem auger, where full-length
longitudinal steel reinforcement is placed without lateral ties, the reinforcement
shall be placed through ducts in the auger prior to filling the pile with concrete. All
pile reinforcement shall have a concrete cover of not less than 70 mm.
Exception: Where physical constraints do not allow the placement of the
longitudinal reinforcement prior to filling the pile with concrete or where partial-
length longitudinal reinforcement is placed without lateral ties, the reinforcement
is allowed to be placed after the piles are completely concreted but while concrete
is still in a semifluid state.
SECTION 16.4
DRIVEN UNCASED PILES
16.4.0 Driven uncased piles shall conform to Sections 16.4.1 through 16.4.4.
16.4.1 Allowable stresses. The allowable design stress in the concrete shall not exceed
25 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) applied to a cross-
sectional area not greater than the inside area of the drive casing or mandrel.
16.4.2 Dimensions. The pile length shall not exceed 30 times the average diameter. The
minimum diameter shall be 300 mm.
Exception: The length of the pile is permitted to exceed 30 times the diameter,
provided that the design and installation of the pile foundation is under the direct
supervision of a registered design professional knowledgeable in the field of soil
mechanics and pile foundations. The registered design professional shall certify to
the building official that the piles were installed in compliance with the approved
design.
16.4.3 Installation. Piles shall not be driven within six pile diameters center to center in
granular soils or within one-half the pile length in cohesive soils of a pile filled
with concrete less than 48 hours old unless approved by the building official. If
the concrete surface in any completed pile rises or drops, the pile shall be replaced.
Piles shall not be installed in soils that could cause pile heave.
16.4.4 Concrete cover. Pile reinforcement shall have a concrete cover of not less than 70
mm, measured from the inside face of the drive casing or mandrel.
SECTION 16.5
STEEL-CASED PILES
16.5.0 Steel-cased piles shall comply with the requirements of Sections 16.5.1 through
16.5.4.
16.5.1 Materials. Pile shells or casings shall be of steel and shall be sufficiently strong
to resist collapse and sufficiently water tight to exclude any foreign materials
during the placing of concrete. Steel shells shall have a sealed tip with a diameter
of not less than 200 mm.
16.5.2 Allowable stresses. The allowable design compressive stress in the concrete shall
not exceed 33 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ). The
allowable concrete compressive stress shall be 0.40 ( f c' ) for that portion of the pile
meeting the conditions specified in Sections 16.5.2.1 through 16.5.2.4.
16.5.2.1 Shell thickness. The thickness of the steel shell shall not be less than
manufacturer’s standard gage No. 14 gage 1.75 mm minimum.
16.5.2.2 Shell type. The shell shall be seamless or provided with seams of strength equal to
the basic material and be of a configuration that will provide confinement to the
cast-in-place concrete.
SBC 303 2007 16/4
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILE FOUNDATIONS
16.5.2.3 Strength. The ratio of steel yield strength ( f y ) to 28-day specified compressive
strength ( f c' ) shall not be less than six.
16.5.2.4 Diameter. The nominal pile diameter shall not be greater than 400 mm.
16.5.3 Installation. Steel shells shall be mandrel driven their full length in contact with
the surrounding soil.
The steel shells shall be driven in such order and with such spacing as to ensure
against distortion of or injury to piles already in place. A pile shall not be driven
within four and one-half average pile diameters of a pile filled with concrete less
than 24 hours old unless approved by the building official. Concrete shall not be
placed in steel shells within heave range of driving.
SECTION 16.6
CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL PIPE AND TUBE PILES
16.6.0 Concrete-filled steel pipe and tube piles shall conform to the requirements of
Sections 16.6.1 through 16.6.5.
16.6.1 Materials. Steel pipe and tube sections used for piles shall conform to ASTM A
252 or ASTM A 283. Concrete shall conform to Section 16.1.1. The maximum
coarse aggregate size shall be 20 mm.
16.6.2 Allowable stresses. The allowable design compressive stress in the concrete shall
not exceed 33 percent of the 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ). The
allowable design compressive stress in the steel shall not exceed 35 percent of the
minimum specified yield strength of the steel ( f y ), provided f y shall not be
assumed greater than 250 MPa for computational purposes.
Exception: Where justified in accordance with Section 16.2, the allowable stresses
are permitted to be increased to 0.50 f y .
16.6.3 Minimum dimensions. Piles shall have a nominal outside diameter of not less
than 200 mm and a minimum wall thickness in accordance with Section 15.2.5.
For mandrel-driven pipe piles, the minimum wall thickness shall be 2.5 mm.
16.6.5 Placing concrete. The placement of concrete shall conform to Section 16.1.3.
SECTION 16.7
CAISSON PILES
16.7.0 Caisson piles shall conform to the requirements of Sections 16.7.1 through 16.7.6.
16.7.1 Construction. Caisson piles shall consist of a shaft section of concrete-filled pipe
extending to bedrock with an uncased socket drilled into the bedrock and filled
with concrete. The caisson pile shall have a full-length structural steel core or a
stub core installed in the rock socket and extending into the pipe portion a distance
equal to the socket depth.
16.7.2 Materials. Pipe and steel cores shall conform to the material requirements in
Section 15.2. Pipes shall have a minimum wall thickness of 10 mm and shall be
fitted with a suitable steel-driving shoe welded to the bottom of the pipe. Concrete
shall have a 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) of not less than 28 MPa.
The concrete mix shall be designed and proportioned so as to produce a cohesive
workable mix with a slump of 100 mm to 150 mm.
16.7.3 Design. The depth of the rock socket shall be sufficient to develop the full load-
bearing capacity of the caisson pile with a minimum safety factor of two, but the
depth shall not be less than the outside diameter of the pipe. The design of the rock
socket is permitted to be predicted on the sum of the allowable load-bearing
pressure on the bottom of the socket plus bond along the sides of the socket. The
minimum outside diameter of the caisson pile shall be 450 mm, and the diameter
of the rock socket shall be approximately equal to the inside diameter of the pile.
16.7.4 Structural core. The gross cross-sectional area of the structural steel core shall
not exceed 25 percent of the gross area of the caisson. The minimum clearance
between the structural core and the pipe shall be 50 mm. Where cores are to be
spliced, the ends shall be milled or ground to provide full contact and shall be full-
depth welded.
16.7.5 Allowable stresses. The allowable design compressive stresses shall not exceed
the following: concrete, 0.33 f c' ; steel pipe, 0.35 f y and structural steel core, 0.50
fy.
16.7.6 Installation. The rock socket and pile shall be thoroughly cleaned of foreign
materials before filling with concrete. Steel cores shall be bedded in cement grout
at the base of the rock socket. Concrete shall not be placed through water except
SECTION 16.8
COMPOSITE PILES
16.8.1 Composite piles shall conform to the requirements of Sections 16.8.2 through
16.8.5.
16.8.2 Design. Composite piles consisting of two or more approved pile types shall be
designed to meet the conditions of installation.
16.8.3 Limitation of load. The maximum allowable load shall be limited by the capacity
of the weakest section incorporated in the pile.
16.8.4 Splices. Splices between concrete and steel sections shall be designed to prevent
separation both before and after the concrete portion has set, and to ensure the
alignment and transmission of the total pile load. Splices shall be designed to
resist uplift caused by upheaval during driving of adjacent piles, and shall develop
the full compressive strength and not less than 50 percent of the tension and
bending strength of the weaker section.
CHAPTER 17
PIER FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 17.1
GENERAL
17.1.1 Isolated and multiple piers used as foundations shall conform to the requirements
of Sections 17.2 through 17.10, as well as the applicable provisions of Chapter 14.
SECTION 17.2
LATERAL DIMENSIONS AND HEIGHT
17.2.1 The minimum dimension of isolated piers used as foundations shall be 600 mm,
and the height shall not exceed 12 times the least horizontal dimension.
SECTION 17.3
MATERIALS
17.3.1 Concrete shall have a 28-day specified compressive strength ( f c' ) of not less than
20 MPa. Where concrete is placed through a funnel hopper at the top of the pier,
the concrete mix shall be designed and proportioned so as to produce a cohesive
workable mix having a slump of not less than 100 mm and not more than 150 mm.
Where concrete is to be pumped, the mix design including slump shall be adjusted
to produce a pumpable concrete.
SECTION 17.4
REINFORCEMENT
17.4.1 Except for steel dowels embedded 1500 mm or less in the pier, reinforcement
where required shall be assembled and tied together and shall be placed in the pier
hole as a unit before the reinforced portion of the pier is filled with concrete.
Exception: Reinforcement is permitted to be wet set and the 70 mm concrete
cover requirement be reduced to 50 mm for Group R-3 and U occupancies not
exceeding two stories of light-frame construction, provided the construction
method can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the building official.
Reinforcement shall conform to the requirements of Section 16.1.2.1 and 16.1.2.2.
Exceptions:
1. Isolated piers supporting posts of Group R-3 and U occupancies not exceeding
two stories of light-frame construction are permitted to be reinforced as
required by rational analysis but not less than a minimum of one Dia 12 mm
bar, without ties or spirals, when detailed so the pier is not subject to lateral
loads and the soil is determined to be of adequate stiffness.
2. Isolated piers supporting posts and bracing from decks and patios appurtenant
to Group R-3 and U occupancies not exceeding two stories of light-frame
construction are permitted to be reinforced as required by rational analysis but
not less than one Dia 12 mm bar, without ties or spirals, when the lateral load,
E, to the top of the pier does not exceed 900 N and the soil is determined to be
of adequate stiffness.
3. Piers supporting the concrete foundation wall of Group R-3 and U occupancies
not exceeding two stories of light-frame construction are permitted to be
reinforced as required by rational analysis but not less than two Dia 12 mm
bars, without ties or spirals, when it can be shown the concrete pier will not
rupture when designed for the maximum seismic load, Em, and the soil is
determined to be of adequate stiffness.
4. Closed ties or spirals where required by Section 16.1.2.2 are permitted to be
limited to the top 1 m of the piers 3 m or less in depth supporting Group R-3
and U occupancies of Seismic Design Category D, not exceeding two stories
of light-frame construction.
SECTION 17.5
CONCRETE PLACEMENT
17.5.1 Concrete shall be placed in such a manner as to ensure the exclusion of any foreign
matter and to secure a full-sized shaft. Concrete shall not be placed through water
except where a tremie or other approved method is used. When depositing
concrete from the top of the pier, the concrete shall not be chutted directly into the
pier but shall be poured in a rapid and continuous operation through a funnel
hopper centered at the top of the pier.
SECTION 17.6
BELLED BOTTOMS
17.6.1 Where pier foundations are belled at the bottom, the edge thickness of the bell
shall not be less than that required for the edge of footings. Where the sides of the
bell slope at an angle less than 60 degrees (1 rad) from the horizontal, the effects
of vertical shear shall be considered.
SECTION 17.7
MASONRY
17.7.1 Where the unsupported height of foundation piers exceeds six times the least
dimension, the allowable working stress on piers of unit masonry shall be reduced
in accordance with SBC 305.
SECTION 17.8
CONCRETE
17.8.1 Where adequate lateral support is not provided, piers shall be constructed of
reinforced concrete, and shall conform to the requirements for columns in SBC
304. Where adequate lateral support is furnished by the surrounding materials as
defined in Section 14.9, piers are permitted to be constructed of reinforced
concrete, and the requirements of SBC 304 for bearing on concrete shall apply.
SECTION 17.9
STEEL SHELL
17.9.1 Where concrete piers are entirely encased with a circular steel shell, and the area
of the shell steel is considered reinforcing steel, the steel shall be protected under
the conditions specified in Section 14.17. Horizontal joints in the shell shall be
spliced to comply with Section 14.7.
SECTION 17.10
DEWATERING
17.10.1 Where piers are carried to depths below water level, the piers shall be constructed
by a method that will provide accurate preparation and inspection of the bottom,
and the depositing or construction of sound concrete or other masonry in the dry.
REFERENCES
The following references were consulted in the development of either the newly-
introduced topics or in revising the materials adopted from Chapter 18 of the
International Building Code (IBC).
References, Chapter 1
1.1 “McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms”, 4th Edition”, S.
P. Parker editor-in-Chief, New York, 1989.
References, Chapter 2
2.1 “Jordanian Code for Site Investigation”, 1st Edition, Ministry of Housing and
Public Works, Jordanian National Building Council, 1992.
2.2 Hunt R. E. “Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual”, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1984.
References, Chapter 3
3.1 “Structural Code”, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, 1986.
3.2 “Amendment to the 2003 International Building Code”, City of Las Vegas.
References, Chapter 4
4.1 “Jordanian Code for Footings, Foundations, and Retaining Walls”, 1st Edition,
Ministry of Housing and Public Works, Jordanian National Building Council,
1992.
4.2 “Arab Code for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Design and Construction: Part
3 Shallow Foundations,” Arab League, Council of Ministers for Housing and
Development, 1997.
References, Chapter 5
5.1 “Jordanian Code for Footings, Foundations, and Retaining Walls”, 1st
Edition,” Ministry of Housing and Public Works, Jordanian National Building
Council, 1992.
References, Chapter 7
7.1 Design Manual 7.02, “Foundations and Earth Structures”, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, 200 Stovall Street, Alexandria, Virginia, 1986.
7.2 EM 1110-2-2502, “Design and Construction of Retaining and Flood Walls”, US
Corps of Engineers, 1989.
7.3 Bowles, J. E., “Foundation Analysis and Design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1982.
SBC 303 2007 R/1
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
References, Chapter 8
8.1 ACI Committee 336.2R-88, “Suggested Analysis and Design Procedures for
Combined Footings and Mats”, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, 1993.
8.2 Bowles, J. E., “Foundation Analysis and Design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1982.
8.3 “Foundation Engineering Handbook,” Winterkorn, H. F. and Fang H. Eds., Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1975.
8.4 ACI Committee 318M-02, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete ACI 318M-02 and Commentary ACI 318RM-02”, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2003.
References, Chapter 9
9.1 TM 5-818-7 “Foundations in Expansive Soils”, Technical Manual,
Headquarters, Department of the Army, 1983.
9.2 “Southern Nevada Building Code Amendments,” by Jurisdiction of Clark City,
City of Las Vegas, Boulder City, City of Mequite, North Las Vegas and City of
Henderson, 1997.
9.3 “Criteria for Selection and Design of Residential Slabs-on-ground”, Building
Research Advisory Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C.,
1968.
9.4 Nelson, J. D. and Debora J. M. “Expansive Soils: Problems and Practice in
Foundation and Pavement Engineering”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1992.
9.5 Dhowian, A. W., Erol, O. and Yousef, A. "Evaluation of Expansive Soils and
Foundation Methodology in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia", King Abdulaziz
City for Science & Technology, Report No. 32, 1990.
9.6 Chen, F. H. “Foundations on Expansive Soils”, Developments in Geotechnical
Engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1975.
9.7 “Jordanian Code for Footings, Foundations, and Retaining Walls”, 1st Edition,
Ministry of Housing and Public Works, Jordanian National Building Council,
1992.
9.8 ACI Committee 318M-02, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete ACI 318M-02 and Commentary ACI 318RM-02”, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2003.
9.9 “Recommended Practice for the Design of Residential Foundations,” Final
Draft Document, ASCE, Texas Section, 2002.
9.10 “Amendment to the 2003 International Building Code”, City of Las Vegas.
References, Chapter 10
10.1 “Building Regulation for Eastern Arriyadh sensitive soils,” (BREA), Arriyadh
Development Authority, 1996.
10.2 ACI Committee 318M-02, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete ACI 318M-02 and Commentary ACI 318RM-02”, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2003.
10.3 Bowels, J. E. “Foundations Analysis and Design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1982.
10.4 Das, B. M. “Principles of Foundation Engineering”, PWS Engineering, 1984..
10.5 “Arab Code for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Design and Construction: Part
3 Shallow Foundations”, Arab League, Council of Ministers for Housing and
Development, 1997.
References, Chapter 11
11.1 Trenter, N. A.. ”Some Geotechnical Problems in the Middle East”, Keynote
Paper, First Regional Conference in Civil Engineering, Bahrain, p.29, 1989.
11.2 James, A. N. and Little, A. L. “Geotechnical Aspects of Sabkha at Jubail, Saudi
Arabia,” Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol. 27, pp. 83-121, 1994.
11.3 “Structural Code”, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, 1986.
11.4 Akili, W. and Torrance, J. K. “The Development and Geotechnical Problems of
Sabkha, with Preliminary Experiments on the Static Penetration Resistance of
Cemented Sands,” Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol. 14, pp. 59-
73, 1981.
11.5 Al-Amoudi, O. S. B. “A Review of the Geotechnical and Construction
Problems in Sabkha Environment and Methods of Treatment”. The Arabian J.
for Science and Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 407-432, 1995..
11.6 Dhowian, A. W. and Erol, A. O. “Ground Conditions and Associated Structural
Problems in Tabuk and Jazan Regions,” Final Report AR.-8-106, King Saud
City for Science and Technology (KACST), 1993.
11.7 ACI Committee 318M-02, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete ACI 318M-02 and Commentary ACI 318RM-02”, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2003.
References, Chapter 12
12.1 SAES-Q-007 “Foundations and Supporting Structures for Heavy machinery,”
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards, Onshore Structure Standards Committee,
2003.
References, Chapter 13
13.1 ACI Committee 350, “Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures,”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1989.
INDEX
201 Architectural
301 Structural – Loading and Forces
302 Structural – Testing and Inspection
303 Structural – Soil and Foundations
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code is a set of legal, administrative and technical systems that
establish building construction in the Kingdom on scientific and engineering bases with the
aim of ensuring the minimum requirements of safety and public health. It started with the
issuance of the Royal Decree No. 7/B/3230 dated 11th June 2000 so as to form a national
committee composed of representatives of Saudi universities and the governmental and
private sectors. In the beginning of September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the
general plan of the National Committee to prepare a unified building code for the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.
To choose a reference code on which a Saudi Building Code is to be based, a number
of Arab and International experiences, building standards, regulations and plans of the
governmental departments and authorities have been studied. The National Committee has
also been acquainted with the results of the national researches and the international codes,
such as the regulations of the International Code Council (ICC) issued in U.S.A., European
Code (EC), Arab Codes, the Canadian Building Code (NBC). It has also sought the opinions
of specialists in relevant Saudi universities, governmental and private sectors through holding
a questionnaire, a symposium and specialized workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has
been chosen. It has also endorsed the use of the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) in respect of the electrotechnical regulations and requirements, the codes of the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) for concrete and masonry structures, the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) for loading and forces and the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) for steel structures.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and
construction industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the
universities and research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to
code content by holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of
experts from inside and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of
April 2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base
code with the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of
soil and properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers
Decree No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-
committees started preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code Requirements for Concrete Structures (SBC 304) were
based on the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary issued by
the American Concrete Institute (ACI 318M-02) in addition to, Chapter 19 of the
International Building Code (IBC). American Concrete Institute (ACI) grants permission to
the SBCNC to include all or portions of ACI codes and standards in the SBC, and ACI is not
responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any other party or entity for any
modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents. International Code Council
(ICC) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions of ICC codes and standards
in the SBC, and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any other party or
entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents. These
documents were modified to suit the Saudi Arabian environment and conditions with due
recognition of the approved material and practices in current use in the Kingdom.
The development process of SBC 304 followed the methodology approved by the
National Committee. Many changes and modifications were made on ACI 318M-02, such as
Durability Requirements in Chapter 4, the simplified methods for the design of two-way slab
system of Appendix C, expanding some sections such as Section 5.13 on Hot Weather, taking
into considerations the properties of local material such as the Saudi steel and the engineering
level for those involved in the building sector.
SBC 304 2007 Preface/1
NATIONAL COMMITTEE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 DEFINITIONS
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS
3.0 Notation
3.1 Tests of materials
3.2 Cements
3.3 Aggregates
3.4 Water
3.5 Steel reinforcement
3.6 Admixtures
3.7 Storage of materials
3.8 Referenced standards
CHAPTER 14 WALLS
14.0 Notation
14.1 Scope
14.2 General
14.3 Minimum reinforcement
14.4 Walls designed as compression members
14.5 Empirical design method
14.6 Nonbearing walls
14.7 Walls as grade beams
14.8 Alternative design of slender walls
CHAPTER 15 FOOTINGS
15.0 Notation
15.1 Scope
15.2 Loads and reactions
15.3 Footings supporting circular or regular polygon shaped columns or pedestals
15.4 Moment in footings
15.5 Shear in footings
15.6 Development of reinforcement in footings
15.7 Minimum footing depth
15.8 Transfer of force at base of column, wall, or reinforced pedestal
15.9 Sloped or stepped footings
15.10 Combined footings and mats
18.2 General
18.3 Design assumptions
18.4 Serviceability requirements-Flexural members
18.5 Permissible stresses in prestressing steel
18.6 Loss of prestress
18.7 Flexural strength
18.8 Limits for reinforcement of flexural members
18.9 Minimum bonded reinforcement
18.10 Statically indeterminate structures
18.11 Compression members-Combined flexure and axial loads
18.12 Slab systems
18.13 Post-tensioned tendon anchorage zones
18.14 Design of anchorage zones for monostrand or single 16 mm diameter bar tendons
18.15 Design of anchorage zones for multistrand tendons
18.16 Corrosion protection for unbonded tendons
18.17 Post-tensioning ducts
18.18 Grout for bonded tendons
18.19 Protection for prestressing steel
18.20 Application and measurement of prestressing force
18.21 Post-tensioning anchorages and couplers
18.22 External post-tensioning
21.11 Frame members not proportioned to resist forces induced by earthquake motions
21.12 Requirements for intermediate moment frames
21.13 Intermediate precast structural walls
APPENDICES
APPENDIX E NOTATION
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
1.1.1 The Saudi Building Code for Concrete Structures referred to as SBC 304, provides
minimum requirements for structural concrete design and construction. For
structural concrete, the specified compressive strength as defined in Section 5.1
shall not be less than 20 MPa. No maximum specified compressive strength shall
apply unless restricted by a specific code provision.
1.1.2 SBC 304 shall govern in all matters pertaining to design and construction of
structural concrete.
1.1.3 SBC 304 shall govern in all matters pertaining to design, construction, and
material properties wherever SBC 304 is in conflict with requirements contained in
other standards referenced in SBC 304.
1.1.4 For special structures, such as arches, tanks, reservoirs, bins and silos, blast-
resistant structures, and chimneys, provisions of SBC 304 shall govern where
applicable.
1.1.5 SBC 304 does not govern design and installation of portions of concrete piles,
drilled piers, and caissons embedded in ground except for structures in regions of
high seismic risk or assigned to high seismic performance or design categories. See
Section 21.10.4 for requirements for concrete piles, drilled piers, and caissons in
structures in regions of high seismic risk or assigned to high seismic performance
or design categories.
1.1.6 SBC 304 does not govern design and construction of soil-supported slabs, unless
the slab transmits vertical loads or lateral forces from other portions of the
structure to the soil.
1.1.8.1 In regions of low seismic risk where the seismic design loads are computed using
provisions for ordinary concrete systems, in accordance with Table 10.2 of SBC
301, provisions of Chapter 21 shall not apply.
1.1.8.2 In seismic regions where the seismic design loads are computed using provisions
for intermediate or special concrete systems, in accordance with Table 10.2 of
SECTION 1.2
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
1.2.1 Copies of design drawings, typical details, and specifications for all structural
concrete construction shall bear the seal of a registered structural engineer. These
drawings, details, and specifications shall show:
(a) Name and date of issue of code and supplement to which design conforms;
(b) Live load and other loads used in design;
(c) Specified compressive strength of concrete at stated ages or stages of
construction for which each part of structure is designed;
(d) Specified strength or grade of reinforcement;
(e) Size and location of all structural elements, concrete cover, reinforcement,
and anchors;
(f) Provision for dimensional changes resulting from creep, shrinkage, and
temperature;
(g) Magnitude and location of prestressing forces;
(h) Anchorage length of reinforcement and location and length of lap splices;
(i) Type and location of mechanical and welded splices of reinforcement;
(j) Details and location of all contraction or isolation joints;
(k) Minimum concrete compressive strength at time of post-tensioning;
(l) Stressing sequence for post-tensioning tendons;
(m) Statement if slab on grade is designed as a structural diaphragm, see Section
21.10.3.4.
1.2.2 Calculations pertinent to design shall be filed with the drawings. Analyses and
designs using computer programs shall be permitted provided design assumptions,
user input, and computer-generated output are submitted. Model analysis shall be
permitted to supplement calculations.
1.2.3 Building official means the officer or other designated authority charged with the
administration and enforcement of SBC 304, or his duly authorized representative.
SECTION 1.3
INSPECTION
1.3.1 The special inspection of concrete elements of buildings and structures and
concreting operations shall be as required by SBC 302.
SECTION 1.4
APPROVAL OF SPECIAL SYSTEMS OF
DESIGN OR CONSTRUCTION
Sponsors of any system of design or construction within the scope of SBC 304, the
adequacy of which has been shown by successful use or by analysis or test, but
which does not conform to or is not covered by SBC 304, shall have the right to
present the data on which their design is based to the building official or to a board
of examiners appointed by the building official. This board shall be composed of
competent engineers and shall have authority to investigate the data so submitted,
to require tests, and to formulate rules governing design and construction of such
systems to meet the intent of SBC 304. These rules when approved by the building
official and promulgated shall be of the same force and effect as the provisions of
SBC 304.
CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS
SECTION 2.1
DEFINITIONS
The following terms are defined for general use in SBC 304. Specialized definitions appear in
individual chapters.
Admixture. Material other than water, aggregate, or hydraulic cement, used as an ingredient
of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its properties.
Aggregate. Granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, and iron blast-furnace
slag, used with a cementing medium to form a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar.
Aggregate, lightweight . Aggregate with a dry, loose weight of 1100 kg/m³ or less.
Anchorage zone. In post-tensioned members, the portion of the member through which the
concentrated prestressing force is transferred to the concrete and distributed more uniformly
across the section. Its extent is equal to the largest dimension of the cross section. For
anchorage devices located away from the end of a member, the anchorage zone includes the
disturbed regions ahead of and behind the anchorage devices.
Basic monostrand anchorage device. Anchorage device used with any single strand or a
single 16 mm or smaller diameter bar that satisfies 18.21.1 and the anchorage device
requirements of ACI 423.6, "Specification for Unbonded Single-Strand Tendons."
Basic multistrand anchorage device. Anchorage device used with multiple strands, bars, or
wires, or with single bars larger than 16 mm diameter, that satisfies 18.21.1 and the bearing
stress and minimum plate stiffness requirements of AASHTO Bridge Specifications, Division
I, Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4.
Bonded tendon. Tendon in which prestressing steel is bonded to concrete either directly or
through grouting.
Column. Member with a ratio of height-to-least lateral dimension exceeding 3 used primarily
to support axial compressive load.
Compression-controlled section. A cross section in which the net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel at nominal strength is less than or equal to the compression-controlled strain
limit.
Compression-controlled strain limit. The net tensile strain at balanced strain conditions. See
10.3.3.
Concrete. Mixture of portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures.
Curvature friction. Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing
tendon profile.
Deformed reinforcement. Deformed reinforcing bars, bar mats, deformed wire, welded plain
wire fabric, and welded deformed wire fabric conforming to 3.5.3.
Effective depth of section (d). Distance measured from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement.
Effective prestress. Stress remaining in prestressing steel after all losses have occurred.
Extreme tension steel. The reinforcement (prestressed or nonprestressed) that is the farthest
from the extreme compression fiber.
Isolation joint. A separation between adjoining parts of a concrete structure, usually a vertical
SBC 304 2007 2/2
DEFINITIONS
plane, at a designed location such as to interfere least with performance of the structure, yet
such as to allow relative movement in three directions and avoid formation of cracks
elsewhere in the concrete and through which all or part of the bonded reinforcement is
interrupted.
Jacking force. In prestressed concrete, temporary force exerted by device that introduces
tension into prestressing steel.
Load, dead. Dead weight supported by a member, as defined by the SBC 301 (without load
factors).
Load, factored. Load, multiplied by appropriate load factors, used to proportion members by
the strength design method of SBC 304. See 8.1.1 and 9.2.
Load, live. Live load specified by the SBC 301 (without load factors).
Load, service. Load specified by the SBC 301 (without load factors).
Moment frame. Frame in which members and joints resist forces through flexure, shear, and
axial force. Moment frames shall be categorized as follows:
Intermediate moment frame. A cast-in-place frame complying with the requirements of
21.2.2.3 and 21.12 in addition to the requirements for ordinary moment frames.
Ordinary moment frame. A cast-in-place or precast concrete frame complying with the
requirements of Chapters 1 through 18.
Special moment frame. A cast-in-place frame complying with the requirements of 21.2
through 21.5, or a precast frame complying with the requirements of 21.2 through 21.6. In
addition, the requirements for ordinary moment frames shall be satisfied.
Net tensile strain. The tensile strain at nominal strength exclusive of strains due to effective
prestress, creep, shrinkage, and temperature.
Pedestal. Upright compression member with a ratio of unsupported height to average least
lateral dimension not exceeding 3.
Plain concrete. Structural concrete with no reinforcement or with less reinforcement than the
minimum amount specified for reinforced concrete.
Precast concrete. Structural concrete element cast elsewhere than its final position in the
structure.
Prestressed concrete. Structural concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to
reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from loads.
Prestressing steel. High-strength steel element such as wire, bar, or strand, or a bundle of
such elements, used to impart prestress forces to concrete.
Reinforced concrete. Structural concrete reinforced with no less than the minimum amounts
of prestressing steel or nonprestressed reinforcement specified in Chapters 1 through 21 and
Appendices A through C.
Reinforcement. Material that conforms to 3.5, excluding prestressing steel unless specifically
included.
Reshores. Shores placed snugly under a concrete slab or other structural member after the
original forms and shores have been removed from a larger area, thus requiring the new slab
or structural member to deflect and support its own weight and existing construction loads
applied prior to the installation of the reshores.
Sheathing. A material encasing prestressing steel to prevent bonding of the prestressing steel
with the surrounding concrete, to provide corrosion protection, and to contain the corrosion
inhibiting coating.
Shores. Vertical or inclined support members designed to carry the weight of the formwork,
concrete, and construction loads above.
Special anchorage device. Anchorage device that satisfies 18.15.1 and the standardized
acceptance tests of AASHTO "Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges," Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3.
Stirrup. Reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion stresses in a structural member;
typically bars, wires, or welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) either single leg or bent into
L, U, or rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at an angle to longitudinal
reinforcement. (The term "stirrups" is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural
members and the term ties to those in compression members.) See also Tie.
Strength, design. Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor φ . See 9.3.
Strength, required. Strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or
related internal moments and forces in such combinations as are stipulated in SBC 304. See
Section 9.1.1.
Structural concrete. All concrete used for structural purposes including plain and reinforced
concrete.
Structural walls. Walls proportioned to resist combinations of shears, moments, and axial
forces induced by earthquake motions. A shear wall is a structural wall. Structural walls shall
be categorized as follows:
Intermediate precast structural wall. A wall complying with all applicable requirements
of Chapters 1 through 18 in addition to 21.13.
Ordinary reinforced concrete structural wall. A wall complying with the requirements of
Chapters 1 through 18.
Special precast structural wall. A precast wall complying with the requirements of 21.8.
In addition, the requirements of ordinary reinforced concrete structural walls and the
requirements of 21.2 shall be satisfied.
Special reinforced concrete structural wall. A cast-in-place wall complying with the
requirements of 21.2 and 21.7 in addition to the requirements for ordinary reinforced
concrete structural walls.
Tension-controlled section. A cross section in which the net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel at nominal strength is greater than or equal to 0.005.
Transfer. Act of transferring stress in prestressing steel from jacks or pretensioning bed to
concrete member.
Unbonded Tendon. Tendon in which the prestressing steel is prevented from bonding to the
concrete and is free to move relative to the concrete. The prestressing force is permanently
transferred to the concrete at the tendon ends by the anchorages only.
Yield strength. Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement. Yield
strength or yield point shall be determined in tension according to applicable ASTM standards
as modified by 3.5 of SBC 304.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS
SECTION 3.0
NOTATION
SECTION 3.1
TESTS OF MATERIALS
3.1.1 The Building Official shall have the right to order testing of any materials used in
concrete construction to determine if materials are of quality specified.
3.1.2 Tests of materials and of concrete shall be made in accordance with standards
listed in 3.8.
3.1.3 A complete record of tests of materials and of concrete shall be retained by the
inspector for 5 years after completion of the project, and made available for
inspection during the progress of the work.
SECTION 3.2
CEMENTS
3.2.2 Cement used in the work shall correspond to that on which selection of concrete
proportions was based. See 5.2.
SECTION 3.3
AGGREGATES
3.3.2 Nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be not larger than:
SBC 304 2007 3/1
MATERIALS
SECTION 3.4
WATER
3.4.1 Water used in mixing or curing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious
amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials, or other substances
deleterious to concrete or reinforcement.
3.4.2 Mixing water for prestressed concrete, reinforced concrete or for concrete that will
contain aluminum embedments, including that portion of mixing water contributed
in the form of free moisture on aggregates, shall not contain deleterious amounts of
chloride ion. See Section 4.4.1.
3.4.3 Nonpotable water shall not be used in concrete unless the following are satisfied:
3.4.3.1 The following limits of in water for concrete (mixing or curing) shall not be
exceeded: alkali carbonate and bicarbonate 1000 ppm, chlorides 1000 ppm,
sulfates 3000 ppm, alkalis 600 ppm, and pH 4 (minimum).
3.4.3.2 Mortar test cubes made with nonpotable mixing water containing more than 2000
ppm of total dissolved solids shall have 7-day and 28-day strengths equal to at
least 90 percent of strengths of similar specimens made with potable water.
Strength test comparison shall be made on mortars, identical except for the mixing
water, prepared and tested in accordance with ASTM C 109.
SECTION 3.5
STEEL REINFORCEMENT
3.5.3.1 Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to one of the following specifications:
(a) "Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement" ASTM A 615M;
(b) "Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
SBC 304 2007 3/2
MATERIALS
3.5.4.1 Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform to the specification listed in
3.5.3.1(a) or (b).
3.5.4.2 Plain wire for spiral reinforcement shall conform to "Specification for Steel Wire,
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 82), except that for wire with a
specified yield strength f y exceeding 420 MPa, f y shall be the stress
SBC 304 2007 3/3
MATERIALS
corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield strength specified in the design
exceeds 420 MPa.
3.5.5.1 Steel for prestressing shall conform to one of the following specifications:
(a) Wire conforming to "Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel
Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A 421);
(b) Low-relaxation wire conforming to "Specification for Uncoated Stress-
Relieved Steel Wire for Pre-stressed Concrete" including Supplement
"Low-Relaxation Wire" (ASTM A 421);
(c) Strand conforming to "Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-
Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A 416M);
(d) Bar conforming to "Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars
for Prestressing Concrete" (ASTM A 722).
3.5.5.2 Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in ASTM A 421, A 416M, or A 722
are allowed provided they conform to minimum requirements of these
specifications and do not have properties that make them less satisfactory than
those listed in ASTM A 421, A 416M, or A 722.
3.5.6.1 Structural steel used with reinforcing bars in composite compression members
meeting requirements of 10.16.7 or 10.16.8 shall conform to one of the following
specifications:
(a) "Specification for Carbon Structural Steel" (ASTM A 36M);
(b) "Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel" (ASTM A
242M);
(c) "Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium
Structural Steel" (ASTM A 572M);
(d) “Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel with 50 ksi
(345 MPa) Minimum Yield Point to 4 in (100 mm) Thick” (ASTM A
588M).
3.5.6.2 Steel pipe or tubing for composite compression members composed of a steel
encased concrete core meeting requirements of 10.16.6 shall conform to one of the
following specifications:
(a) Grade B of "Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-
Coated Welded and Seam-less" (ASTM A 53);
(b) "Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel
Structural Tubing in Rounds and Shapes" (ASTM A 500);
(c) "Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seam-less Carbon Steel
Structural Tubing" (ASTM A 501).
SECTION 3.6
ADMIXTURE
3.6.3 Calcium chloride or admixtures containing chloride from other than impurities
from admixture ingredients shall not be used in prestressed concrete, in concrete
containing embedded aluminum, or in concrete cast against stay-in-place
galvanized steel forms. See Section 4.3.2 and 4.4.1.
3.6.8 Admixtures used in concrete containing ASTM C 845 expansive cements shall be
compatible with the cement and produce no deleterious effects.
SECTION 3.7
STORAGE OF MATERIALS
3.7.1 Cementitious materials and aggregates shall be stored in such manner as to prevent
deterioration or intrusion of foreign matter.
3.7.2 Any material that has deteriorated or has been contaminated shall not be used for
concrete.
SECTION 3.8
REFERENCED STANDARDS
3.8.1 The following Standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials are
declared to be part of SBC 304 as if fully set forth herein:
A 775M-00 Bars
A 884/ Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and
A 884M-99 Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement
A 934/ Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel
A 934M-00 Reinforcing Bars
C 31/ Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
C 31 M-98 Specimens in the Field
C 33-99a Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 39/ Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
C 39M-99 Concrete Specimens
C 42/ Standard Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores
C 42M-99 and Sawed Beams of Concrete
C 94/ Standard Specification of Ready-Mixed Concrete
C 94M-00
C109/ Standard Test Method for Compress Strength of Hydraulic
C 109M-99 Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm Cube Specimens)
C 144-99 Standard Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar
C 150-99a Standard Specification for Portland Cement
C 172-99 Standard Practice for Sampling Freshly-Mixed Concrete
C 192/ Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
C 192M-98 Specimens in the Laboratory
C 260-00 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for
Concrete
C 330-99 Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete
C 494/ Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
C 494M-99a
C 496-96 Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C567-99a Standard Test Method for Density of Structural Lightweight
Concrete
C 595-00 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618-99 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete
C 685-98a Standard Specification for Concrete Made by Volumetric
Batching and Continuous Mixing
C 845-96 Standard Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement
C 989-99 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace
Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars
C 1017/ Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in
SBC 304 2007 3/7
MATERIALS
3.8.3 "Specification for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons (ACI 423.6-01) and
Commentary (423.6R-01)" is declared to be part of SBC 304 as if fully set forth
herein.
3.8.4 Articles 9.21.7.2 and 9.21.7.3 of Division I and Article 10.3.2.3 of Division II of
AASHTO "Standard Specification for Highway Bridges" (AASHTO 16th Edition,
1996) are declared to be a part of SBC 304 as if fully set forth herein.
3.8.7 "Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based on Structural Testing (ACI T1.1-
01)," is declared to be part of SBC 304 as if fully set forth herein.
CHAPTER 4
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 4.0
NOTATION
SECTION 4.1
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO
4.1.1 The water-cementitious materials ratios specified in Tables 4.3.1 and 4.4.2 shall be
calculated using the weight of cement meeting ASTM C 150, C 595M or C 845
plus the weight of fly ash or other pozzolans meeting ASTM C 618, slag meeting
ASTM C 989 and silica fume meeting ASTM C 1240, if any.
SECTION 4.2
FREEZING AND THAWING EXPOSURE
SECTION 4.3
SULFATE EXPOSURES
SECTION 4.4
CORROSION PROTECTION OF REINFORCEMENT
4.4.2 If concrete with reinforcement will be exposed to chlorides from soil, groundwater,
seawater, or spray from these sources, requirements of Table 4.4.2 for water-
cementitious materials ratio, cementitious materials content, cement type and
concrete strength, and the minimum cover over reinforcing steel requirements of
7.7 shall be satisfied. See 18.16 for unbonded tendons.
4.4.3 For the permanently submerged, tidal, splash and spray zones of marine structures,
the requirements for very severe exposure in Table 4.4.2 shall be satisfied.
4.4.4 For concrete structures near to or on the coast and exposed to airborne salt but not
in direct contact with seawater, the requirements for severe exposure in Table 4.4.2
shall be satisfied.
4.4.5 For superstructures in coastal areas and not directly exposed to airborne salt, the
requirements for moderate exposure in Table 4.4.2 shall be satisfied.
TABLE 4.4.2 –
REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE EXPOSED TO
CHLORIDE-BEARING SOIL AND WATER
Maximum Minimum
Water soluble
- Water soluble water- cementitious Minimum
Chloride chloride (cl ) Cement
chloride (cl-) in cementitious materials
exposure in soil, percent type f c′ , MPa
water, ppm materials content,
by weight
ratio kg/m3
Negligible Upto 0.05 Up to 500 − − − −
Moderate 0.05 to 0.1 500 to 2,000 − 0.50 330 28
Severe 0.1 to 0.5 2,000 to 10,000 I 0.45 350 30
Very I+
More than 0.5 More than 10,000 0.40 370 35
severe pozzolan+
+Pozzolan that conforms to relevant standards shall only be used.
SECTION 4.5
SULFATE PLUS CHLORIDE EXPOSURES
4.5.1 If concrete is exposed to both chlorides and sulfates, the lowest applicable
maximum water-cementitious materials ratio and highest minimum cementitious
materials content of Tables 4.3.1 and 4.4.2 shall be selected. The corresponding
highest f c′ shall be the governing value for quality control purposes. The cement
type shall be the one required by Table 4.4.2.
SECTION 4.6
SABKHA EXPOSURES
4.6.1 Concrete structures exposed to sabkha shall meet the requirements for very severe
exposure in Table 4.4.2, except that the water-cementitious materials ratio shall not
be more than 0.35. In addition, the exposed surfaces shall be protected by
appropriate means, such as tanking or epoxy-based coating.
SECTION 4.7
SALT WEATHERING
CHAPTER 5
CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
SECTION 5.0
NOTATION
SECTION 5.1
GENERAL
5.1.2 Requirements for f c′ shall be based on tests of 150 x 300 mm cylinders made and
tested as prescribed in Section 5.6.3.
5.1.3 Unless otherwise specified, f c′ shall be based on 28-day tests. If other than 28
days, test age for f c′ shall be as indicated in design drawings or specifications.
5.1.4 Where design criteria in Section 9.5.2.3, 11.2, and 12.2.4 provide for use of a
splitting tensile strength value of concrete, laboratory tests shall be made in
accordance with "Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural
Concrete" (ASTM C 330) to establish value of f ct corresponding to specified value
of f c′ .
5.1.5 Splitting tensile strength tests shall not be used as a basis for field acceptance of
concrete.
SECTION 5.2
SELECTION OF CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
5.2.2 Where different materials are to be used for different portions of proposed work,
each combination shall be evaluated.
5.2.3 Concrete proportions shall be established in accordance with Seciton 5.3 or,
alternatively, 5.4, and shall meet applicable requirements of Chapter 4.
SECTION 5.3
PROPORTIONING ON THE BASIS OF FIELD EXPERIENCE OR
TRIAL MIXTURES OR BOTH
TABLE 5.3.2.1
REQUIRED AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WHEN DATA ARE
AVAILABLE TO ESTABLISH A STANDARD DEVIATION
Use the larger value computed from Eq. (5-1) and (5-2)
f c′ ≤ 35 f cr' = f c' + 1.34 s (5-1)
f cr' = f c' + 2.33s − 3.45 (5-2)
Use the larger value computed from Eq. (5-1) and (5-3)
f cr' = f c' + 1.34s (5-1)
Over 35
f cr' = 0.90 f c' + 2.33s (5-3)
5.3.2.2 When a concrete production facility does not have field strength test records for
calculation of standard deviation meeting requirements of Section 5.3.1.1 or 5.3.1.2,
required average strength f cr' shall be determined from Table 5.3.2.2 and
documentation of average strength shall be in accordance with requirements of 5.3.3.
TABLE 5.3.2.2
REQUIRED AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WHEN
DATA ARE NOT AVAILABLE TO ESTABLISH A
STANDARD DEVIATION
20 to 35 f c' + 8.5
Over 35 1.10 f c' + 5.0
5.3.3.1 When test records are used to demonstrate that proposed concrete proportions will
produce the required average strength f cr' (see 5.3.2), such records shall represent
materials and conditions similar to those expected. Changes in materials,
conditions, and proportions within the test records shall not have been more
restricted than those for proposed work. For the purpose of documenting average
strength potential, test records consisting of less than 30 but not less than 10
consecutive tests are acceptable provided test records encompass a period of time
not less than 45 days. Required concrete proportions shall be permitted to be
established by interpolation between the strengths and proportions of two or more
test records, each of which meets other requirements of this section.
5.3.3.2 When an acceptable record of field test results is not available, concrete proportions
established from trial mixtures meeting the following restrictions shall be
permitted:
SBC 304 2007 5/3
CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
SECTION 5.4
PROPORTIONING WITHOUT FIELD EXPERIENCE
OR TRIAL MIXTURES
5.4.1 If data required by 5.3 are not available, concrete proportions shall be based upon
other experience or information, if approved by the registered design professional.
The required average compressive strength f cr' of concrete produced with
materials similar to those proposed for use shall be at least 8.5 MPa greater than
the specified compressive strength f c′ . This alternative shall not be used for
specified compressive strengths greater than 35 MPa.
5.4.2 Concrete proportioned by this section shall conform to the durability requirements
of Chapter 4 and to compressive strength test criteria of 5.6.
SECTION 5.5
AVERAGE STRENGTH REDUCTION
SECTION 5.6
EVALUATION AND ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE
5.6.1 Concrete shall be tested in accordance with the requirements of Section 5.6.2
through 5.6.5. Qualified field testing technicians shall perform tests on fresh
concrete at the job site, prepare specimens required for curing under field
conditions, prepare specimens required for testing in the laboratory, and record the
temperature of the fresh concrete when preparing specimens for strength tests.
Qualified laboratory technicians shall perform all required laboratory tests.
5.6.3.1 Samples for strength tests shall be taken in accordance with "Method of Sampling
Freshly Mixed Concrete" (ASTM C 172).
5.6.3.2 Cylinders for strength tests shall be molded and laboratory-cured in accordance
with "Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field"
(ASTM C 31) and tested in accordance with "Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens" (ASTM C 39).
5.6.3.3 Strength level of an individual class of concrete shall be considered satisfactory if
both of the following requirements are met:
(a) Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive strength tests equals or
exceeds f c′
(b) No individual strength test (average of two cylinders) falls below f c′ by
more than 3.5 MPa when f c′ is 35 MPa or less; or by more than 0.10 f c′
when f c′ is more than 35 MPa.
5.6.3.4 If either of the requirements of 5.6.3.3 are not met, steps shall be taken to increase
the average of subsequent strength test results. Requirements of 5.6.5 shall be
observed if requirement of 5.6.3.3(b) is not met.
5.6.4.1 If required by the building official, results of strength tests of cylinders cured under
field conditions shall be provided.
5.6.4.2 Field-cured cylinders shall be cured under field conditions in accordance with
"Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field" (ASTM C
31).
5.6.4.3 Field-cured test cylinders shall be molded at the same time and from the same
samples as laboratory-cured test cylinders.
5.6.4.4 Procedures for protecting and curing concrete shall be improved when strength of
field-cured cylinders at test age designated for determination of f c′ is less than 85
percent of that of companion laboratory-cured cylinders. The 85 percent limitation
shall not apply if field-cured strength exceeds f c′ by more than 3.5 MPa.
5.6.5.1 If any strength test (see 5.6.2.4) of laboratory-cured cylinders falls below specified
value of f c' by more than the values given in Section 5.6.3.3(b) or if tests of field-
cured cylinders indicate deficiencies in protection and curing (see 5.6.4.4), steps
shall be taken to assure that load-carrying capacity of the structure is not
jeopardized.
5.6.5.2 If the likelihood of low-strength concrete is confirmed and calculations indicate that
load-carrying capacity is significantly reduced, tests of cores drilled from the area
in question in accordance with "Method of Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and
Sawed Beams of Concrete" (ASTM C 42M) shall be permitted. In such cases, three
cores shall be taken for each strength test that falls below the values given in
5.6.3.3(b).
5.6.5.3 Cores shall be prepared for transport and storage by wiping drilling water from
their surfaces and placing the cores in watertight bags or containers immediately
after drilling. Cores shall be tested no earlier than 48 h and not later than 7 days
after coring unless approved by the registered design professional.
5.6.5.4 Concrete in an area represented by core tests shall be considered structurally
adequate if the average of three cores is equal to at least 85 percent of f c′ and if no
single core is less than 75 percent of f c′ . Additional testing of cores extracted from
locations represented by erratic core strength results shall be permitted.
5.6.5.5 If criteria of 5.6.5.4 are not met and if the structural adequacy remains in doubt, the
responsible authority shall be permitted to order a strength evaluation in accordance
with Chapter 20 for the question-able portion of the structure, or take other
appropriate action.
SECTION 5.7
PREPARATION OF EQUIPMENT AND PLACE OF DEPOSIT
(a) All equipment for mixing and transporting concrete shall be clean;
SECTION 5.8
MIXING
5.8.1 All concrete shall be mixed until there is a uniform distribution of materials and
shall be discharged completely before mixer is recharged.
SECTION 5.9
CONVEYING
5.9.1 Concrete shall be conveyed from mixer to place of final deposit by methods that
will prevent separation or loss of materials.
SECTION 5.10
PLACING
5.10.1 Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practical in its final position to avoid
segregation due to rehandling or flowing.
5.10.2 Concreting shall be carried on at such a rate that concrete is at all times plastic and
flows readily into spaces between reinforcement.
5.10.3 Concrete that has partially hardened or been contaminated by foreign materials
shall not be deposited in the structure.
5.10.7 When construction joints are required, joints shall be made in accordance with 6.4.
5.10.8 All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated by suitable means during placement
and shall be thoroughly worked around reinforcement and embedded fixtures and
into corners of forms.
SECTION 5.11
CURING
5.11.1 Concrete shall be maintained above 10 ° C and in a moist condition for at least the
first 7 days after placement, except when cured in accordance with 5.11.3.
5.11.2 During hot weather conditions, extra precautions should be taken to prevent
surface from drying as required by section 5.13.7.
SECTION 5.12
COLD WEATHER REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 5.13
HOT WEATHER REQUIREMENTS
5.13.1 During hot weather conditions, proper attention shall be given to ingredients,
production methods, handling, placing, and curing to prevent excessive concrete
temperature or water evaporation that could impair the strength, durability and
serviceability of the member or structure.
5.13.2 The temperature of fresh concrete shall be kept as low as practicable but shall not
exceed 35 ° C at the time of placing.
5.13.3 The use of chemical admixtures, such as retarders and water reducers, shall be
considered to offset the negative effects of hot weather.
5.13.4 Steps must be taken to transport, place, consolidate, and finish the concrete at the
fastest possible rate.
5.13.6. All necessary precautions shall be taken to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. In
particular, precautions should be taken during placing of concrete to avoid
excessive evaporation of mix water.
5.13.7 Curing of concrete shall commence as soon as the surfaces are finished and it shall
continue for at least the first seven days.
Moist curing for the entire curing period is preferred. However, if moist curing
cannot be continued beyond three days, concrete shall be protected from drying
with curing paper, heat-reflecting plastic sheets, or membrane-forming curing
compounds.
5.13.8 Tests on fresh concrete and specimen preparation shall be strictly in accordance
with the relevant ASTM standards by qualified technicians.
Air temperature, concrete temperature, and general weather conditions at the time
of concrete placement shall be recorded.
CHAPTER 6
FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES,
AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
SECTION 6.1
DESIGN OF FORMWORK
6.1.1 Forms shall result in a final structure that conforms to shapes, lines, and dimensions
of the members as required by the design drawings and specifications.
6.1.2 Forms shall be substantial and sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar.
6.1.3 Forms shall be properly braced or tied together to maintain position and shape.
6.1.4 Forms and their supports shall be designed so as not to damage previously placed
structure.
6.1.6 Forms for prestressed concrete members shall be designed and constructed to
permit movement of the member without damage during application of
prestressing force.
SECTION 6.2
REMOVAL OF FORMS, SHORES, AND RESHORING
6.2.2.1 Before starting construction, the contractor shall develop a procedure and schedule
for removal of shores and installation of reshores and for calculating the loads
transferred to the structure during the process.
(a) The structural analysis and concrete strength data used in planning and
implementing form removal and shoring shall be furnished by the con-
tractor to the building official when so requested;
(b) No construction loads shall be supported on, nor any shoring removed
from, any part of the structure under construction except when that portion
SECTION 6.3
CONDUITS AND PIPES EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
6.3.1 Conduits, pipes, and sleeves of any material not harmful to concrete and within
limitations of 6.3 shall be permitted to be embedded in concrete with approval of
the engineer, provided they are not considered to replace structurally the displaced
concrete, except as provided in Section 6.3.6.
6.3.2 Conduits and pipes of aluminum shall not be embedded in structural concrete
unless effectively coated or covered to prevent aluminum-concrete reaction or
electrolytic action between aluminum and steel.
6.3.3 Conduits, pipes, and sleeves passing through a slab, wall, or beam shall not impair
significantly the strength of the construction.
6.3.4 Conduits and pipes, with their fittings, embedded within a column shall not
displace more than 4 percent of the area of cross section on which strength is
calculated or which is required for fire protection.
6.3.5 Except when drawings for conduits and pipes are approved by the structural
engineer, conduits and pipes embedded within a slab, wall, or beam (other than
those merely passing through) shall satisfy Section 6.3.5.1 through 6.3.5.3.
6.3.5.1 They shall not be larger in outside dimension than 1/3 the overall thickness of slab,
wall, or beam in which they are embedded.
6.3.5.2 They shall not be spaced closer than 3 diameters or widths on center.
6.3.5.3 They shall not impair significantly the strength of the construction.
6.3.6 Conduits, pipes, and sleeves shall not be considered as replacing structurally in
compression the displaced concrete provided in 6.3.6.1 through 6.3.6.3.
6.3.6.2 They are of uncoated or galvanized iron or steel not thinner than standard Schedule
40 steel pipe.
6.3.6.3 They have a nominal inside diameter not over 50 mm and are spaced not less than 3
diameters on centers.
6.3.7 Pipes and fittings shall be designed to resist effects of the material, pressure, and
temperature to which they will be subjected.
6.3.8 No liquid, gas, or vapor, except water not exceeding 30ºC nor 0.3 MPa pressure,
shall be placed in the pipes until the concrete has attained its design strength.
6.3.9 In solid slabs, piping, unless it is for radiant heating or snow melting, shall be
placed between top and bottom reinforcement.
6.3.10 Concrete cover for pipes, conduits, and fittings shall not be less than 40 mm for
concrete exposed to earth or weather, nor less than 20 mm. for concrete not exposed
to weather or in contact with ground.
6.3.11 Reinforcement with an area not less than 0.002 times area of concrete section shall
be provided normal to piping.
6.3.12 Piping and conduit shall be so fabricated and installed that cutting, bending, or
displacement of reinforcement from its proper location will not be required.
SECTION 6.4
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
6.4.1 Surface of concrete construction joints shall be cleaned and laitance removed.
6.4.2 Immediately before new concrete is placed, all construction joints shall be wetted
and standing water removed.
6.4.3 Construction joints shall be so made and located as not to impair the strength of the
structure. Provision shall be made for transfer of shear and other forces through
construction joints. See Section 11.7.9.
6.4.4 Construction joints in floors shall be located within the middle third of spans of
slabs, beams, and girders. Joints in girders shall be offset a minimum distance of
two times the width of intersecting beams.
6.4.5 Beams, girders, or slabs supported by columns or walls shall not be cast or erected
until concrete in the vertical support members is no longer plastic.
6.4.6 Beams, girders, haunches, drop panels, and capitals shall be placed monolithically
as part of a slab system, unless otherwise shown in design drawings or
specifications.
CHAPTER 7
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 7.0
NOTATION
SECTION 7.1
STANDARD HOOKS
The term standard hook as used in this code shall mean one of the following:
7.1.1 180-deg bend plus 4d b extension, but not less than 60 mm at free end of bar.
SECTION 7.2
MINIMUM BEND DIAMETERS
7.2.1 Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties
in sizes Dia 10 mm through Dia 16 mm, shall not be less than the values in Table
7.2.
7.2.2 Inside diameter of bend for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 4d b for Dia 16
mm bar and smaller. For bars larger than Dia 16 mm, diameter of bend shall be in
accordance with Table 7.2.
7.2.3 Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) for stirrups and
ties shall not be less than 4d b for deformed wire larger than WD 7.0 and 2d b for
all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of less than 8d b shall not be less than
4d b from nearest welded intersection.
SBC 304 2007 7/1
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 7.3
BENDING
7.3.1 All reinforcement shall be bent cold, unless otherwise permitted by the engineer.
7.3.2 Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete shall not be field bent, except as
shown on the design drawings or permitted by the engineer.
SECTION 7.4
SURFACE CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT
7.4.1 At the time concrete is placed, reinforcement shall be free from mud, oil, or other
nonmetallic coatings that decrease bond. Epoxy coating of steel reinforcement in
accordance with standards referenced in Section 3.5.3.7 and 3.5.3.8 shall be
permitted.
7.4.2 Except for prestressing steel, steel reinforcement with rust, mill scale, or a
combination of both shall be considered satisfactory, provided the minimum
dimensions (including height of deformations) and weight of a hand-wire-brushed
test specimen comply with applicable ASTM specifications referenced in 3.5.
7.4.3 Prestressing steel shall be clean and free of oil, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive
rust. A light coating of rust shall be permitted.
SECTION 7.5
PLACING REINFORCEMENT
7.5.2.1 Tolerance for depth d and minimum concrete cover in flexural members, walls
and compression members shall be as follows:
Tolerance on minimum
Tolerance on d
concrete cover
d ≤ 200 mm ±10 mm -10 mm
d > 200 mm ±15 mm -15 mm
except that tolerance for the clear distance to formed soffits shall be minus 5 mm
and tolerance for cover shall not exceed minus 1/3 the minimum concrete cover
required in the design drawings or specifications.
7.5.2.2 Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of reinforcement shall be
±50 mm except the tolerance shall be ±15 mm at the discontinuous ends of
brackets and corbels, and ±25 mm at the discontinuous ends of other members.
The tolerance for minimum concrete cover of 7.5.2.1 shall also apply at
discontinuous ends of members.
7.5.3 Welded wire fabric (with wire size not greater than WD 6.5) used in slabs not
exceeding 3 m in span shall be permitted to be curved from a point near the top of
slab over the support to a point near the bottom of slab at mid-span, provided such
reinforcement is either continuous over, or securely anchored at support.
7.5.4 Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for assembly of reinforcement
unless authorized by the engineer.
SECTION 7.6
SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
7.6.1 The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be d b , but not
less than 25 mm. See also Section 3.3.2.
7.6.2 Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper
layers shall be placed directly above bars in the bottom layer with clear distance
between layers not less than 25 mm.
7.6.4 Clear distance limitation between bars shall apply also to the clear distance
between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars.
7.6.5 In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, primary flexural
reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than two times the wall or slab
thickness, nor farther apart than 300 mm.
7.6.6.1 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be
limited to four in any one bundle.
7.6.6.2 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.
SECTION 7.7
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
7.7.4 Bundled bars. For bundled bars, minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the
equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater than 50 mm; except for
concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth, where minimum cover shall
be 75 mm.
SBC 304 2007 7/5
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
7.7.6 Future extensions. Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates intended for
bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.
7.7.7 Fire protection. When Chapter 4 of SBC 801 requires a thickness of cover for fire
protection greater than the minimum concrete cover specified in 7.7 of this code,
such greater thicknesses shall be used.
SECTION 7.8
SPECIAL REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR COLUMNS
7.8.1 Offset bars. Offset bent longitudinal bars shall conform to the following:
7.8.1.1 Slope of inclined portion of an offset bar with axis of column shall not exceed 1 in
6.
7.8.1.2 Portions of bar above and below an offset shall be parallel to axis of column.
7.8.1.3 Horizontal support at offset bends shall be provided by lateral ties, spirals, or parts
of the floor construction. Horizontal support provided shall be designed to resist
1 1 2 times the horizontal component of the computed force in the inclined portion of
an offset bar. Lateral ties or spirals, if used, shall be placed not more than 150 mm
from points of bend.
7.8.1.4 Offset bars shall be bent before placement in the forms. See Section 7.3.
7.8.1.5 Where a column face is offset 75 mm or greater, longitudinal bars shall not be
offset bent. Separate dowels, lap spliced with the longitudinal bars adjacent to the
offset column faces, shall be provided. Lap splices shall conform to 12.17.
7.8.2 Steel cores. Load transfer in structural steel cores of composite compression
members shall be provided by the following:
7.8.2.1 Ends of structural steel cores shall be accurately finished to bear at end bearing
splices, with positive provision for alignment of one core above the other in
concentric contact.
7.8.2.2 At end bearing splices, bearing shall be considered effective to transfer not more
than 50 percent of the total compressive stress in the steel core.
7.8.2.3 Transfer of stress between column base and footing shall be designed in
accordance with 15.8.
7.8.2.4 Base of structural steel section shall be designed to transfer the total load from the
entire composite member to the footing; or, the base shall be designed to transfer
SBC 304 2007 7/6
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
the load from the steel core only, provided ample concrete section is available for
transfer of the portion of the total load carried by the reinforced concrete section to
the footing by compression in the concrete and by reinforcement.
SECTION 7.9
CONNECTIONS
7.9.2 Enclosure at connections shall consist of external concrete or internal closed ties,
spirals, or stirrups.
SECTION 7.10
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
7.10.1 Lateral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the provisions
of Section 7.10.4 and 7.10.5 and, where shear or torsion reinforcement is required,
shall also conform to provisions of Chapter 11.
7.10.4 Spirals. Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to 10.9.3
and to the following:
7.10.4.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire of such size and so
assembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed
dimensions.
7.10.4.2 For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall not be less than 10 mm
diameter.
7.10.4.3 Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 75 mm, nor be less than 25 mm. See
also Section 3.3.2.
7.10.4.4 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1 1 2 extra turns of spiral
bar or wire at each end of a spiral unit.
7.10.4.5 Spiral reinforcement shall be spliced, if needed, by any one of the following
methods:
(a) Lap splices not less than the larger of 300 mm and the length indicated in
one of (1) through (5) below:
(1) deformed uncoated bar or wire………….…………….….….… 48d b
(2) plain uncoated bar or wire…………………………….….……. 72d b
7.10.4.6 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or slab in any story to level of lowest
horizontal reinforcement in members supported above.
7.10.4.7 Where beams or brackets do not frame into all sides of a column, ties shall extend
above termination of spiral to bottom of slab or drop panel.
7.10.4.8 In columns with capitals, spirals shall extend to a level at which the diameter or
width of capital is two times that of the column.
7.10.4.9 Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line.
7.10.5 Ties. Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
7.10.5.1 All nonprestressed bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least Dia 10 mm in size
for longitudinal bars Dia 32 mm or smaller, and at least Dia 12 mm in size for Dia
32 mm bars and larger and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded
wire fabric of equivalent area shall be permitted.
7.10.5.2 Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie bar or
wire diameters, or least dimension of the compression member.
7.10.5.3 Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall
have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie with an included angle of not
more than 135 deg and no bar shall be farther than 150 mm clear on each side
along the tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are
located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular tie shall be permitted.
7.10.5.4 Ties shall be located vertically not more than one-half a tie spacing above the top
of footing or slab in any story, and shall be spaced as provided herein to not more
than one-half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in slab or
drop panel above.
7.10.5.5 Where beams or brackets frame from four directions into a column, termination of
ties not more than 75 mm below lowest reinforcement in shallowest of such beams
or brackets shall be permitted.
7.10.5.6 Where anchor bolts are placed in the top of columns or pedestals, the bolts shall be
enclosed by lateral reinforcement that also surrounds at least four vertical bars of
the column or pedestal. The lateral reinforcement shall be distributed within 130
mm of the top of the column or pedestal, and shall consist of at least two Dia 14
mm or three Dia 10 mm bars.
SBC 304 2007 7/8
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 7.11
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT FOR FLEXURAL MEMBERS
7.11.2 Lateral reinforcement for flexural framing members subject to stress reversals or to
torsion at supports shall consist of closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals extending
around the flexural reinforcement.
7.11.3 Closed ties or stirrups shall be formed in one piece by overlapping standard stirrup
or tie end hooks around a longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap
spliced with a Class B splice (lap of 1.3 l d ) or anchored in accordance with
Section 12.13.
SECTION 7.12
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
7.12.2 Deformed reinforcement conforming to Section 3.5.3 used for shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the following:
7.12.2.1 Area of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall provide at least the
following ratios of reinforcement area to gross concrete area, but not less than
0.0014:
(a) Slabs where Grade 300 or 350 deformed bars are used................. 0.0020
(b) Slabs where Grade 420 deformed bars or welded wire fabric
(plain or deformed) are used ........................................................ 0.0018
(c) Slabs where reinforcement with yield stress exceeding 420 MPa
0.0018 × 420
measured at a yield strain of 0.35 percent is used
fy
7.12.2.2 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than
four times the slab thickness, nor farther apart than 300 mm.
7.12.2.3 At all sections where required, reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
stresses shall develop the specified yield strength f y in tension in accordance with
Chapter 12.
7.12.3 Prestressing steel conforming to 3.5.5 used for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the following:
SECTION 7.13
REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
7.13.2.1 In joist construction, at least one bottom bar shall be continuous or shall be spliced
with a Class A tension splice or a mechanical or welded splice satisfying Section
12.14.3 and at noncontinuous supports shall be terminated with a standard hook.
7.13.2.2 Beams along the perimeter of the structure shall have continuous reinforcement
consisting of:
(a) at least one-sixth of the tension reinforcement required for negative
moment at the support, but not less than two bars; and
(b) at least one-quarter of the tension reinforcement required for positive
moment at midspan, but not less than two bars.
7.13.2.3 Where splices are needed to provide the required continuity, the top reinforcement
shall be spliced at or near midspan and bottom reinforcement shall be spliced at or
near the support. Splices shall be Class A tension splices or mechanical or welded
splices satisfying Section 12.14.3. The continuous reinforcement required in
Section 7.13.2.2(a) and 7.13.2.2(b) shall be enclosed by the corners of U-stirrups
having not less than 135-deg hooks around the continuous top bars, or by one-piece
closed stirrups with not less than 135-deg hooks around one of the continuous top
bars. Stirrups need not be extended through any joints.
7.13.2.4 In other than perimeter beams, when stirrups as defined in Section 7.13.2.3 are not
provided, at least one-quarter of the positive moment reinforcement required at
midspan, but not less than two bars, shall be continuous or shall be spliced over or
near the sup-port with a Class A tension splice or a mechanical or welded splice
7.13.3 For precast concrete construction, tension ties shall be provided in the transverse,
longitudinal, and vertical directions and around the perimeter of the structure to
effectively tie elements together. The provisions of 16.5 shall apply.
CHAPTER 8
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN –
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 8.0
NOTATION
SECTION 8.1
DESIGN METHOD
SECTION 8.2
LOADING
8.2.1 Design provisions of SBC 304 are based on the assumption that structures shall be
designed to resist all applicable loads.
8.2.3 In design for wind and earthquake loads, integral structural parts shall be designed
to resist the total lateral loads.
8.2.4 Consideration shall be given to effects of forces due to prestressing, crane loads,
vibration, impact, shrinkage, temperature changes, creep, expansion of shrinkage-
compensating concrete, and unequal settlement of supports.
SECTION 8.3
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
8.3.1 All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the
maximum effects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis,
except as modified according to 8.4. It shall be permitted to simplify design by
using the assumptions specified in Section 8.6 through 8.9.
8.3.2 Except for prestressed concrete, approximate methods of frame analysis shall be
permitted for buildings of usual types of construction, spans, and story heights.
8.3.3 As an alternate to frame analysis, the following approximate moments and shears
shall be permitted for design of continuous beams and one-way slabs (slabs
reinforced to resist flexural stresses in only one direction), provided:
Positive moment
End spans
Discontinuous end unstrained………………………………………. wu l 2n / 11
Discontinuous end integral with support ………………………… wu l 2n / 14
Interior spans …………………………………………………..…… wu l 2n / 16
SECTION 8.4
REDISTRIBUTION OF NEGATIVE MOMENTS IN
CONTINUOUS FLEXURAL MEMBERS
8.4.1 Except where approximate values for moments are used, it shall be permitted to
increase or decrease negative moments calculated by elastic theory at supports of
continuous flexural members for any assumed loading arrangement by not more
than 1000 ε t percent, with a maximum of 20 percent.
8.4.2 The modified negative moments shall be used for calculating moments at sections
within the spans.
SECTION 8.5
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
SECTION 8.6
STIFFNESS
8.6.1 Use of any set of reasonable assumptions shall be permitted for computing relative
flexural and torsional stiffnesses of columns, walls, floors, and roof systems. The
assumptions adopted shall be consistent throughout analysis.
8.6.2 Effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design
of members.
SECTION 8.7
SPAN LENGTH
8.7.1 Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered as
the clear span plus the depth of the member, but need not exceed distance between
centers of supports.
8.7.3 For beams built integrally with supports, design on the basis of moments at faces
of support shall be permitted.
8.7.4 It shall be permitted to analyze solid or ribbed slabs built integrally with supports,
with clear spans not more than 3 m, as continuous slabs on knife edge supports
with spans equal to the clear spans of the slab and width of beams otherwise
neglected.
SECTION 8.8
COLUMNS
8.8.1 Columns shall be designed to resist the axial forces from factored loads on all
floors or roof and the maximum moment from factored loads on a single adjacent
span of the floor or roof under consideration. Loading condition giving the
maximum ratio of moment to axial load shall also be considered.
8.8.3 In computing gravity load moments in columns, it shall be permitted to assume far
ends of columns built integrally with the structure to be fixed.
8.8.4 Resistance to moments at any floor or roof level shall be provided by distributing
the moment between columns immediately above and below the given floor in
proportion to the relative column stiffnesses and conditions of restraint.
SECTION 8.9
ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD
(a) The live load is applied only to the floor or roof under consideration;
(b) The far ends of columns built integrally with the structure are considered
to be fixed.
8.9.2 It shall be permitted to assume that the arrangement of live load is limited to
combinations of:
(a) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two
adjacent spans;
(b) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternate
spans.
SECTION 8.10
T- BEAM CONSTRUCTION
8.10.1 In T-beam construction, the flange and web shall be built integrally or otherwise
effectively bonded together.
8.10.2 Width of slab effective as a T-beam flange shall not exceed one-quarter of the span
length of the beam, and the effective overhanging flange width on each side of the
web shall not exceed:
8.10.3 For beams with a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width
shall not exceed:
8.10.4 Isolated beams, in which the T-shape is used to provide a flange for additional
compression area, shall have a flange thickness not less than one-half the width of
web and an effective flange width not more than four times the width of web.
8.10.5.1 Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to carry the factored load on the
overhanging slab width assumed to act as a cantilever. For isolated beams, the full
width of overhanging flange shall be considered. For other T-beams, only the
effective over-hanging slab width need be considered.
8.10.5.2 Transverse reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the slab
thickness, nor farther apart than 300 mm.
SECTION 8.11
JOIST CONSTRUCTION
8.11.2 Ribs shall be not less than 100 mm width, and shall have a depth of not more than
3 1 2 times the minimum width of rib.
8.11.3 Clear spacing between ribs shall not exceed 800 mm.
8.11.4 Joist construction not meeting the limitations of: 8.11.1 through 8.11.3 shall be
designed as slabs and beams.
8.11.5 When permanent burned clay or concrete tile fillers of material having a unit
compressive strength at least equal to that of the specified strength of concrete in
the joists are used:
8.11.5.1 For shear and negative moment strength computations, it shall be permitted to
include the vertical shells of fillers in contact with the ribs. Other portions of fillers
shall not be included in strength computations.
8.11.5.2 Slab thickness over permanent fillers shall be not less than one-twelfth the clear
distance between ribs, nor less than 40 mm.
8.11.5.3 In one-way joists, reinforcement normal to the ribs shall be provided in the slab as
required by Section 7.12.
8.11.6 When removable forms or fillers not complying with Section 8.11.5 are used:
8.11.6.1 Slab thickness shall be not less than one-twelfth the clear distance between ribs, nor
less than 50 mm.
8.11.6.2 Reinforcement normal to the ribs shall be provided in the slab as required for flexure,
considering load concentrations, if any, but not less than required by Section 7.12.
8.11.7 Where conduits or pipes as permitted by 6.3 are embedded within the slab, slab
thickness shall be at least 25 mm greater than the total overall depth of the conduits
or pipes at any point. Conduits or pipes shall not impair significantly the strength
of the construction.
SECTION 8.12
SEPARATE FLOOR FINISH
8.12.1 A floor finish shall not be included as part of a structural member unless placed
monolithically with the floor slab or designed in accordance with requirements of
Chapter 17.
8.12.2 It shall be permitted to consider all concrete floor finishes as part of required cover
or total thickness for nonstructural considerations
CHAPTER 9
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY
REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 9.0
NOTATION
SECTION 9.1
GENERAL
9.1.1 Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads
and forces in such combinations as are stipulated in SBC 304.
9.1.2 Members also shall meet all other requirements of SBC 304 to ensure adequate
performance at service load levels.
SECTION 9.2
REQUIRED STRENGTH
9.2.1 Required strength U shall be at least equal to the effects of factored loads in Eq. (9-
1) through (9-7). The effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall
be investigated.
U = 1.4 (D + F) (9-1)
U = 1.4 (D + F + T) + 1.7(L + H) + 0.5 (Lr or R) (9-2)
U = 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or R) + (1.0 L or 0.8 W) (9-3)
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or R) (9-4)
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L (9-5)
U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H (9-6)
U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (9-7)
except as follows:
SBC 304 2007 9/2
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
(a) The load factor on L in Eq. (9-3) to (9-5) shall be permitted to be reduced to
0.5 except for garages, areas occupied as places of public assembly, and all
areas where the Live load value of 5 kN/m2 to be consistent with the Saudi
Building Code for Loading (SBC 301).
(b) The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in Eq. (9-6) and (9-7) if the
structural action due to H counteracts that due to W or E. Where lateral earth
pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other forces, it shall
not be included in H but shall be included in the design resistance.
9.2.2 If resistance to impact effects is taken into account in design, such effects shall be
included with live load L.
9.2.4 For a structure in a flood area, the flood load and load combinations of SBC 301
shall be used.
9.2.5 For post-tensioned anchorage zone design, a load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to
the maximum pre-stressing steel jacking force.
SECTION 9.3
DESIGN STRENGTH
9.3.1 Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its
cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as
the nominal strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions
of SBC 304, multiplied by the strength reduction factors φ in 9.3.2, 9.3.4, and
9.3.5.
Alternatively, when Appendix B is used, for members in which f y does not exceed
( )
420 MPa, with symmetric reinforcement, and with h − d ' − d s / h not less than
0.70, φ shall be permitted to be increased linearly to 0.90 as φPn decreases from
0.10 f c' Ag to zero. For other reinforced members, φ shall be permitted to be
SBC 304 2007 9/3
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
increased linearly to 0.90 as φPn decreases from 0.10 f c' Ag or φPb , whichever is
smaller, to zero.
9.3.2.3 Shear and torsion ……………………………….…………….. 0.75
9.3.2.4 Bearing on concrete (except for post-tensioned anchorage zones and strut-and-tie
models) ……………….……………………………….. 0.65
9.3.2.5 Post-tensioned anchorage zones …………………………….... 0.85
9.3.2.6 Strut-and-tie models (Appendix A), and struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas
in such models ………………….................................……. 0.75
9.3.2.7 Flexure sections without axial load in pre-tensioned members where strand
embedment is less than the development length as provided in 12.9.1.1
……………………………………………..………………….. 0.75
9.3.4 In structures that rely on special moment resisting frames or special reinforced
concrete structural walls to resist earthquake effects, the strength reduction factors
φ shall be modified as given in (a) through (c):
(a) The strength reduction factor for shear shall be 0.60 for any structural
member that is designed to resist earthquake effects if its nominal shear
strength is less than the shear corresponding to the development of the
nominal flexural strength of the member. The nominal flexural strength
shall be determined considering the most critical factored axial loads and
including earthquake effects;
(b) The strength reduction factor for shear in diaphragms shall not exceed the
minimum strength reduction factor for shear used for the vertical com-
ponents of the primary lateral-force-resisting system;
(c) The strength reduction factor for shear in joints and diagonally reinforced
coupling beams shall be 0.85.
9.3.5 Strength reduction factor φ for flexure, compression, shear, and bearing of
structural plain concrete shall be 0.55.
SECTION 9.4
DESIGN STRENGTH FOR REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 9.5
CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
9.5.2.1 Minimum thickness stipulated in Table 9.5(a) shall apply for one-way construction
not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged
by large deflections, unless computation of deflection indicates a lesser thickness
can be used without adverse effects.
TABLE 9.5(a)
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NONPRESTRESSED BEAMS OR
ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE COMPUTED
Minimum thickness, h
⎛M ⎞
3
⎡ ⎛M ⎞
3
⎤
I e = ⎜⎜ cr ⎟⎟ I g + ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ cr ⎟⎟ ⎥ I cr (9-8)
⎝ Ma ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ M a ⎠ ⎥⎦
where:
fr I g
M cr = (9-9)
yt
and for normalweight concrete,
f r = 0.7 f c' (9-10)
SBC 304 2007 9/5
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
9.5.2.5 Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, additional long-term
deflection resulting from creep and shrinkage of flexural members (normalweight or
lightweight concrete) shall be determined by multiplying the immediate deflection
caused by the sustained load considered, by the factor
ζ
λ= (9-11)
1 + 50 ρ '
where ρ ' shall be the value at midspan for simple and continuous spans, and at
support for cantilevers. It shall be permitted to assume the time-dependent factor
for ζ sustained loads to be equal to:
9.5.2.6 Deflection computed in accordance with 9.5.2.2 through 9.5.2.5 shall not exceed
limits stipulated in Table 9.5(b).
TABLE 9.5(b)
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE COMPUTED DEFLECTIONS
Type of member Deflection to be considered Deflection limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to
non-structural elements likely to be Immediate deflection due to live load L l /180*
damaged by large deflections
Floors not supporting or attached to
nonstructural elements likely to be Immediate deflection due to live load L l /360
damaged by large deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting
That part of the total deflection
or attached to nonstructural elements l /480‡
occurring after attachment of
likely to be damaged by large
nonstructural elements (sum of the
deflections
long-term deflection due to all
Roof or floor construction supporting sustained loads and the immediate
or attached to nonstructural elements deflection due to any additional live l /240§
not likely to be damaged by large load)**
deflections
* Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection,
including added deflections due to ponded water, and considering long-term effects of all sustained loads, camber,
construction tolerances, and reliability of provisions for drainage.
** Long-term deflection shall be determined in accordance with 9.5.2.5 or 9.5.4.3, but may be reduced by amount of
deflection calculated to occur before attachment of nonstructural elements. This amount shall be determined on
basis of accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of members similar to those being
considered.
‡
Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
§ Limit shall not be greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements. Limit may be exceeded if camber is
provided so that total deflection minus camber does not exceed limit.
9.5.3.1 Section 9.5.3 shall govern the minimum thickness of slabs or other two-way
construction designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 13 and
conforming with the requirements of 13.6.1.2. The thickness of slabs without
interior beams spanning between the supports on all sides shall satisfy the
requirements of Section 9.5.3.2 or 9.5.3.4. The thickness of slabs with beams
spanning between the supports on all sides shall satisfy requirements of Section
9.5.3.3 or 9.5.3.4.
9.5.3.2 For slabs without interior beams spanning between the supports and having a ratio
of long to short span not greater than 2, the minimum thickness shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Table 9.5(c) and shall not be less than the
following values:
(a) Slabs without drop panels as defined
in Section 13.3.7.1 and 13.3.7.2 120 mm
(b) Slabs with drop panels as defined in
Section 13.3.7.1 and 13.3.7.2 100 mm
9.5.3.3 For slabs with beams spanning between the supports on all sides, the minimum
thickness shall be as follows:
(a) For α m equal to or less than 0.2, the provisions of Section 9.5.3.2 shall
apply;
(b) For α m greater than 0.2 but not greater than 2.0, the thickness shall not be
less than
⎛ fy ⎞
l n ⎜⎜ 0.8 + ⎟
⎝ 1500 ⎟⎠ (9-12)
h=
36 + 5β (α m − 0.2 )
(c) For α m greater than 2.0, the thickness shall not be less than
⎛ fy ⎞
l n ⎜⎜ 0.8 + ⎟
⎝ 1500 ⎟⎠
h= (9-13)
36 + 9β
and not less than 90 mm;
(d) At discontinuous edges, an edge beam shall be provided with a stiffness
ratio α not less than 0.80 or the minimum thickness required by Eq. (9-
12) or (9-13) shall be increased by at least 10 percent in the panel with a
discontinuous edge.
9.5.3.4 Slab thickness less than the minimum thickness required by Section 9.5.3.1,
9.5.3.2, and 9.5.3.3 shall be permitted to be used if shown by computation that the
deflection will not exceed the limits stipulated in Table 9.5(b). Deflections shall be
computed taking into account size and shape of the panel, conditions of support,
and nature of restraints at the panel edges. The modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ec shall be as specified in Section 8.5.1. The effective moment of inertia shall be
that given by Eq. (9-8); other values shall be permitted to be used if they result in
computed deflections in reasonable agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
9.5.4.1 For flexural members designed in accordance with provisions of Chapter 18,
immediate deflection shall be computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic
deflections, and the moment of inertia of the gross concrete section shall be
permitted to be used for Class U flexural members, as defined in Section 18.3.3.
9.5.4.2 For Class C and Class T flexural members, as defined in Section 18.3.3, deflection
calculations shall be based on a cracked transformed section analysis. It shall be
permitted to base computations on a bilinear moment-deflection relationship, or an
effective moment of inertia as defined by Eq. (9-8).
9.5.4.3 Additional long-term deflection of prestressed concrete members shall be
computed taking into account stresses in concrete and steel under sustained load
and including effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of steel.
9.5.4.4 Deflection computed in accordance with Section 9.5.4.1 or 9.5.4.2, and 9.5.4.3
shall not exceed limits stipulated in Table 9.5(b).
9.5.5.3 Deflection computed in accordance with Section 9.5.5.1 or 9.5.5.2 shall not exceed
limits stipulated in Table 9.5(b).
CHAPTER 10
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
SECTION 10.0
NOTATION
SECTION 10.1
SCOPE
10.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 10 shall apply for design of members subject to flexure or
axial loads or to combined flexure and axial loads.
SECTION 10.2
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
10.2.1 Strength design of members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on
assumptions given in Section 10.2.2 through 10.2.7, and on satisfaction of
applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.
10.2.2 Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis, except that, for deep beams as defined in Section
10.7.1, an analysis that considers a nonlinear distribution of strain shall be used.
Alternatively, it shall be permitted to use a strut-and-tie model. See Section 10.7,
11.8, and Appendix A.
10.2.3 Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed
equal to 0.003.
10.2.5 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in axial and flexural calculations of
reinforced concrete, except when meeting requirements of 18.4.
10.2.6 The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete
strain shall be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape
that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of
comprehensive tests.
SECTION 10.3
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS
10.3.1 Design of cross sections subject to flexure or axial loads, or to combined flexure
and axial loads, shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using assumptions
in 10.2.
10.3.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement
reaches the strain corresponding to its specified yield strength f y just as concrete
in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 Sections are compression-controlled when the net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel is equal to or less than the compression-controlled strain limit at the
time the concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003. The
compression-controlled strain limit is the net tensile strain in the reinforcement at
balanced strain conditions. For Grade 420 reinforcement, and for all prestressed
reinforcement, it shall be permitted to set the compression-controlled strain limit
equal to 0.002.
10.3.4 Sections are tension-controlled when the net tensile strain in the extreme tension
steel is equal to or greater than 0.005 just as the concrete in compression reaches
its assumed strain limit of 0.003. Sections with net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel between the compression-controlled strain limit and 0.005 constitute a
transition region between compression-controlled and tension-controlled sections.
10.3.5 For nonprestressed flexural members and nonprestressed members with axial load
less than 0.10 f c' Ag , the net tensile strain ε t at nominal strength shall not be less
than 0.005.
10.3.6.3 For prestressed members, design axial load strength φPn shall not be taken greater
than 0.85 (for members with spiral reinforcement) or 0.80 (for members with tie
reinforcement) of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity φPo .
10.3.7 Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum
moment that can accompany the axial load. The factored axial load Pu at given
eccentricity shall not exceed that given in 10.3.6. The maximum factored moment
M u shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with 10.10.
SECTION 10.4
DISTANCE BETWEEN LATERAL SUPPORTS OF
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
10.4.1 Spacing of lateral supports for a beam shall not exceed 50 times the least width b
of compression flange or face.
10.4.2 Effects of lateral eccentricity of load shall be taken into account in determining
spacing of lateral supports.
SECTION 10.5
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
10.5.2 For statically determinate members with a flange in tension, the area As ,min shall be
equal to or greater than the value given by Eq. (10-3) with bw replaced by either
2bw or the width of the flange, whichever is smaller.
10.5.3 For structural slabs and footings of uniform thickness the minimum area of tensile
reinforcement in the direction of the span shall be the same as that required by 7.12.
Maximum spacing of this reinforcement shall not exceed three times the thickness,
nor 300 mm.
SECTION 10.6
DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT IN
BEAMS AND ONE-WAY SLABS
10.6.1 This section prescribes rules for distribution of flexural reinforcement to control
flexural cracking in beams and in one-way slabs (slabs reinforced to resist flexural
stresses in only one direction).
10.6.3 Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed within maximum flexural
tension zones of a member cross section as required by 10.6.4.
10.6.4 The spacing s of reinforcement closest to a surface in tension shall not exceed that
given by
95,000
s= − 2.5cc (10-4)
fs
but not greater than 300 (252 / f s ) .
10.6.5 Provisions of Section 10.6.4 are not sufficient for structures subject to very
aggressive exposure or designed to be watertight. For such structures, special
investigations and precautions are required.
10.6.6 Where flanges of T-beam construction are in tension, part of the flexural tension
reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective flange width as defined in
Section 8.10, or a width equal to one-tenth the span, whichever is smaller. If the
effective flange width exceeds one-tenth the span, some longitudinal reinforcement
shall be provided in the outer portions of the flange.
10.6.7 If the effective depth d of a beam or joist exceeds 900 mm, longitudinal skin
reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member
for a distance d / 2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The spacing ssk
between longitudinal bars or wires of the skin reinforcement shall not exceed the
least of d / 6 , 300 mm, and 1000 Ab / (d − 750) . It shall be permitted to include such
reinforcement in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to
determine stress in the individual bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin
reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the required flexural
tensile reinforcement.
SECTION 10.7
DEEP BEAMS
10.7.1 Deep beams are members loaded on one face and supported on the opposite face
so that compression struts can develop between the loads and the supports, and have
either:
SBC 304 2007 10/6
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
(a) clear spans, l n equal to or less than four times the overall member depth; or
(b) regions loaded with concentrated loads within twice the member depth from
the face of the support.
Deep beams shall be designed either taking into account nonlinear distribution of
strain, or by Appendix A. (See also Section 11.8.1 and 12.10.6.). Lateral buckling
shall be considered.
10.7.4 Minimum horizontal and vertical reinforcement in the side faces of deep beams
shall satisfy either A.3.3 or Section 11.8.4 and 11.8.5.
SECTION 10.8
DESIGN DIMENSIONS FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
10.8.1 Isolated compression member with multiple spirals. Outer limits of the
effective cross section of a compression member with two or more interlocking
spirals shall be taken at a distance outside the extreme limits of the spirals equal to
the minimum concrete cover required by Section 7.7.
10.8.2 Compression member built monolithically with wall. Outer limits of the
effective cross section of a spirally reinforced or tied reinforced compression
member built monolithically with a concrete wall or pier shall be taken not greater
than 40 mm outside the spiral or tie reinforcement.
10.8.4 Limits of section. For a compression member with a cross section larger than
required by considerations of loading, it shall be permitted to base the minimum
reinforcement and strength on a reduced effective area Ag not less than one-half
the total area. This provision shall not apply in regions of high seismic risk.
SECTION 10.9
LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
10.9.2 Minimum number of longitudinal bars in compression members shall be 4 for bars
within rectangular or circular ties, 3 for bars within triangular ties, and 6 for bars
enclosed by spirals conforming to Section 10.9.3.
10.9.3 Ratio of spiral reinforcement ρ S shall be not less than the value given by
⎛ Ag ⎞ f'
− 1⎟⎟ c
ρ s = 0.45⎜⎜ (10-5)
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
where f y is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more
SECTION 10.10
SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
SECTION 10.11
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS - GENERAL
10.11.1 The factored axial forces Pu the factored moments M 1 and M 2 at the ends of the
column, and, where required, the relative lateral story deflections ∆ o shall be
computed using an elastic first-order frame analysis with the section properties
determined taking into account the influence of axial loads, the presence of
cracked regions along the length of the member, and effects of duration of the
loads. Alternatively, it shall be permitted to use the following properties for the
members in the structure:
(a) Modulus of elasticity .............. …………. Ec from 8.5.1
(b) Moments of inertia
Beams ........................................................ 0.35 I g
Columns .................................................... 0.70 I g
Walls -Uncracked ................................ 0.70 I g
-Cracked .................................... 0.35 I g
Flat plates and flat slabs ........................... 0.25 I g
(c) Area ................................................................... 1.0 Ag
The moments of inertia shall be divided by (1 + β d )
(a) When sustained lateral loads act; or
(b) For stability checks made in accordance with Section 10.13.6.
10.11.2 It shall be permitted to take the radius of gyration r equal to 0.30 times the overall
dimension in the direction stability is being considered for rectangular compression
members and 0.25 times the diameter for Circular compression members. For other
shapes, it shall be permitted to compute the radius of gyration for the gross concrete
section.
10.11.3.1 The unsupported length l u of a compression member shall be taken as the clear
distance between floor slabs, beams, or other members capable of providing lateral
support in the direction being considered.
10.11.3.2 Where column capitals or haunches are present, the unsupported length shall be
measured to the lower extremity of the capital or haunch in the plane considered.
10.11.4 Columns and stories in structures shall be designated as nonsway or sway columns
or stories. The design of columns in nonsway frames or stories shall be based on
Section 10.12. The design of columns in sway frames or stories shall be based on
10.13.
10.11.4.1 It shall be permitted to assume a column in a structure is nonsway if the increase in
column end moments due to second-order effects does not exceed 5 percent of the
first-order end moments.
10.11.4.2 It also shall be permitted to assume a story within a structure is nonsway if:
Q=
∑P ∆ u o
(10-6)
Vu l c
is less than or equal to 0.05, where ∑P u and Vu are the total vertical load and the
story shear, respectively, in the story in question and ∆ o is the first-order relative
deflection between the top and bottom of that story due to Vu .
10.11.6 For compression members subject to bending about both principal axes, the
moment about each axis shall be magnified separately based on the conditions of
restraint corresponding to that axis.
SECTION 10.12
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS – NONSWAY FRAMES
10.12.1 For compression members in nonsway frames, the effective length factor k shall
be taken as 1.0, unless analysis shows that a lower value is justified. The
calculation of k shall be based on the E and I values used in Section 10.11.1.
where the term [34 − 12 M 1 / M 2 ] shall not be taken greater than 40. The term
M 1 / M 2 is positive if the member is bent in single curvature, and negative if the
member is bent in double curvature.
10.12.3 Compression members shall be designed for the factored axial load Pu and the
moment amplified for the effects of member curvature M c as follows:
M c = δ ns M 2 (10-8)
where
Cm
δ ns = ≥ 1.0 (10-9)
Pu
1−
0.75Pc
π 2 EI
Pc = (10-10)
(kl u )2
EI shall be taken as
EI =
(0.2 E I c g + E s I se )
(10-11)
1 + βd
0.4 Ec I g
EI = (10-12)
1+ βd
10.12.3.1 For members without transverse loads between supports, C m shall be taken as
M
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 1 ≥ 0.4 (10-13)
M2
where M 1 / M 2 is positive if the column is bent in single curvature. For members
with transverse loads between supports, C m shall be taken as 1.0.
10.12.3.2 The factored moment M 2 in Eq. (10-8) shall not be taken less than
M 2,min = Pu (15 + 0.03h ) (10-14)
about each axis separately, where 15 and h are in millimeters. For members for
which M 2,min exceeds M 2 , the value of C m in Eq. (10-13) shall either be taken
equal to 1.0, or shall be based on the ratio of the computed end moments M 1
and M 2 .
SECTION 10.13
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS – SWAY FRAMES
10.13.1 For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effective length factor
k shall be determined using E and I values in accordance with Section 10.11.1
and shall not be less than 1.0.
10.13.2 For compression members not braced against sidesway, it shall be permitted to
neglect the effects of slenderness when kl u / r is less than 22.
10.13.3 The moments M 1 and M 2 at the ends of an individual compression member shall
be taken as
M 1 = M 1ns + δ s M 1s (10-15)
M 2 = M 2 ns + δ s M 2 s (10-16)
where δ s M 1s and δ s M 2 s shall be computed according to 10.13.4.
10.13.4 Calculation of δ s M s
10.13.4.1 The magnified sway moments δ s M s shall be taken as the column end moments
calculated using a second-order elastic analysis based on the member stiffnesses
given in Section 10.11.1.
10.13.4.2 Alternatively, it shall be permitted to calculate δ s M s as
Ms
δsM s = ≥ Ms (10-17)
1− Q
If δ s calculated in this way exceeds 1.5, δ s M s shall be calculated using 10.13.4.1
or 10.13.4.3.
0.75 ∑ P c
where ∑P u
is the summation for all the vertical loads in a story and ∑P c
is the
summation for all sway resisting columns in a story. Pc is calculated using Eq. (10-
10) using k from 10.13.1 and EI from Eq. (10-11) or Eq. (10-12).
10.13.6 In addition to load cases involving lateral loads, the strength and stability of the
structure as a whole under factored gravity loads shall be considered.
(a) When δ s M s is computed from 10.13.4.1, the ratio of second-order lateral
deflections to first-order lateral deflections for 1.4 dead load and 1.7 live
load plus lateral load applied to the structure shall not exceed 2.5;
(b) When δ s M s is computed according to 10.13.4.2, the value of Q
computed using ∑P u for 1.4 dead load plus 1.7 live load shall not
exceed 0.60;
(c) When δ s M s is computed from 10.13.4.3, δ s computed using ∑P u and
10.13.7 In sway frames, flexural members shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression members at the joint.
SECTION 10.14
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS SUPPORTING SLAB SYSTEM
10.14.1 Axially loaded members supporting a slab system included within the scope of
Section 13.1 shall be designed as provided in Chapter 10 and in accordance with
the additional requirements of Chapter 13.
SECTION 10.15
TRANSMISSION OF COLUMN LOADS THROUGH FLOOR SYSTEM
10.15.1 Concrete of strength specified for the column shall be placed in the floor at the
column location. Top surface of the column concrete shall extend 600 mm into the
slab from face of column. Column concrete shall be well integrated with floor
concrete, and shall be placed in accordance with Section 6.4.5 and 6.4.6.
10.15.2 Strength of a column through a floor system shall be based on the lower value of
concrete strength with vertical dowels and spirals as required.
10.15.3 For columns laterally supported on four sides by beams of approximately equal
depth or by slabs, it shall be permitted to base strength of the column on an
assumed concrete strength in the column joint equal to 75 percent of column
concrete strength plus 35 percent of floor concrete strength. In the application of
Section 10.15.3, the ratio of column concrete strength to slab concrete strength
shall not be taken greater than 2.5 for design.
SECTION 10.16
COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS
10.16.1 Composite compression members shall include all such members reinforced
longitudinally with structural steel shapes, pipe, or tubing with or without
longitudinal bars.
10.16.2 Strength of a composite member shall be computed for the same limiting
conditions applicable to ordinary reinforced concrete members.
10.16.3 Any axial load strength assigned to concrete of a composite member shall be
transferred to the concrete by members or brackets in direct bearing on the
composite member concrete.
10.16.4 All axial load strength not assigned to concrete of a composite member shall be
developed by direct connection to the structural steel shape, pipe, or tube.
r=
(E I / 5) + E I
c g s t
(E A / 5) + E A
c g s t
(10-20)
EI =
(E I c g / 5)
+ Es I t (10-21)
1+ βd
10.16.6.2 Longitudinal bars located within the encased concrete core shall be permitted to be
used in computing At and I t .
10.16.7 Spiral reinforcement around structural steel core. A composite member with
spirally reinforced concrete around a structural steel core shall conform to Section
10.16.7.1 through 10.16.7.5.
10.16.7.1 Specified compressive strength of concrete f c' shall not be less than that given in
1.1.1.
10.16.7.2 Design yield strength of structural steel core shall be the specified minimum yield
strength for the grade of structural steel used but not to exceed 350 MPa.
10.16.7.3 Spiral reinforcement shall conform to 10.9.3.
10.16.7.4 Longitudinal bars located within the spiral shall be not less than 0.01 nor more than
0.08 times net area of concrete section.
10.16.7.5 Longitudinal bars located within the spiral shall be permitted to be used in
computing At and I t .
10.16.8 Tie reinforcement around structural steel core. A composite member with
laterally tied concrete around a structural steel core shall conform to 10.16.8.1
through 10.16.8.8.
10.16.8.1 Specified compressive strength of concrete f c' shall not be less than that given in
1.1.1.
10.16.8.2 Design yield strength of structural steel core shall be the specified minimum yield
strength for the grade of structural steel used but not to exceed 350 MPa.
10.16.8.3 Lateral ties shall extend completely around the structural steel core.
10.16.8.4 Lateral ties shall have a diameter not less than 0.02 times the greatest side
dimension of composite member, except that ties shall not be smaller than Dia. 10
mm and are not required to be larger than Dia. 16 mm. Welded wire fabric of
equivalent area shall be permitted.
10.16.8.5 Vertical spacing of lateral ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie
bar diameters, or 0.5 times the least side dimension of the composite member.
10.16.8.6 Longitudinal bars located within the ties shall be not less than 0.01 nor more than
0.08 times net area of concrete section.
10.16.8.7 A longitudinal bar shall be located at every corner of a rectangular cross section,
with other longitudinal bars spaced not farther apart than one-half the least side
dimension of the composite member.
10.16.8.8 Longitudinal bars located within the ties shall be permitted to be used in computing
At for strength but not in computing I t for evaluation of slenderness effects.
SECTION 10.17
BEARING STRENGTH
10.17.1 ( )
Design bearing strength of concrete shall not exceed φ 0.85 f c' A1 , except when the
supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area, then the design
bearing strength of the loaded area shall be permitted to be multiplied by
A2 / A1 but not more than 2.
CHAPTER 11
SHEAR AND TORSION
SECTION 11.0
NOTATION
SECTION 11.1
SHEAR STRENGTH
11.1.1 Except for members designed in accordance with Appendix A, design of cross sections
subject to shear shall be based on:
φVn ≥ Vu (11-1)
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section considered and Vn is nominal shear
strength computed by:
Vn = Vc + Vs (11-2)
where Vc is nominal shear strength provided by concrete in accordance with Section
11.3, 11.4, or 11.12, and Vs is nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement in
accordance with Section 11.5.6, 11.10.9, or 11.12.
11.1.1.1 In determining shear strength Vn the effect of any openings in members shall be
considered.
11.1.1.2 In determining shear strength Vc when-ever applicable, effects of axial tension due
to creep and shrinkage in restrained members shall be considered and effects of
inclined flexural compression in variable depth members shall be permitted to be
included.
11.1.2 The values of f c' used in this chapter shall not exceed 25/3 MPa except as
allowed in 11.1.2.1.
11.1.2.1 Values of f c' greater than 25/3 MPa shall be permitted in computing Vc , Vci ; and
Vcw for reinforced or prestressed concrete beams and concrete joist construction
having minimum web reinforcement in accordance with Section 11.5.5.3, 11.5.5.4,
or 11.6.5.2.
11.1.4 For deep beams, brackets and corbels, walls, and slabs and footings, the special
provisions of Section 11.8 through 11.12 shall apply.
SECTION 11.2
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
11.2.1 Provisions for shear and torsion strength apply to normalweight concrete. When
lightweight aggregate concrete is used, one of the following modifications shall
SBC 304 2007 11/4
SHEAR AND TORSION
apply to f c' throughout Chapter 11, except Section 11.5.4.3, 11.5.6.9, 11.6.3.1,
11.12.3.2, and 11.12.4.8.
11.2.1.1 When f ct is specified and concrete is proportioned in accordance with 5.2,
1.8 f ct shall be substituted for f c' but the value of 1.8 f ct shall not exceed f c' .
11.2.1.2 When f ct is not specified, all values of f c' shall be multiplied by 0.75 for all-
lightweight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation
shall be permitted when partial sand replacement is used.
SECTION 11.3
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE FOR
NONPRESTRESSED MEMBERS
11.3.1.3 For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be
designed to carry total shear unless a more detailed analysis is made using Section
11.3.2.3.
but not greater than 0.3 × f c' bw d . Quantity Vu d / M u shall not be taken greater
than 1.0 in computing Vc by Eq. (11-5), where M u is factored moment
occurring simultaneously with Vu at section considered.
11.3.2.2 For members subject to axial compression, it shall be permitted to compute Vc
using Eq. (11-5) with M m substituted for M u and Vu d / M u not then limited to 1.0,
where
M m = M u − Nu
(4h − d ) (11-6)
8
SBC 304 2007 11/5
SHEAR AND TORSION
0.3N u
Vc = 0.3 × f c' ⋅ bw d 1 + (11-7)
Ag
SECTION 11.4
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE FOR
PRESTRESSED MEMBERS
11.4.1 For members with effective prestress force not less than 40 percent of the tensile
strength of flexural reinforcement, unless a more detailed calculation is made in
accordance with Section 11.4.2,
⎛ f' V d⎞
Vc = ⎜ c + 5 u ⎟bw d (11-9)
⎜ 20 Mu ⎟
⎝ ⎠
but Vc need not be taken less than (1 / 6) f c' bw d nor shall Vc be taken greater than
0.4 f c' bw d nor the value given in Section 11.4.3 or 11.4.4. The quantity
Vu d / M u shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu , is factored moment
occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered. When applying Eq.
(11-9), d in the term Vu d / M u shall be the distance from extreme compression
fiber to centroid of prestressed reinforcement.
11.4.2 Shear strength Vc shall be permitted to be computed in accordance with Section
11.4.2.1 and 11.4.2.2, where Vc shall be the lesser of Vci or V cw .
11.4.2.1 Shear strength Vci shall be computed by
f c' Vi M cr
Vci = bw d + Vd + (11-10)
20 M max
⎛ f' ⎞
M cr = (I / yt ) ⋅ ⎜ c + f pe − f d ⎟ (11-11)
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
and values of M max and Vi shall be computed from the load combination causing
maximum moment to occur at the section.
11.4.2.2 Shear strength V cw shall be computed by
SECTION 11.5
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
reinforcement;
(b) Longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion making an angle of 30 deg
or more with the longitudinal tension reinforcement;
(c) Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement.
11.5.2 Design yield strength of shear reinforcement shall not exceed 420 MPa, except that
the design yield strength of welded deformed wire fabric shall not exceed 550
MPa.
11.5.3 Stirrups and other bars or wires used as shear reinforcement shall extend to a
distance d from extreme compression fiber and shall be anchored at both ends
according to 12.13 to develop the design yield strength of reinforcement.
11.5.4 Spacing limits for shear reinforcement
11.5.4.1 Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular to axis of member shall not
exceed d / 2 in nonprestressed members or 0.75h in prestressed members, nor 500
mm.
11.5.4.2 Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement shall be so spaced that every
45 deg line, extending toward the reaction from mid-depth of member d / 2 to
longitudinal tension reinforcement, shall be crossed by at least one line of shear
reinforcement.
11.5.4.3 When Vs exceeds (1 / 3) f c' bw d , maximum spacings given in Section 11.5.4.1 and
11.5.4.2 shall be reduced by one-half.
but shall not be less than 0.33bw s / f y where bw and s are in mm.
11.5.5.4 For prestressed members with an effective prestress force not less than 40 percent
of the tensile strength of the flexural reinforcement, the area of shear reinforcement
shall not be less than the smaller Av from Eq. (11-13) or (11-14)
Aps f pu s d
Av = (11-14)
80 f y d bw
11.5.6.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel
bars, all bent up at the same distance from the support,
Vs = Av f y sin α (11-17)
SECTION 11.6
DESIGN FOR TORSION
11.6.1 Threshold torsion. It shall be permitted to neglect torsion effects when the
factored torsional moment Tu is less than:
(a) For nonprestressed members:
φ f c′ ⎛ A 2 cp ⎞
⎜ ⎟
12 ⎜ p ⎟
⎝ cp ⎠
(b) For prestressed members:
φ f c′ ⎛ A 2 cp ⎞ 3 f pc
⎜ ⎟ 1+
12 ⎜ p ⎟ f c′
⎝ cp ⎠
(c) For nonprestressed members subjected to an axial tensile or compressive
force:
φ f c′ ⎛ A 2 cp ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 1 + 3 Nu
3 ⎜⎝ p cp ⎟
⎠ Ag f c′
For members cast monolithically with a slab, the overhanging flange width used in
computing Acp and p cp shall conform to 13.2.4. For a hollow section, Ag shall be
used in place of Acp in 11.6.1, and the outer boundaries of the section shall
conform to 13.2.4.
11.6.1.1 For isolated members with flanges and for members cast monolithically with a slab,
the overhanging flange width used in computed Acp and pcp shall conform to
13.2.4, except that the overhanging flanges shall be neglected in cases where the
parameter Acp2 / pcp calculated for a beam with flanges is less than that computed
for the same beam ignoring the flanges.
11.6.2 Calculation of factored torsional moment Tu
φ f c' ⎛ Acp2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜p ⎟
⎝ cp ⎠
(b) For prestressed members, at the sections described in 11.6.2.5:
φ f c′ ⎛ A 2 cp ⎞ 3f
⎜ ⎟ 1 + pc
3 ⎜⎝ p cp ⎟
⎠ f c′
φ f c′ ⎛ A 2 cp ⎞ 3 Nu
⎜ ⎟ 1+
3 ⎜ p ⎟ f c′
⎝ cp ⎠ Ag
In (a), (b), or (c), the correspondingly redistributed bending moments and shears
in the adjoining members shall be used in the design of these members. For
hollow sections, Acp shall not be replaced with Ag in 11.6.2.2.
11.6.2.3 Unless determined by a more exact analysis, it shall be permitted to take the
torsional loading from a slab as uniformly distributed along the member.
11.6.2.4 In nonprestressed members, sections located less than a distance d from the face
of a support shall be designed for not less than the torsion Tu computed at a
distance d . I f a concentrated torque occurs within this distance, the critical
section for design shall be at the face of the support.
11.6.2.5 In prestressed members, sections located less than a distance h 2 from the face of
a support shall be designed for not less than the torsion Tu computed at a distance
h 2 . If a concentrated torque occurs within this distance, the critical section for
design shall be at the face of the support.
11.6.3.2 If the wall thickness varies around the perimeter of a hollow section, Eq. (11-19)
shall be evaluated at the location where the left-hand side of Eq. (11-19) is a
maximum.
11.6.3.3 If the wall thickness is less than Aoh / ph , the second term in Eq. (11-19) shall be
taken as:
⎛ Tu ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1.7 Aoht ⎠
where t is the thickness of the wall of the hollow section at the location where the
stresses are being checked.
11.6.3.4 Design yield strength of nonprestressed torsion reinforcement shall not exceed 420
MPa.
11.6.3.5 The reinforcement required for torsion shall be determined from:
φTn ≥ Tu (11-20)
11.6.3.6 The transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be designed using:
2 Ao At f yv
Tn = cot θ (11-21)
s
where Ao shall be determined by analysis except that it shall be permitted to take
Ao equal to 0.85 Aoh ; θ shall not be taken smaller than 30 deg nor larger than 60
deg. It shall be permitted to take θ equal to:
(a) 45 deg for nonprestressed members or members with less prestress than
in (b); or
(b) 37.5 deg for prestressed members with an effective prestress force not
less than 40 percent of the tensile strength of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
11.6.3.7 The additional longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion shall not be less
than:
At ⎛⎜ f yv ⎞⎟ 2
Al = ph cot θ (11-22)
s ⎜f ⎟
⎝ yl ⎠
where θ shall be the same value used in Eq. (11-21) and At / s shall be taken as
the amount computed from Eq. (11-21) not modified in accordance with Section
11.6.5.2 or 11.6.5.3.
11.6.3.8 Reinforcement required for torsion shall be added to that required for the shear,
moment and axial force that act in combination with the torsion. The most restrictive
requirements for reinforcement spacing and placement shall be met.
11.6.3.9 It shall be permitted to reduce the area of longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the
flexural compression zone by an amount equal to M u / (0.9df yl ) where M u is the
factored moment acting at the section in combination with Tu except that the
reinforcement provided shall not be less than that required by Section 11.6.5.3 or
11.6.6.2.
11.6.3.10 In prestressed beams:
(a) The total longitudinal reinforcement including prestressing steel at each
section shall resist the factored bending moment at that section plus an
additional concentric longitudinal tensile force equal to Al f yl based on
the factored torsion at that section;
(b) The spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement including tendons shall
satisfy the requirements in Section 11.6.6.2.
11.6.3.11 In prestressed beams, it shall be permitted to reduce the area of longitudinal
torsional reinforcement on the side of the member in compression due to flexure
below that required by Section 11.6.3.10 in accordance with Section 11.6.3.9.
( Av + 2 At ) = 1
f c'
bw s
(11-23)
16 f yv
11.6.5.3 Where torsional reinforcement is required by 11.6.5.1, the minimum total area of
longitudinal torsional reinforcement shall be computed by:
5 f c' Acp ⎛ A ⎞ f yv
Al ,min = − ⎜ t ⎟ ph (11-24)
12 f yl ⎝ s ⎠ f yl
where At / s shall not be taken less than (1 / 6 ) bw / f yv .
11.6.6.3 Torsion reinforcement shall be provided for a distance of at least (bt + d ) beyond
the point theoretically required.
SECTION 11.7
SHEAR-FRICTION
11.7.4.3 The coefficient of friction µ in Eq. (11-25) and Eq. (11-26) shall be
Concrete placed monolithically 1.4λ
Concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface 1 .0 λ
intentionally roughened as specified in 11.7.9
Concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally 0 .6 λ
roughened
Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs 0 .7 λ
or by reinforcing bars (see 11.7.10)
where λ = 1.0 for normalweight concrete, 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete and
0.75 for all lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation shall be permitted when
partial sand replacement is used.
11.7.5 Shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than 0.2 f c' Ac , nor 5.5 Ac , in N,
where Ac , is area of concrete section resisting shear transfer.
11.7.6 Design yield strength of shear-friction reinforcement shall not exceed 420 MPa.
11.7.7 Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement.
Permanent net compression across shear plane shall be permitted to be taken as
additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement Avf f y when calculating
required Av f .
11.7.8 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane
and shall be anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both sides by
embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
11.7.9 For the purpose of 11.7, when concrete is placed against previously hardened
concrete, the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If µ is
assumed equal to 1.0λ interface shall be roughened to a full amplitude of
approximately 5 mm.
11.7.10 When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs
or welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint.
SECTION 11.8
DEEP BEAMS
11.8.1 The provisions of 11.8 shall apply to members with clear spans, l n , equal to or less
than four times the overall member depth or regions of beams loaded with
concentrated loads within twice the member depth from the support that are loaded
on one face and supported on the opposite face so that compression struts can
develop between the loads and supports. See also Section 12.10.6.
11.8.2 Deep beams shall be designed using either nonlinear analysis as permitted in
10.7.1, or Appendix A.
11.8.3 Shear strength Vn for deep beams shall not exceed (5 / 6) f c' bw d .
11.8.4 The area of shear reinforcement perpendicular to the span, Av shall not be less
than 0.0025bw s , and s shall not exceed d / 5 , nor 300 mm.
11.8.5 The area of shear reinforcement parallel to the span, Avh , shall not be less than
0.0015bw s2 , and s2 shall not exceed d / 5 , nor 300 mm.
11.8.6 It shall be permitted to provide reinforcement satisfying A.3.3 instead of the
minimum horizontal and vertical reinforcement specified in Section 11.8.4 and
11.8.5.
SECTION 11.9
11.9.1 Brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio a/d less than 2 shall be
permitted to be designed using Appendix A. Design shall be permitted using
Section 11.9.3 and 11.9.4 for brackets and corbels with:
(a) a/d not greater than 1, and
(b) subject to horizontal tensile force for N uc not larger than Vu .
The requirements of Section 11.9.2, 11.9.3.2.1, 11.9.3.2.2, 11.9.5, 11.9.6, and
11.9.7 shall apply to design of brackets and corbels. Distance d shall be measured
at the face of the support.
11.9.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d .
11.9.3 Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu , a
moment [Vu a + N u c (h − d )] , and a horizontal tensile force N uc .
11.9.3.1 In all design calculations in accordance with 11.9, strength reduction factor φ shall
be taken equal to 0.75
11.9.3.2 Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avt to resist shear Vu shall be in
accordance with 11.7.
11.9.3.2.1 For normalweight concrete, shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than
0.2 f c'bw d nor 5.5bw d in N.
11.9.5 (
Ratio ρ = As / bd shall not be less than 0.04 f c' / f y . )
11.9.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be
anchored by one of the following:
(a) By a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be
designed to develop specified yield strength f y of As bars;
11.9.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion
of primary tension bars As , nor project beyond interior face of transverse anchor
bar (if one is provided).
SECTION 11.10
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR WALLS
11.10.1 Design for shear forces perpendicular to face of wall shall be in accordance with
provisions for slabs in 11.12. Design for horizontal in-plane shear forces in a wall
shall be in accordance with 11.10.2 through 11.10.9. Alternatively, it shall be
permitted to design walls with a height not exceeding two times the length of the
wall for horizontal shear forces in accordance with Appendix A and Section
11.10.9.2 through 11.10.9.5.
11.10.2 Design of horizontal section for shear in plane of wall shall be based on Eq. (11-1)
and (11-2), where shear strength Vc shall be in accordance with 11.10.5 or 11.10.6
and shear strength Vs shall be in accordance with 11.10.9.
11.10.3 Shear strength Vn at any horizontal section for shear in plane of wall shall not be
taken greater than (5 / 6 ) f c' hd .
11.10.4 For design for horizontal shear forces in plane of wall, d shall be taken equal to
0.8l w larger value of d , equal to the distance from extreme compression fiber to
center of force of all reinforcement in tension, shall be permitted to be used when
deter-mined by a strain compatibility analysis.
11.10.5 Unless a more detailed calculation is made in accordance with 11.10.6, shear
strength Vc shall not be taken greater than (1 / 6) f c' hd for walls subject to N u in
compression, or Vc shall not be taken greater than the value given in 11.3.2.3 for
walls subject to N u in tension.
11.10.6 Shear strength Vc shall be permitted to be the lesser of the values computed from
Eq. (11-29) or (11-30)
1 Nu d
Vc = f c' hd + (11-29)
4 4l w
or
⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤
⎢ l w ⎜⎜ f c' + 2 u ⎟⎟ ⎥
l w h ⎠ ⎥ hd
Vc = ⎢0.5 f c' + ⎝ (11-30)
⎢ Mu lw ⎥ 10
⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ Vu 2 ⎥⎦
11.10.8 When factored shear force Vu is less than φVc / 2 reinforcement shall be provided
in accordance with Section 11.10.9 or in accordance with Chapter 14. When Vu
exceeds φVc / 2 , wall reinforcement for resisting shear shall be provided in
accordance with 11.10.9.
11.10.9 Design of shear reinforcement for walls
11.10.9.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds shear strength φVc , horizontal shear rein-
forcement shall be provided to satisfy Eq. (11-1) and (11-2), where shear strength
Vs shall be computed by
Av f y d
Vs = (11-31)
s2
where Av is area of horizontal shear reinforcement within a distance s2 and
distance d is in accordance with 11.10.4. Vertical shear reinforcement shall be
provided in accordance with 11.10.9.4.
11.10.9.2 Ratio ρ h of horizontal shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of vertical
section shall not be less than 0.0025.
11.10.9.3 Spacing of horizontal shear reinforcement s2 shall not exceed l w / 5 , 3h , nor 500
mm.
11.10.9.4 Ratio ρ h of vertical shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of horizontal
section shall not be less than
⎛ hw ⎞
ρ n = 0.0025 + 0.5⎜⎜ 2.5 − ⎟⎟(ρ h − 0.0025) (11-32)
⎝ lw ⎠
nor 0.0025, but need not be greater than the required horizontal shear
reinforcement.
11.10.9.5 Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement s1 shall not exceed l w / 3 , 3h , nor
500 mm.
SECTION 11.11
TRANSFER OF MOMENTS TO COLUMNS
11.11.1 When gravity load, wind, earthquake, or other lateral forces cause transfer of
SECTION 11.12
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS
11.12.1 The shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of columns, concentrated
loads, or reactions is governed by the more severe of two conditions:
11.12.1.1 Beam action where each critical section to be investigated extends in a plane
across the entire width. For beam action the slab or footing shall be designed in
accordance with 11.1 through 11.5.
11.12.1.2 Two-way action where each of the critical sections to be investigated shall be
located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum but need not approach closer than
d / 2 to
(a) Edges or corners of columns, concentrated loads, or reaction areas; or
(b) Changes in slab thickness such as edges of capitals or drop panels.
For two-way action the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with
11.12.2 through 11.12.6.
11.12.1.3 For square or rectangular columns, concentrated loads, or reaction areas, the
critical sections with four straight sides shall be permitted.
11.12.2 The design of a slab or footing for two-way action is based on Eq. (11-1) and (11-
2). Vc shall be computed in accordance with Section 11.12.2.1, 11.12.2.2, or
11.12.3.1. Vs shall be computed in accordance with Section 11.12.3. For slabs
with shearheads, Vn shall be in accordance with Section 11.12.4. When moment is
transferred between a slab and a column, 11.12.6 shall apply.
11.12.2.1 For nonprestressed slabs and footings, Vc shall be the smallest of (a), (b), and (c):
⎛ 2 ⎞ f c' bo d
(a) Vc = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ (11-33)
⎝ βc ⎠ 6
where β c is the ratio of long side to short side of the column, concentrated
load or reaction area;
⎛α d ⎞ f c' bo d
(b) Vc = ⎜⎜ s + 2 ⎟⎟ (11-34)
⎝ bo ⎠ 12
1
c) Vc = f c' bo d (11-35)
3
11.12.2.2 At columns of two-way prestressed slabs and footings that meet the requirements
of 18.9.3
(
Vc = β p )
f c' + 0.3 f pc bo d + V p (11-36)
11.12.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires and single- or multiple-leg stirrups
shall be permitted in slabs and footings with an effective depth, d , greater than or
equal to 150 mm, but not less than 16 times the shear reinforcement bar diameter.
Shear reinforcement shall be in accordance with Section 11.12.3.1 through
11.12.3.4.
11.12.3.1 Vn shall be computed by Eq. (11-2), where Vc shall not be taken greater
than (1 / 6) f c' bo d , and the strength of shear reinforcement Vs shall be calculated in
accordance with 11.5. The area of shear reinforcement Av used in Eq. (11-15) is
the cross-sectional area of all legs of reinforcement on one peripheral line that is
geometrically similar to the perimeter of the column section.
11.12.3.2 Vn shall not be taken greater than (1 / 2) f c' bo d
11.12.3.3 The distance between the column face and the first line of stirrup legs that
surround the column shall not exceed d / 2 . The spacing between adjacent stirrup
legs in the first line of shear reinforcement shall not exceed 2d measured in a
direction parallel to the column face. The spacing between successive lines of
shear reinforcement that surround the column shall not exceed d / 2 measured in a
direction perpendicular to the column face.
11.12.3.4 Slab shear reinforcement shall satisfy the anchorage requirements of 12.13 and
shall engage the longitudinal flexural reinforcement in the direction being
considered.
11.12.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of structural steel I- or channel-shaped sections
(shearheads) shall be permitted in slabs. The provisions of Section 11.12.4.1
through 11.12.4.9 shall apply where shear due to gravity load is transferred at
interior column supports. Where moment is transferred to columns, Section
11.12.6.3 shall apply.
SBC 304 2007 11/20
SHEAR AND TORSION
11.12.4.1 Each shearhead shall consist of steel shapes fabricated by welding with a full
penetration weld into identical arms at right angles. Shearhead arms shall not be
interrupted within the column section.
11.12.4.2 A shearhead shall not be deeper than 70 times the web thickness of the steel shape.
11.12.4.3 The ends of each shearhead arm shall be permitted to be cut at angles not less than
30 deg with the horizontal, provided the plastic moment strength of the remaining
tapered section is adequate to resist the shear force attributed to that arm of the
shearhead.
11.12.4.4 All compression flanges of steel shapes shall be located within 0.3d of
compression surface of slab.
11.12.4.5 The ratio α v between the flexural stiffness of each shearhead arm and that of the
surrounding composite cracked slab section of width (c2 + d ) shall not be less than
0.15.
11.12.4.6 The plastic moment strength M p required for each arm of the shearhead shall be
computed by
Vu ⎡ ⎛ c ⎞⎤
Mp = ⎢ hv + α v ⎜ l v − 1 ⎟⎥ (11-37)
2φη ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
where φ is the strength reduction factor for tension-controlled members, η is the
number of arms, and l v is the minimum length of each shearhead arm required
to comply with requirements of Section 11.12.4.7 and 11.12.4.8.
11.12.4.7 The critical slab section for shear shall be perpendicular to the plane of the slab
and shall cross each shearhead arm at three-quarters the distance [l v − (c1 / 2)] from
the column face to the end of the shearhead arm. The critical section shall be
located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum, but need not be closer than the
perimeter defined in 11.12.1.2(a).
11.12.4.8 Vn shall not be taken greater than (1 / 3) f c' bo d on the critical section defined in
11.12.4.7. When shearhead reinforcement is provided, Vn shall not be taken
greater than 0.6 f c' bo d on the critical section defined in 11.12.1.2(a).
11.12.4.9 The moment resistance M v contributed to each slab column strip by a shearhead
shall not be taken greater than
φα vVu ⎛ c ⎞
Mv = ⎜lv − 1 ⎟ (11-38)
2η ⎝ 2⎠
where φ is the strength reduction factor for tension-controlled members, η is the
number of arms, and l v is the length of each shearhead arm actually provided.
However, M v shall not be taken larger than the smaller of:
(a) 30 percent of the total factored moment required for each slab column
strip;
(b) The change in column strip moment over the length l v ;
(c) The value of M p computed by Eq. (11-37).
11.12.4.10 When unbalanced moments are considered, the shearhead must have adequate
anchorage to transmit M p to the column.
11.12.6.2 The shear stress resulting from moment transfer by eccentricity of shear shall be
assumed to vary linearly about the centroid of the critical sections defined in
Section 11.12.1.2. The maximum shear stress due to the factored shear force and
moment shall not exceed φvn :
(a) For members without shear reinforcement:
φvn = φVc / (b0 d ) (11-40)
where Vc is as defined in 11.12.2.1 or 11.12.2.2.
(b) For members with shear reinforcement other than shearheads:
φvn = φ (Vc + Vs ) / (bo d ) (11-41)
where Vc and Vs are defined in Section 11.12.3.1. The design shall take into
account the variation of shear stress around the column. The shear stress due
to factored shear force and moment shall not exceed (1 / 6) f c' at the critical
section located d / 2 outside the outermost line of stirrup legs that surround
the column.
11.12.6.3 When shear reinforcement consisting of structural steel I - or channel-shaped
sections (shear- heads) is provided, the sum of the shear stresses due to vertical
load acting on the critical section defined by 11.12.4.7 and the shear stresses
resulting from moment transferred by eccentricity of shear about the centroid of
the critical section defined in Section 11.12.1.2(a) and 11.12.1.3 shall not exceed
φ (1 / 3) f c' .
CHAPTER 12
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES
OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 12.0
NOTATION
SECTION 12.1
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT GENERAL
12.1.2 The values of f c' used in this chapter shall not exceed 25/3 MPa.
SECTION 12.2
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND
DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION
12.2.1 Development length l d in mm, for deformed bars and deformed wire in tension
shall be determined from either Section 12.2.2 or 12.2.3, but l d shall not be less
than 300 mm.
12.2.4 The factors for use in the expressions for development of deformed bars and
deformed wires in tension in Chapter 12 are as follows:
SECTION 12.3
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND
DEFORMED WIRE IN COMPRESSION
12.3.1 Development length l dc , in mm, for deformed bars and deformed wire in
compression shall be determined from 12.3.2 and applicable modification factors of
Section 12.3.3, but l dc shall not be less than 200 mm.
12.3.2 For deformed bars and deformed wire, l dc shall be taken as the larger of
(0.24 f y / )
f c' d b and (0.043 f y ) d b , where the constant 0.043 carries the unit of
2
mm /N.
SECTION 12.4
DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
12.4.2 For determining the appropriate factors in Section 12.2, a unit of bundled bars shall
be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
SECTION 12.5
DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION
12.5.2 (
For deformed bars, l dh shall be 0.24βλ f y / )
f c' d b with β taken as 1.2 for epoxy-
coated reinforcement, and λ taken as 1.3 for lightweight aggregate concrete. For
other cases, β and λ shall be taken as 1.0.
In 12.5.3(b) and 12.5.3(c), db is the diameter of the hooked bar, and the first tie or
stirrup shall enclose the bent portion of the hook, within 2db of the outside of the
bend.
12.5.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members
with both side cover and top (or bottom) cover over hook less than 60 mm, the
hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the bar being
developed, spaced not greater than 3db along the development length l dh of the
hook. The first tie or stirrup shall enclose the bent portion of the hook, within 2db
of the outside of the bend, where d b is the diameter of the hooked bar. For this
case, the factors of Section 12.5.3 (b) and (c) shall not apply.
SECTION 12.6
MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE
12.6.2 Test results showing adequacy of such mechanical devices shall be presented to
the building official.
SECTION 12.7
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED DEFORMED
WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
12.7.1 Development length l d in mm, of welded deformed wire fabric measured from
the point of critical section to the end of wire shall be computed as the product of
the development length l d , from 12.2.2 or 12.2.3 times a wire fabric factor from
Section 12.7.2 or 12.7.3. It shall be permitted to reduce the development length in
accordance with Section 12.2.5 when applicable, but l d shall not be less than 200
mm except in computation of lap splices by 12.18. When using the wire fabric
factor from Section 12.7.2, it shall be permitted to use an epoxy-coating factor β
of 1.0 for epoxy-coated welded wire fabric in Section 12.2.2 and 12.2.3.
12.7.2 For welded deformed wire fabric with at least one cross wire within the
development length and not less than 50 mm from the point of the critical section,
the wire fabric factor shall be the greater of:
⎛ f y − 240 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ f ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
or
⎛ 5d b ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ sw ⎠
but need not be greater than 1.
12.7.3 For welded deformed wire fabric with no cross wires within the development
length or with a single cross wire less than 50 mm from the point of the critical
section, the wire fabric factor shall be taken as 1, and the development length shall
be determined as for deformed wire.
12.7.4 When any plain wires are present in the deformed wire fabric in the direction of
the development length, the fabric shall be developed in accordance with 12.8.
SECTION 12.8
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED PLAIN WIRE
FABRIC IN TENSION
except that when reinforcement provided is in excess of that required, this length
may be reduced in accordance with Section 12.2.5. l d shall not be less than 150
mm except in computation of lap splices by 12.19.
SECTION 12.9
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND
12.9.1 Except as provided in 12.9.1.1, seven-wire strand shall be bonded beyond the
critical section for a development length l d , in mm, not less than
l d = ⎜ se ⎟ b + ( f ps − f se ) b
⎛ f ⎞d d
(12-2)
⎝ 3 ⎠ 7 7
where db is strand diameter in mm, and f ps and f se are expressed in MPa. The
expressions in parenthesis are used as a constant without units.
12.9.1.1 Embedment less than the development length shall be permitted at a section of a
member provided the design strand stress at that section does not exceed values
obtained from the bilinear relationship defined by Eq. (12-2).
12.9.2 Limiting the investigation to cross sections nearest each end of the member that are
required to develop full design strength under specified factored loads shall be
permitted except where bonding of one or more strands does not extend to the end
of the member, or where concentrated loads are applied within the strand
development length.
12.9.3 Where bonding of a strand does not extend to end of member, and design includes
tension at service load in precompressed tensile zone as permitted by 18.4.2,
development length specified in 12.9.1 shall be doubled.
SECTION 12.10
DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT
GENERAL
12.10.2 Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points
of maximum stress and at points within the span where adjacent reinforcement
terminates, or is bent. Provisions of Section 12.11.3 must be satisfied.
12.10.3 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to
resist flexure for a distance equal to the effective depth of member or 12d b ,
whichever is greater, except at supports of simple spans and at free end of
cantilevers.
12.10.4 Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than the
development length l d beyond the point where bent or terminated tension
reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
12.10.5 Flexural reinforcement shall not be terminated in a tension zone unless Section
12.10.5.1, 12.10.5.2, or 12.10.5.3 is satisfied.
12.10.5.1 Factored shear at the cutoff point does not exceed two-thirds of the design shear
strength, φVn .
12.10.5.2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear and torsion is provided along each
terminated bar or wire over a distance from the termination point equal to three-
fourths the effective depth of member. Excess stirrup area Av shall be not less than
0.4bw s / f y . Spacing s shall not exceed d / 8β b .
12.10.5.3 For Dia 36 mm bars and smaller, continuing reinforcement provides double the
area required for flexure at the cutoff point and factored shear does not exceed
three-fourths the design shear strength, φVn .
SECTION 12.11
DEVELOPMENT OF POSITIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT
12.11.1 At least one-third the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-
fourth the positive moment reinforcement in continuous members shall extend
along the same face of member into the support. In beams, such reinforcement
shall extend into the support at least 150 mm.
12.11.2 When a flexural member is part of a primary lateral load resisting system, positive
moment reinforcement required to be extended into the support by Section 12.11.1
shall be anchored to develop the specified yield strength f y in tension at the face
of support.
Mn
ld ≤ + la (12-3)
Vu
where:
Mn is nominal moment strength assuming all reinforcement at the section to be
stressed to the specified yield strength f y ;
Vu is factored shear force at the section;
la , at a support shall be the embedment length beyond center of support or l a
at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of member or
12d b , whichever is greater.
An increase of 30 percent in the value of M n / Vu shall be permitted when the ends
of reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction.
12.11.4 At simple supports of deep beams, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be
anchored to develop its specified yield strength, f y , in tension at the face of the
support except that if design is carried out using Appendix A, the positive moment
tension reinforcement shall be anchored in accordance with A.4.3. At interior
supports of deep beams, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be
continuous or be spliced with that of the adjacent spans.
SECTION 12.12
DEVELOPMENT OF NEGATIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT
12.12.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as
required by Section 12.1 and 12.10.3.
12.12.3 At least one-third the total tension reinforcement provided for negative moment at
a support shall have an embedment length beyond the point of inflection not less
than effective depth of member, 12d b , or one-sixteenth the clear span, whichever
is greater.
SECTION 12.13
DEVELOPMENT OF WEB REINFORCEMENT
12.13.1 Web reinforcement shall be as close to the compression and tension surfaces of
the member as cover requirements and proximity of other reinforcement permits.
12.13.2 Ends of single leg, simple U-, or multiple U-stirrups shall be anchored as required
by Section 12.13.2.1 through 12.13.2.5.
12.13.2.1 For Dia 16 mm bar and WD 12.0 wire, and smaller, and for Dia 20, Dia 22, and
Dia 25 mm bars with f y of 300 MPa or less, a standard hook around longitudinal
reinforcement.
12.13.2.2 For Dia 20, Dia 22, and Dia 25 mm stirrups with f y greater than 300 MPa, a
standard stirrup hook around a longitudinal bar plus an embedment between
midheight of the member and the outside end of the hook equal to or greater than
0.17 d b f y / f c'
12.13.2.3 For each leg of welded plain wire fabric forming simple U-stirrups, either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires spaced at a 50 mm spacing along the member at
the top of the U; or
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d / 4 from the compression
face and a second wire closer to the compression face and spaced not
less than 50 mm from the first wire. The second wire shall be permitted
to be located on the stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend with an
inside diameter of bend not less than 8d b .
12.13.2.4 For each end of a single leg stirrup of welded plain or deformed wire fabric, two
longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of 50 mm and with the inner wire at least
the greater of d / 4 or 50 mm from d / 2 . Outer longitudinal wire at tension face
shall not be farther from the face than the portion of primary flexural
reinforcement closest to the face.
12.13.2.5 In joist construction as defined in 8.11, for Dia 12 mm bar and WD 12.0 wire and
smaller, a standard hook.
12.13.3 Between anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a simple U-stirrup
or multiple U-stirrup shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
12.13.4 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement, if extended into a region of
tension, shall be continuous with longitudinal reinforcement and, if extended into a
region of compression, shall be anchored beyond mid-depth d / 2 as specified for
development length in 12.2 for that part of f y required to satisfy Eq. (11-17).
12.13.5 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered
properly spliced when length of laps are 1.3l d in members at least 450 mm deep,
such splices with Ab f y not more than 40 kN per leg shall be considered adequate if
stirrup legs extend the full available depth of member.
SECTION 12.14
SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT - GENERAL
12.14.2.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than Dia 36 except as provided in
12.16.2 and 15.8.2.3.
12.14.2.2 Lap splices of bars in a bundle shall be based on the lap splice length required for
individual bars within the bundle, increased in accordance with 12.4. Individual
bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap. Entire bundles shall not be lap
spliced.
12.14.2.3 Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall not be spaced
transversely farther apart than one-fifth the required lap splice length, nor 150 mm.
12.14.3 Mechanical and welded splices
12.14.3.1 Mechanical and welded splices shall be permitted. For welded splices, see Section
3.5.2.
12.14.3.2 A full mechanical splice shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at
least 125 percent of specified yield strength f y of the bar.
12.14.3.3 Except as provided in SBC 304, all welding shall conform to “Structural Welding
Code – Reinforcing Steel” (ANSI/AWS D1.4).
12.14.3.4 A full welded splice shall develop at least 125 percent of the specified yield
strength f y of the bar.
SECTION 12.15
SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION
12.15.1 Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class A or B
splice, but not less than 300 mm, where:
Class A splice 1.0l d
Class B splice 1.3l d
where l d is the tensile development length for the specified yield strength f y in
accordance with 12.2 without the modification factor of 12.2.5.
12.15.2 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be Class B splices
except that Class A splices are allowed when:
12.15.3 Mechanical or welded splices used where area of reinforcement provided is less
than twice that required by analysis shall meet requirements of Section 12.14.3.2
or 12.14.3.4.
12.15.4 Mechanical or welded splices not meeting the requirements of Section 12.14.3.2 or
12.14.3.4 shall be permitted for Dia 16 mm bars and smaller if the requirements of
Section 12.15.4.1 through 12.15.4.3 are met:
12.15.4.3 The total tensile force that can be developed at each section must be at least twice
that required by analysis, and at least 140 MPa times the total area of
reinforcement provided.
12.15.5 Splices in tension tie members shall be made with a full mechanical or full welded
splice in accordance with Section 12.14.3.2 or 12.14.3.4 and splices in adjacent
bars shall be staggered at least 750 mm.
SECTION 12.16
SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION
12.16.1 Compression lap splice length shall be 0.07 f y d b , for f y of 420 MPa or less, or
(0.13 f y − 24 ) d b for f y greater than 420 MPa, but not less than 300 mm.
12.16.2 When bars of different size are lap spliced in compression, splice length shall be
the larger of either development length of larger bar, or splice length of smaller
bar. Lap splices of Dia 40 mm and larger bars to Dia 36 mm and smaller bars shall
be permitted.
SECTION 12.17
SPECIAL SPLICE REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS
12.17.1 Lap splices, mechanical splices, butt-welded splices, and end-bearing splices shall
be used with the limitations of Section 12.17.2 through 12.17.4. A splice shall
satisfy requirements for all load combinations for the column.
12.17.2.1 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is compressive, lap splices shall
conform to Section 12.16.1, 12.16.2, and, where applicable, to Section 12.17.2.4 or
12.17.2.5.
12.17.2.2 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is tensile and does not exceed 0.5 f y in
tension, lap splices shall be Class B tension lap splices if more than one-half of the
bars are spliced at any section, or Class A tension lap splices if half or fewer of the
bars are spliced at any section and alternate lap splices are staggered by l d .
12.17.2.3 Where the bar stress due to factored loads is greater than 0.5 f y in tension, lap
splices shall be Class B tension lap splices.
12.17.2.4 In tied reinforced compression members, where ties throughout the lap splice
length have an effective area not less than 0.0015hs , lap splice length shall be
permitted to be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than 300 mm.
Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be used in determining effective area.
SBC 304 2007 12/12
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
12.17.2.5 In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a
spiral shall be permitted to be multiplied by 0.75, but lap length shall not be less
than 300 mm.
SECTION 12.18
SPLICES OF WELDED DEFORMED WIRE
FABRIC IN TENSION
12.18.1 Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric measured
between the ends of each fabric sheet shall be not less than 1.3l d nor 200 mm,
and the overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall
be not less than 50 mm. l d shall be the development length for the specified yield
strength f y in accordance with 12.7.
12.18.2 Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the lap
splice length, shall be determined as for deformed wire.
12.18.3 When any plain wires are present in the deformed wire fabric in the direction of
the lap splice or when deformed wire fabric is lap spliced to plain wire fabric, the
fabric shall be lap spliced in accordance with 12.19.
SECTION 12.19
SPLICES OF WELDED PLAIN WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded plain wire fabric shall be in
accordance with Section 12.19.1 and 12.19.2.
12.19.1 When area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by analysis at
splice location, length of overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
fabric sheet shall be not less than one spacing of cross wires plus 50 mm, nor less
than 1.5l d , nor 150 mm. The development length l d for the specified yield
strength f y shall be in accordance with Section 12.8.
12.19.2 When area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis at
splice location, length of overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.5l d , nor 50 mm. l d shall be the development
length for the specified yield strength f y in accordance with 12.8.
CHAPTER 13
TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
SECTION 13.0
NOTATION
SECTION 13.1
SCOPE
13.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 13 shall apply for design of slab systems reinforced for
flexure in more than one direction, with or without beams between supports.
13.1.2 For a slab system supported by columns or walls, the dimensions c1 and c 2
and the clear span l n shall be based on an effective support area defined by the
intersection of the bottom surface of the slab, or of the drop panel if there is
one, with the largest right circular cone, right pyramid, or tapered wedge
whose surfaces are located within the column and the capital or bracket and are
oriented no greater than 45 deg to the axis of the column.
13.1.3 Solid slabs and slabs with recesses or pockets made by permanent or removable
fillers between ribs or joists in two directions are included within the scope of
Chapter 13.
SECTION 13.2
DEFINITIONS
13.2.1 Column strip is a design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline
equal to 0.25 l 2 or 0.25 l 1 , whichever is less. Column strip includes beams, if
any.
13.2.2 Middle strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips.
13.2.4 For monolithic or fully composite construction, a beam includes that portion of slab on
each side of the beam extending a distance equal to the projection of the beam above
or below the slab, whichever is greater, but not greater than four times the slab
thickness.
SECTION 13.3
SLAB REINFORCEMENT
13.3.1 Area of reinforcement in each direction for two-way slab systems shall be
determined from moments at critical sections, but shall not be less than required by
7.12.
13.3.2 Spacing of reinforcement at critical sections shall not exceed two times the slab
thickness, except for portions of slab area of cellular or ribbed construction.
In the slab over cellular spaces, reinforcement shall be provided as required by 7.12.
13.3.5 Where a slab is not supported by a spandrel beam or wall at a discontinuous edge,
or where a slab cantilevers beyond the support, anchorage of reinforcement shall be
permitted within the slab.
13.3.6 In slabs with beams between supports with a value of α greater than 1.0, special
top and bottom slab reinforcement shall be provided at exterior cor- ners in
accordance with Section 13.3.6.1 through 13.3.6.4.
13.3.6.1 The special reinforcement in both top and bottom of slab shall be sufficient to
resist a moment per meter of width equal to the maximum positive moment in the
slab.
13.3.6.2 The moment shall be assumed to be about an axis perpendicular to the diagonal from
the corner in the top of the slab and about an axis parallel to the diagonal from the
comer in the bottom of the slab.
13.3.6.3 The special reinforcement shall be provided for a distance in each direction from
the corner equal to one-fifth the longer span.
13.3.6.4 The special reinforcement shall be placed in a band parallel to the diagonal in the
top of the slab and a band perpendicular to the diagonal in the bottom of the slab.
Alternatively, the special reinforcement shall be placed in two layers parallel to the
sides of the slab in both the top and bottom of the slab.
13.3.7.1 Drop panel shall extend in each direction from centerline of support a distance not
less than one-sixth the span length measured from center-to- center of supports in
that direction.
13.3.7.2 Projection of drop panel below the slab shall be at least one-quarter the slab thickness
beyond the drop.
13.3.7.3 In computing required slab reinforcement, the thickness of the drop panel below
the slab shall not be assumed greater than one-quarter the distance from edge of drop
panel to edge of column or column capital.
13.3.8.1 In addition to the other requirements of 13.3, reinforcement in slabs without beams
shall have minimum extensions as prescribed in Fig. 13.3.8.
13.3.8.2 Where adjacent spans are unequal, extensions of negative moment reinforcement
beyond the face of support as prescribed in Fig. 13.3.8 shall be based on
requirements of the longer span.
13.3.8.3 Bent bars shall be permitted only when depth-span ratio permits use of bends of 45
deg or less.
13.3.8.4 In frames where two-way slabs act as primary members resisting lateral loads,
lengths of reinforcement shall be determined by analysis but shall not be less
than those prescribed in Fig. 13.3.8.
13.3.8.5 All bottom bars or wires within the column strip, in each direction, shall be
continuous or spliced with Class A tension splices or with mechanical or welded
splices satisfying 12.14.3. Splices shall be located as shown in Fig: 13.3.8. At least
two of the column strip bottom bars or wires in each direction shall pass within the
column core and shall be anchored at exterior support.
13.3.8.6 In slabs with shearheads and in lift-slab construction where it is not practical to pass
the bottom bars required by S e c t i o n 13.3.8.5 through the column, at least two
bonded bottom bars or wires in each direction shall pass through the shearhead or
lifting collar as close to the column as practicable and be continuous or spliced with
a Class A splice. At exterior columns, the reinforcement shall be anchored at the
shearhead or lifting collar.
SECTION 13.4
OPENINGS IN SLAB SYSTEMS
13.4.1 Openings of any size shall be permitted in slab systems if shown by analysis
that the design strength is at least equal to the required strength set forth in 9.2
and 9.3, and that all serviceability conditions, including the limits on deflections,
are met.
13.4.2.3 In the area common to one column strip and one middle strip, not more than one-
quarter of the reinforcement in either strip shall be interrupted by openings. An
amount of reinforcement equivalent to that interrupted by an opening shall be
added on the sides of the opening.
13.4.2.4 Shear requirements of Section 11.12.5 shall be satisfied.
SECTION 13.5
DESIGN PROCEDURES
13.5.1.1 Design of a slab system for gravity loads, including the slab and beams (if any)
between supports and supporting columns or walls forming orthogonal frames, by
either the Direct Design Method of Section 13.6 or the Equivalent Frame Method of
13.7 shall be permitted.
13.5.1.2 For lateral loads, analysis of frames shall take into account effects of cracking and
reinforcement on stiffness of frame members.
13.5.1.3 Combining the results of the gravity load analysis with the results of the lateral load
analysis shall be permitted.
13.5.1.4 Slabs supported on stiff edges that do not satisfy the limitations of Section 13.6.1
may be designed by the methods in Appendix C. The rigidity requirement of the
supporting beam or girder may be considered satisfactory if the beam or girder is
supported by columns or walls and has a total depth not less than three times the slab
thickness.
13.5.2 The slab and beams (if any) between supports shall be proportioned for factored
moments prevailing at every section.
13.5.3 When gravity load, wind, earthquake, or other lateral forces cause transfer of
moment between slab and column, a fraction of the unbalanced moment shall be
transferred by flexure in accordance with Section 13.5.3.2 and 13.5.3.3.
13.5.3.1 The fraction of unbalanced moment not transferred by flexure shall be transferred by
eccentricity of shear in accordance with 11.12.6.
13.5.3.2 A fraction of the unbalanced moment given by γ f M u shall be considered to be
transferred by flexure within an effective slab width between lines that are one and
one-half slab or drop panel thicknesses (1.5h ) outside opposite faces of the column or
capital, where M u is the moment to be transferred and
1
γf = (13-1)
1 + (2 / 3) b1 / b2
13.5.3.3 For unbalanced moments about an axis parallel to the edge at exterior supports, the
value of γ f by Eq. (13-1) shall be permitted to be increased up to 1.0 provided that
Vu at an edge support does not exceed 0.75φVc or at a corner support does
not exceed 0.5φVc . For unbalanced moments at interior supports, and for
SBC 304 2007 13/6
TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
unbalanced moments about an axis transverse to the edge at exterior supports, the
value of γ f in Eq. (13-1) shall be permitted to be increased by up to 25 percent
provided that Vu at the support does not exceed 0.4φVc . The reinforcement ratio ρ ,
within the effective slab width defined in Section 13.5.3.2, shall not
exceed 0.375ρ b . No adjustments to γ f shall be permitted for prestressed slab
systems.
13.5.3.4 Concentration of reinforcement over the column by closer spacing or additional
reinforcement shall be used to resist moment on the effective slab width defined in
Section 13.5.3.2.
13.5.4 Design for transfer of load from slabs to supporting columns or walls through shear
and torsion shall be in accordance with Chapter 11.
SECTION 13.6
DIRECT DESIGN METHOD
13.6.1 Limitations
Design of slab systems within the limitations of 13.6.1.1 through 13.6.1.8 by the
direct design method shall be permitted.
13.6.2.1 Total factored static moment for a span shall be determined in a strip bounded
laterally by centerline of panel on each side of centerline of supports.
13.6.2.2 Absolute sum of positive and average negative factored moments in each direction
shall not be less than
wu l 2 l 2n
Mo = (13-3)
8
SBC 304 2007 13/7
TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
13.6.2.3 Where the transverse span of panels on either side of the centerline of supports
varies, l 2 in Eq. (13-3) shall be taken as the average of adjacent transverse spans.
13.6.2.4 When the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is being considered, the distance from
edge to panel centerline shall be substituted for l 2 in Eq. (13-3).
13.6.2.5 Clear span l n shall extend from face to face of columns, capitals, brackets, or
walls. Value of l 1 used in Eq. (13-3) shall not be less than 0.65l 1 . Circular or
regular polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports with the same
area.
13.6.3.1 Negative factored moments shall be located at face of rectangular supports. Circular
or regular polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports with the same
area.
13.6.3.2 In an interior span, total static moment M o shall be distributed as follows:
Negative factored moment …………………………….…….. 0.65
Positive factored moment ………………………………………. 0.35
13.6.3.3 In an end span, total factored static moment M o shall be distributed as follows:
13.6.3.4 Negative moment sections shall be designed to resist the larger of the two interior
negative factored moments determined for spans framing into a common support
unless an analysis is made to distribute the unbalanced moment in accordance with
stiffnesses of adjoining elements.
13.6.3.5 Edge beams or edges of slab shall be proportioned to resist in torsion their share of
exterior negative factored moments.
13.6.3.6 The gravity load moment to be transferred between slab and edge column in
accordance with 13.5.3.1 shall be 0.3 M o .
13.6.4.1 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the following portions in percent of
interior negative factored moments:
13.6.4.2 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the following portions in percent of
exterior negative factored moments:
13.6.4.3 Where supports consist of columns or walls extending for a distance equal to or
greater than three-quarters the span length l 2 used to compute M o negative
moments shall be considered to be uniformly distributed across l 2 .
13.6.4.4 Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the following portions in percent of
positive factored moments:
13.6.4.5 For slabs with beams between supports, the slab portion of column strips shall be
proportioned to resist that portion of column strip moments not resisted by beams.
13.6.5.1 Beams between supports shall be proportioned to resist 85 percent of column strip
moments if (α 1l 2 / l 1 ) is equal to or greater than 1.0.
13.6.5.2 For values of (α 1l 2 / l 1 ) between 1.0 and zero, proportion of column strip moments
resisted by beams shall be obtained by linear interpolation between 85 and zero
percent.
13.6.5.3 In addition to moments calculated for uniform loads according to S e c t i on 13.6.2.2,
13.6.5.1, and 13.6.5.2, beams shall be proportioned to resist all moments caused by
concentrated or linear loads applied directly to beams, including weight of
projecting beam stem above or below the slab.
13.6.6.1 That portion of negative and positive factored moments not resisted by column
strips shall be proportionately assigned to corresponding half middle strips.
13.6.6.2 Each middle strip shall be proportioned to resist the sum of the moments assigned
to its two half middle strips.
13.6.6.3 A middle strip adjacent to and parallel with a wall-supported edge shall be
proportioned to resist twice the moment assigned to the half middle strip
corresponding to the first row of interior supports.
13.6.8.1 Beams with (α 1l 2 / l 1 ) equal to or greater than 1.O shall be proportioned to resist
shear caused by factored loads on tributary areas which are bounded by 45
deg lines drawn from the corners of the panels and the centerlines of the adjacent
panels parallel to the long sides.
13.6.8.2 In proportioning of beams with (α 1l 2 / l 1 ) less than 1.0 to resist shear, linear
interpolation, assuming beams carry no load at α 1 = 0 , shall be permitted.
13.6.8.3 In addition to shears calculated according to Section 13.6.8.1 and 13.6.8.2, beams
shall be proportioned to resist shears caused by factored loads applied directly
on beams.
13.6.8.4 Computation of slab shear strength on the assumption that load is distributed to
supporting beams in accordance with Section 13.6.8.1 or 13.6.8.2 shall be permitted.
Resistance to total shear occurring on a panel shall be provided.
13.6.8.5 Shear strength shall satisfy the requirements of Chapter 11.
13.6.9.1 Columns and walls built integrally with a slab system shall resist moments caused
by factored loads on the slab system.
13.6.9.2 At an interior support, supporting elements above and below the slab shall
resist the moment specified by Eq. (13-4) in direct proportion to their stiffnesses
unless a general analysis is made.
M = 0.07[( wd + 0.5wl )l 2 l n2 − w′d l 2′ (l n′ ) 2 ] (13-4)
SECTION 13.7
EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD
13.7.1 Design of slab systems by the equivalent frame method shall be based on
assumptions given in Section 13.7.2 through 13.7.6, and all sections of slabs and
supporting members shall be proportioned for moments and shears thus obtained.
13.7.1.1 Where metal column capitals are used, it shall be permitted to take account of their
contributions to stiffness and resistance to moment and to shear.
SBC 304 2007 13/10
TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
13.7.1.2 It shall be permitted to neglect the change in length of columns and slabs due to
direct stress, and deflections due to shear.
13.7.3 Slab-beams
13.7.3.1 Determination of the moment of inertia of slab-beams at any cross section outside of
joints or column capitals using the gross area of concrete shall be permitted.
13.7.3.2 Variation in moment of inertia along axis of slab-beams shall be taken into account.
13.7.3.3 Moment of inertia of slab-beams from center of column to face of column, bracket,
or capital shall be assumed equal to the moment of inertia of the slab-beam at face
of column, bracket, or capital divided by the quantity (1 − c2 / l 2 ) 2 where c2 and
l 2 are measured transverse to the direction of the span for which moments are
being determined.
13.7.4 Columns
13.7.4.1 Determination of the moment of inertia of columns at any cross section outside of
joints or column capitals using the gross area of concrete shall be permitted.
13.7.4.2 Variation in moment of inertia along axis of columns shall be taken into account.
13.7.4.3 Moment of inertia of columns from top to bottom of the slab-beam at a joint shall be
assumed to be infinite.
13.7.5.1 Torsional members in Section 13.7.2.3 shall be assumed to have a constant cross
section throughout their length consisting of the largest of (a), (b) and (c)
(a) A portion of slab having a width equal to that of the column, bracket, or
capital in the direction of the span for which moments are being
determined;
(b) For monolithic or fully composite construction, the portion of slab specified
in (a) plus that part of the transverse beam above and below the slab;
(c) The transverse beam as defined in Section 13.2.4.
13.7.5.2 Where beams frame into columns in the direction of the span for which moments
are being determined, the torsional stiffness shall be multiplied by the ratio of the
moment of inertia of the slab with such a beam to the moment of inertia of the slab
without such a beam.
13.7.6.1 When the loading pattern is known, the equivalent frame shall be analyzed for that
load.
13.7.6.2 When live load is variable but does not exceed three-quarters of the dead load, or
the nature of live load is such that all panels will be loaded simultaneously, it shall
be permitted to assume that maximum factored moments occur at all sections with
full factored live load on entire slab system.
13.7.6.3 For loading conditions other than those defined in Section 13.7.6.2, it shall be
permitted to assume that maximum positive factored moment near midspan of a
panel occurs with three-quarters of the full factored live load on the panel and on
alternate panels; and it shall be permitted to assume that maximum negative
factored moment in the slab at a support occurs with three-quarters of the full
live load on adjacent panels only.
13.7.6.4 Factored moments shall be taken not less than those occurring with full factored live
load on all panels.
13.7.7.1 At interior supports, the critical section for negative factored moment (in both column
and middle strips) shall be taken at face of rectilinear supports, but not farther away
than 0.175l 1 from the center of a column.
13.7.7.2 At exterior supports with brackets or capitals, the critical section for negative
factored moment in the span perpendicular to an edge shall be taken at a distance
from face of supporting element not greater than one-half the projection of bracket
or capital beyond face of supporting element.
13.7.7.3 Circular or regular polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports with
the same area for location of critical section for negative design moment.
13.7.7.4 When slab systems within limitations of 13.6.1 are analyzed by the equivalent frame
method, it shall be permitted to reduce the resulting computed moments in such
proportion that the absolute sum of the positive and average negative moments used in
design need not exceed the value obtained from Eq. (13-3).
13.7.7.5 Distribution of moments at critical sections across the slab-beam strip of each frame
to column strips, beams, and middle strips as provided in Section 13.6.4, 13.6.5,
and 13.6.6 shall be permitted if the requirement of Section 13.6.1.6 is satisfied.
CHAPTER 14
WALLS
SECTION 14.0
NOTATION
SECTION 14.1
SCOPE
14.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 14 shall apply for design of walls subjected to axial load,
with or without flexure.
14.1.2 Cantilever retaining walls are designed according to flexural design provisions of
Chapter 10 with minimum horizontal reinforcement according to Section 14.3.3.
SECTION 14.2
GENERAL
14.2.1 Walls shall be designed for eccentric loads and any lateral or other loads to which
they are subjected.
14.2.2 Walls subject to axial loads shall be designed in accordance with Section 14.2,
14.3, and either 14.4, 14.5, or 14.8.
14.2.5 Compression members built integrally with walls shall conform to 10.8.2.
14.2.6 Walls shall be anchored to intersecting elements, such as floors and roofs; or to
columns, pilasters, buttresses, of intersecting walls; and to footings.
14.2.7 Quantity of reinforcement and limits of thickness required by 14.3 and 14.5 shall
be permitted to be waived where structural analysis shows adequate strength and
stability.
14.2.8 Transfer of force to footing at base of wall shall be in accordance with 15.8.
SECTION 14.3
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
14.3.2 Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall be:
(a) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than Dia 16 mm with a specified yield
strength not less than 420 MPa; or
(b) 0.0015 for other deformed bars; or
(c) 0.0012 for welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) not larger than WD 12.
14.3.3 Minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall be:
(a) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than Dia 16 mm with a specified
yield strength not less than 420 MPa; or
(b) 0.0025 for other deformed bars; or
(c) 0.0020 for welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) not larger than WD 12.
14.3.4 Walls more than 250 mm thick, except basement walls, shall have reinforcement for
each direction placed in two layers parallel with faces of wall in accordance with the
following:
(a) One layer consisting of not less than one-half and not more than two-
thirds of total reinforcement required for each direction shall be placed
not less than 50 mm nor more than one-third the thickness of wall from
the exterior surface;
(b) The other layer, consisting of the balance of required reinforcement in
that direction, shall be placed not less than 20 mm nor more than one-
third the thickness of wall from the interior surface.
14.3.5 Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than two
times the wall thickness, nor farther apart than 300 mm.
14.3.6 Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by lateral ties if vertical reinforcement
area is not greater than 0.01 times gross concrete area, or where vertical
reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement.
14.3.7 In addition to the minimum reinforcement required by Section 14.3.1, not less
than two Dia 16 mm bars shall be provided around all window and door
openings. Such bars shall be extended to develop the bar beyond the corners of the
openings but not less than 600 mm.
SECTION 14.4
WALLS DESIGNED AS COMPRESSION MEMBERS
14.4.1 Except as provided in 14.5, walls subject to axial load or combined flexure and
axial load shall be designed as compression members in accordance with
provisions of Section 10.2, 10.3, 10.10, 10.11, 10.12, 10.13, 10.14, 10.17, 14.2,
and 14.3.
SECTION 14.5
EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHOD
14.5.1 Walls of solid rectangular cross section shall be permitted to be designed by the
empirical provisions of Section 14.5 if the resultant of all factored loads is located
within the middle third of the overall thickness of the wall and all limits of 14.2, 14.3,
and 14.5 are satisfied.
14.5.2 Design axial load strength φ Pnw of a wall satisfying limitations of 14.5.1 shall be
computed by Eq. (14- 1) unless designed in accordance with 14.4.
⎡ ⎛ kl c ⎞ 2 ⎤
φ Pnw = 0 .55 φ f c ' Ag ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (14-1)
⎣⎢ ⎝ 32 h ⎠ ⎦⎥
where φ = 0.70 and effective length factor k shall be: For walls braced at top and
bottom against lateral translation and
(a) Restrained against rotation at one or both ends (top, bottom, or both) ….0.8
(b) Unrestrained against rotation at both ends……………………………… 1.0
For walls not braced against lateral translation ………………………………2.0
14.5.3.1 Thickness of bearing walls shall not be less than 1/25 the supported height or
length, whichever is shorter, nor less than 100 mm.
14.5.3.2 Thickness of exterior basement walls and foundation walls shall not be less than 200
mm.
SECTION 14.6
NONBEARING WALLS
14.6.1 Thickness of nonbearing walls shall not be less than 100 mm, nor less than 1/30
the least distance between members that provide lateral support.
SECTION 14.7
WALLS AS GRADE BEAMS
14.7.1 Walls designed as grade beams shall have top and bottom reinforcement as
required for moment in accordance with provisions of Section 10.2 through 10.7.
Design for shear shall be in accordance with provisions of Chapter 11.
14.7.2 Portions of grade beam walls exposed above grade shall also meet requirements
of 14.3.
SECTION 14.8
ALTERNATIVE DESIGN OF SLENDER WALLS
14.8.1 When flexural tension controls the design of a wall, the requirements of 14.8 are
considered to satisfy 10.10.
14.8.2 Walls designed by the provisions of 14.8 shall satisfy 14.8.2.1 through 14.8.2.6.
14.8.2.1 The wall panel shall be designed as a simply supported, axially loaded member
subjected to an out-of-plane uniform lateral load, with maximum moments and
deflections occurring at midspan.
14.8.2.2 The cross section shall be constant over the height of the panel.
14.8.2.3 The reinforcement ratio ρ shall not exceed 0.6 ρ b
14.8.2.4 Reinforcement shall provide a design strength
φ M n ≥ M cr (14.2)
SBC 304 2007 14/4
WALLS
where M cr shall be obtained using the modulus of rupture given by Eq. (9-10).
14.8.2.5 Concentrated gravity loads applied to the wall above the design flexural section
shall be assumed to be distributed over a width:
(a) Equal to the bearing width, plus a width on each side that increases at a
slope of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal down to the design section; but
(b) Not greater than the spacing of the concentrated loads; and
(c) Not extending beyond the edges of the wall panel.
14.8.2.6 Vertical stress Pu / Ag at the midheight section shall not exceed 0.06 f c' .
14.8.3 The design moment strength φM n for combined flexure and axial loads at the
midheight cross section shall be
φ Mn ≥ Mu (14-3)
where:
M u = M ua + Pu ∆ u (14-4)
M ua is the moment at the midheight section of the wall due to factored loads,
and ∆ u is:
5M u l 2c (14-5)
∆u =
(0.75) 48Ec I cr
M u shall be obtained by iteration of deflections, or by direct calculation using Eq.
(14-6).
M ua
Mu = (14-6)
5Pu l 2c
1−
(0.75)48Ec I cr
where:
l wc 3
I cr = nAse (d − c) 2 + (14-7)
3
and
Pu + As f y
Ase = (14-8)
fy
14.8.4 The maximum deflection ∆ s due to service loads, including P∆ effects, shall not
exceed l c / 150 . The midheight deflection ∆ s shall be determined by:
(5M )l 2c
∆s = (14-9)
48 Ec I e
M sa
M= (14-10)
5 Ps l 2c
1−
48 Ec I e
I e shall be calculated using the procedure of 9.5.2.3, substituting M for
M a I cr shall be evaluated using Eq. (14-7).
CHAPTER 15
FOOTINGS
SECTION 15.0
NOTATION
SECTION 15.1
SCOPE
15.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 15 shall apply for design of isolated footings and, where
applicable, to combined footings and mats.
15.1.2 Additional requirements for design of combined footings and mats are given in
15.10.
SECTION 15.2
LOADS AND REACTIONS
15.2.1 Footings shall be proportioned to resist the factored loads and induced reactions,
in accordance with the appropriate design requirements of SBC 304 and as
provided in Chapter 15.
15.2.2 Base area of footing or number and arrangement of piles shall be determined from
unfactored forces and moments transmitted by footing to soil or piles and
permissible soil pressure or permissible pile capacity determined through principles
of soil mechanics.
15.2.3 For footings on piles, computations for moments and shears shall be permitted to
be based on the assumption that the reaction from any pile is concentrated at pile
center.
SECTION 15.3
FOOTINGS SUPPORTING CIRCULAR OR REGULAR
POLYGON SHAPED COLUMNS OR PEDESTALS
SECTION 15.4
MOMENT IN FOOTINGS
SECTION 15.5
SHEAR IN FOOTINGS
15.5.1 Shear strength of footings supported on soil or rock shall be in accordance with
11.12.
15.5.2 Location of critical section for shear in accordance with Chapter 11 shall be
measured from face of column, pedestal, or wall, for footings supporting a column,
pedestal, or wall. For footings supporting a column or pedestal with steel base plates,
the critical section shall be measured from location defined in 15.4.2(c).
15.5.3 Where the distance between the axis of any pile to the axis of the column is more
than two times the distance between the top of the pile cap and the top of the
pile, the pile cap shall satisfy 11.12 and 15.5.4. Other pile caps shall satisfy one
of 11.12, 15.5.4, or Appendix A. If Appendix A is used, the effective concrete
compression strength of the struts, f cu , shall be determined using A.3.2.2(b).
15.5.4 Computation of shear on any section through a footing supported on piles shall be
in accordance with 15.5.4.1, 15.5.4.2, and 15.5.4.3.
15.5.4.1 Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located d p / 2 or more outside the
section shall be considered as producing shear on that section.
15.5.4.2 Reaction from any pile whose center is located d p / 2 or more inside the section
shall be considered as producing no shear on that section.
SBC 304 2007 15/2
FOOTINGS
15.5.4.3 For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be
considered as producing shear on the section shall be based on straight-line
interpolation between full value at d p / 2 outside the section and zero value at d p / 2
inside the section.
SECTION 15.6
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT IN FOOTINGS
15.6.3 Critical sections for development of reinforcement shall be assumed at the same
locations as defined in 15.4.2 for maximum factored moment, and at all other
vertical planes where changes of section or reinforcement occur. See also 12.10.6.
SECTION 15.7
MINIMUM FOOTING DEPTH
15.7.1 Depth of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be less than 150 mm for
footings on soil, nor less than 300 mm for footings on piles.
SECTION 15.8
TRANSFER OF FORCE AT BASE OF COLUMN,
WALL OR REINFORCED PEDESTAL
15.8.1 Forces and moments at base of column, wall, or pedestal shall be transferred
to supporting pedestal or footing by bearing on concrete and by reinforcement,
dowels, and mechanical connectors.
15.8.1.1 Bearing stress on concrete at contact surface between supported and supporting
member shall not exceed concrete bearing strength for either surface as given by
10.17.
15.8.1.2 Reinforcement, dowels, or mechanical connectors between supported and
supporting members shall be adequate to transfer:
(a) All compressive force that exceeds concrete bearing strength of either
member;
(b) Any computed tensile force across interface.
In addition, reinforcement, dowels, or mechanical connectors shall satisfy
15.8.2 or 15.8.3.
15.8.1.3 If calculated moments are transferred to supporting pedestal or footing, then
reinforcement, dowels, or mechanical connectors shall be adequate to satisfy 12.17.
15.8.1.4 Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting pedestal or footing in accordance
with shear-friction provisions of 11.7, or by other appropriate means.
15.8.2.1 For cast-in-place columns and pedestals, area of reinforcement across interface
shall be not less than 0.005 times gross area of supported member.
15.8.2.2 For cast-in-place walls, area of reinforcement across interface shall be not less than
minimum vertical reinforcement given in 14.3.2.
15.8.2.3 At footings, it shall be permitted to lap splice Dia 40 mm and larger longitudinal
bars, in compression only, with dowels to provide reinforcement required to satisfy
15.8.1. Dowels shall not be larger than Dia 36 mm bar and shall extend into
supported member a distance not less than the development length needed for bars with
larger diameters than 40 mm or the splice length of the dowels, whichever is greater,
and into the footing a distance not less than the development length of the
dowels.
15.8.2.4 If a pinned or rocker connection is provided in cast-in-place construction,
connection shall conform to 15.8.1 and 15.8.3.
15.8.3 In precast construction, anchor bolts or suitable mechanical connectors shall be
permitted for satisfying 15.8.1. Anchor bolts shall be designed in accordance with
Appendix D.
15.8.3.1 Connection between precast columns or pedestals and supporting members shall meet
the requirements of 16.5.1.3(a).
15.8.3.2 Connection between precast walls and supporting members shall meet the
requirements of 16.5.1.3(b) and (c).
15.8.3.3 Anchor bolts and mechanical connections shall be designed to reach their
design strength before anchorage failure or failure of surrounding concrete.
Anchor bolts shall be designed in accordance with Appendix D.
SECTION 15.9
SLOPED OR STEPPED FOOTINGS
15.9.1 In sloped or stepped footings, angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall
be such that design requirements are satisfied at every section. (See also
12.10.6.)
15.9.2 Sloped or stepped footings designed as a unit shall be constructed to ensure action
as a unit.
SECTION 15.10
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
15.10.1 Footings supporting more than one column, pedestal, or wall (combined footings or
mats) shall be proportioned to resist the factored loads and induced reactions, in
accordance with appropriate design requirements of the code.
15.10.2 The Direct Design Method of Chapter 13 shall not be used for design of combined
footings and mats.
15.10.3 Distribution of soil pressure under combined footings and mats shall be consistent
with properties of the soil and the structure and with established principles of soil
mechanics.
CHAPTER 16
PRECAST CONCRETE
SECTION 16.0
NOTATION
SECTION 16.1
SCOPE
16.1.1 All provisions of SBC 304, not specifically excluded and not in conflict with the
provisions of Chapter 16, shall apply to structures incorporating precast concrete
structural members.
SECTION 16.2
GENERAL
16.2.1 Design of precast members and connections shall include loading and restraint
conditions from initial fabrication to end use in the structure, including form
removal, storage, transportation, and erection.
16.2.2 When precast members are incorporated into a structural system, the forces and
deformations occurring in and adjacent to connections shall be included in the
design.
16.2.3 Tolerances for both precast members and interfacing members shall be specified.
Design of precast members and connections shall include the effects of these
tolerances.
16.2.4 In addition to the requirements for drawings and specifications in 1.2, (a) and (b)
shall be included in either the contract documents or shop drawings:
SECTION 16.3
DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES AMONG MEMBERS
16.3.1 Distribution of forces that are perpendicular to the plane of members shall be
established by analysis or by test.
16.3.2 Where the system behavior requires in-plane forces to be transferred between the
members of a precast floor or wall system, Section 16.3.2.1 and 16.3.2.2 shall apply.
16.3.2.1 In-plane force paths shall be continuous through both connections and members.
16.3.2.2 Where tension forces occur, a continuous path of steel or steel reinforcement shall be
provided.
SECTION 16.4
MEMBER DESIGN
16.4.1 In one-way precast floor and roof slabs and in one-way precast, prestressed wall
panels, all not wider than 4 m, and where members are not mechanically connected
to cause restraint in the transverse direction, the shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement requirements of 7.12 in the direction normal to the flexural
reinforcement shall be permitted to be waived. This waiver shall not apply to
members that require reinforcement to resist transverse flexural stresses.
16.4.2 For precast, nonprestressed walls the reinforcement shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of Chapters 10 or 14, except that the area of horizontal and
vertical reinforcement each shall be not less than 0.001 times the gross cross-
sectional area of the wall panel. Spacing of reinforcement shall not exceed 3 times
the wall thickness nor 500 mm for interior walls nor 300 mm for exterior walls.
SECTION 16.5
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
16.5.1 Except where the provisions of Section 16.5.2 govern, the minimum provisions of
16.5.1.1 through 16.5.1.4 for structural integrity shall apply to all precast concrete
structures.
16.5.1.1 Longitudinal and transverse ties required by Section 7.13.3 shall connect members
to a lateral load resisting system.
16.5.1.2 Where precast elements form floor or roof diaphragms, the connections between
diaphragm and those members being laterally supported shall have a nominal
tensile strength capable of resisting not less than 4.5 kN/m.
16.5.1.3 Vertical tension tie requirements of Section 7.13.3 shall apply to all vertical
structural members, except cladding, and shall be achieved by providing
connections at horizontal joints in accordance with (a) through (c):
(a) Precast columns shall have a nominal strength in tension not less than
1.5 Ag , in kN. For columns with a larger cross section than required by
consideration of loading, a reduced effective area Ag based on cross
section required but not less than one-half the total area, shall be
permitted;
(b) Precast wall panels shall have a minimum of two ties per panel, with a
nominal tensile strength not less than 45 kN per tie;
(c) When design forces result in no tension at the base, the ties required by
16.5.1.3(b) shall be permitted to be anchored into an appropriately
reinforced concrete floor slab on grade.
16.5.1.4 Connection details that rely solely on friction caused by gravity loads shall not be
used.
16.5.2 For precast concrete bearing wall structures three or more stories in height, the
minimum provisions of Section 16.5.2.1 through 16.5.2.5 shall apply.
SBC 304 2007 16/2
PRECAST CONCRETE
16.5.2.1 Longitudinal and transverse ties shall be provided in floor and roof systems to
provide a nominal strength of 20 kN/m of width or length. Ties shall be provided
over interior wall supports and between members and exterior walls. Ties shall be
positioned in or within 0.6 m of the plane of the floor or roof system.
16.5.2.2 Longitudinal ties parallel to floor or roof slab spans shall be spaced not more than
3.0 m on centers. Provisions shall be made to transfer forces around openings.
16.5.2.3 Transverse ties perpendicular to floor or roof slab spans shall be spaced not greater
than the bearing wall spacing.
16.5.2.4 Ties around the perimeter of each floor and roof, within 1.2 m of the edge, shall
provide a nominal strength in tension not less than 70 kN.
16.5.2.5 Vertical tension ties shall be provided in all walls and shall be continuous over the
height of the building. They shall provide a nominal tensile strength not less than
40 kN per horizontal meter of wall. Not less than two ties shall be provided for
each precast panel.
SECTION 16.6
CONNECTION AND BEARING DESIGN
16.6.2.1 The allowable bearing stress at the contact surface between supported and
supporting members and between any intermediate bearing elements shall not
exceed the bearing strength for either surface and the bearing element. Concrete
bearing strength shall be as given in 10.17.
16.6.2.2 Unless shown by test or analysis that performance will not be impaired, (a) and (b)
shall be met:
(a) Each member and its supporting system shall have design dimensions
selected so that, after consideration of tolerances, the distance from the
edge of the support to the end of the precast member in the direction of
the span is at least 1/180 of the clear span l , but not less than:
For solid or hollow-core slabs ………………….50 mm
For beams or stemmed members ………………….75 mm
(b) Bearing pads at unarmored edges shall be set back a minimum of 15 mm
from the face of the support, or at least the chamfer dimension at
chamfered edges.
16.6.2.3 The requirements of Section 12.11.1 shall not apply to the positive bending
SBC 304 2007 16/3
PRECAST CONCRETE
SECTION 16.7
ITEMS EMBEDDED AFTER CONCRETE PLACEMENT
16.7.1 When approved by the registered design professional, embedded items (such as
dowels or inserts) that either protrude from the concrete or remain exposed for
inspection shall be permitted to be embedded while the concrete is in a plastic state
provided that Section 16.7.1.1, 16.7.1.2, and 16.7.1.3 are met.
16.7.1.1 Embedded items are not required to be hooked or tied to reinforcement within the
concrete.
16.7.1.2 Embedded items are maintained in the correct position while the concrete remains
plastic.
16.7.1.3 The concrete is properly consolidated around the embedded item.
SECTION 16.8
MARKING AND IDENTIFICATION
16.8.1 Each precast member shall be marked to indicate its location and orientation in the
structure and date of manufacture.
SECTION 16.9
HANDLING
16.9.1 Member design shall consider forces and distortions during curing, stripping,
storage, transportation, and erection so that precast members are not overstressed
or otherwise damaged.
16.9.2 During erection, precast members and structures shall be adequately supported and
braced to ensure proper alignment and structural integrity until permanent
connections are completed.
SECTION 16.10
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION
16.10.1.1 Test loads shall be applied only when calculations indicate the isolated precast
element will not be critical in compression or buckling.
16.10.1.2 The test load shall be that load which, when applied to the precast member alone,
induces the same total force in the tension reinforcement as would be induced by
loading the composite member with the test load required by Section 20.3.2.
16.10.2 The provisions of 20.5 shall be the basis for acceptance or rejection of the precast
element.
SBC 304 2007 16/4
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
CHAPTER 17
COMPOSITE CONCRETE
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
SECTION 17.0
NOTATION
SECTION 17.1
SCOPE
17.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 17 shall apply for design of composite concrete flexural
members defined as precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete elements, or both,
constructed in separate placements but so interconnected that all elements respond to
loads as a unit.
17.1.2 All provisions of the code shall apply to composite concrete flexural members,
except as specifically modified in Chapter 17.
SECTION 17.2
GENERAL
17.2.1 The use of an entire composite member or portions thereof for resisting shear and
moment shall be permitted.
17.2.2 Individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading.
17.2.3 If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various elements are
different, properties of the individual elements or the most critical values shall be
used in design.
17.2.5 All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to full
SBC 304 2007 17/1
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
SECTION 17.3
SHORING
When used, shoring shall not be removed until supported elements have
developed design properties required to support all loads and limit deflections and
cracking at time of shoring removal.
SECTION 17.4
VERTICAL SHEAR STRENGTH
17.4.1 When an entire composite member is assumed to resist vertical shear, design
shall be in accordance with requirements of Chapter 11 as for a monolithically
cast member of the same cross-sectional shape.
17.4.3 Extended and anchored shear reinforcement shall be permitted to be included as ties
for horizontal shear.
SECTION 17.5
HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRENGTH
17.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be ensured at
contact surfaces of interconnected elements.
17.5.2 Unless calculated in accordance with Section 17.5.3, design of cross sections
subject to horizontal shear shall be based on
Vu ≤ φVnh (17-1)
where Vu is factored shear force at the section considered and Vnh is nominal
horizontal shear strength in accordance with Section 17.5.2.1 through 17.5.2.5.
17.5.2.1 When contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened,
shear strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 0.6bv d , in N.
17.5.2.2 When minimum ties are provided in accordance with 17.6, and contact surfaces
are clean and free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 0.6bv d , in N.
17.5.2.3 When ties are provided in accordance with 17.6, and contact surfaces are
clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of
approximately 5 mm, shear strength Vnh shall be taken equal to
(1.8 + 0.6 ρ v f y )λbv d , in N, but not greater than 3.5bv d , in N. Values for λ in
11.7.4.3 shall apply.
SBC 304 2007 17/2
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
17.5.2.4 When factored shear force Vu at section considered exceeds φ (3.5 bv d ) , design for
horizontal shear shall be in accordance with Section 11.7.4.
17.5.2.5 When determining nominal horizontal shear strength over prestressed concrete
elements, d shall be as defined or 0.8h , whichever is greater.
17.5.3.1 When ties provided to resist horizontal shear are designed to satisfy Section
17.5.3, the tie area to tie spacing ratio along the member shall approximately
reflect the distribution of shear forces in the member.
17.5.4 When tension exists across any contact surface between interconnected elements,
shear transfer by contact shall be permitted only when minimum ties are provided
in accordance with 17.6.
SECTION 17.6
TIES FOR HORIZONTAL SHEAR
17.6.1 When ties are provided to transfer horizontal shear, tie area shall not be less than
that required by 11.5.5.3, and tie spacing shall not exceed four times the least
dimension of supported element, nor exceed 600 mm.
17.6.2 Ties for horizontal shear shall consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or
vertical legs of welded wire fabric (plain or deformed).
17.6.3 All ties shall be fully anchored into interconnected elements in accordance with
12.13.
CHAPTER 18
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION 18.0
NOTATION
A = area of that part of cross section between flexural tension face and center
of gravity of gross section, mm²
Acf = larger gross cross-sectional area of the slab- beam strips of the two
orthogonal equivalent frames intersecting at a column of a two-way slab,
mm²
A ps = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone, mm²
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, mm²
As' = area of compression reinforcement, mm²
b = width of compression face of member, mm
cc = clear cover from the nearest surface in tension to the surface of the
flexural tension steel, mm
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of nonprestressed
tension reinforcement, mm
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression
reinforcement, mm
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of prestressed
reinforcement, mm
D = dead loads, or related internal moments and forces
e = base of Napierian logarithms
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
f c' = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
SECTION 18.1
SCOPE
18.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 18 shall apply to members prestressed with wire, strands,
or bars conforming to provisions for prestressing steel in 3.5.5.
18.1.2 All provisions of SBC 304 not specifically excluded, and not in conflict with
provisions of Chapter 18, shall apply to prestressed concrete.
18.1.3 The following provisions of SBC 304 shall not apply to prestressed concrete,
except as specifically noted: Sections 7.6.5, 8.10.2, 8.10.3, 8.10.4, 8.11, 10.5,
10.6, 10.9.1, and 10.9.2; Chapter 13; and Sections 14.3, 14.5, and 14.6, except
that certain sections of 10.6 apply as noted in 18.4.4.
SECTION 18.2
GENERAL
18.2.1 Prestressed members shall meet the strength requirements of SBC 304.
18.2.4 Provisions shall be made for effects on adjoining construction of elastic and
plastic deformations, deflections, changes in length, and rotations due to
prestressing. Effects of temperature and shrinkage shall also be included.
SECTION 18.3
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
18.3.1 Strength design of prestressed members for flexure and axial loads shall be
based on assumptions given in 10.2, except that 10.2.4 shall apply only to
reinforcement conforming to 3.5.3.
18.3.2.1 Strains vary linearly with depth through the entire load range.
18.3.2.2 At cracked sections, concrete resists no tension.
18.3.4 For Class U and Class T flexural members, stresses at service loads shall be
permitted to be calculated using the uncracked section. For Class C flexural
SBC 304 2007 18/3
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION 18.4
SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS - FLEXURAL MEMBERS
18.4.2 For Class U and Class T prestressed flexural members, stresses in concrete at
service loads (based on uncracked section properties, and after allowance for all
prestress losses) shall not exceed the following:
18.4.4 For Class C prestressed flexural members not subject to fatigue or to aggressive
exposure, the spacing of bonded reinforcement nearest the extreme tension face
shall not exceed that given by 10.6.4.
18.4.4.3 The magnitude of ∆f ps shall not exceed 250 MPa. When ∆f ps is less than or
equal to 140 MPa, the spacing requirements of Section 18.4.4.1 and 18.4.4.2
shall not apply.
18.4.4.4 If the effective depth of a beam exceeds 1 m, the area of skin reinforcement
consisting of reinforcement or bonded tendons shall be provided as required by
10.6.7.
SECTION 18.5
PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN PRESTRESSING STEEL
18.5.1 Tensile stress in prestressing steel shall not exceed the following:
(a) Due to prestressing steel jacking force 0.94 f py but not greater than the
lesser of 0.80 f pu and the maximum value recommended by the
manufacturer of prestressing steel or anchorage devices.
(b) Immediately after prestress transfer…………………….. 0.82 f py
but not greater than 0.74 f pu
SECTION 18.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
18.6.1 To determine effective prestress f se , allowance for the following sources of loss
of prestress shall be considered:
When ( Kl x + µα ) is not greater than 0.3, effect of friction loss shall be permitted
to be computed by
Ps = Px (1 + Kl x + µα ) (18-2)
18.6.2.2 Friction loss shall be based on experimentally determined wobble K and
curvature µ friction coefficients, and shall be verified during tendon stressing
operations.
18.6.2.3 Values of wobble and curvature friction coefficients used in design shall be
shown on design drawings.
18.6.3 Where loss of prestress in a member occurs due to connection of the member to
adjoining construction, such loss of prestress shall be allowed for in design.
SECTION 18.7
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
18.7.1 Design moment strength of flexural members shall be computed by the strength
design methods of the code. For prestressing steel, f ps shall be substituted for f y
in strength computations.
SECTION 18.8
LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
18.8.3 Part or all of the bonded reinforcement consisting of bars or tendons shall be
provided as close as practicable to the extreme tension fiber in all prestressed
flexural members, except that in members prestressed with unbonded tendons,
the minimum bonded reinforcement consisting of bars or tendons shall be as
required by Section 18.9.
SECTION 18.9
MINIMUM BONDED REINFORCEMENT
18.9.3 For two-way flat slab systems, minimum area and distribution of bonded
reinforcement shall be as required in 18.9.3.1, 18.9.3.2, and 18.9.3.3.
18.9.3.1 Bonded reinforcement shall not be required in positive moment areas where
computed concrete tensile stress at service load (after allowance for all prestress
losses) does not exceed (1 / 6) fc' .
18.9.3.2 In positive moment areas where computed tensile stress in concrete at service
load exceeds (1 / 6) fc' , minimum area of bonded reinforcement shall be
computed by
Nc
As = (18-7)
0 .5 f y
where design yield strength f y shall not exceed 420 MPa. Bonded reinforcement
shall be uniformly distributed over precompressed tensile zone as close as
practicable to the extreme tension fiber.
18.9.3.3 In negative moment areas at column supports, the minimum area of bonded
reinforcement As in the top of the slab in each direction shall be computed by
18.9.4 Minimum length of bonded reinforcement required by 18.9.2 and 18.9.3 shall be
as required in 18.9.4.1, 18.9.4.2, and 18.9.4.3.
18.9.4.1 In positive moment areas, minimum length of bonded reinforcement shall be
one-third the clear span length and centered in positive moment area.
18.9.4.2 In negative moment areas, bonded reinforcement shall extend one-sixth the clear
span on each side of support.
18.9.4.3 Where bonded reinforcement is provided for design moment strength in
accordance with Section 18.7.3, or for tensile stress conditions in accordance
with 18.9.3.2, minimum length also shall conform to provisions of Chapter 12.
SECTION 18.10
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
18.10.1 Frames and continuous construction of prestressed concrete shall be designed for
satisfactory performance at service load conditions and for adequate strength.
18.10.3 Moments used to compute required strength shall be the sum of the moments
due to reactions induced by prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) and the
moments due to factored loads. Adjustment of the sum of these moments shall
be permitted as allowed in 18.10.4.
SECTION 18.11
COMPRESSION MEMBERS-COMBINED FLEXURE AND AXIAL LOADS
18.11.1 Prestressed concrete members subject to combined flexure and axial load, with
or without nonprestressed reinforcement, shall be proportioned by the strength
design methods of SBC 304. Effects of prestress, creep, shrinkage, and
temperature change shall be included.
18.11.2.1 Members with average prestress f pc less than 1.5 MPa shall have minimum
reinforcement in accordance with Section 7.10, 10.9.1 and 10.9.2 for columns,
or 14.3 for walls.
18.11.2.2 Except for walls, members with average prestress f pc equal to or greater than
1.5 MPa shall have all tendons enclosed by spirals or lateral ties in accordance
with (a) through (d):
(a) Spirals shall conform to 7.10.4;
(b) Lateral ties shall be at least Dia 10 mm in size or welded wire fabric of
equivalent area, and shall be spaced vertically not to exceed 48 tie bar
or wire diameters, or the least dimension of the compression member;
(c) Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie spacing above
top of footing or slab in any story, and not more than half a tie spacing
below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in members supported
above;
(d) Where beams or brackets frame into all sides of a column, ties shall be
terminated not more than 75 mm below lowest reinforcement in such
beams or brackets.
18.11.2.3 For walls with average prestress f pc equal to or greater than 1.5 MPa, minimum
reinforcement required by 14.3 shall not apply where structural analysis shows
adequate strength and stability.
SECTION 18.12
SLAB SYSTEMS
18.12.1 Factored moments and shears in prestressed slab systems reinforced for flexure
in more than one direction shall be determined in accordance with provisions of
13.7 (excluding 13.7.7.4 and 13.7.7.5), or by more detailed design procedures.
18.12.2 Design moment strength of prestressed slabs required by 9.3 at every section
shall be equal to or exceed the required strength considering Section 9.2,
18.10.3, and 18.10.4. Design shear strength of prestressed slabs at columns
required by 9.3 shall be equal to or exceed the required strength considering
Section 9.2, 11.1, 11.12.2, and 11.12.6.2.
18.12.4 For normal live loads and loads uniformly distributed, spacing of tendons or
groups of tendons in one direction shall not exceed eight times the slab
thickness, nor 1.5 m. Spacing of tendons also shall provide a minimum average
prestress (after allowance for all prestress losses) of 0.9 MPa on the slab section
tributary to the tendon or tendon group. A minimum of two tendons shall be
provided in each direction through the critical shear section over columns.
Special consideration of tendon spacing shall be provided for slabs with
concentrated loads.
18.12.6 In lift slabs, bonded bottom reinforcement shall be detailed in accordance with
Section 13.3.8.6.
SECTION 18.13
POST-TENSIONED TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES
(a) The local zone is the rectangular prism (or equivalent rectangular
prism for circular or oval anchorages) of concrete immediately
surrounding the anchorage device and any confining reinforcement;
(b) The general zone is the anchorage zone as defined in 2.1 and includes
the local zone.
18.13.2.1 Design of local zones shall be based upon the factored prestressing force, Psu and
the requirements of Section 9.2.5 and 9.3.2.5.
18.13.2.2 Local-zone reinforcement shall be provided where required for proper
functioning of the anchorage device.
18.13.2.3 Local-zone requirements of Section 18.13.2.2 are satisfied by Section 18.14.1 or
18.15.1 and 18.15.2.
18.13.3.1 Design of general zones shall be based upon the factored prestressing force, Psu
and the requirements of 9.2.5 and 9.3.2.5.
18.13.3.2 General-zone reinforcement shall be provided where required to resist bursting,
spalling, and longitudinal edge tension forces induced by anchorage devices.
Effects of abrupt change in section shall be considered.
18.13.4.2 Except for concrete confined within spirals or hoops providing confinement
equivalent to that corresponding to Eq. (10-5), nominal compressive strength of
concrete in the general zone shall be limited to 0.7λf ci' .
18.13.4.3 Compressive strength of concrete at time of post-tensioning shall be specified on
the design drawings. Unless oversize anchorage devices sized to compensate for
the lower compressive strength are used or the prestressing steel is stressed to no
more than 50 percent of the final prestressing force, prestressing steel shall not
be stressed until f ci' as indicated by tests consistent with the curing of the
member, is at least 28 MPa for multistrand tendons or at least 20 MPa for single-
strand or bar tendons.
18.13.5.1 The following methods shall be permitted for the design of general zones
provided that the specific procedures used result in prediction of strength in
substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests:
(a) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie models);
(b) Linear stress analysis (including finite element analysis or equivalent);
or
(c) Simplified equations where applicable.
18.13.5.2 Simplified equations shall not be used where member cross sections are
nonrectangular, where discontinuities in or near the general zone cause
deviations in the force flow path, where minimum edge distance is less than 1-
1/2 times the anchorage device lateral dimension in that direction, or where
multiple anchorage devices are used in other than one closely spaced group.
18.13.5.3 The stressing sequence shall be specified on the design drawings and considered
in the design.
18.13.5.4 Three-dimensional effects shall be considered in design and analyzed using
three-dimensional procedures or approximated by considering the summation of
effects for two orthogonal planes.
18.13.5.5 For anchorage devices located away from the end of the member, bonded
reinforcement shall be provided to transfer at least 0.35 Psu into the concrete
section behind the anchor. Such reinforcement shall be placed symmetrically
around the anchorage devices and shall be fully developed both behind and
ahead of the anchorage devices.
18.13.5.6 Where tendons are curved in the general zone, except for monostrand tendons in
slabs or where analysis shows reinforcement is not required, bonded
reinforcement shall be provided to resist radial and splitting forces.
18.13.5.7 Except for monostrand tendons in slabs or where analysis shows reinforcement
is not required, minimum reinforcement with a nominal tensile strength equal to
2 percent of each factored prestressing force shall be provided in orthogonal
directions parallel to the back face of all anchorage zones to limit spalling.
18.13.5.8 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in calculations of reinforcement
requirements.
SECTION 18.14
DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR MONOSTRAND OR
SINGLE 16 MM DIAMETER BAR TENDONS
18.14.2.1 For anchorage devices for 12.5 mm or smaller diameter strands in normalweight
concrete slabs, minimum reinforcement meeting the requirements of 18.14.2.2
and 18.14.2.3 shall be provided unless a detailed analysis satisfying 18.13.5
shows such reinforcement is not required.
18.14.2.2 Two horizontal bars at least Dia 14 mm in size shall be provided parallel to the
slab edge. They shall be permitted to be in contact with the front face of the
anchorage device and shall be within a distance of (1 / 2 )h ahead of each device.
Those bars shall extend at least 150 mm either side of the outer edges of each
device.
18.14.2.3 If the center-to-center spacing of anchorage devices is 300 mm or less, the
anchorage devices shall be considered as a group. For each group of six or more
anchorage devices, n + 1 hairpin bars or closed stirrups at least Dia 10 mm in
size shall be provided, where n is the number of anchorage devices. One hairpin
bar or stirrup shall be placed between each anchorage device and one on each
side of the group. The hairpin bars or stirrups shall be placed with the legs
extending into the slab perpendicular to the edge. The center portion of the
hairpin bars or stirrups shall be placed perpendicular to the plane of the slab
from 3h / 8 to h / 2 ahead of the anchorage devices.
18.14.2.4 For anchorage devices not conforming to Section 18.14.2.1, minimum
reinforcement shall be based upon a detailed analysis satisfying 18.13.5.
SECTION 18.15
DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR MULTISTRAND TENDONS
Basic multistrand anchorage devices and local zone reinforcement shall meet
the requirements of AASHTO “Standard Specification for Highway Bridges,”
Divisions, Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4.
Special anchorage devices shall satisfy the tests required in AASHTO
“Standard Specification for Highway Bridges,” Division I, Article 9.21.7.3 and
described in AASHTO “Standard Specification for Highway Bridges,” Division
II, Article 10.3.2.3.
Design for general zones for multistrand tendons shall meet the requirements of
Section 18.13.3 through 18.13.5.
SECTION 18.16
CORROSION PROTECTION FOR UNBONDED TENDONS
18.16.1 Unbonded prestressing steel shall be encased with sheathing. The prestressing
steel shall be completely coated and the sheathing around the prestressing steel
filled with suitable material to inhibit corrosion.
18.16.2 Sheathing shall be watertight and continuous over entire length to be unbonded.
18.16.4 Unbonded single strand tendons shall be protected against corrosion in accordance
with ACI's "Specification for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons (ACI 423.6)".
SECTION 18.17
POST-TENSIONING DUCTS
18.17.1 Ducts for grouted tendons shall be mortar-tight and nonreactive with concrete,
prestressing steel, grout, and corrosion inhibitor.
SBC 304 2007 18/13
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
18.17.2 Ducts for grouted single wire, single strand, or single bar tendons shall have an
inside diameter at least 5 mm larger than the prestressing steel diameter.
18.17.3 Ducts for grouted multiple wire, multiple strand, or multiple bar tendons shall
have an inside cross-sectional area at least two times the cross-sectional area of
the prestressing steel.
18.17.4 Ducts shall be maintained free of ponded water if members to be grouted are
exposed to temperatures below freezing prior to grouting.
SECTION 18.18
GROUT FOR BONDED TENDONS
18.18.1 Grout shall consist of portland cement and water; or portland cement, sand, and
water.
18.18.2 Materials for grout shall conform to Section 18.18.2.1 through 18.18.2.4.
18.18.3.1 Proportions of materials for grout shall be based on either (a) or (b):
(a) Results of tests on fresh and hardened grout prior to beginning
grouting operations; or
(b) Prior documented experience with similar materials and equipment and
under comparable field conditions.
18.18.3.2 Cement used in the work shall correspond to that on which selection of grout
proportions was based.
18.18.3.3 Water content shall be minimum necessary for proper pumping of grout;
however, water-cement ratio shall not exceed 0.45 by weight.
18.18.3.4 Water shall not be added to increase grout flowability that has been decreased by
delayed use of the grout.
SECTION 18.19
PROTECTION FOR PRESTRESSING STEEL
SECTION 18.20
APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE
18.20.2 Where the transfer of force from the bulk-heads of pre-tensioning bed to the
concrete is accomplished by flame cutting prestressing steel, cutting points and
cutting sequence shall be predetermined to avoid undesired temporary stresses.
18.20.3 Long lengths of exposed pretensioned strand shall be cut near the member to
minimize shock to concrete.
18.20.4 Total loss of prestress due to unreplaced broken prestressing steel shall not
exceed 2 percent of total prestress.
SECTION 18.21
POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS
18.21.1 Anchorages and couplers for bonded and unbonded tendons shall develop at
least 95 percent of the specified breaking strength of the prestressing steel,
when tested in an unbonded condition, without exceeding anticipated set. For
bonded tendons, anchorages and couplers shall be located so that 100 percent of
the specified breaking strength of the prestressing steel shall be developed at
critical sections after the prestressing steel is bonded in the member.
18.21.2 Couplers shall be placed in areas approved by the engineer and enclosed in
housing long enough to permit necessary movements.
18.21.4 Anchorages, couplers, and end fittings shall be permanently protected against
corrosion.
SECTION 18.22
EXTERNAL POST-TENSIONING
18.22.3 External tendons shall be attached to the concrete member in a manner that
maintains the desired eccentricity between the tendons and the concrete centroid
throughout the full range of anticipated member deflection.
18.22.4 External tendons and tendon anchorage regions shall be protected against
corrosion, and the details of the protection method shall be indicated on the
drawings or in the project specifications.
CHAPTER 19
SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
SECTION 19.0
NOTATION
SECTION 19.1
SCOPE AND DEFINITIONS
19.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 19 shall apply to thin shell and folded plate concrete
structures, including ribs and edge members.
19.1.2 All provisions of SBC 304 not specifically excluded, and not in conflict with
provisions of Chapter 19, shall apply to thin-shell structures.
Folded plates. A special class of shell structure formed by joining flat, thin slabs
along their edges to create a three-dimensional spatial structure.
Ribbed shells. Spatial structures with material placed primarily along certain
preferred rib lines, with the area between the ribs filled with thin slabs or left
open.
SECTION 19.2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
19.2.1 Elastic behavior shall be an accepted basis for determining internal forces and
displacements of thin shells. This behavior shall be permitted to be established
by computations based on an analysis of the uncracked concrete structure in
which the material is assumed linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic.
Poisson’s ratio of concrete shall be permitted to be taken equal to zero.
19.2.2 Inelastic analyses shall be permitted to be used where it can be shown that such
methods provide a safe basis for design.
19.2.3 Equilibrium checks of internal resistances and external loads shall be made to
ensure consistency of results.
19.2.5 Approximate methods of analysis shall be permitted where it can be shown that
such methods provide a safe basis for design.
19.2.6 In prestressed shells, the analysis shall also consider behavior under loads
induced during prestressing, at cracking load, and at factored load. Where
tendons are draped within a shell, design shall take into account force
components on the shell resulting from the tendon profile not lying in one plane.
19.2.7 The thickness of a shell and its reinforcement shall be proportioned for the
required strength and serviceability, using either the strength design method of
Section 8.1.1 or the design method of 8.1.2.
19.2.10 Strength design of shell slabs for membrane and bending forces shall be based
on the distribution of stresses and strains as determined from either elastic or an
inelastic analysis.
SECTION 19.3
DESIGN STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
19.3.1 Specified compressive strength of concrete f c' at 28 days shall not be less than
20 MPa.
SECTION 19.4
SHELL REINFORCEMENT
19.4.1 Shell reinforcement shall be provided to resist tensile stresses from internal
membrane forces, to resist tension from bending and twisting moments, to limit
shrinkage and temperature crack width and spacing, and as special reinforcement
at shell boundaries, load attachments, and shell openings.
19.4.2 Tensile reinforcement shall be provided in two or more directions and shall be
proportioned such that its resistance in any direction equals or exceeds the
component of internal forces in that direction.
Alternatively, reinforcement for the membrane forces in the slab shall be
calculated as the reinforcement required to resist axial tensile forces plus the
tensile force due to shear-friction required to transfer shear across any cross
section of the membrane. The assumed coefficient of friction shall not exceed
1.0λ where λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete, 0.85 for sand-lightweight
concrete, and 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation shall be
permitted when partial sand replacement is used.
19.4.3 The area of shell reinforcement at any section as measured in two orthogonal
directions shall not be less than the slab shrinkage or temperature reinforcement
required by 7.12.
19.4.4 Reinforcement for shear and bending moments about axes in the plane of the
shell slab shall be calculated in accordance with Chapters 10, 11, and 13.
19.4.5 The area of shell tension reinforcement shall be limited so that the reinforcement
will yield before either crushing of concrete in compression or shell buckling can
take place.
19.4.7 If the direction of reinforcement varies more than 10 deg from the direction of
principal tensile membrane force, the amount of reinforcement shall be reviewed
in relation to cracking at service loads.
19.4.8 Where the magnitude of the principal tensile membrane stress within the shell
varies greatly over the area of the shell surface, reinforcement resisting the total
tension shall be permitted to be concentrated in the regions of largest tensile
SBC 304 2007 19/3
SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
stress where it can be shown that this provides a safe basis for design. However,
the ratio of shell reinforcement in any portion of the tensile zone shall be not less
than 0.0035 based on the overall thickness of the shell.
19.4.10 Shell reinforcement in any direction shall not be spaced farther apart than 300
mm nor farther apart than three times the shell thickness.
19.4.11 Shell reinforcement at the junction of the shell and supporting members or edge
members shall be anchored in or extended through such members in accordance
with the requirements of Chapter 12, except that the minimum development
length shall be 1.2l d but not less than 450 mm.
SECTION 19.4
CONSTRUCTION
19.5.2 The structural engineer shall specify the tolerances for the shape of the shell. If
construction results in deviations from the shape greater than the specified
tolerances, an analysis of the effect of the deviations shall be made and any
required remedial actions shall be taken to ensure safe behavior.
CHAPTER 20
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF
EXISTING STRUCTURES
SECTION 20.0
NOTATION
∆ f max = maximum deflection measured during the second test relative to the
position of the structure at the beginning of the second test, mm. See
Eq. (20-3)
SECTION 20.1
STRENGTH EVALUATION – GENERAL
20.1.1 If there is doubt that a part or all of a structure meets the safety requirements of
SBC 304, a strength evaluation shall be carried out as required by the structural
engineer.
20.1.2 If the effect of the strength deficiency is well understood and if it is feasible to
measure the dimensions and material properties required for analysis, analytical
evaluations of strength based on those measurements shall suffice. Required data
shall be determined in accordance with 20.2.
20.1.3 If the effect of the strength deficiency is not well understood or if it is not
feasible to establish the required dimensions and material properties by
measurement, a load test shall be required if the structure is to remain in service.
20.1.4 If the doubt about safety of a part or all of a structure involves deterioration, and
if the observed response during the load test satisfies the acceptance criteria (see
20.5), the structure or part of the structure shall be permitted to remain in service
for a specified time period. If deemed necessary by the structural engineer,
periodic reevaluations shall be conducted.
SECTION 20.2
DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED DIMENSIONS
AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
20.2.2 Locations and sizes of the reinforcing bars, welded wire fabric, or tendons shall
be determined by measurement. It shall be permitted to base reinforcement
locations on available drawings if spot checks are made confirming the
information on the drawings.
20.2.3 If required, concrete strength shall be based on results of cylinder tests or tests of
cores removed from the part of the structure where the strength is in doubt.
Concrete strengths shall be determined as specified in 5.6.5.
20.2.5 If the required dimensions and material properties are determined through
measurements and testing, and if calculations can be made in accordance with
20.1.2, it shall be permitted to increase the strength reduction factor in 9.3, but
the strength reduction factor shall not be more than:
SECTION 20.3
LOAD TEST PROCEDURE
20.3.3 A load test shall not be made until that portion of the structure to be subjected to
load is at least 56 days old. If the owner of the structure, the contractor, and all
involved parties agree, it shall be permitted to make the test at an earlier age.
SECTION 20.4
LOADING CRITERIA
20.4.1 The initial value for all applicable response measurements (such as deflection,
rotation, strain, slip, crack widths) shall be obtained not more than 1 hour before
application of the first load increment. Measurements shall be made at locations
SBC 304 2007 20/2
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
20.4.2 Test load shall be applied in not less than four approximately equal increments.
20.4.3 Uniform test load shall be applied in a manner to ensure uniform distribution of
the load transmitted to the structure or portion of the structure being tested.
Arching of the applied load shall be avoided.
20.4.4 A set of response measurements shall be made after each load increment is
applied and after the total load has been applied on the structure for at Least 24
hours.
20.4.5 Total test load shall be removed immediately after all response measurements
defined in 20.4.4 are made.
20.4.6 A set of final response measurements shall be made 24 hours after the test load
is removed.
SECTION 20.5
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
20.5.1 The portion of the structure tested shall show no evidence of failure. Spalling
and crushing of compressed concrete shall be considered an indication of failure.
20.5.2 Measured maximum deflections shall satisfy one of the following conditions:
l 2t
∆ max ≤ (20-1)
20,000h
∆
∆ r max ≤ max (20-2)
4
If the measured maximum and residual deflections do not satisfy Eq. (20-1) or
(20-2), it shall be permitted to repeat the load test.
The repeat test shall be conducted not earlier than 72 hours after removal of the
first test load. The portion of the structure tested in the repeat test shall be
considered acceptable if deflection recovery satisfies the condition:
∆
∆ r max ≤ f max (20-3)
5
where ∆ f max is the maximum deflection measured during the second test relative
to the position of the structure at the beginning of the second test.
20.5.3 Structural members tested shall not have cracks indicating the imminence of
shear failure.
20.5.5 In regions of anchorage and lap splices, the appearance along the line of
reinforcement of a series of short inclined cracks or horizontal cracks shall be
evaluated.
SECTION 20.6
PROVISION FOR LOWER LOAD RATING
20.6.1 If the structure under investigation does not satisfy conditions or criteria of
20.1.2, 20.5.2, or 20.5.3, the structure shall be permitted for use at a lower load
rating based on the results of the load test or analysis, if approved by the building
official.
SECTION 20.7
SAFETY
20.7.1 Load tests shall be conducted in such a manner as to provide for safety of life
and structure during the test.
20.7.2 No safety measures shall interfere with load test procedures or affect results.
CHAPTER 21
SPECIAL PROVISIONS
FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 21.0
NOTATION
Ach = cross-sectional area of a structural member measured out-to-out of
transverse reinforcement, mm²
Acp = area of concrete section, resisting shear, of an individual pier or
horizontal wall segment, mm²
Acv = gross area of concrete section bounded by web thickness and length of
section in the direction of shear force considered, mm²
Ag = gross area of section, mm²
Aj = effective cross-sectional area within a joint, see 21.5.3.1, in a plane
parallel to plane of reinforcement generating shear in the joint, mm².
The joint depth shall be the overall depth of the column. Where a
beam frames into a support of larger width, the effective width of the
joint shall not exceed the smaller of:
(a) beam width plus the joint depth
(b) twice the smaller perpendicular distance from the longitudinal axis
of the beam to the column side. See 21.5.3.1
Ash = total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (including
crossties) within spacing s and perpendicular to dimension hc , mm²
Avd = total area of reinforcement in each group of diagonal bars in a
diagonally reinforced coupling beam, mm²
b = effective compressive flange width of a structural member, mm
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, see
10.2.7, calculated for the factored axial force and nominal moment
strength, consistent with the design displacement δ u , resulting in the
largest neutral axis depth, mm
c1 = Size of rectangular or equivalent rectangular column, capital, or
bracket measured in the direction of the span for which moments are
being determined, mm
ct = dimension equal to the distance from the interior face of the column to
the slab edge measured parallel to c1 , but not exceeding c1 , mm
d = effective depth of section, mm
db = bar diameter, mm
E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal moments and forces
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
f c' = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
fy specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
f yh = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement, MPa
h = overall dimension of member in the direction of action considered,
mm
hc = cross-sectional dimension of column core measured center-to-center
of confining reinforcement, mm
SBC 304 2007 21/1
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
= As / bd
ρg = ratio of total reinforcement area to cross-sectional area of column
ρn = ratio of area of distributed reinforcement parallel to the plane of Acv
to gross concrete area perpendicular to that reinforcement
ρS = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to the core volume confined
by the spiral reinforcement (measured out-to-out)
ρv = ratio of area of distributed reinforcement perpendicular to the plane of
Acv to gross concrete area Acv
φ = strength reduction factor
SECTION 21.1
DEFINITIONS
Boundary elements. Portions along structural wall and structural diaphragm edges
strengthened by longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Boundary elements do not
necessarily require an increase in the thickness of the wall or diaphragm. Edges of openings
within walls and diaphragms shall be provided with boundary elements as required by
Section 21.7.6 or 21.9.5.3.
Collector elements. Elements that serve to transmit the inertial forces within structural
diaphragms to members of the Iateral-force-resisting systems.
Connection. A region that joins two or more members, of which one or more is precast.
Strong connection. Connection that remains elastic while adjoining members experience
yielding as a result of the design displacements.
Crosstie. A continuous reinforcing bar having a seismic hook at one end and a hook not less
than 90 deg with at least a six-diameter extension at the other end. The hooks shall engage
peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90 deg hooks of two successive crossties engaging the
same longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end.
Design displacement. Total lateral displacement expected for the design-basis earthquake,
as specified by SBC 301.
Development length for a bar with a standard hook. The shortest distance between the
critical section (where the strength of the bar is to be developed) and a tangent to the outer
edge of the 90 deg hook.
Factored loads and forces. Loads and forces multiplied by appropriate load factors in 9.2.
Hoop. A closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed tie can be made up of several
reinforcement elements each having seismic hooks at both ends. A continuously wound tie
SBC 304 2007 21/3
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
Joint. Portion of structure common to intersecting members. The effective area of the joint
for shear strength computations is defined in 21.0 (See A j ).
Moment frame. Frame in which members and joints resist forces through flexure, shear,
and axial force. Moment frames shall be categorized as follows:
Ordinary moment frame. A cast-in-place or precast concrete frame complying with the
requirements of Chapters 1 through 18.
Special moment frame. A cast-in-place frame complying with the requirements of Section
21.2 through 21.5 or a precast frame complying with the requirements of Section 21.2
through 21.6. In addition, the requirements for ordinary moment frames shall be satisfied.
Plastic hinge region. Length of frame element over which flexural yielding is intended to
occur due to design displacements, extending not less than a distance h from the critical
section where flexural yielding initiates.
Seismic hook. A hook on a stirrup, hoop, or crosstie having a bend not less than 135 deg,
except that circular hoops shall have a bend not less than 90 deg. Hooks shall have a six-
diameter (but not less than 75 mm) extension that engages the longitudinal reinforcement
and projects into the interior of the stirrup or hoop.
Specified lateral forces. Lateral forces corresponding to the appropriate distribution of the
design base shear force prescribed by the SBC 301 provisions for earthquake-resistant
design.
Structural diaphragms. Structural members, such as floor and roof slabs, that transmit
inertial forces to lateral-force resisting members.
Structural walls. Walls proportioned to resist combinations of shears, moments, and axial
forces induced by earthquake motions. A shearwall is a structural wall. Structural walls
shall be categorized as follows:
Intermediate precast structural wall. A wall complying with all applicable requirements of
Chapters 1 through 18 in addition to Section 21.13.
Ordinary reinforced concrete structural wall. A wall complying with the requirements of
Chapters 1 through 18.
Special precast structural wall. A precast wall complying with the requirements of 21.8. In
addition, the requirements for ordinary reinforced concrete structural walls and the
requirements of Section 21.2 shall be satisfied.
Special reinforced concrete structural wall. A cast-in-place wall complying with the
requirements of Section 21.2 and 21.7 in addition to the requirements for ordinary
reinforced concrete structural walls.
Story drift ratio. The design displacement over a story divided by the story height.
Tie elements. Elements that serve to transmit inertia forces and prevent separation of
building components such as footings and walls.
Wall pier. A wall segment with a horizontal length-to-thickness ratio of at least 2.5, but not
exceeding six, whose clear height is at least two times its horizontal length.
SECTION 21.2
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
21.2.1 Scope
21.2.2.1 The interaction of all structural and non-structural members that materially affect
the linear and nonlinear response of the structure to earthquake motions shall be
considered in the analysis.
21.2.2.2 Rigid members assumed not to be a part of the lateral-force resisting system shall
be permitted provided their effect on the response of the system is considered
and accommodated in the structural design. Consequences of failure of structural
and non-structural members, which are not a part of the lateral-force resisting
system, shall also be considered.
21.2.2.3 Structural members below base of structure that are required to transmit to the
foundation forces resulting from earthquake effects shall also comply with the
requirements of Chapter 21.
21.2.2.4 All structural members assumed not to be part of the lateral-force resisting
system shall conform to 21.11.
21.2.4.1 Compressive strength f c' of the concrete shall be not less than 20 MPa.
21.2.4.2 Compressive strength of lightweight aggregate concrete used in design shall not
exceed 35 MPa. Lightweight aggregate concrete with higher design compressive
strength shall be permitted if demonstrated by experimental evidence that
structural members made with that lightweight aggregate concrete provide
strength and toughness equal to or exceeding those of comparable members made
with normalweight aggregate concrete of the same strength.
(a) The actual yield strength based on mill tests does not exceed the
specified yield strength by more than 120 MPa (retests shall not exceed
this value by more than an additional 20 MPa); and
(b) The ratio of the actual ultimate tensile strength to the actual tensile
yield strength is not less than 1.25.
(b) Type 2 mechanical splices shall conform to Section 12.14.3.2 and shall
develop the specified tensile strength of the spliced bar.
21.2.6.2 Type 1 mechanical splices shall not be used within a distance equal to twice the
member depth from the column or beam face or from sections where yielding of
the reinforcement is likely to occur as a result of inelastic lateral displacements.
Type 2 mechanical splices shall be permitted to be used at any location.
SECTION 21.3
FLEXURAL MEMBERS OF SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES
21.3.1 Scope. Requirements of 21.3 apply to special moment frame members (a)
resisting earthquake-induced forces and (b) proportioned primarily to resist
flexure. These frame members shall also satisfy the conditions of Section
21.3.1.1 through 21.3.1.4.
21.3.1.1 Factored axial compressive force on the member shall not exceed (Ag f c' / 10 ).
21.3.1.2 Clear span for the member shall not be less than four times its effective depth.
21.3.1.3 The width-to-depth ratio shall not be less than 0.3.
21.3.1.4 The width shall not be
(a) less than 250 mm; and
(b) more than the width of the supporting member (measured on a plane
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the flexural member) plus
distances on each side of the supporting member not exceeding three-
fourths of the depth of the flexural member.
21.3.2.1 At any section of a flexural member, except as provided in 10.5.3, for top as well
as for bottom reinforcement, the amount of reinforcement shall not be less than
that given by Eq. (10-3) but not less than 1.4bw d / f y and the reinforcement ratio
ρ shall not exceed 0.020. At least two bars shall be provided continuously both
top and bottom.
21.3.2.2 Positive moment strength at joint face shall be not less than one-half of the
negative moment strength provided at that face of the joint. Neither the negative
nor the positive moment strength at any section along member length shall be
less than one-fourth the maximum moment strength provided at face of either
joint.
21.3.2.3 Lap splices of flexural reinforcement shall be permitted only if hoop or spiral
reinforcement is provided over the lap length. Maximum spacing of the
transverse reinforcement enclosing the lapped bars shall not exceed d / 4 or 100
mm. Lap splices shall not be used
(a) within the joints;
(b) within a distance of twice the member depth from the face of the joint;
and
(c) at locations where analysis indicates flexural yielding caused by
inelastic lateral displacements of the frame.
21.3.2.4 Mechanical splices shall conform to 21.2.6 and welded splices shall conform to
21.2.7.
21.3.3 Transverse reinforcement
reinforcing bars secured by the crossties are confined by a slab on only one side
of the flexural frame member, the 90 deg hooks of the crossties shall be placed
on that side.
SECTION 21.4
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO
BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD
21.4.1 Scope. The requirements of this section apply to special moment frame members
(a) resisting earthquake-induced forces and (b) having a factored axial force
exceeding (Ag f c' / 10).These frame members shall also satisfy the conditions of
Section 21.4.1.1 and 21.4.1.2.
Lateral strength and stiffness of columns not satisfying 21.4.2.2 shall be ignored
in determining the calculated strength and stiffness of the structure, but such
columns shall conform to 21.11.
21.4.2.2 The flexural strengths of the columns shall satisfy Eq. (21-1)
∑ M ≥ (6 / 5)∑ M
c g (21-1)
∑M c = sum of moments at the faces of the joint corresponding to the nominal
flexural strength of the columns framing into that joint. Column flexural strength
shall be calculated for the factored axial force, consistent with the direction of
the lateral forces considered, resulting in the lowest flexural strength.
21.4.2.3 If 21.4.2.2 is not satisfied at a joint, columns supporting reactions from that joint
shall be provided with transverse reinforcement as specified in Section 21.4.4.1
through 21.4.4.3 over their full height.
21.4.3.1 The reinforcement ratio ρ g shall not be less than 0.01 and shall not exceed 0.06.
21.4.3.2 Mechanical splices shall conform to Section 21.2.6 and welded splices shall
conform to 21.2.7. Lap splices shall be permitted only within the center half of
the member length, shall be designed as tension lap splices, and shall be enclosed
within transverse reinforcement conforming to Section 21.4.4.2 and 21.4.4.3.
21.4.4.1 Transverse reinforcement as required below in (a) through (e) shall be provided
unless a larger amount is required by Section 21.4.3.2 or 21.4.5.
(a) The volumetric ratio of spiral or circular hoop reinforcement ρ S shall
not be less than that required by Eq. (21-2).
ρ s = 0.12 f c' / f yh (21-2)
and shall not be less than that required by Eq. (10-5).
(b) The total cross-sectional area of rectangular hoop reinforcement shall
not be less than that required by Eq. (21-3) and (21-4).
( )
Ash = 0.3 shc f c' / f yh ((Ag / Ach ) − 1) (21-3)
Ash = 0.09 sh f / f yh
c c
'
(21-4)
(c) Transverse reinforcement shall be provided by either single or
overlapping hoops. Crossties of the same bar size and spacing as the
hoops shall be permitted. Each end of the crosstie shall engage a
peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar. Consecutive crossties shall be
⎛ 350 − hx ⎞
s x = 100 + ⎜ ⎟ (21-5)
⎝ 3 ⎠
The value of s x shall not exceed 150 mm and need not be taken less than 100
mm.
21.4.4.3 Crossties or legs of overlapping hoops shall not be spaced more than 350 mm on
center in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the structural
member.
21.4.4.4 Transverse reinforcement in amount specified in 21.4.4.1 through 21.4.4.3 shall
be provided over a length l o from each joint face and on both sides of any
section where flexural yielding is likely to occur as a result of inelastic lateral
displacements of the frame. The length l o shall not be less than (a), (b), and (c):
(a) the depth of the member at the joint face or at the section where
flexural yielding is likely to occur;
(b) one-sixth of the clear span of the member; and
(c) 500 mm.
21.4.4.5 Columns supporting reactions from discontinued stiff members, such as walls,
shall be provided with transverse reinforcement as required in 21.4.4.1 through
21.4.4.3 over their full height beneath the level at which the discontinuity occurs
if the factored axial compressive force in these members, related to earthquake
effect, exceeds (Ag f c' / 10 ). Transverse reinforcement as required in 21.4.4.1
through 21.4.4.3 shall extend into the discontinued member for at least the
development length of the largest longitudinal reinforcement in the column in
accordance with 21.5.4. If the lower end of the column terminates on a wall,
transverse reinforcement as required in 21.4.4.1 through 21.4.4.3 shall extend
into the wall for at least the development length of the largest longitudinal bar in
the column at the point of termination. If the column terminates on a footing or
mat, transverse reinforcement as required in 21.4.4.1 through 21.4.4.3 shall
extend at least 300 mm into the footing or mat.
21.4.4.6 Where transverse reinforcement, as specified in Section 21.4.4.1 through
21.4.4.3, is not provided throughout the full length of the column, the remainder
of the column length shall contain spiral or hoop reinforcement with center-to-
center spacing not exceeding the smaller of six times the diameter of the
longitudinal column bars or 150 mm.
21.4.5.1 Design forces. The design shear force Ve shall be determined from consideration
of the maximum forces that can be generated at the faces of the joints at each end
of the member. These joint forces shall be determined using the maximum
probable moment strengths M pr of the member associated with the range of
factored axial loads on the member. The member shears need not exceed those
determined from joint strengths based on the probable moment strength M pr of
the transverse members framing into the joint. In no case shall Ve be less than the
factored shear determined by analysis of the structure.
21.4.5.2 Transverse reinforcement over the lengths l o identified in 21.4.4.4, shall be
proportioned to resist shear assuming Vc = 0 when both the following conditions
occur:
(a) The earthquake-induced shear force, calculated in accordance with
21.4.5.1, represents one-half or more of the maximum required shear
strength within those lengths;
(b) The factored axial compressive force including earthquake effects is
less than Ag f c' / 20 .
SECTION 21.5
JOINTS OF SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES
21.5.1.1 Forces in longitudinal beam reinforcement at the joint face shall be determined
by assuming that the stress in the flexural tensile reinforcement is 1.45 f y .
21.5.1.2 Strength of joint shall be governed by the appropriate strength reduction factors
in 9.3.
21.5.1.3 Beam longitudinal reinforcement terminated in a column shall be extended to the
far face of the confined column core and anchored in tension according to 21.5.4
and in compression according to Chapter 12.
21-5.1.4 Where longitudinal beam reinforcement extends through a beam-column joint,
the column dimension parallel to the beam reinforcement shall not be less than
25 times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar for normal weight concrete.
For lightweight concrete, the dimension shall be not less than 30 times the bar
diameter.
21.5.2.1 Transverse hoop reinforcement in 21.4.4 shall be provided within the joint,
unless the joint is confined by structural members in 21.5.2.2.
21.5.2.2 Within the depth of the shallowest framing member, transverse reinforcement
equal to at least one-half the amount required by 21.4.4.1 shall be provided
where members frame into all four sides of the joint and where each member
SBC 304 2007 21/12
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
width is at least three-fourths the column width. At these locations, the spacing
required in 21.4.4.2 shall be permitted to be increased to 150 mm.
21.5.2.3 Transverse reinforcement as required by 21.4.4 shall be provided through the
joint to provide confinement for longitudinal beam reinforcement outside the
column core if such confinement is not provided by a beam framing into the joint.
21.5.3.1 The nominal shear strength of the joint shall not be taken as greater than the
values specified below for normalweight aggregate concrete.
For joints confined on all four faces……………………………...…… 1.7 f c' A j
For joints confined on three faces or on two opposite faces ………... 1.25 f c' A j
For others ………………………………………………………………... 1.0 f c' A j
A member that frames into a face is considered to provide confinement to the
joint if at least three-quarters of the face of the joint is covered by the framing
member. A joint is considered to be confined if such confining members frame
into all faces of the joint.
215.3.2 For lightweight aggregate concrete, the nominal shear strength of the joint shall
not exceed three-quarters of the limits given in Section 21.5.3.1.
21.5.4.1 The development length l dh for a bar with a standard 90 deg hook in
normalweight aggregate concrete shall not be less than the largest of 8d b , 150
mm, and the length required by Eq. (21-6).
(
l dh = f y d b / 4.5 f c' ) (21-6)
for bar sizes Dia 10 mm through Dia 36 mm.
For lightweight aggregate concrete, the development length for a bar with a
standard 90 deg hook shall not be less than the largest of 10d b , 200 mm, and
1.25 times that required by Eq. (21-6).
The 90 deg hook shall be located within the confined core of a column or of a
boundary element.
21.5.4.2 For bar sizes Dia 10 mm through Dia 36 mm, the development length for l d a
straight bar shall not be less than (a) and (b):
(a) 2.5 times the length required by 21.5.4.1 if the depth of the concrete
cast in one lift beneath the bar does not exceed 300 mm; and
(b) 3.5 times the length required by 21.5.4.1 if the depth of the concrete
cast in one lift beneath the bar exceeds 300 mm.
21.5.4.3 Straight bars terminated at a joint shall pass through the confined core of a
column or of a boundary element. Any portion of the straight embedment length
not within the confined core shall be increased by a factor of 1.6.
21.5.4.4 If epoxy-coated reinforcement is used, the development lengths in 21.5.4.1
through 21.5.4.3 shall be multiplied by the applicable factor in 12.2.4 or 12.5.2.
SBC 304 2007 21/13
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 21.6
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES CONSTRUCTED
USING PRECAST CONCRETE
21.6.1 Special moment frames with ductile connections constructed using precast
concrete shall satisfy the requirements of (a) and (b) and all requirements for
special moment frames constructed with cast-in-place concrete:
21.6.2 Special moment frames with strong connections constructed using precast
concrete shall satisfy all requirements for special moment frames constructed
with cast-in-place concrete, as well as the requirements of (a), (b), (c), and (d).
21.6.3 Special moment frames constructed using precast concrete and not satisfying the
requirements of Section 21.6.1 or 21.6.2 shall satisfy the requirements of ACI
T1.1, “Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based on Structural Testing,”
and the requirements of (a) and (b):
(a) Details and materials used in the test specimens shall be representative
of those used in the structure; and
(b) The design procedure used to proportion the test specimens shall define
the mechanism by which the frame resists gravity and earthquake
effects, and shall establish acceptance values for sustaining that
mechanism. Portions of the mechanism that deviate from code
requirements shall be contained in the test specimens and shall be
SECTION 21.7
SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL
WALLS AND COUPLING BEAMS
21.7.1 Scope. The requirements of this section apply to special reinforced concrete
structural walls and coupling beams serving as part of the earthquake force-
resisting system.
21.7.2 Reinforcement
21.7.2.1 The distributed web reinforcement ratios, ρ v and ρ n for structural walls shall not
be less than 0.0025, except if the design shear force does not
exceed (1 / 12 )Acv f c' , the minimum reinforcement for structural walls shall be
permitted to be reduced to that required in 14.3. Reinforcement spacing each way
in structural walls shall not exceed 300 mm. Reinforcement provided for shear
strength shall be continuous and shall be distributed across the shear plane.
21.7.2.2 At least two curtains of reinforcement shall be used in a wall if the in-plane
factored shear force assigned to the wall exceeds (1 / 6 )Acv f c' .
The design shear force Vu shall be obtained from the lateral load analysis in
accordance with the factored load combinations.
(
Vn = Acv α c f c' + ρ n f y ) (21-7)
where the coefficient α c is 1/4 for hw / l w ≤ 1.5 , is 1/6 for hw / l w ≥ 2.0 ,and varies
linearly between 1/4 and 1/6 for hw / l w between 1.5 and 2.0.
21.7.4.2 In 21.7.4.1, the value of ratio hw / l w used for determining Vn for segments of a
wall shall be the larger of the ratios for the entire wall and the segment of wall
considered.
21.7.4.3 Walls shall have distributed shear reinforcement providing resistance in two
orthogonal directions in the plane of the wall. If the ratio hw / l w does not exceed
2.0, reinforcement ratio ρ v shall not be less than reinforcement ratio ρ n .
21.7.4.4 Nominal shear strength of all wall piers sharing a common lateral force shall not
be assumed to exceed (2 / 3)Acv f c' where Acv is the total crosssectional area, and
the nominal shear strength of any one of the individual wall piers shall not be
assumed to exceed (5 / 6)Acp f c' where Acp is the cross-sectional area of the pier
considered.
21.7.4.5 Nominal shear strength of horizontal wall segments and coupling beams shall be
assumed not to exceed (5 / 6)Acp f c' where Acp is the cross-sectional area of a
horizontal wall segment or coupling beam.
21.7.5.1 Structural walls and portions of such walls subject to combined flexural and axial
loads shall be designed in accordance with 10.2 and 10.3 except that 10.3.6 and
the nonlinear strain requirements of 10.2.2 shall not apply. Concrete and
developed longitudinal reinforcement within effective flange widths, boundary
elements, and the wall web shall be considered effective. The effects of openings
shall be considered.
21.7.5.2 Unless a more detailed analysis is performed, effective flange widths of flanged
sections shall extend from the face of the web a distance equal to the smaller of
one-half the distance to an adjacent wall web and 25 percent of the total wall
height.
21.7.6.1 The need for special boundary elements at the edges of structural walls shall be
evaluated in accordance with 21.7.6.2 or 21.7.6.3. The requirements of 21.7.6.4
and 21.7.6.5 also shall be satisfied.
21.7.6.2 This section applies to walls or wall piers that are effectively continuous from the
base of structure to top of wall and designed to have a single critical section for
flexure and axial loads. Walls not satisfying these requirements shall be designed
by 21.7.6.3.
(a) Compression zones shall be reinforced with special boundary elements
where:
lw
c≥ (21-8)
600(δ u / hw )
The quantity δ u / hw in Eq. (21.8) shall not be taken less than 0.007.
(b) Where special boundary elements are required by 21.7.6.2(a), the
special boundary element reinforcement shall extend vertically from
the critical section a distance not less than the larger of l w or Mu / 4Vu .
21.7.6.3 Structural walls not designed to the provisions of 21.7.6.2 shall have special
boundary elements at boundaries and edges around openings of structural walls
where the maximum extreme fiber compressive stress, corresponding to factored
forces including earthquake effect, exceeds 0.2 f c' .The special boundary element
shall be permitted to be discontinued where the calculated compressive stress is
less than 0.15 f c' Stresses shall be calculated for the factored forces using a
linearly elastic model and gross section properties. For walls with flanges, an
effective flange width as defined in 21.7.5.2 shall be used.
21.7.6.4 Where special boundary elements are required by 21.7.6.2 or 21.7.6.3, (a)
through (f) shall be satisfied:
(a) The boundary element shall extend horizontally from the extreme
SBC 304 2007 21/16
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
compression fiber a distance not less than the larger of (c − 0.1lw ) and
c / 2;
(b) In flanged sections, the boundary element shall include the effective
flange width in compression and shall extend at least 300 mm into the
web;
(c) Special boundary element transverse reinforcement shall satisfy the
requirements of 21.4.4.1 through 21.4.4.3, except Eq. (21-3) need not
be satisfied;
(d) Special boundary element transverse reinforcement at the wall base
shall extend into the support at least the development length of the
largest longitudinal reinforcement in the special boundary element
unless the special boundary element terminates on a footing or mat,
where special boundary element transverse reinforcement shall extend
at least 300 mm into the footing or mat;
(e) Horizontal reinforcement in the wall web shall be anchored to develop
the specified yield strength f y within the confined core of the boundary
element;
(f) Mechanical splices of longitudinal reinforcement of boundary elements
shall conform to 21.2.6. Welded splices of longitudinal reinforcement
of boundary elements shall conform to 21.2.7.
21.7.6.5 Where special boundary elements are not required by 21.7.6.2 or 21.7.6.3, (a)
and (b) shall be satisfied:
21.7.7.1 Coupling beams with aspect ratio l n / h ≥ 4, shall satisfy the requirements of 21.3.
The provisions of 21.3.1.3 and 21.3.1.4(a) shall not be required if it can be shown
by analysis that the beam has adequate lateral stability.
21.7.7.2 Coupling beams with aspect ratio, l n / h < 4, shall be permitted to be reinforced
with two intersecting groups of diagonally placed bars symmetrical about the
midspan.
21.7.7.3 Coupling beams with aspect ratio, l n / h < 2 and with factored shear force Vu
SBC 304 2007 21/17
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
21.7.10.1 Wall piers not designed as a part of a special moment frame shall have transverse
reinforcement de-signed to satisfy the requirements in Section 21.7.10.2.
Exceptions:
a. Wall piers that satisfy Section 21.11.
b. Wall piers along a wall line within a story where other shear wall
segments provide lateral support to the wall piers, and such segments
have a total stiffness of at least six times the sum of the stiffness of all
the wall piers.
21.7.10.2 Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist the shear forces determined
from Sections 21.3.4.2 and 21.4.5.1.Where the axial compressive force, including
earthquake effects, is less than Ag f c' / 20 , transverse reinforcement in wall piers is
permitted to have standard hooks at each end in lieu of hoops. Spacing of
transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 150 mm. Transverse reinforcement
shall be extended beyond the pier clear height for at least the development length
of the largest longitudinal reinforcement in the wall pier.
21.7.10.3 Wall segments with a horizontal length-to-thickness ratio less than 2.5 shall be
designed as columns.
SECTION 21.8
SPECIAL STRUCTURAL WALLS CONSTRUCTED
USING PRECAST CONCRETE
21.8.1 Special structural walls constructed using precast concrete shall satisfy all
requirements of 21.7 for cast-in-place special structural walls in addition to
21.13.2 and 21.13.3.
SECTION 21.9
STRUCTURAL DIAPHRAGMS AND TRUSSES
21.9.1 Scope. Floor and roof slabs acting as structural diaphragms to transmit design
actions induced by earthquake ground motions shall be designed in accordance
with this section. This section also applies to struts, ties, chords, and collector
elements that transmit forces induced by earthquakes, as well as trusses serving
as parts of the earthquake force-resisting systems.
21.9.5 Reinforcement
The seismic design forces for structural diaphragms shall be obtained from the
lateral load analysis in accordance with the design load combinations.
⎛ f' ⎞
Vn = Acv ⎜ c + ρ n f y ⎟ (21-10)
⎜ 6 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
21.9.7.2 Nominal shear strength Vn of cast-in- place composite-topping slab diaphragms
and cast-in-place noncomposite topping slab diaphragms on a precast floor or
roof shall not exceed the shear force
Vn = Acv ρ n f y (21-11)
where Acv is based on the thickness of the topping slab. The required web
reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly in both directions.
21.9.7.3 Nominal shear strength shall not exceed (2 / 3)Acv f c' where Acv is the gross
cross-sectional area of the diaphragm.
force obtained from dividing the factored moment at the section by the distance
between the boundary elements of the diaphragm at that section.
21.9.8.2 Splices of tensile reinforcement in the chords and collector elements of
diaphragms shall develop the yield strength of the reinforcement. Mechanical and
welded splices shall conform to Section 21.2.6 and 21.2.7, respectively.
21.9.8.3 Reinforcement for chords and collectors at splices and anchorage zones shall
have either:
(a) A minimum center-to-center spacing of three longitudinal bar
diameters, but not less than 40 mm, and a minimum concrete clear
cover of two and one-half longitudinal bar diameters, but not less than
50 mm; or
(b) Transverse reinforcement as required by Section 11.5.5.3, except as
required in 21.9.5.3.
SECTION 21.10
FOUNDATIONS
21.10.1 Scope
21.10.3.1 Grade beams designed to act as horizontal ties between pile caps or footings shall
have continuous longitudinal reinforcement that shall be developed within or
beyond the supported column or anchored within the pile cap or footing at all
discontinuities.
21.10.3.2 Grade beams designed to act as horizontal ties between pile caps or footings shall
be proportioned such that the smallest cross-sectional dimension shall be equal to
or greater than the clear spacing between connected columns divided by 20, but
need not be greater than 450 mm. Closed ties shall be provided at a spacing not
to exceed the lesser of one-half the smallest orthogonal cross-sectional dimension
or 300 mm.
21.10.3.3 Grade beams and beams that are part of a mat foundation subjected to flexure
from columns that are part of the Iateral-force-resisting system shall conform to
21.3.
21.10.3.4 Slabs on grade that resist seismic forces from walls or columns that are part of
the lateral-force-resisting system shall be designed as structural diaphragms in
accordance with 21.9. The design drawings shall clearly state that the slab on
grade is a structural diaphragm and part of the lateral-force- resisting system.
21.10.4.1 Provisions of 21.10.4 shall apply to concrete piles, piers, and caissons supporting
structures designed for earthquake resistance.
21.10.4.2 Piles, piers, or caissons resisting tension loads shall have continuous longitudinal
reinforcement over the length resisting design tension forces. The longitudinal
reinforcement shall be detailed to transfer tension forces within the pile cap to
supported structural members.
21.10.4.3 Where tension forces induced by earthquake effects are transferred between pile
cap or mat foundation and precast pile by reinforcing bars grouted or post-
installed in the top of the pile, the grouting system shall have been demonstrated
by test to develop at least 125 percent of the specified yield strength of the bar.
21.10.4.4 Piles, piers, or caissons shall have transverse reinforcement in accordance with
21.4.4 at locations (a) and (b):
(a) At the top of the member for at least 5 times the member cross-
sectional dimension, but not less than 2 m below the bottom of the pile
cap;
(b) For the portion of piles in soil that is not capable of providing lateral
support, or in air and water, along the entire unsupported length plus
the length required in 21.10.4.4(a).
21.10.4.5 For precast concrete driven piles, the length of transverse reinforcement provided
shall be sufficient to account for potential variations in the elevation in pile tips.
21.10.4.6 Concrete piles, piers, or caissons in foundations supporting one- and two-story
stud bearing wall construction are exempt from the transverse reinforcement
requirements of Section 21.10.4.4 and 21.10.4.5.
21.10.4.7 Pile caps incorporating batter piles shall be designed to resist the full
SBC 304 2007 21/22
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
compressive strength of the batter piles acting as short columns. The slenderness
effects of batter piles shall be considered for the portion of the piles in soil that is
not capable of providing lateral support, or in air or water.
SECTION 21.11
FRAME MEMBERS NOT PROPORTIONED TO
RESIST FORCES INDUCED BY EARTHQUAKE MOTIONS
21.11.1 Frame members assumed not to contribute to lateral resistance shall be detailed
according to Section 21.11.2 or 21.11.3 depending on the magnitude of moments
induced in those members if subjected to the design displacement. If effects of
design displacements are not explicitly checked, it shall be permitted to apply
the requirements of Section 21.11.3.
21.11.2 When the induced moments and shears under design displacements of 21.11.1
combined with the factored gravity moments and shears do not exceed the
design moment and shear strength of the frame member, the conditions of
Section 21.11.2.1, 21.11.2.2, and 21.11.2.3 shall be satisfied. The gravity load
combinations of (1.2D + 1.0L) or 0.90D, whichever is critical, shall be used. The
load factor on L shall be permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for garages, areas
occupied as places of public assembly, and all areas where the live load, L is
greater than 5 kN/m2.
'
21.11.2.1 Members with factored gravity axial forces not exceeding Ag f c / 10 shall satisfy
21.3.2.1.
Stirrups shall be spaced not more than d / 2 throughout the length of the
member.
21.11.2.2 Members with factored gravity axial forces exceeding Ag f c' / 10 shall satisfy
Section 21.4.3, 21.4.4.1 (c), 21.4.4.3, and 21.4.5. The maximum longitudinal
spacing of ties shall be so for the full column height. The spacing so shall not be
more than six diameters of the smallest longitudinal bar enclosed or 150 mm,
whichever is smaller.
21.11.2.3 Members with factored gravity axial forces exceeding 0.35Po shall satisfy Section
21.11.2.2 and the amount of transverse reinforcement provided shall be one-half
of that required by 21.4.4.1 but shall not exceed a spacing so for the full height
of the column.
21.11.3 If the induced moment or shear under design displacements of Section 21.11.1
exceeds the design moment or shear strength of the frame member, or if induced
moments are not calculated, the conditions of Section 21.11.3.1, 21.11.3.2, and
21.11.3.3 shall be satisfied.
21.11.3.1 Materials shall satisfy Section 21.2.4 and 21.2.5. Mechanical splices shall satisfy
21.2.6 and welded splices shall satisfy 21.2.7.1.
21.11.3.2 Members with factored gravity axial forces not exceeding Ag f c' / 10 shall satisfy
Section 21.3.2.1 and 21.3.4. Stirrups shall be spaced at not more than d / 2
throughout the length of the member.
21.11.3.3 Members with factored gravity axial forces exceeding Ag f c' / 10 shall satisfy
SBC 304 2007 21/23
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
21.11.4 Precast concrete frame members assumed not to contribute to lateral resistance,
including their connections, shall satisfy (a), (b), and (c), in addition to Section
21.11.1 through 21.11.3:
(a) Ties specified in Section 21.11.2.2 shall be provided over the entire
column height, including the depth of the beams;
(b) Structural integrity reinforcement, as specified in 16.5, shall be
provided; and
(c) Bearing length at support of a beam shall be at least 50 mm longer than
determined from calculations using bearing strength values from 10.
17.
SECTION 21.12
REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES
21.12.2 Reinforcement details in a frame member shall satisfy 21.12.4 if the factored
compressive axial load for the member does not exceed Ag f c' / 10 . If the factored
compressive axial load is larger, frame reinforcement details shall satisfy 21.12.5
unless the member has spiral reinforcement according to Eq. (10-5). If a two-
way slab system without beams is treated as part of a frame resisting earthquake
effect, reinforcement details in any span resisting moments caused by lateral
force shall satisfy 21.12.6.
21.12.3 Design shear strength of beams, columns, and two-way slabs resisting
earthquake effect shall not be less than either (a) or (b):
(a) The sum of the shear associated with development of nominal moment
strengths of the member at each restrained end of the clear span and the
shear calculated for factored gravity loads;
(b) The maximum shear obtained from design load combinations that
include earthquake effect E , with E assumed to be twice that
prescribed by the governing code for earthquake-resistant design.
21.12.4 Beams
21.12.4.1 The positive moment strength at the face of the joint shall be not less than one-
third the negative moment strength provided at that face of the joint. Neither the
negative nor the positive moment strength at any section along the length of the
member shall be less than one-fifth the maximum moment strength provided at
the face of either joint.
21.12.4.2 At both ends of the member, hoops shall be provided over lengths equal to twice
the member depth measured from the face of the supporting member toward
midspan. The first hoop shall be located at not more than 50 mm from the face of
the supporting member. Maximum hoop spacing shall not exceed the smallest of
(a), (b), (c), or (d):
(a) d /4;
SBC 304 2007 21/24
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
(b) Eight times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar enclosed;
(c) 24 times the diameter of the hoop bar;
(d) 250 mm.
21.12.4.3 Stirrups shall be placed at not more than d / 2 throughout the length of the
member.
21.12.5 Columns
21.12.5.1 Columns shall be spirally reinforced in accordance with 7.10.4 or shall conform
with 21.12.5.2 through 21.12.5.4.Section 21.12.5.5 shall apply to all columns.
21.12.5.2 At both ends of the member, hoops shall be provided at spacing so over a length
l o measured from the joint face. Spacing so shall not exceed the smallest of (a),
(b), (c), and (d):
(a) Eight times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar enclosed:
(b) 24 times the diameter of the hoop bar;
(c) One-half of the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the frame
member;
(d) 250 mm.
Length l o shall not be less than the largest of (e), (f), and (g):
(e) One-sixth of the clear span of the member;
(f) Maximum cross-sectional dimension of the member;
(g) 500 mm.
21.12.5.3 The first hoop shall be located at not more than so / 2 from the joint face.
21.12.6.1 Factored slab moment at support related to earthquake effect shall be determined
for load combinations given in Eq. (9-5) and (9-7). All reinforcement provided to
resist M s the portion of slab moment balanced by support moment, shall be
placed within the column strip defined in 13.2.1.
21.12.6.2 The fraction, defined by Eq. (13-1), of moment M s shall be resisted by
reinforcement placed within the effective width specified in 13.5.3.2.Effective
slab width for exterior and corner connections shall not extend beyond the
column face a distance greater than ct measured perpendicular to the slab span.
21.12.6.3 Not less than one-half of the reinforcement in the column strip at support shall
be placed within the effective slab width given in 13.5.3.2.
21.12.6.4 Not less than one-quarter of the top reinforcement at the support in the column
strip shall be continuous throughout the span
21.12.6.5 Continuous bottom reinforcement in the column strip shall be not less than one-
third of the top reinforcement at the support in the column strip.
21.12.6.6 Not less than one-half of all bottom middle strip reinforcement and all bottom
column strip reinforcement at midspan shall be continuous and shall develop its
yield strength at face of support as defined in 13.6.2.5.
21.12.6.7 At discontinuous edges of the slab all top and bottom reinforcement at support
shall be developed at the face of support as defined in 13.6.2.5.
21.12.6.8 At the critical sections for columns defined in 11.12.1.2, two-way shear caused
by factored gravity loads shall not exceed 0.4 φVc where Vc shall be calculated as
defined in 11.12.2.1 for nonprestressed slabs and in 11.12.2.2 for prestressed
slabs. It shall be permitted to waive this requirement if the contribution of the
earthquake-induced factored two- way shear stress transferred by eccentricity of
shear in accordance with Section 11.12.6.1 and 11.12.6.2 at the point of
maximum stress does not exceed one-half of the stress φ Vn permitted by
11.12.6.2.
SECTION 21.13
INTERMEDIATE PRECAST STRUCTURAL WALLS
21.13.1 The requirements of this section apply to intermediate precast structural walls
used to resist forces induced by earthquake motions.
21.13.2 In connections between wall panels, or between wail panels and the foundation,
yielding shall be restricted to reinforcement.
21.13.3 Elements of the connection that are not designed to yield shall develop at least
1 .5 S y .
APPENDIX A
STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS
SECTION A.0
NOTATION
SECTION A.1
DEFINITIONS
Node - The point in a joint in a strut-and-tie model where the axes of the
struts, ties, and concentrated forces acting on the joint intersect.
Bottle-shaped strut -A strut that is wider at mid- length than at its ends.
SECTION A.2
STRUT-AND-TIE MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE
A.2.2 The strut-and-tie model shall be in equilibrium with the applied loads and the
reactions.
A.2.3 In determining the geometry of the truss, the dimensions of the struts, ties, and
nodal zones shall be taken into account.
A.2.4 Ties shall be permitted to cross struts. Struts shall cross or overlap only at nodes.
A.2.5 The angle between the axes of any strut and any tie entering a single node shall
not be taken as less than 25 degrees.
SECTION A.3
STRENGTH OF STRUTS
A.3.2 The effective compressive strength of the concrete in a strut shall be taken as
f cu = 0.85β s f c' (A-3)
A.3.2.1 For a strut of uniform cross-sectional area over its length…...……. β s = 1.0
A.3.2.2 For struts located such that the width of the midsection of the strut is larger than
the width at the nodes (bottle-shaped struts):
(a) with reinforcement satisfying A.3.3 … ……………….….. β s = 0.75
(b) without reinforcement satisfying A.3.3 ………...........…… β s = 0.60λ
where λ is given in 11.7.4.3.
A.3.2.3 For struts in tension members, or the tension flanges of members … β s = 0.40
A.3.2.4 For all other cases ………………………………………………… β s = 0.60
A.3.3 If the value of β s specified in A.3.2.2(a) is used, the axis of the strut shall be
crossed by reinforcement proportioned to resist the transverse tensile force
resulting from the compression force spreading in the strut. It shall be permitted
to assume the compressive force in the strut spreads at a slope of 2 longitudinal
to 1 transverse to the axis of the strut.
A.3.3.1 For f c' not greater than 40 MPa, the requirement of A.3.3 shall be permitted to
be satisfied by the axis of the strut being crossed by layers of reinforcement that
satisfy
A
∑ bssi sin γ i ≥ 0.003 (A-4)
i
A.3.3.2 The reinforcement required in A.3.3 shall be placed in either: two orthogonal
directions at angles γ 1 and γ 2 to the axis of the strut, or in one direction at an
angle γ to the axis of the strut. If the reinforcement is in only one direction, γ
shall not be less than 40 deg.
SBC 304 2007 A/3
APPENDIX-A- STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS
SECTION A.4
STRENGTH OF TIES
A.4.2 The axis of the reinforcement in a tie shall coincide with the axis of the tie in the
strut-and-tie model.
A.4.3.1 Nodal zones shall develop the difference between the tie force on one side of the
node and the tie force on the other side.
A.4.3.2 At nodal zones anchoring one tie, the tie force shall be developed at the point
where the centroid of the reinforcement in a tie leaves the extended nodal zone
and enters the span.
A.4.3.3 At nodal zones anchoring two or more ties, the tie force in each direction shall
be developed at the point where the centroid of the reinforcement in the tie
leaves the extended nodal zone.
A.4.3.4 The transverse reinforcement required by A.3.3 shall be anchored in accordance
with 12.13.
SECTION A.5
STRENGTH OF NODAL ZONES
(a) the area of the face of the nodal zone that Fu acts on, taken
A.5.2 Unless confining reinforcement is provided within the nodal zone and its effect
is supported by tests and analysis, the calculated effective compressive stress on
a face of a nodal zone due to the strut-and-tie forces shall not exceed the value
given by:
f cu = 0.85β n f c' (A-8)
where the value of β n is given in A.5.2.1 through A.5.2.3.
A.5.2.1 In nodal zones bounded by struts or bearing areas, or both...... β n = 1.0 ;
A.5.3 In a three-dimensional strut-and-tie model, the area of each face of a nodal zone
shall not be less than that given in A.5.1, and the shape of each face of the nodal
zones shall be similar to the shape of the projection of the end of the strut onto
the corresponding faces of the nodal zones.
APPENDIX B
ALTERNATIVE PROVISIONS FOR REINFORCED AND
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE FLEXURAL
AND COMPRESSION MEMBERS
SECTION B.0
NOTATION
SECTION B.1
SCOPE
B.1.1 Design for flexure and axial load by provisions of Appendix B shall be
permitted. When Appendix B is used in design, B.8.4, B.8.4.1, B.8.4.2, and
B.8.4.3 shall replace the corresponding numbered sections in Chapter 8;
B.10.3.3 shall replace 10.3.3, 10.3.4, and 10.3.5, except 10.3.5.1 shall remain;
B.18.8.1, B.18.8.2, and B.18.8.3 shall replace the corresponding numbered
sections in Chapter 18; B.18.10.4, B.18.10.4.1, B.18.10.4.2, and B.18.10.4.3
shall replace 18.10.4, 18.10.4.1, and 18.10.4.2. If any section in this appendix is
used, all sections in this appendix shall be substituted in the body of the code,
and all other sections in the body of the code shall be applicable.
B.8.4.3 Redistribution of negative moments shall be made only when the section at
which moment is reduced is so designed that ρ or ρ − ρ ' is not greater
than 0.5ρ b , where
0.85β 1 f c' ⎛ 600 ⎞
ρb = ⎜ ⎟ (B-1)
fy ⎜ 600 + f ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
B.10.3.3 For flexural members and members subject to combined flexure and
compressive axial load when the design axial load strength φPn is less than the
smaller of 0.1 f c' Ag or φPb the ratio of reinforcement, ρ , provided shall not
exceed 0.65 of the ratio ρ b that would produce balanced strain conditions for the
section under flexure without axial load. For members with compression
reinforcement, the portion of ρ b equalized by compression reinforcement need
not be reduced by the 0.65 factor.
B.18.1 Scope
B.18.1.3 The following provisions of SBC 304 shall not apply to prestressed concrete,
except as specifically noted: Sections 7.6.5, B.8.4, 8.10.2, 8.10.3, 8.10.4, 8.11,
B.10.3.3, 10.5, 10.6, 10.9.1, and 10.9.2; Chapter 13; and Sections 14.3, 14.5, and
14.6.
APPENDIX C
TWO-WAY SLABS – COEFFICIENTS METHODS
SECTION C.0
GENERAL
C.0.1 There are several satisfactory methods for designing two-way slabs. Although they
may give somewhat different results in details, the resulting floors give reasonable
overall safety factors. Two methods which have been used extensively with
satisfactory results are given in this appendix.
SECTION C.1
METHOD 1
C.1.1 Notation
C = moment coefficient for two-way slabs as given in Table 1
m = ratio of short span to long span for two-way slabs
S = length of short span for two-way slabs. The span shall be considered as the
center-to-center distance between supports or the clear span plus twice the
thickness of slab, whichever value is the smaller.
w = total factored load per sq. meter.
C.1.2 Limitations
These recommendations are intended to apply to slabs (solid or ribbed), isolated or
continuous, supported on all four sides by walls or beams, in either case built
monolithically with the slabs.
C.1.5.2 Where the negative moment on one side of a support is less than 80 % of that on
the other side, two-thirds of the difference shall be distributed in proportion to the
relative stiffnesses of the slabs.
C.1.6 Shear. The shear stresses in the slab may be computed on the assumption that the
load is distributed to the supports in accordance with C.1.6.1
C.1.6.1 Supporting beams. The loads on the supporting beams for a two-way rectangular
panel may be assumed as the load within the tributary areas of the panel bounded
by the intersection of 45-deg lines from the corners with the median line of the
panel parallel to the long side.
C.1.6.2 The bending moments may be determined approximately by using an equivalent
uniform load per linear meter of beam for each panel supported as follows:
wS
For the short span:
3
wS (3 − m 2 )
For the long span:
3 2
SECTION C.2
METHOD 2
C.2.0 Notations
l a = length of clear span in short direction
l b = length of clear span in long direction
C = moment coefficients for two-way slabs as given in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
Coefficients have identifying indeces, such as
Ca ,neg ,C b ,neg ,Ca ,dl ,C b ,dl ,Ca ,ll ,C b ,ll
m = ratio of short span to long span for two-way slabs
w = uniform load per sq m. For negative moments, w is the total factored dead
load plus live load for use in Table 2. For positive moments, w is to be
separated into dead and live loads for use in Tables 3 and 4.
C.2.3 Bending moments — The bending moments for the middle strips be computed by
the use of Tables 2, 3, and 4 from:
M a = C a wl 2a
and
M b = Cb wl 2b
The bending moments in the column strips shall be gradually reduced from the
full value M a and M b from the edge of the middle strip to one-third (1/3) of these
values at the edge of the panel.
where the negative moment on one side of a support is less than 80 percent of that
on the other side, the difference shall be distributed in proportion to the relative
stiffnesses of the slabs.
C.2.4.3 Computation of slab shear strength on the assumption that load is distributed to
supporting beams in accordance with C.2.4.1 shall be permitted. Resistance to
total shear occurring on a panel shall be provided.
M a ,neg = C a ,neg wl 2a
Where w = total factored uniform dead plus live load
M b ,neg = Cb ,neg wl 2b
*A crosshatched edge indicates that the slab continues across, or is fixed at, the support; an unmarked edge
indicates a support at which torsional resistance is negligible.
*A crosshatched edge indicates that the slab continues across, or is fixed at, the support; an unmarked edge
indicates a support at which torsional resistance is negligible.
*A crosshatched edge indicates that the slab continues across, or is fixed at, the support; an unmarked edge
indicates a support at which torsional resistance is negligible.
APPENDIX D
ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
SECTION D.0
NOTATION
SECTION D.1
DEFINITIONS
Attachment. The structural assembly, external to the surface of the concrete, that
transmits loads to or receives loads from the anchor.
Brittle steel element. An element with a tensile test elongation of less than 14
percent, or reduction in area of less than 30 percent, or both.
Cast-in anchor. A headed bolt, headed stud, or hooked bolt installed before
placing concrete.
Distance sleeve. A sleeve that encases the center part of an undercut anchor, a
torque-controlled expansion anchor, or a displacement-controlled expansion
anchor, but does not expand.
Edge distance. The distance from the edge of the concrete surface to the center
of the nearest anchor.
Effective embedment depth. The overall depth through which the anchor
SBC 304 2007 D/3
APPENDIX -D- ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
Expansion sleeve. The outer part of an expansion anchor that is forced outward
by the center part, either by applied torque or impact, to bear against the sides of
the predrilled hole.
Five percent fractile. A statistical term meaning 90 percent confidence that there
is 95 percent probability of the actual strength exceeding the nominal strength.
Headed stud. A steel anchor conforming to the requirements of AWS D1.1 and
affixed to a plate or similar steel attachment by the stud arc welding process
before casting.
Projected area. The area on the free surface of the concrete member that is used
to represent the larger base of the assumed rectilinear failure surface.
Side-face blowout strength. The strength of anchors with deeper embedment but
thinner side cover corresponding to concrete spalling on the side face around the
embedded head while no major breakout occurs at the top concrete surface.
Undercut anchor. A post-installed anchor that develops its tensile strength from
the mechanical interlock provided by undercutting of the concrete at the
embedded end of the anchor. The undercutting is achieved with a special drill
before installing the anchor or alternatively by the anchor itself during its
installation.
SECTION D.2
SCOPE
D.2.1 This appendix provides design requirements for anchors in concrete used to
transmit structural loads by means of tension, shear, or a combination of tension
and shear between (a) connected structural elements; or (b) safety-related
attachments and structural elements. Safety levels specified are intended for in-
service conditions, rather than for short-term handling and construction
conditions.
D.2.2 This appendix applies to both cast-in anchors and post-installed anchors.
Specialty inserts, through bolts, multiple anchors connected to a single steel
plate at the embedded end of the anchors, adhesive or grouted anchors, and
direct anchors such as powder or pneumatic actuated nails or bolts, are not
included. Reinforcement used as part of the embedment shall be designed in
accordance with other parts of the code.
D.2.3 Headed studs and headed bolts having a geometry that has been demonstrated to
result in a pullout strength in uncracked concrete equal or exceeding
1.4 N p (where N p is given by Eq. (D-13)) are included. Hooked bolts that have a
geometry that has been demonstrated to result in a pullout strength with-out the
benefit of friction in uncracked concrete equal or exceeding 1.4 N p (where N p is
given by Eq. (D-14)) are included. Post-installed anchors that meet the
assessment requirements of ACI 355.2 are included. The suitability of the post-
installed anchor for use in concrete shall have been demonstrated by the ACI
355.2 prequalification tests.
D.2.4 Load applications that are predominantly high cycle fatigue or impact loads are
not covered by this appendix.
SECTION D.3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
D.3.1 Anchors and anchor groups shall be designed for critical effects of factored
loads as determined by elastic analysis. Plastic analysis approaches are permitted
where nominal strength is controlled by ductile steel elements, provided that
deformational compatibility is taken into account.
D.3.2 The design strength of anchors shall equal or exceed the largest required strength
calculated from the applicable load combinations in 9.2.
D.3.3 When anchor design includes seismic loads, the additional requirements of
D.3.3.1 through D.3.3.5 shall apply.
D.3.3.1 The provisions of Appendix D do not apply to the design of anchors in plastic
hinge zones of concrete structures under seismic loads.
D.3.3.2 In regions of moderate or high seismic risk, or for structures assigned to
intermediate or high seismic performance or design categories, post-installed
structural anchors for use under D.2.3 shall have passed the Simulated Seismic
Tests of ACI 355.2.
D.3.3.3 In regions of moderate or high seismic risk, or for structures assigned to
intermediate or high seismic performance or design categories, the design
SBC 304 2007 D/5
APPENDIX -D- ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
D.3.5 The values of f c' used for calculation purposes in this appendix shall not exceed
70 MPa for cast-in anchors, and 55 MPa for post-installed anchors. Testing is
required for post-installed anchors when used in concrete with f c' greater than
55 MPa.
SECTION D.4
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRENGTH OF ANCHORS
D.4.1 Strength design of anchors shall be based either on computation using design
models that satisfy the requirements of D.4.2, or on test evaluation using the 5
percent fractile of test results for the following:
D.4.1.2 In Eq. (D-1) and (D-2), φN n and φVn are the lowest design strengths determined
from all appropriate failure modes. φN n is the lowest design strength in tension
of an anchor or group of anchors as determined from consideration of φN s ,
D.4.1.3 When both N u and Vu are present, interaction effects shall be considered in
accordance with D.4.3.
D.4.2 The nominal strength for any anchor or group of anchors shall be based on
design models that result in predictions of strength in substantial agreement with
results of comprehensive tests. The materials used in the tests shall be
compatible with the materials used in the structure. The nominal strength shall
be based on the 5 percent fractile of the basic individual anchor strength. For
nominal strengths related to concrete strength, modifications for size effects, the
number of anchors, the effects of close spacing of anchors, proximity to edges,
depth of the concrete member, eccentric loadings of anchor groups, and
presence or absence of cracking shall be taken into account. Limits on edge
distances and anchor spacing in the design models shall be consistent with the
tests that verified the model.
D.4.3 Resistance to combined tensile and shear loads shall be considered in design using
an interaction expression that results in computation of strength in substantial
agreement with results of comprehensive tests. This requirement shall be
considered satisfied by D.7.
SECTION D.5
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TENSILE LOADING
D.5.1.1 The nominal strength, N s of an anchor in tension as governed by the steel shall
be evaluated by calculations based on the properties of the anchor material and
the physical dimensions of the anchor.
D.5.1.2 The nominal strength N s of an anchor or group of anchors in tension shall not
exceed:
N s = nAse f ut (D-3)
where f ut shall not be taken greater than 1.9 f y or 860 MPa.
D.5.2.2 The basic concrete breakout strength N b of a single anchor in tension in cracked
concrete shall not exceed
Nb = k f c′ hef1.5 (D-7)
where
k = 10 for cast-in anchors; and
k = 7 for post-installed anchors.
Alternatively, for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts with
280 mm ≤ hef ≤ 635 mm , the basic concrete breakout strength of a single anchor in
tension in cracked concrete shall not exceed
D.5.2.3 For the special case of anchors in an application with three or four edges along
with the largest edge distance c max < 1.5hef , the embedment depth hef used in
Eq. (D-6) through (D-11) shall be limited to c max / 1.5 .
D.5.2.4 The modification factor for eccentrically loaded anchor groups is:
1
ψ1 = ≤1 (D-9)
⎛ 2e N' ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟
⎜ 3h ⎟
⎝ ef ⎠
If the loading on an anchor group is such that only some anchors are in tension,
only those anchors that are in tension shall be considered when determining the
eccentricity e N' for use in Eq. (D-9).
In the case where eccentric loading exists about two axes, the modification
factor ψ 1 shall be computed for each axis individually and the product of these
factors used as ψ 1 in Eq. (D-5).
D.5.2.7 When an additional plate or washer is added at the head of the anchor, it shall be
permitted to calculate the projected area of the failure surface by projecting the
failure surface outward 1.5hef from the effective perimeter of the plate or
washer. The effective perimeter shall not exceed the value at a section projected
outward more than t from the outer edge of the head of the anchor, where t is
SBC 304 2007 D/9
APPENDIX -D- ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
D.5.3.1 The nominal pullout strength N pn of an anchor in tension shall not exceed:
N pn = ψ 4 N p (D-12)
D.5.3.2 For post-installed expansion and undercut anchors, the values of N p shall be
based on the 5 percent fractile of results of tests performed and evaluated
according to ACI 355.2. It is not permissible to calculate the pullout strength in
tension for such anchors.
D.5.3.3 For single cast-in headed studs and headed bolts, it shall be permitted to
evaluate the pullout strength in tension using D.5.3.4. For single J- or L-bolts, it
shall be permitted to evaluate the pullout strength in tension using D.5.3.5.
Alternatively, it shall be permitted to use values of N p based on the 5 percent
fractile of tests performed and evaluated in the same manner as the ACI 355.2
procedures but without the benefit of friction.
D.5.3.4 The pullout strength in tension of a single headed stud or headed bolt N p for
use in Eq. (D-12), shall not exceed:
N p = Abrg 8 f c' (D-13)
D.5.3.5 The pullout strength in tension of a single hooked bolt N p for use in Eq. (D-12)
shall not exceed:
N p = 0.9 f c' eh d o (D-14)
where: 3d o ≤ eh ≤ 4.5d o
D.5.3.6 For an anchor located in a region of a concrete member where analysis indicates
no cracking ( f t < f r ) at service load levels, the following modification factor
shall be permitted
ψ 4 = 1 .4
Otherwise,
ψ 4 shall be taken as 1.0.
D.5.4.1 For a single headed anchor with deep embedment close to an edge
(c < 0.4hef )the nominal side-face blowout strength N sb shall not exceed:
N sb = (13.3c ) Abrg f c' (D-15)
If the single headed anchor is located at a perpendicular distance, c 2 ,less than 3c
from an edge, the value of N sb shall be multiplied by the factor
(1 + c2 / c ) / 4 where 1 ≤ c 2 / c ≤ 3 .
D.5.4.2 For multiple headed anchors with deep embedment close to an edge (c < 0.4hef )
and spacing between anchors less than 6c , the nominal strength of the group of
anchors for a side-face blowout failure N sbg shall not exceed:
⎛ s ⎞
N sbg = ⎜1 + o ⎟ N sb (D-16)
⎝ 6c ⎠
where so = spacing of the outer anchors along the edge in the group; and N sb is
obtained from Eq. (D-15) without modification for a perpendicular edge
distance.
SECTION D.6
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEAR LOADING
D.6.1.3 Where anchors are used with built-up grout pads, the nominal strengths of
D.6.1.2 shall be multiplied by a 0.80 factor.
D.6.2.1 The nominal concrete breakout strength, Vcb or Vcbg in shear of an anchor or
group of anchors shall not exceed:
(a) for shear force perpendicular to the edge on a single anchor:
Av
Vcb = ψ 6ψ 7Vb (D-20)
Avo
(b) for shear force perpendicular to the edge on a group of anchors:
Av
V cbg = ψ 5ψ 6ψ 7 V b (D-21)
A vo
(c) for shear force parallel to an edge, Vcb or Vcbg shall be permitted to be
twice the value for shear force determined from Eq. (D-20) or (D-
21), respectively, with ψ 6 taken equal to 1.
(d) for anchors located at a corner, the limiting nominal concrete
breakout strength shall be determined for each edge, and the
minimum value shall be used.
Vb is the basic concrete breakout strength value for a single anchor. Av is the
projected area of the failure surface on the side of the concrete member at its
edge for a single anchor or a group of anchors. It shall be permitted to
evaluate this area as the base of a truncated half pyramid projected on the
side face of the member where the top of the half pyramid is given by the
axis of the anchor row selected as critical. The value of c1 shall be taken as
the distance from the edge to this axis. Av shall not exceed nAVo where n is
the number of anchors in the group.
AVo is the projected area for a single anchor in a deep member and
remote from edges in the direction perpendicular to the shear force. It shall
be permitted to evaluate this area as the base of a half pyramid with a side
length parallel to the edge of 3c1 and a depth of 1.5c1 :
Where anchors are located at varying distances from the edge and the
anchors are welded to the attachment so as to distribute the force to all
anchors, it shall be permitted to evaluate the strength based on the distance
to the farthest row of anchors from the edge. In this case, it shall be
permitted to base the value of c1 on the distance from the edge to the axis of
the farthest anchor row that is selected as critical, and all of the shear shall
be assumed to be carried by this critical anchor row alone.
D.6.2.2 The basic concrete breakout strength Vb in shear of a single anchor in cracked
concrete shall not exceed
0.2
⎛ l ⎞
Vb = (0.6)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ d o f c' (c1 )
1.5
(D-23)
⎝ do ⎠
D.6.2.3 For cast-in headed studs, headed bolts, or hooked bolts that are continuously
welded to steel attachments having a minimum thickness equal to the greater of
10 mm or half of the anchor diameter, the basic concrete breakout strength Vb in
shear of a single anchor in cracked concrete shall not exceed
0.2
⎛ l ⎞
Vb = (0.66)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f c' (c1 )
1.5
do (D-24)
⎝ do ⎠
provided that:
D.6.2.4 For the special case of anchors influenced by three or more edges, the edge
distance c1 used in Eq. (D-22), (D-23), (D-24), (D-25), (D-26) and (D-27) shall
be limited to h / 1.5
D.6.2.5 The modification factor for eccentrically loaded anchor groups is
1
ψ5 = ≤1 (D-25)
2e v '
1+
3c1
Equation (D-25) is valid for ev' ≤ s / 2
Vcp = k cp N cb (D-28)
where
k cp = 1.0 for hef < 65 mm
SECTION D.7
INTERACTION OF TENSILE AND SHEAR FORCES
SECTION D.8
REQUIRED EDGE DISTANCES, SPACINGS, AND
THICKNESSES TO PRECLUDE SPLITTING FAILURE
Minimum spacings and edge distances for anchors and minimum thicknesses of
members shall conform to D.8.1 through D.8.5, unless supplementary
reinforcement is provided to control splitting. Lesser values from product-
specific tests performed in accordance with ACI 355.2 shall be permitted.
D.8.2 Unless determined in accordance with D.8.4, minimum edge distances for cast-
in headed anchors that will not be torqued shall be based on minimum cover
requirements for reinforcement in 7.7. For cast- in headed anchors that will be
torqued, the minimum edge distances shall be 6d o .
D.8.3 Unless determined in accordance with D.8.4, minimum edge distances for post-
installed anchors shall be based on the greater of the minimum cover
requirements for reinforcement in 7.7, or the minimum edge distance
requirements for the products as determined by tests in accordance with ACI
355.2, and shall not be less than 2.0 times the maximum aggregate size. In the
absence of product-specific ACI 355.2 test information, the minimum edge
distance shall be taken as not less than:
Undercut anchors………………………………….….. 6d o
Torque-controlled anchors………………………....….. 8d o
D.8.4 For anchors where installation does not produce a splitting force and that will
remain untorqued, if the edge distance or spacing is less than those specified in
SBC 304 2007 D/14
APPENDIX -D- ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
D.8.5 The value of hef for an expansion or undercut post-installed anchor shall not
exceed the greater of either 2/3 of the member thickness or the member
thickness less 100 mm.
D.8.6 Project drawings and project specifications shall specify use of anchors with a
minimum edge distance as assumed in design.
SECTION D.9
INSTALLATION OF ANCHORS
D.9.1 Anchors shall be installed in accordance with the project drawings and project
specifications.
APPENDIX E
NOTATIONS
CODE NOTATION
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block as defined in 10.2.7.1, mm,
Chapters 10, 12
a = shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support, mm,
Chapter 11
a = shear span, equal to the distance between a load and a support in a structure,
mm, Appendix-A
A = area of that part of cross section between flexural tension face and center of
gravity of gross section, mm², Chapter 18
A b = area of an individual horizontal bar or wire, mm², Chapter 10
A b = area of an individual bar, mm², Chapter 12
A brg = bearing area of the head of stud or anchor bolt, mm², Appendix D
Ac = area of core of spirally reinforced compression member measured to outside
diameter of spiral, mm², Chapter 10
Ac = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, mm², Chapter 11
Ac = area of contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear, mm², Chapter
17
Ac = the effective cross-sectional area at one end of a strut in a strut-and-tie model,
taken perpendicular to the axis of the strut, mm², Appendix A
A cf = larger gross cross-sectional area of the slab-beam strips of the two orthogonal
equivalent frames intersecting at a column of a two-way slab, mm², Chapter 18
A ch = cross-sectional area of a structural member measured out-to-out of transverse
reinforcement, mm², Chapter 21
A cp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, mm². See 11.6.1,
Chapter 11
A cp = area of concrete section, resisting shear, of an individual pier or horizontal
wall segment, mm²,Chapter 21
A cv = gross area of concrete section bounded by web thickness and length of section
in the direction of shear force considered, mm², Chapter 21
Af = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting factored moment,
[Vu a + N uc (h − d )] , mm²,Chapter 11
Ag = gross area of column, mm², Chapter 16
Ag gross area of section, mm². For a hollow section, A g is the area of the concrete
=
only and does not include the area of the void(s). See11.6.1., Chapter 11
Ag = gross area of section, mm², Chapters 9, 10,14,21, 15, Appendix B
Aj = effective cross-sectional area within a joint, see 21.5.3.1, in a plane parallel to
plane of reinforcement generating shear in the joint, mm². The joint depth shall
be the overall depth of the column. Where a beam frames into a support of
larger width, the effective width of the joint shall not exceed the smaller of:
(a) beam width plus the joint depth
(b) twice the smaller perpendicular distance from the longitudinal axis of the
beam to the column side. See 21.53.1, Chapter 21
Ah = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, mm²,
Chapter 11
Al = total area of longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion, mm², Chapter 11
γi = angle between the axis of a strut and the bars in the i th layer of reinforcement
crossing that strut, Appendix A
SBC 304 2007 E/13
APPENDIX–E-NOTATION
APPENDIX F
STEEL REINFORCEMENT INFORMATION
As an aid to users of the SBC 304, information on sizes, areas, and weights of various steel
reinforcement are presented.
WD 6.5 6.5 33.2 0.26 664 443 332 221 166 133 111 95 83
WD 7.0 7 38.5 0.302 770 513 385 257 193 154 128 110 96
WD 7.5 7.5 44.2 0.347 884 589 442 295 221 177 147 126 111
WD 8.0 8 50.3 0 1006 671 503 335 252 201 168 144 126
WD 8.5 8.5 56.7 0.445 1134 756 567 378 284 227 189 162 142
WD 9.0 9 63.6 0.499 1272 848 636 424 318 254 212 182 159
WD 9.5 9.5 70.9 0.556 1418 945 709 473 355 284 236 203 177
WD 10.0 10 78.5 0.617 1570 1047 785 523 393 314 262 224 196
WD 10.5 10.5 86.6 0.68 1732 1155 866 577 433 346 289 247 217
WD 11.0 11 95 0.746 1900 1267 950 633 475 380 317 271 238
WD 11.5 11.5 103.9 0.815 2078 1385 1039 693 520 416 346 297 260
WD 12.0 12 113.1 0.888 2262 1508 1131 754 566 452 377 323 283
APPENDIX G
DESIGN AIDS
G.1 Design reference materials illustrating applications of the code requirements may
be found in the following documents. The design aids listed may be obtained from
the sponsoring organization.
G.1.3 “Guide to Durable Concrete (ACI 201.2R-92),” ACI Committee 201, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1992, 41 pp.
G.1.3.1 (Describes specific types of concrete deterioration. It contains a discussion of the
mechanisms involved in deterioration and the recommended requirements for
individual components of the concrete, quality considerations for concrete
mixtures, construction procedures, and influences of the exposure environment.
Section R4.4.1 discusses the difference in chloride-ion limits between ACI
201.2R-92 and the code.)
G.1.5 “CRSI Handbook,” Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, Ill., 8th
Edition, 1996, 960 pp.
G.1.5.1 (Provides tabulated designs for structural elements and slab systems. Design
examples are provided to show the basis of and use of the load tables. Tabulated
designs are given for beams; square, round and rectangular columns; one-way
slabs; and one-way joist construction. The design tables for two-way slab systems
include flat plates, flat slabs and waffle slabs. The chapters on foundations provide
design tables for square footings, pile caps, drilled piers (caissons) and
cantilevered retaining walls. (Other design aids are presented for crack control;
and development of reinforcement and lap splices.)
G.1.6.1 (Provides accepted practices in splicing reinforcement. The use of lap splices,
mechanical splices, and welded splices are described. Design data are presented
for development and lap splicing of reinforcement.)
G.1.11 “Design and Typical Details of Connections for Precast and Prestressed
Concrete,” Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 2nd Edition, 1988,
270 pp.
G.1.11.1 (Updates available information on design of connections for both structural and
architectural products, and presents a full spectrum of typical details. Provides
design aids and examples.)
INDEX
B-region-Definition .................................................................................................................. A. 1
Base of structure-Definition .................................................................................................. 21.1
Beam
-Deflections-Minimum thickness ..................................................................................... 9.5.2.1
-Distribution of flexural reinforcement ................................................................................ 10.6
-Grade-Walls-Design ............................................................................................................ 14.7
Bearing strength ................................................................................................................... 10.1 7
Bearing walls
-Design .............................................................................................................................. 14.2.2
-Precast ................................................................................................................................. 16.4
Bending ...................................................................................................................................... 7.3
Bends-Reinforcement ................................................................................................................ 7.2
Bonded reinforcement-Minimum-Prestressed concrete ...................................................... 18.9
Bonded tendon-Definition ......................................................................................................... 2.1
Boundary elements-Definition .............................................................................................. 21 .1
Brackets-Shear provision ....................................................................................................... 11.9
Building official-Definition ............................................................................................. 1.2.3, 2.1
Bundled bars
-Development ....................................................................................................................... 12.4
-Spacing limits ............................................................................................................ 7.6, 11.5.4
H
SBC 304 2007 INDEX /5
INDEX
Wall
-Definition .............................................................................................................................. 2.1
-Empirical design .................................................................................................................. 14.5
-Grade beams-Design ........................................................................................................... 14.7
-Special provisions ............................................................................................................. 11.10
-Structural design .................................................................................................................. 14.1
Walls-Structural
-Definition ............................................................................................................................ 21.1
-Intermediate precast wall .................................................................................................. 21.13
-Ordinary reinforced ............................................................................................................. 1-18
-Special precast ..................................................................................................................... 21.8
-Special reinforced ....................................................................................................... 21 2, 21.7
Water .......................................................................................................................................... 3.4
Water-cementitious materials ratio .................................................................................. 4.1, 5.4
Water-reducing admixtures ..................................................................................................... 3.6
Web reinforcement-Development ........................................................................................ 12.13
Welded splices-Tension-Reinforcement ........................................................ 12.14, 12.16, 12.17
SBC 304 2007 INDEX /13
INDEX
ISBN: 9960-9883-5-X
PREFACE
Throughout all of this, strenuous effort has been made to keep the vast quantity of
material accessible and its method of presentation useful. With a comprehensive yet
concise summary of each section, the Commentary provides a convenient reference for
regulations applicable to the construction of buildings and structures. In the chapters that
follow, discussions focus on the full meaning and implications of the concrete structural
requirements (SBC 304) text. Guidelines suggest the most effective method of
application, and the consequences of not adhering to the SBC 304 text. Illustrations are
provided to aid understanding; they do not necessarily illustrate the only methods of
achieving code compliance.
The format of the Commentary includes the section, table and figure which is
applicable to the same section in the SBC 304. The numbers of the section, table and
figure in the commentary begin with the letter R. The Commentary reflects the most up-
to-date text of the 2007 Saudi Building Code concrete structural requirements (SBC
304). American Concrete Institute (ACI) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all
or portions of ACI codes and standards in the SBC, and ACI is not responsible or liable
in any way to SBCNC or to any other party or entity for any modifications or changes
that SBCNC makes to such documents.
Readers should note that the Commentary (SBC 304C) is to be used in conjunction
with the Saudi Building Code concrete structural requirements (SBC 304) and not as a
substitute for the code. The Commentary is advisory only; the code official alone
possesses the authority and responsibility for interpreting the code.
Comments and recommendations are encouraged, for through your input, it can
improve future editions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 DEFINITIONS
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS
R3.0 Notation
R3.1 Tests of materials
R3.2 Cements
R3.3 Aggregates
R3.4 Water
R3.5 Steel reinforcement
R3.6 Admixtures
R3.8 Referenced standards
CHAPTER 14 WALLS
R14.0 Notation
R14.1 Scope
R14.2 General
R14.3 Minimum reinforcement
R14.5 Empirical design method
R14.8 Alternative design of slender walls
SBC 304 C 2007 Contents/3
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 15 FOOTINGS
R15.0 Notation
R15.1 Scope
R15.2 Loads and reactions
R15.5 Shear in footings
R15.8 Transfer of force at base of column, wall, or reinforced pedestal
R15.10 Combined footings and mats
APPENDICES
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
SECTION R1.1
SCOPE
R1.1.1 The Saudi Building Code Commentary for Concrete Structures referred to as SBC
304C, provides comments on minimum requirements set forth in SBC 304. Hence,
SBC 304C is not intended to be used independent of SBC 304, but rather as a
companion to provide background information on code provisions.
The term “structural concrete” is used to refer to all concrete used for structural
purposes. This covers the spectrum of structural applications of concrete from
concrete containing nonprestressed reinforcement, prestressing steel, or composite
steel shapes, pipe, or tubing.
Prestressed concrete is included under the definition of reinforced concrete.
Provisions of the code apply to prestressed concrete except for those that are stated
to apply specifically to non-prestressed concrete.
Chapter 21 of the code contains special provisions for design and detailing of
earthquake resistant structures. See R1.1.8.
Appendix A of the SBC 304 contains provisions for the design of regions near
geometrical discontinuities, or abrupt changes in loadings.
Appendix B of the SBC 304 contains provisions for reinforcement limits based on
0.65 ρb determination of the strength reduction factor φ , and moment redistribution.
The provisions are applicable to reinforced and prestressed concrete members.
Designs made using the provisions of Appendix B are equally acceptable as those
based on the body of the code, provided the provisions of Appendix B are used in
their entirety.
Appendix C of the SBC 304 contains simplified coefficient methods for the design
of two-way slabs.
Appendix D of the SBC 304 contains provisions for anchoring to concrete.
R1.1.4 Some special structures involve unique design and construction problems that are
not covered by the code. However, many code provisions, such as the concrete
quality and design principles, are applicable for these structures. Detailed
recommendations for design and construction of some special structures are given
in Refs. 1.1 to 1.5.
R1.1.5 The design and installation of piling fully embedded in the ground is regulated by
the SBC. For portions of piling in air or water, or in soil not capable of providing
adequate lateral restraint throughout the piling length to prevent buckling, the
design provisions of this code govern where applicable. Further details about
design and construction of piles may be found in Refs. 1.6 to 1.8.
R1.1.7 Concrete on steel form deck. In steel framed structures, it is common practice to
cast concrete floor slabs on stay-in-place steel form deck. In all cases, the deck
serves as the form and may, in some cases, serve an additional structural function.
R1.1.7.1 In its most basic application, the steel form deck serves as a form, and the
concrete serves a structural function and, therefore, are to be designed to carry all
superimposed loads.
R1.1.8.1 For structures located in regions of low seismic risk, or for structures assigned to
low seismic performance or design categories, no special design or detailing is
required; the general requirements of the main body of the code apply for
proportioning and detailing of reinforced concrete structures. It is expected that
concrete structures proportioned by the main body of the code will provide a level
of toughness adequate for low earthquake intensity.
R1.1.8.2 Intermediate and special concrete moment frames and shear walls proportioned to
resist seismic effects require special reinforcement details. The special
proportioning and detailing requirements of Chapter 21 are intended to provide a
monolithic reinforced concrete or precast concrete structure with adequate
"toughness" to respond inelastically under severe earthquake motions. See also
R21.2.1.
SECTION R1.2
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
R1.2.1 SBC 304 lists some of the more important items of information that should be
included in the design drawings, details, or specifications. The SBC does not
imply an all inclusive list, and additional items may be required by the building
official.
R1.2.3 Building official is the term used to identify the person charged with administration
and enforcement of the provisions of the building code. However, such terms as
building commissioner or building inspector are variations of the title, and the term
building official as used in SBC is intended to include those variations as well as
others that are used in the same sense.
SECTION R1.3
INSPECTION
R1.3.1 By inspection, the code does not mean that the inspector should supervise the
construction. Rather it means that the one employed for inspection should visit the
project with the frequency necessary to observe the various stages of work and
ascertain that it is being done in compliance with contract documents and code
requirements. The frequency should be at least enough to provide general
knowledge of each operation, whether this be several times a day or once in
several days.
Inspection in no way relieves the contractor from his obligation to follow the plans
and specifications and to provide the designated quality and quantity of materials
and workmanship for all job stages. The inspector should be present as frequently
as deems necessary to judge whether the quality and quantity of the work complies
with the contract documents; to counsel on possible ways of obtaining the desired
results; to see that the general system proposed for formwork appears proper
(though it remains the contractor's responsibility to design and build adequate
forms and to leave them in place until it is safe to remove them); to see that
reinforcement is properly installed; to see that concrete is of the correct quality,
properly placed, and cured; and to see that tests for quality control are being made
as specified.
Recommended procedures foe organization and conduct of concrete inspection are
given in Ref. 1.9. Detailed methods of inspecting concrete construction are given
in Ref. 1.10.
SECTION R1.4
APPROVAL OF SPECIAL SYSTEMS OF
DESIGN OR CONSTRUCTION
New methods of design, new materials, and new uses of materials should undergo
a period of development before being specifically covered in a code. Hence, good
systems or components might be excluded from use by implication if means were
not available to obtain acceptance.
For special systems considered under this section, specific tests, load factors,
deflection limits, and other pertinent requirements should be set by the board of
examiners, and should be consistent with the intent of the SBC.
The provisions of this section do not apply to model tests used to supplement
calculations under 1.2.2 or to strength evaluation of existing structures under
Chapter 20.
CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS
R2.1 For consistent application of the code, it is necessary that terms be defined where
they have particular meanings in the code. The definitions given are for use in
application of this code only and do not always correspond to ordinary usage. A
glossary of most used terms relating to cement manufacturing, concrete design and
construction, and research in concrete is contained in Reference 2.1.
Anchorage zone - The terminology "ahead of' and "behind" the anchorage device
is illustrated in Fig. R18.13.1(b).
Basic anchorage devices are those devices that are so proportioned that they can
be checked analytically for compliance with bearing stress and stiffness
requirements without having to undergo the acceptance testing program required
of special anchorage devices.
Column - The term compression member is used in the code to define any
member in which the primary stress is longitudinal compression. Such a member
needs not be vertical but may have any orientation in space. Bearing walls,
columns, and pedestals qualify as compression members under this definition.
The differentiation between columns and walls in the code is based on the
principal use rather than on arbitrary relationships of height and cross-sectional
dimensions. The code, however, permits walls to be designed using the principles
stated for column design (see 14.4), as well as by the empirical method (see 14.5).
While a wall always encloses or separates spaces, it may also be used to resist
horizontal or vertical forces or bending. For example, a retaining wall or a
basement wall also supports various combinations of loads.
A column is normally used as a main vertical member carrying axial loads
combined with bending and shear. It may, however, form a small part of an
enclosure or separation.
In this code, compressive strength of concrete is based on 150 × 300 mm
cylindrical specimens (ASTM C39). Cubic specimens may be used for evaluating
concrete compressive strength subjected to the provision of Section R. 5.1.2.
3.5.3.5, or 3.5.3.6. No other bar or fabric qualifies. This definition permits accurate
statement of anchorage lengths. Bars or wire not meeting the deformation
requirements or fabric not meeting the spacing requirements are "plain
reinforcement," for code purposes, and may be used only for spirals.
Loads - A number of definitions for loads are given as the code contains
requirements that are to be met at various load levels. The terms dead load and live
load refer to the unfactored loads (service loads) specified or defined by the SBC
301. Service loads (loads without load factors) are to be used where specified in
the code to proportion or investigate members for adequate serviceability, as in
9.5, Control of Deflections. Loads used to proportion a member for adequate
strength are defined as factored loads. Factored loads are service loads multiplied
by the appropriate load factors specified in 9.2 for required strength.
φ Pn ≥ Pu
φ Mn ≥ Mu
φ Vn ≥ Vu
For additional discussion on the concepts and nomenclature for strength design see
commentary Chapter 9.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS
SECTION R3.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or N.
SECTION R3.1
TESTS OF MATERIALS
R3.1.3 The record of tests of materials and of concrete should be retained for at least 5
years after completion of the project. Completion of the project is the date at which
the owner accepts the project or when the certificate of occupancy is issued,
whichever date is later.
SECTION R3.2
CEMENTS
R3.2.2 Depending on the circumstances, the provision of 3.2.2 may require only the same
type of cement or may require cement from the identical source. The latter would
be the case if the standard deviation of strength tests used in establishing the
required strength margin was based on a cement from a particular source. If the
standard deviation was based on tests involving a given type of cement obtained
from several sources, the former interpretation would apply.
SECTION R3.3
AGGREGATES
R3.3.1 Aggregates conforming to the ASTM specifications are not always economically
available and, in some instances, noncomplying materials have a long history of
satisfactory performance. Such nonconforming materials are permitted with
special approval when acceptable evidence of satisfactory performance is
provided. Satisfactory performance in the past, however, does not guarantee good
performance under other conditions and in other localities. Whenever possible,
aggregates conforming to the designated specifications should be used.
R3.3.2 The size limitations on aggregates are provided to ensure proper encasement of
reinforcement and to minimize honeycombing. Note that the limitations on
maximum size of the aggregate may be waived if, in the judgment of the engineer,
the workability and methods of consolidation of the concrete are such that the
concrete can be placed with-out honeycombs or voids.
SECTION R3.4
WATER
R3.4.1 Almost any natural water that is drinkable (potable) and has no pronounced taste
or odor is satisfactory as mixing water for making concrete. Impurities in mixing
water, when excessive, may affect not only setting time, concrete strength, and
volume stability (length change), but may also cause efflorescence or corrosion of
SBC 304 C 2007 3/1
COMMENTARY MATERIALS
R.3.4.3 Nonpotable water for mixing or curing concrete should be substantially free from
contamination particularly that raise the chloride and sulfate content of concrete.
Water containing less than 2000 ppm of total dissolved solid can generally be used
satisfactory for making concrete.
SECTION R3.5
STEEL REINFORCEMENT
R3.5.1 Materials permitted for use as reinforcement are specified. Other metal elements,
such as inserts, anchor bolts, or plain bars for dowels at isolation or contraction
joints, are not normally considered to be reinforcement under the provisions of
SBC 304
R3.5.2 Welding of reinforcing bars is not recommended. However, when needed, the
procedure and provisions given in AWS D1.4 or equivalent may be used. See
3.8.2.
R3.5.3.2 ASTM A 615M includes provisions for Grade 520 bars in sizes with Dia 20 mm
and larger.
The 0.35 percent strain limit is necessary to ensure that the assumption of an
elasto-plastic stress-strain curve in 10.2.4 will not lead to unconservative values of
the member strength.
The 0.35 strain requirement is not applied to reinforcing bars having yield
strengths of 420 MPa or less. For steels having strengths of 300 MPa, the
assumption of an elasto-plastic stress-strain curve is well justified by extensive test
data. For higher strength steels, up to 420 MPa, the stress-strain curve may or may
not be elasto-plastic as assumed in 10.2.4, depending on the properties of the steel
and the manufacturing process. However, when the stress-strain curve is not
elasto-plastic, there is limited experimental evidence to suggest that the actual steel
stress at ultimate strength may not be enough less than the specified yield strength
to warrant the additional effort of testing to the more restrictive criterion
applicable to steels having f y greater than 420 MPa. In such cases, the φ -factor can
be expected to account for the strength deficiency.
R3.5.3.5 Welded plain wire fabric should be made of wire conforming to "Specification for
Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 82). ASTM A 82 has a
minimum yield strength of 482 MPa. The SBC has assigned a yield strength value
of 420 MPa, but makes provision for the use of higher yield strengths provided the
stress corresponds to a strain of 0.35 percent.
R3.5.3.6 Welded deformed wire fabric should be made of wire conforming to
"Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A
SBC 304 C 2007 3/2
COMMENTARY MATERIALS
496). ASTM A 496 has a minimum yield strength of 482 MPa. The SBC 304 has
assigned a yield strength value of 420 MPa, but makes provision for the use of
higher yield strengths provided the stress corresponds to a strain of 0.35 percent.
R3.5.3.7 Galvanized reinforcing bars(A 767M), epoxy-coated reinforcing bars (A 775M)
and epoxy-coated prefabricated reinforcing bars (A 934M) are used, especially for
conditions where corrosion resistance of reinforcement is of particular concern.
They have typically been used in parking decks, bridge decks, and other highly
corrosive environments.
R3.5.4 Plain reinforcement. Plain bars and plain wire are permitted only for spiral
reinforcement (either as lateral reinforcement for compression members, for
torsion members, or for confining reinforcement for splices).
SECTION R3.6
ADMIXTURE
R3.6.3 Admixtures containing any chloride, other than impurities from admixture
ingredients, should not be used in prestressed concrete or in concrete with
aluminum embedments. Concentrations of chloride ion may produce corrosion of
embedded aluminum (e.g., conduit), especially if the aluminum is in contact with
embedded steel and the concrete is in a humid environment. Serious corrosion of
galvanized steel sheet and galvanized steel stay-in-place forms occurs, especially
in humid environments or where drying is inhibited by the thickness of the
concrete or coatings or impermeable coverings. See 4.4.1 for specific limits on
chloride ion concentration in concrete.
R3.6.8 The use of admixtures in concrete containing ASTM C 845 expansive cements
has reduced levels of expansion or increased shrinkage values. See Ref. 3.2.
SECTION 3.8
REFERENCED STANDARDS
The ASTM standard specifications listed are the latest editions at the time these
SBC 304 provisions were adopted. Since these specifications are revised
frequently, generally in minor details only, the user of the SBC 304 should check
CHAPTER 4
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS
This chapter emphasizes the importance of considering durability requirements
before the designer selects f c′ and concrete cover over the reinforcing steel.
Concrete exposed to sulfate-bearing soils or groundwater, seawater, or for
preventing corrosion of reinforcing steel or salt weathering should be designed for
maximum water-cementitious materials ratio, minimum cementitious materials
content and appropriate type of cement. Maximum water-cementitious materials
ratios of 0.40 to 0.50 that may be required for concretes exposed to sulfate-bearing
soils or groundwaters, or for preventing corrosion of reinforcement will typically
be equivalent to requiring an f c′ of about 35 to 28 MPa, respectively. Generally,
the required average concrete strength, f cr' , will be 5 to 8 MPa higher than the
specified compressive strength, f c′ .
Since it is difficult to accurately determine the water-cementitious materials ratio
of concrete during production, the f c′ specified should be reasonably consistent
with the water-cementitious materials ratio selected for durability. Selection of an
f c′ that is consistent with the water-cementitious materials ratio selected for
durability will help ensure that the required water-cementitious materials ratio is
actually obtained in the field. Because the usual emphasis on inspection is for
strength, test results substantially higher than the specified strength may lead to a
lack of concern for quality and production of concrete that exceeds the maximum
water-cementitious materials ratio. Thus, an f c′ of less than 20 MPa and a
maximum water-cementitious materials ratio of 0.45 should not be specified for
structures exposed to aggressive environments.
The SBC 304 does not include provisions for especially severe exposures, such as
acids or high temperatures, and is not concerned with aesthetic considerations,
such as surface finishes. These items are beyond the scope of the SBC 304 and
should be covered specifically in the project specifications. Concrete ingredients
and proportions are to be selected to meet the minimum requirements stated in the
SBC 304 and the additional requirements of the contract documents.
SECTION R4.2
FREEZING AND THAWING EXPOSURE
SECTION R4.3
SULFATE EXPOSURE
C 150. For severe exposures, Type V cement with a maximum C3A content of 5
percent is specified. Type V cement may be used when Type II cement is not
available.
ASTM C 10124.1 can be used to evaluate the sulfate resistance of concrete mixtures
using combinations of cementitious materials.
In addition to proper selection of cement, other requirements for durable concrete
exposed to injurious concentrations of sulfate are essential, such as low water-
cementitious materials ratio, minimum cementitious materials content, strength,
adequate consolidation, uniformity, adequate cover over reinforcing steel and
sufficient moist curing to develop the potential properties of concrete.
SECTION R4.4
CORROSION PROTECTION OF REINFORCEMENT
R4.4.1 Test procedures for determining chloride concentration in concrete should conform
to those given in ASTM C 1218. An initial evaluation may be obtained by testing
individual concrete ingredients for water-soluble chloride ion content. If the
water-soluble chloride ion content, calculated on the basis of concrete proportions,
exceeds those permitted in Table 4.4.1, it may be necessary to test samples of the
hardened concrete for water-soluble chloride ion content. Some of the total
chloride ions present in the ingredients will either be insoluble or will react with
the cement during hydration and become insoluble under the test procedures
described in ASTM C 1218. Additional information on the effect of chloride on
the corrosion of reinforcement steel are given in Ref. 4.2 and 4.3.
When concrete is tested for water-soluble chloride ion content, the test should be
made at an age of 28 to 42 days.
The limits in Table 4.4.1 are applied to chlorides contributed from the
concrete ingredients, not those from the environment surrounding the
concrete.
R4.4.2 When reinforced concrete structures are exposed to external sources of chlorides,
the water-cementitious materials ratio, cementitious materials content, and
specified compressive strength, f c′ , of Table 4.4.2 are the minimum requirements
that are to be considered. Epoxy- or zinc-coated bars or slag meeting ASTM C
989 or fly ash meeting ASTM C 618 or silica fume meeting ASTM C 1240 with
an appropriate high-range water reducer, ASTM C 494M, Types F and G, or
ASTM C 1017M can provide additional protection 4.4. When epoxy-coated steel
bars are used, they should be according to ASTM A 775 specifications.
The requirements for minimum concrete cover over the reinforcing steel of 7.7 in
conjunction with 7.7.5 should be considered.
The requirements for protection of concrete against carbonation are not provided
as it is expected that the use of quality concrete and adequate cover over
reinforcing steel, as specified in the SBC 304, will minimize this problem.
R4.4.5 In the coastal areas, such as in Jeddah, Yanbu, Dammam, Jizan, and others,
the substructures are exposed to chloride- and sulfate-bearing soil and/or
groundwater. In such situations, the requirements of 4.5 shall be considered.
SECTION R4.5
SULFATE PLUS CHLORIDE EXPOSURES
R4.5.1 Structures exposed to environments containing both sulfate and chloride salts are
prone to both sulfate attack and reinforcement corrosion. For such environments,
the concrete mixture proportions should be selected for the severest of the
exposure conditions, in terms of chloride or sulfate concentration, in Tables 4.3.1
or 4.4.2. In such situations, the lowest applicable maximum water-cementitious
SBC 304 C 2007 4/3
COMMENTARY DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS
materials ratio and highest pertinent minimum cementitious materials content for
the severest exposure conditions should be selected.
Since reinforcement corrosion is the major form of concrete deterioration, in a
chloride-sulfate environment, as sulfate ions do not penetrate deeper into the
concrete cover, it is suggested to use the cement type specified in Table 4.4.2,
rather than that dictated by the severity of the exposure conditions.
SECTION R4.6
SABKHA EXPOSURES
R4.6.1 Sabkha is a saline flat land underlain by sand, silt or clay and is often encrusted
with salt. These soils either border partially land-locked seas or cover a number of
continental depressions. Both of these types are usually formed in hot, arid
climates and are associated with shallow groundwater table. Sabkha terrains are
typically located in Jubail, Rastanura, Abqaiq, Dammam, and Shaibah along the
Arabian Gulf coast. They are prevalent in Jeddah, Jizan, Qunfudhah, Al-Lith,
Rabigh, Yanbu in Western Province as well as in Wadi As-Sirhan, around Al-
Qasim. and around Riyadh.
The salinity of sabkha soil is three to five times that of seawater from the same
vicinity. The high chloride concentration in these soils accelerates concrete
deterioration due to reinforcement corrosion. In such situations, in addition to
utilizing quality concrete, the structural components need to be protected by
appropriate measures, such as tanking or epoxy-based coating.
SECTION R4.7
SALT WEATHERING
R4.7.1 Concrete exposed to splash in a marine environment and soil with shallow
groundwater table or water from irrigation is susceptible to deterioration due to
salt weathering in the hot and arid environment of the Kingdom. In addition to
utilizing quality concrete, it may be necessary to provide additional protective
measures, such as the application of an appropriate barrier coating.
In marine structures, the protection should be provided in the splash zone.
Tanking or application of a barrier coating in portions exposed to soil is
necessary for the substructures.
CHAPTER 5
CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
The requirements for proportioning concrete mixtures are based on the philosophy
that concrete should provide both adequate durability (Chapter 4) and strength.
The criteria for acceptance of concrete are based on the philosophy that the SBC
304 is intended primarily to protect the safety of the public. Chapter 5 describes
procedures by which concrete of adequate strength can be obtained, and provides
procedures for checking the quality of the concrete during and after its placement
in the work.
Chapter 5 also prescribes minimum criteria for mixing and placing concrete.
The provisions of 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4, together with Chapter 4, establish required
mixture proportions. The basis for determining the adequacy of concrete strength is
in 5.6.
SECTION R5.1
GENERAL
R5.1.1 The basic premises governing the designation and evaluation of concrete strength
are presented. It is emphasized that the average strength of concrete produced
should always exceed the specified value of f c′ used in the structural design
calculations. This is based on probabilistic concepts, and is intended to ensure that
adequate concrete strength will be developed in the structure. The durability
requirements prescribed in Chapter 4 are to be satisfied in addition to attaining the
average concrete strength in accordance with 5.3.2.
R5.1.2 Cubic specimens (150 × 150 × 150) in accordance with SASO 79 may be used in
evaluating the compressive strength, using the following correction factor:
f c′ = k ( f cubic ) where k = 0.8.
R5.1.4 Sections 9.5.2.3 (modulus of rupture), 11.2 (concrete shear strength) and 12.2.4
(development of reinforcement) require modification in the design criteria for the
use of lightweight aggregate concrete. Two alternative modification procedures are
provided. One alternative is based on laboratory tests to determine the relationship
between splitting tensile strength f ct and specified compressive strength f c′ for the
lightweight concrete. For a lightweight aggregate from a given source, it is intended
that appropriate values of f ct be obtained in advance of design.
R5.1.5 Tests for splitting tensile strength of concrete (as required by 5.1.4) are not intended
for control of, or acceptance of the strength of concrete in the field. Indirect control
will be maintained through the normal compressive strength test requirements
provided by 5.6.
SECTION R5.2
SELECTION OF CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
R5.2.1 The selected water-cementitious materials ratio should be low enough, or in the case
of lightweight concrete the compressive strength high enough to satisfy both the
strength criteria (see 5.3 or 5.4) and the special exposure requirements (Chapter 4).
The SBC 304 does not include provisions for especially severe exposures, such as
acids or high temperatures, and is not concerned with aesthetic considerations such
as surface finishes. These items are beyond the scope of the SBC 304 and should
be covered specifically in the project specifications. Concrete ingredients and
proportions are to be selected to meet the minimum requirements stated in the SBC
304 and the additional requirements of the contract documents.
R5.2.3 The SBC 304 emphasizes the use of field experience or laboratory trial mixtures
(see 5.3) as the preferred method for selecting concrete mixture proportions.
SECTION R5.3
PROPORTIONING ON THE BASIS OF FIELD EXPERIENCE OR
TRIAL MIXTURES, OR BOTH
In selecting a suitable concrete mixture there are three basic steps. The first is the
determination of the standard deviation. The second is the determination of the
required average strength. The third is the selection of mixture proportions
required to produce that average strength, either by conventional trial mixture
procedures or by a suitable experience record. Fig. R5.3 is a flow chart outlining
the mixture selection and documentation procedure.
The mixture selected should yield an average strength appreciably higher than the
specified strength f c′ . The degree of mixture overdesign depends on the variability
of the test results.
R5.3.1 Standard deviation. When a concrete production facility has a suitable record of
30 consecutive tests of similar materials and conditions expected, the standard
deviation is calculated from those results in accordance with the following
formula:
1/ 2
⎡ ⎛ − 2⎤
⎞
⎢ ∑ ⎜ xi − x ⎟ ⎥
s=⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎢ (n − 1) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where:
s = standard deviation, MPa
xi = individual strength tests as defined in 5.6.2.4
x = average of n strength test results
n = number of consecutive strength tests
Yes No
Required average
Or
Required average strength strength using Table
using Table 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.1
Yes
where:
s = statistical average standard deviation where two test records are used to
estimate the standard deviation
s1 , s 2 = standard deviations calculated from two test records, 1 and 2,
respectively
n1 , n2 = number of tests in each test record, respectively
If less than 30, but at least 15 tests are available, the calculated standard deviation
is increased by the factor given in Table 5.3.1.2. This procedure results in a more
conservative (increased) required average strength. The factors in Table 5.3.1.2 are
based on the sampling distribution of the standard deviation and provide protection
(equivalent to that from a record of 30 tests) against the possibility that the smaller
sample under estimates the true or universe population standard deviation.
The standard deviation used in the calculation of required average strength should
be developed under conditions "similar to those expected" [see 5.3.1.1(a)]. This
requirement is important to ensure acceptable concrete.
Concrete for background tests to determine standard deviation is considered to be
"similar" to that required if made with the same general types of ingredients under
no more restrictive conditions of control over material quality and production
methods than on the proposed work, and if its specified strength does not deviate
more than 7 MPa from the f c′ required [see 5.3.1.1(b)]. A change in the type of
concrete or a major increase in the strength level may increase the standard
deviation. Such a situation might occur with a change in type of aggregate (i.e.,
from natural aggregate to lightweight aggregate or vice versa) or a change from
non-air-entrained concrete to air-entrained concrete. Also, there may be an
increase in standard deviation when the average strength level is raised by a
significant amount, although the increment of increase in standard deviation
should be somewhat less than directly proportional to the strength increase. When
there is reasonable doubt, any estimated standard deviation used to calculate the
required average strength should always be on the conservative (high) side.
Note that the SBC 304 uses the standard deviation in mega Pascal instead of the
coefficient of variation in percent. The latter is equal to the former expressed as a
percent of the average strength.
Even when the average strength and standard deviation are of the levels assumed,
there will be occasional tests that fail to meet the acceptance criteria prescribed in
5.6.3.3 (perhaps 1 test in 100).
TABLE 5.3.1.2-MODIFICATION FACTOR FOR STANDARD
DEVIATION WHEN LESS THAN 30 TESTS ARE AVAILABLE
R5.3.2.1 Once the standard deviation has been determined, the required average
compressive strength is obtained from the larger value computed from Eq. (5-1)
and (5-2) for f c′ of 35 MPa or less, or the larger value computed from Eq. (5-1)
and (5-3) for f c′ over 35 MPa. Equation (5-1) is based on a probability of 1-in-100
that the average of three consecutive tests may be below the specified compressive
strength f c′ Equation (5-2) is based on a similar probability that an individual test
may be more than 3.5 MPa below the specified compressive strength f c′ . Equation
(5-3) is based on the same 1-in-100 probability that an individual test may be less
than 0.90 f c′ . These equations assume that the standard deviation used is equal to
the population value appropriate for an infinite or very large number of tests. For
this reason, use of standard deviations estimated from records of 100 or more tests
is desirable. When 30 tests are available, the probability of failure will likely be
somewhat greater than 1-in-100. The additional refinements required to achieve the
1-in-100 probability are not considered necessary, because of the uncertainty
inherent in assuming that conditions operating when the test record was
accumulated will be similar to conditions when the concrete will be produced.
R5.3.2.2 Recent evaluation of production control of ready mix concrete in the Kingdom has
shown that values of standard deviation provided by ready mix concrete plants
under-estimate the true standard deviation substantially.5.3,5.4 Therefore, it is
prudent to use the required average strength based on Table 5.3.2.2 until the true
standard deviation can be established by qualified independent laboratory.
TABLE 5.3.2.2-REQUIRED AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
WHEN DATA ARE NOT AVAIL-ABLE TO ESTABLISH A
STANDARD DEVIATION
Specified compressive Required average
strength, compressive
f c′ , MPa strength, f cr' , MPa
20 to 35 f c' + 8.5
Over 35 1.10 f c' + 5.0
R.5.3.3 Documentation of average strength. Once the required average strength f cr' , is
known, the next step is to select mixture proportions that will produce an average
strength at least as great as the required average strength, and also meet special
exposure requirements of Chapter 4. The documentation may consist of a strength
test record, several strength test records, or suitable laboratory or field trial
mixtures. Generally, if a test record is used, it will be the same one that was used
for computation of the standard deviation. However, if this test record shows either
lower or higher average strength than the required average strength, different
proportions may be necessary or desirable. In such instances, the average from a
record of as few as 10 tests may be used, or the proportions may be established by
interpolation between the strengths and proportions of two such records of
consecutive tests. All test records for establishing proportions necessary to
produce the average strength are to meet the requirements of 5.3.3.1 for "similar
materials and conditions."
For strengths over 35 MPa where the average strength documentation is based on
SBC 304 C 2007 5/5
COMMENTARY CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
SECTION R5.4
PROPORTIONING WITHOUT FIELD EXPERIENCE
OR TRIAL MIXTURES
R5.4.1 When no prior experience (5.3.3.1) or trial mixture data (5.3.3.2) meeting the
requirements of these sections is available, other experience may be used only
when special permission is given. Because combinations of different ingredients
may vary considerably in strength level, this procedure is not permitted for f c′
greater than 35 MPa and the required average strength should exceed f c′ by 8.5
MPa. The purpose of this provision is to allow work to continue when there is an
unexpected interruption in concrete supply and there is not sufficient time for tests
and evaluation or in small structures where the cost of trial mixture data is not
justified.
SECTION R5.6
EVALUATION AND ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE
Once the mixture proportions have been selected and the job started, the criteria for
evaluation and acceptance of the concrete can be obtained from 5.6.
An effort has been made in the SBC 304 to provide a clear-cut basis for judging the
acceptability of the concrete, as well as to indicate a course of action to be followed
when the results of strength tests are not satisfactory.
R5.6.1 Laboratory and field technicians can establish qualifications by becoming certified
through certification programs. Field technicians in charge of sampling concrete;
testing for slump, unit weight, yield, air content, and temperature; and making and
curing test specimens should be certified in accordance with the requirements of
ASTM C 1077,5.5 or an equivalent program. Concrete testing laboratory personnel
should be certified in accordance with the requirements of ASTM C 1077 or an
equivalent program.
Testing reports should be promptly distributed to the owner, registered design
professional responsible for the design, contractor, appropriate subcontractors,
appropriate suppliers, and building official to allow timely identification of either
compliance or the need for corrective action.
R5.6.2.1 The following three criteria establish the required minimum sampling frequency
for each class of concrete:
(a) Once each day a given class is placed, nor less than
(b) Once for each 120 m3 of each class placed each day, nor less than
(c) Once for each 500 m2 of slab or wall surface area placed each day.
In calculating surface area, only one side of the slab or wall should be considered.
Criteria (c) will require more frequent sampling than once for each 120 m3 placed
if the average wall or slab thickness is less than 250 mm.
R5.6.2.2 Samples for strength tests are to be taken on a strictly random basis if they are to
measure properly the acceptability of the concrete. To be representative, the choice
of times of sampling, or the batches of concrete to be sampled, are to be made on the
basis of chance alone, within the period of placement. Batches should not be
sampled on the basis of appearance, convenience, or other possibly biased criteria,
because the statistical analyses will lose their validity. Not more than one test
(average of two cylinders made from a sample, 5.6.2.4) should be taken from a
single batch, and water may not be added to the concrete after the sample is taken.
ASTM D 36655.6 describes procedures for random selection of the batches to be
tested.
R5.6.3.3 A single set of criteria is given for acceptability of strength and is applicable to all
concrete used in structures designed in accordance with the SBC 304, regardless of
design method used. The concrete strength is considered to be satisfactory as long
as averages of any three consecutive strength tests remain above the specified f c′
and no individual strength test falls below the specified f c′ by more than 3.5 MPa
if f c′ is 35 MPa or less, or falls below f c′ by more than 10 percent if f c′ is over 35
MPa. Evaluation and acceptance of the concrete can be judged immediately as test
results are received during the course of the work. Strength tests failing to meet
these criteria will occur occasionally (probably about once in 100 tests) even
though concrete strength and uniformity are satisfactory. Allowance should be
made for such statistically expected variations in deciding whether the strength
level being produced is adequate.
R5.6.3.4 When concrete fails to meet either of the strength requirements of 5.6.3.3, steps
should be taken to, increase the average of the concrete test results. If sufficient
concrete has been produced to accumulate at least 15 tests, these should be used to
establish a new target average strength as described in 5.3.
If fewer than 15 tests have been made on the class of concrete in question, the new
target strength level should be at least as great as the average level used in the
initial selection of proportions. If the average of the available tests made on the
project equals or exceeds the level used in the initial selection of proportions, a
further increase in average level is required.
The steps taken to increase the average level of test results will depend on the
particular circumstances, but could include one or more of the following:
(a) An increase in cementitious materials content;
(b) Changes in mixture proportions;
(c) Reductions in or better control of levels of slump supplied;
(d) A reduction in delivery time;
(e) Closer control of air content;
(f) An improvement in the quality of the testing, including strict compliance with
standard test procedures.
R5.6.4.1 Strength tests of cylinders cured under field conditions may be required to check
the adequacy of curing and protection of concrete in the structure.
R5.6.4.4 Positive guidance is provided in the SBC 304 concerning the interpretation of tests
of field-cured cylinders. Research has shown that cylinders protected and cured to
simulate good field practice should test not less than about 85 percent of standard
laboratory moist-cured cylinders. This percentage has been set as a rational basis
for judging the adequacy of field curing. The comparison is made between the
actual measured strengths of companion job-cured and laboratory-cured cylinders,
not between job-cured cylinders and the specified value of f c' . However, results
for the job-cured cylinders are considered satisfactory if the job-cured cylinders
exceed the specified f c' by more than 3.5 MPa, even though they fail to reach 85
percent of the strength of companion laboratory-cured cylinders.
Core tests having an average of 85 percent of the specified strength are realistic. To
expect core tests to be equal to f c′ is not realistic, since differences in the size of
specimens, conditions of obtaining samples, and procedures for curing, do not
permit equal values to be obtained.
The SBC 304, as stated, concerns itself with assuring structural safety, and the
instructions in 5.6 are aimed at that objective. It is not the function of the SBC 304
to assign responsibility for strength deficiencies, whether or not they are such as to
require corrective measures.
Under the requirements of this section, cores taken to confirm structural adequacy
will usually be taken at ages later than those specified for determination of f c′ .
SECTION R5.7
PREPARATION OF EQUIPMENT AND PLACE OF DEPOSIT
Recommendations for mixing, handling and transporting, and placing concrete are
given in Reference 5.12 (Presents methods and procedures for control, handling
and storage of materials, measurement, batching tolerances, mixing, methods of
placing, transporting, and forms.)
Attention is directed to the need for using clean equipment and for cleaning forms
and reinforcement thoroughly before beginning to deposit concrete. In particular,
sawdust, nails, wood pieces, and other debris that may collect inside the forms
should be removed. Reinforcement should be thoroughly cleaned of dirt, loose
rust, mill scale, or other coatings. Water should be removed from the forms.
SECTION R5.8
MIXING
SECTION R5.9
CONVEYING
SECTION R5.10
PLACING
Re-handling concrete can cause segregation of the materials. Hence the SBC 304
cautions against this practice. Re-tempering of partially set concrete with the
addition of water should not be permitted, unless authorized. This does not
preclude the practice (recognized in ASTM C 94) of adding water to mixed
concrete to bring it up to the specified slump range so long as prescribed limits on
the maximum mixing time and water-cementitious materials ratio are not violated.
Recommendations for consolidation of concrete are given in detail in Ref. 5.14
(Presents current information on the mechanism of consolidation and gives
recommendations on equipment characteristics and procedures for various classes
of concrete).
SECTION R5.11
CURING
Recommendations for curing concrete are given in detail in Ref. 5.15 (Presents
basic principles of proper curing and describes the various methods, procedures,
and materials for curing of concrete.)
R5.11.3 Accelerated curing. The provisions of this section apply whenever an accelerated
curing method is used, whether for precast or cast-in-place elements. The
compressive strength of steam-cured concrete is not as high as that of similar
concrete continuously cured under moist conditions at moderate temperatures.
Also the modulus of elasticity Ec , of steam-cured specimens may vary from that
of specimens moist-cured at normal temperatures. When steam curing is used, it is
advisable to base the concrete mixture proportions on steam-cured test cylinders.
Accelerated curing procedures require careful attention to obtain uniform and
satisfactory results. Preventing moisture loss during the curing is essential.
R5.11.4 In addition to requiring a minimum curing temperature and time for normal- and
high-early-strength concrete, the SBC 304 provides a specific criterion in 5.6.4 for
judging the adequacy of field curing. At the test age for which the strength is
specified (usually 28 days), field-cured cylinders should produce strength not less
than 85 percent of that of the standard, laboratory-cured cylinders. For a
reasonably valid comparison to be made, field-cured cylinders and companion
laboratory-cured cylinders should come from the same sample. Field-cured
cylinders should be cured under conditions identical to those of the structure. If the
structure is protected from the elements, the cylinder should be protected.
Cylinders related to members not directly exposed to weather should be cured
adjacent to those members and provided with the same degree of protection and
method of curing. The field cylinders should not be treated more favor-ably than
SBC 304 C 2007 5/10
COMMENTARY CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
the elements they represent. (See 5.6.4 for additional information.) If the field-
cured cylinders do not provide satisfactory strength by this comparison, measures
should be taken to improve the curing. If the tests indicate a possible serious
deficiency in strength of concrete in the structure, core tests may be required, with
or without supplemental wet curing, to check the structural adequacy, as provided
in 5.6.5.
SECTION R5.13
HOT WEATHER REQUIREMENTS
R5.13.1 Hot weather is any combination of high ambient temperature, high concrete
temperature; low relative humidity; wind speed; and solar radiation that tends to
impair the quality of fresh or hardened concrete.
Potential problems for concrete in the freshly mixed state are likely to include: (a)
increased water demand, (b) increased rate of slump loss, (c) increased rate of
setting, and (d) increased tendency for plastic shrinkage cracking.
Potential deficiencies to concrete in the hardened state may include: (a) decreased
long-term strength, (b) increased tendency for drying shrinkage and differential
thermal cracking, and (c) decreased durability.
A detailed description of the hot weather factors and their effect on concrete
properties is given in Ref. 5.16.
R5.13.2 Local Experience has shown that when reasonable precautions are employed by
the batching plants, concrete with a temperature of less than 35 ° C can be delivered
to jobsite 5.3.
Some of the precautions that may be employed to control concrete temperature
include: (i) shading the aggregate stockpiles and bins, (ii) sprinkling water to cool
the coarse aggregates, (iii) cooling the mixing water, (iv) using ice as part of the
mixing water, and (v) painting trucks, silos and other related equipments, with
white or light color. The contribution of aggregates, cement and water to the
temperature of the freshly mixed concrete is related to their temperature, specific
heat, and quantity of each material.
Tanks and pipelines carrying mixing water should be buried, insulated, shaded, or
painted white or with light color to keep water at the lowest possible temperature.
Silos and bins should be painted with heat-reflective paint to minimize absorption
of heat. The surface of truck mixer should be painted white to minimize solar heat
gain.
R5.13.3 Chemical admixtures have been found to be beneficial in offsetting some of the
undesirable characteristics of concrete placed during periods of high ambient
temperatures. The benefits may include lower mixing water, extended period of
use, and strengths comparable to, or higher than, those of concrete without
admixtures, placed at lower temperatures 5.16.
Admixtures meeting the requirements of ASTM C 494, Type D, have both water-
reducing and set-retarding properties and are widely used under hot weather
conditions. They can be included in concrete in varying proportions and in
combination with other admixtures5.16.
Some high-range, water-reducing and retarding admixtures (ASTM C 494, Type
G) and plasticizing retarding admixtures (ASTM C 1017, Type II), often referred
SBC 304 C 2007 5/11
COMMENTARY CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING AND PLACING
R5.13.7 Curing is more critical under hot weather conditions. Early curing is essential
when pozzolan cement concrete is utilized.
Of the different curing procedures, moist-curing is the best. It can be provided by
ponding, covering with clean sand kept continuously wet or continuous sprinkling
of water. A more practical method of moist-curing is that of covering the pre-
wetted concrete with an impervious sheeting or application of absorptive mats or
fabric kept continuously wet with a soaker hose or similar means 5.16.
specimens of fresh concrete exposed to sun, wind, or dry air will invalidate the test
results.
Particular attention should be given to the protection and curing of strength test
specimens used as a basis for acceptance of concrete. Due to their small size in
relation to most parts of the structure, test specimens are influenced more readily
by changes in ambient temperatures. Extra effort is needed in hot weather to
maintain strength test specimens at a temperature of 16 to 27°C and to prevent
moisture loss during the initial curing period 5.16.
CHAPTER 6
FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES,
AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
SECTION R6.1
DESIGN OF FORMWORK
SECTION R6.2
REMOVAL OF FORMS, SHORES, AND RESHORING
In determining the time for removal of forms, consideration should be given to the
construction loads and to the possibilities of deflections.6.3 The construction loads
are frequently at least as great as the specified live loads. At early ages, a structure
may be adequate to support the applied loads but may deflect sufficiently to cause
permanent damage.
Evaluation of concrete strength during construction may be demonstrated by field-
cured test cylinders or other procedures approved by the building official such as:
(a) Tests of cast-in-place cylinders in accordance with "Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast-in-Place in Cylindrical
Molds" (ASTM C 8736.4). (This method is limited to use in slabs where the
depth of concrete is from 125 to 300 mm);
(b) Penetration resistance in accordance with "Standard Test Method for
Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete" (ASTM C 8036.5);
(c) Pullout strength in accordance with "Standard Test Method for Pullout
Strength of Hardened Concrete" (ASTM C 9006.6);
(d) Maturity factor measurements and correlation in accordance with ASTM C
1074.6.7
Procedures (b), (c), and (d) require sufficient data, using job materials, to
demonstrate correlation of measurements on the structure with compressive
strength of molded cylinders or drilled cores.
Where the structure is adequately supported on shores, the side forms of beams,
girders, columns, walls, and similar vertical forms may generally be removed after
12 h of cumulative curing time, provided the side forms support no loads other
than the lateral pressure of the plastic concrete. Cumulative curing time represents
SBC 304 C 2007 6/1
COMMENTARY FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES, AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
the sum of time intervals, not necessarily consecutive, during which the
temperature of the air surrounding the concrete is above 10 ° C. The 12-h
cumulative curing time is based on regular cements and ordinary conditions; the
use of special cements or unusual conditions may require adjustment of the given
limits. For example, concrete made with Type II or V (ASTM C 150) or ASTM C
595 cements, concrete containing retarding admixtures, and concrete to which ice
was added during mixing (to lower the temperature of fresh concrete) may not
have sufficient strength in 12 h and should be investigated before removal of
formwork.
The removal of formwork for multistory construction should be a part of a planned
procedure considering the temporary support of the whole structure as well as that
of each individual member. Such a procedure should be worked out prior to
construction and should be based on a structural analysis taking into account the
following items, as a minimum:
(a) The structural system that exists at the various stages of construction and the
construction loads corresponding to those stages;
(b) The strength of the concrete at the various ages during construction;
(c) The influence of deformations of the structure and shoring system on the
distribution of dead loads and construction loads during the various stages of
construction;
(d) The strength and spacing of shores or shoring systems used, as well as the
method of shoring, bracing, shore removal, and reshoring including the
minimum time intervals between the various operations;
(e) Any other loading or condition that affects the safety or serviceability of the
structure during construction.
For multistory construction, the strength of the concrete during the various stages
of construction should be substantiated by field-cured test specimens or other
approved methods.
SECTION R6.3
CONDUITS AND PIPES EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
R6.3.1 Conduits, pipes, and sleeves not harmful to concrete can be embedded within the
concrete, but the work should be done in such a manner that the structure will not
be endangered. Empirical rules are given in 6.3 for safe installations under
common conditions; for other than common conditions, special designs should be
made. The contractor should not be permitted to install conduits, pipes, ducts, or
sleeves that are not shown on the plans or not approved by the engineer.
For the integrity of the structure, it is important that all conduit and pipe fittings
within the concrete be carefully assembled as shown on the plans or called for in
the job specifications.
R6.3.2 The SBC prohibits the use of aluminum in structural concrete unless it is
effectively coated or covered. Aluminum reacts with concrete and, in the presence
of chloride-ions, may also react electrolytically with steel, causing cracking and/or
spatting of the concrete. Aluminum electrical conduits present a special problem
since stray electric current accelerates the adverse reaction.
SECTION R6.4
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
For the integrity of the structure, it is important that all construction joints be
defined in construction documents and constructed as required. Any deviations
should be approved by the engineer or architect.
R6.4.2 The use of neat cement on vertical joints is not permitted since it is rarely practical
and can be detrimental where deep forms and steel congestion prevent proper
access. Often wet blasting and other procedures are more appropriate. Because the
SBC sets only minimum standards, the engineer may have to specify special
procedures if conditions warrant. The degree to which mortar batches are needed
at the start of concrete placement depends on concrete proportions, congestion of
steel, vibrator access, and other factors.
R6.4.3 Construction joints should be located where they will cause the least weakness in
the structure. When shear due to gravity load is not significant, as is usually the
case in the middle of the span of flexural members, a simple vertical joint may be
adequate. Lateral force design may require special design treatment of construction
joints. Shear keys, intermittent shear keys, diagonal dowels, or the shear transfer
method of 11.7 may be used whenever a force transfer is required.
R6.4.6 Separate placement of slabs and beams, haunches, and similar elements is
permitted when shown on the drawings and where provision has been made to
transfer forces as required in 6.4.3.
CHAPTER 7
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
Recommended methods and standards for preparing design drawings, typical
details, and drawings for the fabrication and placing of reinforcing steel in
reinforced concrete structures are given in the ACI Detailing Manual (Reference
7.1).
All provisions in the SBC 304 relating to bar, wire, or strand diameter (and area)
are based on the nominal dimensions of the reinforcement as given in the
appropriate ASTM specification. Nominal dimensions are equivalent to those of a
circular area having the same weight per meter as the ASTM designated bar, wire,
or strand sizes. Cross-sectional area of reinforcement is based on nominal
dimensions.
SECTION R7.1
STANDARD HOOKS
R7.1.3 Standard stirrup and tie hooks are limited to Dia 25 mm bars and smaller, and the
90-deg hook with 6d b extension is further limited to Dia 16 mm bars and smaller,
in both cases as the result of research showing that larger bar sizes with 90-deg
hooks and 6d b extensions tend to pop out under high load.
SECTION R7.2
MINIMUM BEND DIAMETERS
Standard bends in reinforcing bars are described in terms of the inside diameter of
bend since this is easier to measure than the radius of bend. The primary factors
affecting the minimum bend diameter are feasibility of bending without breakage
and avoidance of crushing the concrete inside the bend.
R7.2.2 The minimum 4d b bend for the bar sizes commonly used for stirrups and ties is
based on accepted industry practice. Use of a stirrup bar size not greater than Dia
16 mm for either the 90-deg or 135-deg standard stirrup hook will permit multiple
bending on standard stirrup bending equipment.
R7.2.3 Welded wire fabric, of plain or deformed wire, can be used for stirrups and ties.
The wire at welded inter-sections does not have the same uniform ductility and
bend-ability as in areas which were not heated. These effects of the welding
temperature are usually dissipated in a distance of approximately four wire
diameters. Minimum bend diameters permitted are in most cases the same as those
required in the ASTM bend tests for wire material (ASTM A 82 and A 496).
SECTION R7.3
BENDING
R7.3.1 The engineer may be the design engineer or the engineer employed by the owner
to perform inspection. For unusual bends with inside diameters less than ASTM
bend test requirements, special fabrication may be required
R7.3.2 Construction conditions may make it necessary to bend bars that have been
embedded in concrete. Such field bending should not be done without
authorization of the engineer. The engineer should determine whether the bars
should be bent cold or if heating should be used. Bends should be gradual and
should be straightened as required.
Tests7.2, 7.3 have shown that A 615M Grade 300 and Grade 420 reinforcing bars can
be cold bent and straightened up to 90 deg at or near the minimum diameter
specified in 7.2. If cracking or breakage is encountered, heating to a maximum
temperature of 800oC may avoid this condition for the remainder of the bars. Bars
that fracture during bending or straightening can be spliced outside the bend
region.
Heating should be performed in a manner that will avoid damage to the concrete.
If the bend area is within approximately 150 mm of the concrete, some protective
insulation may need to be applied. Heating of the bar should be controlled by
temperature-indicating crayons or other suitable means. The heated bars should not
be artificially cooled (with water or forced air) until after cooling to at least 300οC.
SECTION R7.4
SURFACE CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT
R7.4.3 Guidance for evaluating the degree of rusting on strand is given in Reference 7.4.
SECTION R7.5
PLACING REINFORCEMENT
R7.5.2 Generally accepted practice, as reflected in Ref. 7.5 has established tolerances on
total depth (formwork or finish) and fabrication of truss bent reinforcing bars and
closed ties, stirrups, and spirals. The engineer should specify more restrictive
tolerances than those permitted by the SBC 304 when necessary to minimize the
accumulation of tolerances resulting in excessive reduction in effective depth or
cover.
More restrictive tolerances have been placed on minimum clear distance to formed
soffits because of its importance for durability and fire protection, and because bars
are usually supported in such a manner that the specified tolerance is practical.
More restrictive tolerances than those required by the SBC 304 may be desirable
for prestressed concrete to achieve camber control within limits acceptable to the
designer or owner. In such cases, the engineer should specify the necessary
tolerances. Recommendations are given in Ref. 7.6.
R7.5.2.1 The SBC 304 specifies a tolerance on depth d , an essential component of strength
of the member. Because rein-forcing steel is placed with respect to edges of
members and formwork surfaces, the depth d is not always conveniently measured
in the field. Engineers should specify tolerances for bar placement, cover, and
member size. See ACI 117.7.5
R7.5.4 "Tack" welding (welding crossing bars) can seriously weaken a bar at the point
welded by creating a metallurgical notch effect. This operation can be performed
safely only when the material welded and welding operations are under continuous
competent control, as in the manufacture of welded wire fabric.
SECTION R7.6
SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
Since the development length is a function of the bar spacing, it may be desirable
to use larger than minimum bar spacing in some cases. The minimum limits are
established to permit concrete to flow readily into spaces between bars and
between bars and forms without honeycomb, and to ensure against concentration
of bars on a line that may cause shear or shrinkage cracking.
R7.6.6 Bundled bars. Bond research7.7 showed that bar cutoffs within bundles should be
staggered. Bundled bars should be tied, wired, or otherwise fastened together to
ensure remaining in position whether vertical or horizontal.
A limitation that bars larger than Dia 32mm not be bundled in beams or girders is a
practical limit for application to building size members. Conformance to the crack
control requirements of 10.6 will effectively preclude bundling of bars larger than
Dia 32 mm as tensile reinforcement. The SBC phrasing "bundled in contact to act
as a unit," is intended to preclude bundling more than two bars in the same plane.
Typical bundle shapes are triangular, square, or L-shaped patterns for three- or four-
bar bundles. As a practical caution, bundles more than one bar deep in the plane of
bending should not be hooked or bent as a unit. Where end hooks are required, it is
preferable to stagger the individual bar hooks within a bundle.
R7.6.7.1 The allowed decreased spacing in this section for transfer strengths of 28 MPa or
greater is based on Reference 7.8, 7.9.
R7.6.7.2 When ducts for prestressing steel in a beam are arranged closely together
vertically, provision should be made to prevent the prestressing steel from
breaking through the duct when tensioned. Horizontal disposition of ducts should
allow proper placement of concrete. A clear spacing of one and one-third times the
size of the coarse aggregate, but not less than 25 mm, has proven satisfactory.
Where concentration of tendons or ducts tends to create a weakened plane in the
concrete cover, reinforcement should be provided to control cracking.
SECTION R7.7
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
than one layer is used without stirrups or ties; or to the metal end fitting or duct on
post-tensioned prestressing steel.
The condition "concrete surfaces exposed to earth or weather" refers to direct
exposure to moisture changes and not just to temperature changes. Slab or thin shell
soffits are not usually considered directly exposed unless subject to alternate
wetting and drying, including that due to condensation conditions or direct leakage
from exposed top surface, run off, or similar effects.
Alternative methods of protecting the reinforcement from weather may be
provided if they are equivalent to the additional concrete cover required by the
SBC 304. When approved by the building official under the provisions of 1.4,
reinforcement with alternative protection from the weather may have concrete
cover not less than the cover required for reinforcement not exposed to weather.
The development lengths given in Chapter 12 are now a function of the bar cover.
As a result, it may be desirable to use larger than minimum cover in some cases.
R7.7.3 Precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions). The lesser
cover thicknesses for precast construction reflect the greater convenience of
control for proportioning, placing, and curing inherent in precasting. The term
"manufactured under plant control conditions" does not specifically imply that
precast members should be manufactured in a plant. Structural elements precast at
the job site will also qualify under this section if the control of form dimensions,
placing of reinforcement, quality control of concrete, and curing procedure are
equal to that normally expected in a plant.
Concrete cover to pretensioned strand as described in this section is intended to
provide minimum protection against weather and other effects. Such cover may not
be sufficient to transfer or develop the stress in the strand, and it may be necessary to
increase the cover accordingly.
R7.7.6 Future extension. Exposed reinforcements, inserts and plates, etc, intended for
bonding with future extensions, should be adequately protected against corrosion
and any other corrosive ambient attack. The protection measures can include but
may not be limited to the following:
a) for accessible roofs, the column rebars should be bent inside the roof screeds in
such a manner that they can be re-exposed and lapped for future extensions, as
and when necessary.
SBC 304 C 2007 7/4
COMMENTARY DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
b) for non-accessible roofs, the column rebars can be covered inside low-height
stub columns of lean concrete, in such manner so that they can be re-exposed
and lapped for future extensions, as and when necessary.
c) for all other elements like beams, slab projections, etc. the rebars should
desirably be protected in lean concrete, in such manner so that they can be re-
exposed and lapped for future extensions, as and when necessary.
SECTION R7.8
SPECIAL REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR COLUMNS
R7.8.2 Steel cores. The 50 percent limit on transfer of compressive load by end bearing
on ends of structural steel cores is intended to provide some tensile capacity at such
splices (up to 50 percent), since the remainder of the total compressive stress in the
steel core are to be transmitted by dowels, splice plates, welds, etc. This provision
should ensure that splices in composite compression members meet essentially the
same tensile capacity as required for conventionally reinforced concrete
compression members.
SECTION R7.9
CONNECTIONS
SECTION R7.10
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
R7.10.3 Precast columns with cover less than 40mm, prestressed columns without
longitudinal bars, columns of concrete with small size coarse aggregate, wall-like
columns, and other special cases may require special designs for lateral
reinforcement. Plain or deformed wire, WD 5.5, or larger, may be used for ties or
spirals. If such special columns are considered as spiral columns for load strength
in design, the ratio of spiral reinforcement ρ S is to conform to 10.9.3.
R7.10.5 Ties. All longitudinal bars in compression should be enclosed within lateral ties.
Where longitudinal bars are arranged in a circular pattern, only one circular tie per
specified spacing is required. This requirement can be satisfied by a continuous
circular tie (helix) at larger pitch than required for spirals under 10.9.3, the
maximum pitch being equal to the required tie spacing (see also 7.10.4.3).
Since spliced bars and bundled bars were not included in the tests of Reference
7.13, is prudent to provide a set of ties at each end of lap spliced bars, above and
below end-bearing splices, and at minimum spacings immediately below sloping
regions of offset bent bars.
Standard tie hooks are intended for use with deformed bars only, and should be
staggered where possible. See also 7.9.
Continuously wound bars or wires can be used as ties provided their pitch and area
are at least equivalent to the area and spacing of separate ties. Anchorage at the end
of a continuously wound bar or wire should be by a standard hook as for separate
bars or by one additional turn of the tie pattern. A circular continuously wound bar
or wire is considered a spiral if it conforms to 7.10.4, otherwise it is considered a
tie.
R7.10.5.5 Ties may be terminated only when elements frame into all four sides of square and
rectangular columns; for round or polygonal columns, such elements frame into
the column from four directions
R7.10.5.6 Confinement of anchor bolts that are placed in the top of columns or pedestal
improves load transfer from the anchor bolts to the column or pier for situations
SBC 304 C 2007 7/6
COMMENTARY DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
where the concrete cracks in the vicinity of the bolts. Such cracking can occur due
to unanticipated forces caused by temperature, restrained shrinkage, and similar
effects
SECTION R7.11
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT FOR FLEXURAL MEMBERS
SECTION R7.12
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
R7.12.1.2 The area of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement required by 7.12 has been
satisfactory where shrinkage and temperature movements are permitted to occur.
For cases where structural walls or large columns provide significant restraint to
shrinkage and temperature movements, it may be necessary to increase the amount
of reinforcement normal to the flexural reinforcement in 7.12.1.2 (see Reference
7.14). Top and bottom reinforcement are both effective in controlling cracks.
Control strips during the construction period, which permit initial shrinkage to
occur without causing an increase in stresses, are also effective in reducing cracks
caused by restraint.
R7.12.2 The amounts specified given for deformed bars and welded wire fabric are
empirical but have been used satisfactorily for many years. Splices and end
anchorages of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement are to be designed for the
full specified yield strength in accordance with 12.1, 12.15, 12.18, and 12.19.
the slab.
The designer should evaluate the effects of slab shortening to ensure proper action.
In most cases, the low level of prestressing recommended should not cause
difficulties in a properly detailed structure. Special attention may be required
where thermal effects become significant.
SECTION R7.13
REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
Experience has shown that the overall integrity of a structure can be substantially
enhanced by minor changes in detailing of reinforcement. It is the intent of this
section of the SBC 304 to improve the redundancy and ductility in structures so
that in the event of damage to a major supporting element or an abnormal loading
event, the resulting damage may be confined to a relatively small area and the
structure will have a better chance to maintain overall stability.
R7.13.2 With damage to a support, top reinforcement hat is continuous over the support,
but not confined by stirtrups, will tend to tear out of the concrete and will not
provide the catenary action needed to bridge the damaged support. By making a
portion of the bottom reinforcement continuous, catenary action can be provided.
Requiring continuous top and bottom reinforcement in perimeter or spandrel
beams provides a continuous tie around the structure. It is not the intent to require
a tensile tie of continuous reinforcement of constant size around the entire
perimeter of a structure, but simply to require that one half of the top flexural
reinforcement required to extend past the point of inflection by 12.12.3 be further
extended and spliced at or near midspan. Similarly, the bottom reinforcement
required to extend into the support by 12.11.1 should be made continuous or
spliced with bottom reinforcement from the adjacent span. If the depth of a
continuous beam changes at a support, the bottom reinforcement in the deeper
member should be terminated with a standard hook and bottom reinforcement in
the shallower member should be extended into and fully developed in the deeper
member.
R7.13.3 The SBC 304 requires tension ties for precast concrete buildings of all heights.
Details should provide connections to resist applied loads. Connection details that
rely solely on friction caused by gravity forces are not permitted.
Connection details should be arranged so as to minimize the potential for cracking
due to restrained creep, shrinkage and temperature movements. For information on
connections and detailing requirements, see Reference 7.15.
Ref. 7.16 recommends minimum tie requirements for precast concrete bearing wall
buildings.
CHAPTER 8
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION R8.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
The definition of net tensile strain in 2.1 excludes strains due to effective prestress,
creep, shrinkage, and temperature.
SECTION R8.1
DESIGN METHODS
R8.1.1 The strength design method requires service loads or related internal moments and
forces to be increased by specified load factors (required strength) and computed
nominal strengths to be reduced by specified strength reduction factors (design
strength).
R8.1.2 Designs in accordance with Appendix B are equally acceptable, provided the
provisions of Appendix B are used in their entirety.
R8.1.3 The SBC 304 includes specific provisions for anchoring to concrete in Appendix
D of SBC 304.
SECTION R8.2
LOADING
The provisions in the SBC 304 are for all types of loads as specified in SBC 301.
Roofs should be designed with sufficient slope or camber to ensure adequate
drainage accounting for any long-term deflection of the roof due to the dead loads,
or the loads should be increased to account for all likely accumulations of water. If
deflection of roof members may result in ponding of water accompanied by
increased deflection and additional ponding, the design should ensure that this
process is self-limiting.
R8.2.3 Any reinforced concrete wall that is monolithic with other structural elements is
considered to be an "integral part." Partition walls may or may not be integral
structural parts. If partition walls may be removed, the primary lateral load
resisting system should provide all of the required resistance without contribution
of the removable partition. However, the effects of all partition walls attached to the
structure should be considered in the analysis of the structure because they may
lead to increased design forces in some or all elements. Special provisions for
seismic design are given in Chapter 21.
SECTION R8.3
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
R8.3.1 Factored loads are service loads multiplied by appropriate load factors. For the
strength design method, elastic analysis is used to obtain moments, shears, and
reactions.
R8.3.3 The approximate moments and shears give reasonably conservative values for the
stated conditions if the flexural members are part of a frame or continuous
construction. Because the load patterns that produce critical values for moments in
columns of frames differ from those for maximum negative moments in beams,
column moments should be evaluated separately.
These moment coefficients were derived by elastic analysis assuming rigid
supports and considering alternative placement of live load to yield maximum
negative or positive moments at the critical sections. For one-way slab systems, a
supporting beam or girder may be considered rigid if it is supported by columns or
walls and has a total depth not less than about three times the solid slab thickness
or three times the equivalent joist-slab thickness.
R8.3.4 The strut-and-tie model in Appendix A is based on the assumption that portions of
concrete structures can be analyzed and designed using hypothetical pin-jointed
trusses consisting of struts and ties connected at nodes. This design method can be
used in the design of regions where the basic assumptions of flexure theory are not
applicable, such as regions near force discontinuities arising from concentrated
forces or reactions, and regions near geometric discontinuities, such as abrupt
changes in cross section.
SECTION R8.4
REDISTRIBUTION OF NEGATIVE MOMENTS IN
CONTINUOUS FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Moment redistribution may not be used for slab systems designed by the Direct
Design Method (see 13.6.1.7).
The SBC 304 specifies the permissible redistribution percentage in terms of the net
tensile strain ε t . Reference 8.4 compares moment redistribution percentage in
terms of reinforcement indices and the net tensile strain ε t .
SECTION R8.5
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
R8.5.1 Studies leading to the expression for modulus of elasticity of concrete in 8.5.1 are
summarized in Reference 8.5 where, Ec , was defined as the slope of the line drawn
from a stress of zero to a compressive stress of 0.45 f c' . The modulus for concrete
is sensitive to the modulus of the aggregate and may differ from the specified
value. Measured values range typically from 120 to 80 percent of the specified
value. Methods for determining Young's modulus for concrete are described in
Reference 8.6.
SECTION R8.6
STIFFNESS
R8.6.1 Ideally, the member stiffnesses EI and GJ should reflect the degree of cracking
and inelastic action that has occurred along each member before yielding.
However, the complexities involved in selecting different stiffnesses for all
members of a frame would make frame analyses inefficient in design offices.
Simpler assumptions are required to define flexural and torsional stiffnesses. For
braced frames, relative values of stiffness are important. Two usual assumptions are
to use gross EI values for all members or, to use half the gross EI of the beam
stem for beams and the gross EI for the columns. For frames that are free to sway, a
realistic estimate of EI is desirable and should be used if second-order analyses are
carried out. Guidance for the choice of EI for this case is given in R10.11.1.
Two conditions determine whether it is necessary to consider torsional stiffness in
the analysis of a given structure: (1) the relative magnitude of the torsional and
flexural stiffnesses, and (2) whether torsion is required for equilibrium of the
structure (equilibrium torsion) or is due to members twisting to maintain
deformation compatibility (compatibility torsion). In the case of compatibility
torsion, the torsional stiffness may be neglected. For cases involving equilibrium
torsion, torsional stiffness should be considered.
R8.6.2 Stiffness and fixed-end moment coefficients for haunched members may be
obtained from Reference 8.7.
SECTION R8.7
SPAN LENGTH
SECTION R8.8
COLUMNS
Section 8.8 has been developed with the intent of making certain that the most
demanding combinations of axial load and moments be identified for design.
Section 8.8.4 has been included to make certain that moments in columns are
recognized in the design if the girders have been proportioned using 8.3.3. The
moment in 8.8.4 refers to the difference between the moments in a given vertical
plane, exerted at column centerline by members framing into that column.
SECTION R8.9
ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD
For determining column, wall, and beam moments and shears caused by gravity
loads, the SBC 304 permits the use of a model limited to the beams in the level
considered and the columns above and below that level. Far ends of columns are to
be considered as fixed for the purpose of analysis under gravity loads. This
assumption does not apply to lateral load analysis. However in analysis for lateral
loads, simplified methods (such as the portal method) may be used to obtain the
moments, shears, and reactions for structures that are symmetrical and satisfy the
assumptions used for such simplified methods. For unsymmetrical and high-rise
structures, rigorous methods recognizing all structural displacements should be
used.
The engineer is expected to establish the most demanding sets of design forces by
investigating the effects of live load placed in various critical patterns.
Most approximate methods of analysis neglect effects of deflections on geometry
and axial flexibility. Therefore, beam and column moments may have to be
amplified for column slenderness in accordance with 10.11, 10.12, and 10.13.
SECTION R8.10
T- BEAM CONSTRUCTION
Special provisions related to T-beams and other flanged members are stated in
11.6.1 with regard to torsion.
SECTION R8.11
JOIST CONSTRUCTION
The size and spacing limitations for concrete joist construction meeting the
limitations of 8.11.1 through 8.11.3 are based on practice.
R8.11.3 A limit on the maximum spacing of ribs is required because of the special
provisions permitting higher shear strengths and less concrete protection for the
reinforcement for these relatively small, repetitive members.
R8.11.8 The increase in shear strength permitted by 8.11.8 is justified on the basis of:
(1) satisfactory performance of joist construction with higher shear strengths and,
(2) redistribution of local overloads to adjacent joists.
SECTION R8.12
SEPARATE FLOOR FINISH
The SBC 304 does not specify an additional thickness for wearing surfaces
subjected to unusual conditions of wear. The need for added thickness for unusual
wear is left to the discretion of the designer.
A floor finish may be considered for strength purposes only if it is cast
monolithically with the slab. Permission is given to include a separate finish in the
structural thickness if composite action is provided for in accordance with Chapter
17.
All floor finishes may be considered for nonstructural purposes such as cover
for reinforcement, fire protection, etc. Provisions should be made, however,
to ensure that the finish will not spall off, thus causing decreased cover.
Further-more, development of reinforcement considerations require minimum
monolithic concrete cover according to 7.7.
CHAPTER 9
STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
SECTION R9.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
The definition of net tensile strain in 2.1 excludes strains due to effective prestress,
creep, shrinkage, and temperature.
SECTION R 9.1
GENERAL
Chapter 9 defines the basic strength and serviceability conditions for proportioning
structural concrete members. The basic requirement for strength design may be
expressed as follows:
Design Strength ≥ Required Strength
φ (Nominal Strength) ≥ U
In the strength design procedure, the margin of safety is provided by multiplying
the service load by a load factor and the nominal strength by a strength reduction
factor.
SECTION R9.2
REQUIRED STRENGTH
on more than one load effect, such as strength for combined flexure and axial load
or shear strength in members with axial load.
If special circumstances require greater reliance on the strength of particular
members than encountered in usual practice, some reduction in the stipulated
strength reduction factors φ or increase in the stipulated load factors U may be
appropriate for such members.
R9.2.2 If the live load is applied rapidly, as may be the case for parking structures,
loading docks, warehouse floors, elevator shafts, etc., impact effects should be
considered. In all equations, substitute (L + impact) for L when impact should be
considered.
R9.2.3 The designer should consider the effects of differential settlement, creep,
shrinkage, temperature, and shrinkage-compensating concrete. The term realistic
assessment is used to indicate that the most probable values rather than the upper
bound values of the variables should be used.
R9.2.4 The load factor of 1.2 applied to the maximum tendon jacking force results in a
design load of about 113 percent of the specified prestressing steel yield strength
but not more than 96 percent of the nominal ultimate strength of the prestressing
steel. This compares well with the maximum attainable jacking force, which is
limited by the anchor efficiency factor.
SECTION R9.3
DESIGN STRENGTH
R9.3.1 The design strength of a member refers to the nominal strength calculated in
accordance with the requirements stipulated in the SBC 304 multiplied by a
strength reduction factor φ , which is always less than one.
The purposes of the strength reduction factor φ are (1) to allow for the probability
of understrength members due to variations in material strengths and dimensions,
(2) to allow for inaccuracies in the design equations, (3) to reflect the degree of
ductility and required reliability of the member under the load effects being
considered, and (4) to reflect the importance of the member in the structure.9.1,9.2
R9.3.2.1 In applying 9.3.2.1 and 9.3.2.2, the axial tensions and compressions to be
considered are those caused by external forces. Effects of prestressing forces are
not included.
R9.3.2.2 The magnitude of the φ factor is determined by the strain conditions at a cross
section, at nominal strength.
A lower φ -factor is used for compression-controlled sections than is used for
tension-controlled sections because compression-controlled sections have less
ductility, are more sensitive to variations in concrete strength, and generally occur
in members that support larger loaded areas than members with tension-controlled
sections. Members with spiral reinforcement are assigned a higher φ than tied
columns since they have greater ductility or toughness.
For sections subjected to axial load with flexure, design strengths are determined
by multiplying both Pn and M n by the appropriate single value of φ .
Compression-controlled and tension-controlled sections are defined in 10.3.3 and
SBC 304 C 2007 9/2
COMMENTARY STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
10.3.4 as those that have net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at nominal
strength less than or equal to the compression-controlled strain limit, and equal to
or greater than 0.005, respectively. For sections with net tensile strain ε t in the
extreme tension steel at nominal strength between the above limits, the value of φ
may be determined by linear interpolation, as shown in Fig. R9.3.2. The concept of
net tensile strain ε t is discussed in R10.3.3.
R9.3.2.5 The φ factor of 0.85 reflects the wide scatter of results of experimental anchorage
zone studies. Since 18.13.4.2, limits the nominal compressive strength of unconfined
concrete: in the general zone to 0.7λf ci' the effective design strength for unconfined
concrete is 0.85 × 0.7λf ci' = 0.6λf ci'
R9.3.2.6 The φ factor used in strut-and-tie models is taken equal to the φ factor for shear.
The value of 4, for strut and-tie models is applied to struts, ties, and bearing areas
in such models .
R9.3.2.7 If a critical section occurs in a region where strand is not fully developed, failure
may be by bond slip. Such a failure resembles a brittle shear failure; hence, the
requirements for a reduced φ .
R9.3.4 Strength reduction factors in 9.3.4 are intended to compensate for uncertainties in
estimation of strength of structural members in buildings. They are based primarily
on experience with constant or steadily increasing applied load. For construction in
regions of high seismic risk, some of the strength reduction factors have been
modified in 9.3.4 to account for the effects of displacement reversals into the
nonlinear range of response on strength.
Section 9.3.4(a) refers to brittle members such as low-rise walls, portions of walls
between openings, or diaphragms that are impractical to reinforce to raise their
nominal shear strength above nominal flexural strength for the pertinent loading
conditions.
Short structural walls were the primary vertical elements of the lateral-force-
resisting system in many of the parking structures that sustained damage during the
1994 Northridge earthquake. Section 9.3.4(b) requires the shear strength reduction
factor for diaphragms to be 0.60 if the shear strength reduction factor for the walls
is 0.60.
R9.3.5 The strength reduction factor φ for structural plain concrete design is the same for
all strength conditions. Since both flexural tension strength and shear strength for
plain concrete depend on the tensile strength characteristics of the concrete, with no
reserve strength or ductility possible due to the absence of reinforcement, equal
strength reduction factors for both bending and shear are considered appropriate.
SECTION R9.4
DESIGN STRENGTH FOR REINFORCEMENT
In addition to the upper limit of 550 MPa for yield strength of non-prestressed
reinforcement, there are limitations on yield strength in other sections of the SBC
304.
In 11.5.2, 11.6.3.4, and 11.7.6, the maximum f y that may be used in design for
shear and torsion reinforcement is 420 MPa, except that f y up to 550 MPa may be
used for shear reinforcement meeting the requirements of ASTM A 497.
In 19.3.2 and 21.2.5, the maximum specified f y is 420 MPa in shells, folded
plates, and structures governed by the special seismic provisions of Chapter 21.
The deflection provisions of 9.5 and the limitations on distribution of flexural
reinforcement of 10.6 become increasingly critical as f y increases.
SECTION R9.5
CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
R9.5.1 The provisions of 9.5 are concerned only with deflections or deformations that
may occur at service load levels. When long-term deflections are computed, only
the dead load and that portion of the live load that is sustained need be considered.
Two methods are given for controlling deflections.9.3 For nonprestressed beams
and one-way slabs, and for composite members, provision of a minimum overall
thickness as required by Table 9.5(a) will satisfy the requirements of the SBC 304
for members not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to
be damaged by large deflections.
For nonprestressed two-way construction, minimum thickness as required by
9.5.3.1, 9.5.3.2, and 9.5.3.3 will satisfy the requirements of the SBC 304.
For nonprestressed members that do not meet these minimum thickness
requirements, or that support or are attached to partitions or other construction
likely to be damaged by large deflections, and for all prestressed concrete flexural
members, deflections should be calculated by the procedures described or referred
to in the appropriate sections of the SBC 304, and are limited to the values in
Table 9.5(b).
TABLE 9.5(a)-MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NON-PRESTRESSED BEAMS OR
ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE COMPUTED
Minimum thickness,h
Simply One end Both ends
Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Members not supporting or attached to
Member partitions or other construction likely to be
damaged by large deflections.
Solid one-
way slabs
l /20 l /24 l /28 l /10
Beams or
ribbed one- l /16 l /18.5 l /21 l /8
way slabs
Notes:
1) Span length l is in mm.
2) Values given shall be used directly for members with normal weight concrete (wc=2300 kg/m3)
and Grade 420 reinforcement For other conditions, the values shall be modified as follows:
a) For structural lightweight concrete having unit weight in the range 1500-2000 kg/m³ , the
values shall be multiplied by (1.65 - 0.0003wc) but not less than 1.09, where wc is the unit
weight in kg/m3 .
b) For fy other than 420 MPa, the values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + fy/700).
R9.5.2.1 The minimum thicknesses of Table 9.5(a) apply for nonprestressed beams and
one-way slabs (see 9.5.2), and for composite members (see 9.5.5). These minimum
thicknesses apply only to members not supporting or attached to partitions and
other construction likely to be damaged by deflection.
Values of minimum thickness should be modified if other than normal weight
concrete and Grade 420 reinforcement are used. The notes beneath the table are
essential to its use for reinforced concrete members constructed with structural
lightweight concrete or with reinforcement having a yield strength other than 420
MPa. If both of these conditions exist, the corrections in footnotes (a) and (b) should
both be applied.
The modification for lightweight concrete in footnote (a) is based on studies of the
results and discussions in Reference 9.14. No correction is given for concretes
SBC 304 C 2007 9/5
COMMENTARY STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
weighing between 1900 and 2300 kg/m3 because the correction term would be
close to unity in this range.
The modification for yield strength in footnote (b) is approximate but should yield
conservative results for the type of members considered in the table, for typical
reinforcement ratios, and for values of f y between 300 and 550 MPa.
R9.5.2.4 For continuous members, the SBC 304 procedure suggests a simple averaging of
I e values for the positive and negative moment sections. The use of the midspan
section properties for continuous prismatic members is considered satisfactory in
approximate calculations primarily because the midspan rigidity (including the
effect of cracking) has the dominant effect on deflections, as shown in References
9.3, 9.9 and 9.10.
R9.5.2.5 Shrinkage and creep due to sustained loads cause additional long-term deflections
over and above those which occur when loads are first placed on the structure.
Such deflections are influenced by temperature, humidity, curing conditions, age at
time of loading, quantity of compression reinforcement, and magnitude of the
sustained load. The expression given in this section is considered satisfactory for
use with the SBC 304 procedures for the calculation of immediate deflections, and
with the limits given in Table 9.5(b). The deflection computed in accordance with
this section is the additional long-term deflection due to the dead load and that
portion of the live load that will be sustained for a sufficient period to cause
significant time-dependent deflections.
Eq. (9-11) was developed in Reference 9.19. In Eq. (9-11) the multiplier on
ζ accounts for the effect of compression reinforcement in reducing long-term
deflections. ζ = 2.0 represents a nominal time-dependent factor for 5 years
duration of loading. The curve in Fig. R9.5.2.5 may be used to estimate values of
ζ for loading periods less than five years.
If it is desired to consider creep and shrinkage separately, approximate equations
provided in References 9.5, 9.6, 9.11, and 9.12 may be used.
R9.5.2.6 It should be noted that the limitations given in this table relate only to supported or
attached nonstructural elements. For those structures in which structural members
are likely to be affected by deflection or deformation of members to which they
are attached in such a manner as to affect adversely the strength of the structure,
these deflections and the resulting forces should be considered explicitly in the
analysis and design of the structures as required by 9.5.1. (See Reference 9.8.)
Where long-term deflections are computed, the portion of the deflection before
attachment of the nonstructural elements may be deducted. In making this
correction use may be made of the curve in Fig. R9.5.2.5 for members of usual
sizes and shapes.
R9.5.3.2 The minimum thicknesses in Table 9.5(c) are those that have been developed
through the years. Slabs conforming to those limits have not resulted in systematic
problems related to stiffness for short- and long-term loads. These limits apply to
only the domain of previous experience in loads, environment, materials, boundary
conditions, and spans.
R9.5.3.3 For panels having a ratio of long to short span greater than 2, the use of Eq. (9-12)
and (9-13), which express the minimum thickness as a fraction of the long span,
may give unreasonable results. For such panels, the rules applying to one-way
construction in 9.5.2 should be used.
R9.5.3.4 The calculation of deflections for slabs is complicated even if linear elastic
behavior can be assumed. For immediate deflections, the values of Ec and I g
specified in 9.5.2.3 may be used.9.16 However, other procedures and other values
of the stiffness EI may be used if they result in predictions of deflection in
reasonable agreement with the results of comprehensive tests.
Since available data on long-term deflections of slabs are too limited to justify
more elaborate procedures, the additional long-term deflection for two-way
construction is required to be computed using the multipliers given in 9.5.2.5.
R9.5.4 Prestressed concrete construction. The SBC 304 requires deflections for all
prestressed concrete flexural members to be computed and compared with the
allowable values in Table 9.5(b).
R9.5.4.1 Immediate deflections of Class U prestressed concrete members may be calculated
by the usual methods or formulas for elastic deflections using the moment of inertia
of the gross (uncracked) concrete section and the modulus of elasticity for concrete
specified in 8.5.1.
R9.5.4.2 Class C and Class T prestressed flexural members are defined in 18.3.3. Reference
9.13 gives information on deflection calculations using a bilinear moment-
deflection relationship and using an effective moment of inertia. Reference 9.14
gives additional information on deflection of cracked prestressed concrete
members.
Reference 9.15 shows that the I e method can be used to compute deflections of
Class T prestressed members loaded above the cracking load. For this case, the
SBC 304 C 2007 9/8
COMMENTARY STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
cracking moment should take into account the effect of prestress. A method for
predicting the effect of nonprestressed tension steel in reducing creep camber is
also given in Reference 9.15, with approximate forms given in References 9.8 and
9.16.
R9.5.4.3 Calculation of long-term deflections of prestressed concrete flexural members is
complicated. The calculations should consider not only the increased deflections
due to flexural stresses, but also the additional long-term deflections resulting from
time-dependent shortening of the flexural member.
Prestressed concrete members shorten more with time than similar nonprestressed
members due to the precompression in the slab or beam which causes axial creep.
This creep together with concrete shrinkage results in significant shortening of the
flexural members that continues for several years after construction and should be
considered in design. The shortening tends to reduce the tension in the prestressing
steel, reducing the precompression in the member and thereby causing increased
long-term deflections.
Another factor that can influence long-term deflections of prestressed flexural
members is adjacent concrete or masonry that is nonprestressed in the direction of
the prestressed member. This can be a slab nonprestressed in the beam direction
adjacent to a prestressed beam or a nonprestressed slab system. As the prestressed
member tends to shrink and creep more than the adjacent nonprestressed concrete,
the structure will tend to reach a compatibility of the shortening effects. This
results in a reduction of the precompression in the prestressed member as the
adjacent concrete absorbs the compression. This reduction in precompression of
the prestressed member can occur over a period of years and will result in
additional long-term deflections and in increase tensile stresses in the prestressed
member.
Any suitable method for calculating long-term deflections of prestressed members
may be used, provided all effects are considered. Guidance may be found in
References 9.8, 9.17, 9.18, and 9.19.
CHAPTER 10
FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
SECTION R10.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
d t = distance from extreme compression fiber to extreme tension steel, mm
The definition of net tensile strain in 2.1 excludes strains due to effective prestress,
creep, shrinkage, and temperature.
SECTION R10.2
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
R10.2.1 The strength of a member computed by the strength design method of the SBC 304
requires that two basic conditions be satisfied: (1) static equilibrium, and (2)
compatibility of strains. Equilibrium between the compressive and tensile forces
acting on the cross section at nominal strength should be satisfied. Compatibility
between the stress and strain for the concrete and the reinforcement at nominal
strength conditions should also be established within the design assumptions
allowed by 10.2.
R10.2.2 Many tests have confirmed that the distribution of strain is essentially linear across
a reinforced concrete cross section, even near ultimate strength.
Both the strains in reinforcement and in concrete are assumed to be directly
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. This assumption is of primary
importance in design for determining the strain and corresponding stress in the
reinforcement.
R10.2.3 The maximum concrete compressive strain at crushing of the concrete has been
observed in tests of various kinds to vary from 0.003 to higher than 0.008 under
special conditions. However, the strain at which ultimate moments are developed
is usually about 0.003 to 0.004 for members of normal proportions and materials.
R10.2.4 For deformed reinforcement, it is reasonably accurate to assume that the stress in
reinforcement is proportional to strain below the yield strength f y . The increase in
strength due to the effect of strain hardening of the reinforcement is neglected for
strength computations. In strength computations, the force developed in tensile or
compressive reinforcement is computed as,
when ε s < ε y (yield strain)
As f s = As Esε s
when ε s ≥ ε y
As f s = As f y
where ε s is the value from the strain diagram at the location of the reinforcement.
For design, the modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement E s may be taken as
200,000 MPa (see 8.5.2).
R10.2.5 The tensile strength of concrete in flexure (modulus of rupture) is a more variable
property than the compressive strength and is about 10 to 15% of the compressive
strength. Tensile strength of concrete in flexure is neglected in strength design. For
members with normal percentages of reinforcement, this assumption is in good
agreement with tests. For very small percentages of reinforcement, neglect of the
tensile strength at ultimate is usually correct. The strength of concrete in tension,
however, is important in cracking and deflection considerations at service loads.
R10.2.6 This assumption recognizes the inelastic stress distribution of concrete at high
stress. As maximum stress is approached, the stress-strain relationship for concrete
is not a straight line but some form of a curve (stress is not proportional to strain).
The general shape of a stress-strain curve is primarily a function of concrete
strength and consists of a rising curve from zero to a maximum at a compressive
strain between 0.0015 and 0.002 followed by a descending curve to an ultimate
strain (crushing of the concrete) from 0.003 to higher than 0.008. As discussed
under R10.2.3. The SBC 304 sets the maximum usable strain at 0.003 for design.
The actual distribution of concrete compressive stress is complex and usually not
known explicitly. Research has shown that the important properties of the concrete
stress distribution can be approximated closely using any one of several different
assumptions as to the form of stress distribution. The SBC 304 permits any
particular stress distribution to be assumed in design if shown to result in
predictions of ultimate strength in reasonable agreement with the results of
comprehensive tests. Many stress distributions have been proposed. The three
most common are the parabola, trapezoid, and rectangle.
R10.2.7 For design, the SBC 304 allows the use of an equivalent rectangular compressive
stress distribution (stress block) to replace the more exact concrete stress
distribution. In the equivalent rectangular stress block, an average stress of 0.85 f c'
is used with a rectangle of depth a = β1c . The β1 of 0.85 for concrete with f c' ≤
30 MPa and 0.05 less for each 7 MPa of f c' in excess of 30 was determined
experimentally.
Research data from tests with high strength concretes10.1,10.2 supported the
equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete strengths exceeding 55 MPa, with
a β1 equal to 0.65.
The equivalent rectangular stress distribution does not rep-resent the actual stress
distribution in the compression zone at ultimate, but does provide essentially the
same results as those obtained in tests.10. 3
SECTION R10.3
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS
R10.3.1 For members subject to flexure or combined flexure and axial load, derivations of
design strength equations are given in Reference 10.3 for rectangular cross section
as well as for other cross sections.
R10.3.2 A balanced strain condition exists at a cross section when the maximum strain at the
extreme compression fiber just reaches 0.003 simultaneously with the first yield
strain f y / E s in the tension reinforcement. The reinforcement ratio ρ b which
produces balanced conditions under flexure, depends on the shape of the cross
section and the location of the reinforcement.
R10.3.3 The nominal flexural strength of a member is reached when the strain in the
extreme compression fiber reaches the assumed strain limit 0.003. The net tensile
strain ε t is the tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at nominal strength,
exclusive of strains due to prestress, creep, shrinkage, and temperature. The net
tensile strain in the extreme tension steel is determined from a linear strain
distribution at nominal strength, shown in Fig. R10.3.3, using similar triangles.
When the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel is sufficiently large (equal
to or greater than 0.005), the section is defined as tension-controlled where ample
warning of failure with excessive deflection and cracking may be expected. When
the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel is small (less than or equal to the
compression-controlled strain limit), a brittle failure condition may be expected,
with little warning of impending failure. Flexural members are usually tension-
controlled, whereas compression members are usually compression-controlled.
Some sections, such as those with small axial load and large bending moment, will
have net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel between the above limits. These
sections are in a transition region between compression- and tension-controlled
sections. Section 9.3.2 specifies the appropriate strength reduction factors for
tension-controlled and compression-controlled sections, and for intermediate cases
in the transition region.
Before the development of these provisions, the limiting tensile strain for flexural
members was not stated, but was implicit in the maximum tension reinforcement
ratio that was given as a fraction of ρ b , which was dependent on the yield strength
of the reinforcement. The net tensile strain limit of 0.005 for tension-controlled
sections was chosen to be a single value that applies to all types of steel
(prestressed and nonprestressed) permitted by this SBC 304.
Unless unusual amounts of ductility are required, the 0.005 limit will provide
ductile behavior for most designs. One condition where greater ductile behavior is
required is in design for redistribution of moments in continuous members and
frames. Section 8.4 permits redistribution of negative moments. Since moment
redistribution is dependent on adequate ductility in hinge regions, moment
redistribution is limited to sections that have a net tensile strain of at least 0.0075.
R10.3.5 The effect of this limitation is to restrict the reinforcement ratio in nonprestressed
beams. The reinforcement limit of 0.75ρ b results in a net tensile strain at nominal
strength of 0.00376. The proposed limit of 0.005 is more conservative. This
limitation does not apply to prestressed members.
R10.3.6 and
R10.3.7 The specified minimum eccentricities are intended to serve as a means of reducing
the axial load design strength of a section in pure compression to account for
accidental eccentricities not considered in the analysis that may exist in a
compression member, and to recognize that concrete strength may be less than f c'
under sustained high loads. The primary purpose of the minimum eccentricity
requirement is to limit the maximum design axial load strength of a compression
member. This is accomplished directly in 10.3.6 by limiting the design axial load
strength of a section in pure compression to 85 or 80 percent of the nominal
strength. These percentage values approximate the axial load strengths at
e / h ratios of 0.05 and 0.10, for the spirally reinforced and tied members,
respectively. The same axial load limitation applies to both cast-in-place and
precast compression members. Design aids and computer programs based on the
minimum eccentricity requirement are equally applicable.
For prestressed members, the design axial load strength in pure compression is
computed by the strength design methods of Chapter 10, including the effect of the
prestressing force.
Compression member end moments should be considered in the design of adjacent
flexural members. In nonsway frames, the effects of magnifying the end moments
need not be considered in the design of the adjacent beams. In sway frames, the
magnified end moments should be considered in designing the flexural members,
as required in 10.13.7.
Corner and other columns exposed to known moments about each axis
simultaneously should be designed for biaxial bending and axial load. Satisfactory
methods are available in References 10.4 and 10.5. The reciprocal load method
(Reference 10.6) and the load contour method (Reference 10.7) are the methods
used in those two hand-books. Research 10.8,10.9 indicates that using the equivalent
rectangular stress block provisions of 10.2.7 produces satisfactory strength
estimates for doubly symmetric sections. A simple and somewhat conservative
estimate of nominal strength Pni can be obtained from the reciprocal load
relationship 10.6
1 1 1 1
= + −
Pni Pnx Pny Po
Where:
Pni = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity along both axes
Po = nominal axial load strength at zero eccentricity
Pnx = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity along x-axis
Pny = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity along y-axis
This relationship is most suitable when values Pnx and Pny are greater than the
balanced axial force Pb for the particular axis.
SECTION R10.4
DISTANCE BETWEEN LATERAL SUPPORTS OF
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Tests10.10,10.11 have shown that laterally unbraced reinforced concrete beams of any
reasonable dimensions, even when very deep and narrow, will not fail prematurely
by lateral buckling provided the beams are loaded without lateral eccentricity that
causes torsion.
Laterally un-braced beams are frequently loaded off center (lateral eccentricity) or
with slight inclination. Stresses and deformations set up by such loading become
detrimental for narrow, deep beams, the more so as the unsupported length
increases. Lateral supports spaced closer than 50b may be required by loading
conditions.
SECTION R10.5
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
R10.5.2 When the flange of a section is in tension, the amount of tensile reinforcement
needed to make the strength of the reinforced section equal that of the unreinforced
section is about twice that for a rectangular section or that of a flanged section with
the flange in compression. A higher amount of minimum tensile reinforcement is
particularly necessary in cantilevers and other statically determinate members
where there is no possibility for redistribution of moments.
R10.5.3 The minimum reinforcement required for slabs should be equal to the same
amount as that required by 7.12 for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement.
Soil-supported slabs such as slabs on grade are not considered to be structural
slabs in the context of this section, unless they transmit vertical loads from other
parts of the structure to the soil. Reinforcement, if any, in soil-supported slabs
should be proportioned with due consideration of all design forces. Mat
foundations and other slabs that help support the structure vertically should meet
the requirements of this section.
In reevaluating the overall treatment of 10.5, the maximum spacing for
reinforcement in structural slabs (including footings) was reduced from the 4h for
temperature and shrinkage reinforcement to the compromise value of 3h , which is
somewhat larger than the 2h limit of 13.3.2 for two-way slab systems.
SECTION R10.6
DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT IN
BEAMS AND ONE-WAY SLABS
R10.6.1 Many structures designed by working stress methods and with low steel stress
served their intended functions with very limited flexural cracking. When high
strength reinforcing steels are used at high service load stresses, however, visible
cracks should be expected, and steps should be taken in detailing of the
reinforcement to control cracking. For protection of reinforcement against
corrosion, and for aesthetic reasons, many fine hairline cracks are preferable to a
few wide cracks.
Control of cracking is particularly important when reinforcement with a yield
strength in excess of 300 MPa is used. Current good detailing practices will
usually lead to adequate crack control even when reinforcement of 420 MPa yield
is used.
Extensive laboratory work10.12-10.14 involving deformed bars has confirmed that
crack width at service loads is proportional to steel stress. The significant variables
reflecting steel detailing were found to be thickness of concrete cover and the area
of concrete in the zone of maximum tension surrounding each individual
reinforcing bar.
Crack width is inherently subject to wide scatter even in careful laboratory work
and is influenced by shrinkage and other time-dependent effects. The better crack
control is obtained when the steel reinforcement is well distributed over the zone
of maximum concrete tension.
R10.6.3 Several bars at moderate spacing are much more effective in controlling cracking
than one or two larger bars of equivalent area.
R10.6.4 To control flexural cracks, the maximum bar spacing is specified in Reference
10.15, 10.16, and 10.17. For the usual case of beams with Grade 420
reinforcement and 50 mm clear cover to the main reinforcement, with f s = 250
MPa, the maximum bar spacing is 300 mm
Crack widths in structures are highly variable. In previous SBC 304s, provisions
were given for distribution of reinforcement that were based on empirical
equations using a calculated maximum crack width of 0.4 mm. The current
provisions for spacing are intended to limit surface cracks to a width that is
generally acceptable in practice but may vary widely in a given structure.
The role of cracks in the corrosion of reinforcement is controversial. Research
(Reference 10.18 and 10.19) shows that corrosion is not clearly correlated with
surface crack widths in the range normally found with reinforcement stresses at
service load levels. For this reason, no distinction between interior and exterior
exposure is made.
R10.6.5 Although a number of studies have been conducted, clear experimental evidence is
not available regarding the crack width beyond which a corrosion danger exists.
Exposure tests indicate that concrete quality, adequate consolidation, and ample
concrete cover may be of greater importance for corrosion protection than crack
width at the concrete surface.
R10.6.7 For relatively deep flexural members, some reinforcement should be placed near
the vertical faces of the tension zone to control cracking in the web.10.16 (See Fig.
R10.6.7.) Without such auxiliary steel, the width of the cracks in the web may
exceed the crack widths at the level of the flexural tension reinforcement.
Where the provisions for deep beams, walls, or precast panels require more steel,
those provisions (along with their spacing requirements) will govern.
Fig. R10.6.7- Skin reinforcement of beams and joists with d > 900mm
SECTION R10.7
DEEP BEAMS
SECTION R10.8
DESIGN DIMENSIONS FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The engineer should recognize the need for careful workmanship, as well as the
increased significance of shrinkage stresses with small sections.
R10.8.2-
R10.8.4 For column design,10.23 the SBC 304 provisions for quantity of reinforcement, both
vertical and spiral, are based on the gross column area and core area, and the
design strength of the column is based on the gross area of the column section. In
some cases, however, the gross area is larger than necessary to carry the factored
SBC 304 C 2007 10/7
COMMENTARY FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
load. The basis of 10.8.2, 10.8.3, and 10.8.4 is that it is satisfactory to design a
column of sufficient size to carry the factored load and then simply add concrete
around the designed section without increasing the reinforcement to meet the
minimum percentages required by 10.9.1. The additional concrete should not be
considered as carrying load; however, the effects of the additional concrete on
member stiffness should be included in the structural analysis. The effects of the
additional concrete also should be considered in design of the other parts of the
structure that interact with the oversize member.
SECTION R10.9
LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
R10.9.1 This section prescribes the limits on the amount of longitudinal reinforcement for
noncomposite compression members. If the use of high reinforcement ratios would
involve practical difficulties in the placing of concrete, a lower percentage and
hence a larger column, or higher strength concrete or reinforcement (see R9.4)
should be considered. The percentage of reinforcement in columns should usually
not exceed 4 percent if the column bars are required to be lap spliced.
R10.9.2 For compression members, a minimum of four longitudinal bars are required when
bars are enclosed by rectangular or circular ties. For other shapes, one bar should
be provided at each apex or corner and proper lateral reinforcement provided. For
example, tied triangular columns require three longitudinal bars, one at each apex of
the triangular ties. For bars enclosed by spirals, six bars are required.
R10.9.3 The effect of spiral reinforcement in increasing the load-carrying strength of the
concrete within the core is not realized until the column has been subjected to a
load and deformation sufficient to cause the concrete shell outside the core to
spa11 off. The amount of spiral reinforcement required by Eq. (10-5) is intended to
provide additional load-carrying strength for concentrically loaded columns equal
to or slightly greater than the strength lost when the shell spalls off. This principle
was recommended by Reference 10.24 and is adopted in this SBC 304. The
derivation of Eq. (10-5) is given in Reference 10.24. Tests and experience show
that columns containing the amount of spiral reinforcement required by this
section exhibit considerable toughness and ductility.
SECTION R10.10
SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
R10.10.1 Two limits are placed on the use of the refined second-order analysis. First, the
structure that is analyzed should have members similar to those in the final
structure. If the members in the final structure have cross-sectional dimensions
more than 10 percent different from those assumed in the analysis, new member
properties should be computed and the analysis repeated. Second, the refined
second-order analysis procedure should have been shown to predict ultimate loads
within 15 percent of those reported in tests of indeterminate reinforced concrete
structures. At the very least, the comparison should include tests of columns in
planar nonsway frames, sway frames, and frames with varying column stiffnesses.
To allow for variability in the actual member properties and in the analysis, the
member properties used in analysis should be multiplied by a stiffness reduction
factor φk less than one. For consistency with the second-order analysis in
10.13.4.1, the stiffness reduction factor φk can be taken as 0.80. The concept of a
stiffness reduction factor φk is discussed in R10.12.3.
SECTION R10.11
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS - GENERAL
This section describes an approximate design procedure that uses the moment
magnifier concept to account for slenderness effects. Moments computed using an
ordinary first-order frame analysis are multiplied by a moment magnifier that is a
function of the factored axial load Pu and the critical buckling load Pc for the
column. Nonsway and sway frames are treated separately in 10.12 and 10.13.
Provisions applicable to both nonsway and sway columns are given in 10.11. A
first-order frame analysis is an elastic analysis that does not include the internal
force effects resulting from deflections.
R10.11.1 The stiffnesses EI used in an elastic analysis used for strength design should
represent the stiffnesses of the members immediately prior to failure. This is
particularly true for a second-order analysis that should predict the lateral
deflections at loads approaching ultimate. The EI values should not be based
totally on the moment-curvature relationship for the most highly loaded section
along the length of each member. Instead, they should correspond to the moment-
end rotation relationship for a complete member.
The alternative values of Ec , I g , and Ag given in 10.11.1 have been chosen from
the results of frame tests and analyses and include an allowance for the variability
of the computed deflections. The modulus of elasticity Ec is based on the
specified concrete strength while the sway deflections are a function of the average
concrete strength, which is higher. The moments of inertia were taken as 0.875
times those in Reference 10.28. These two effects result in an overestimation of
the second-order deflections in the order of 20 to 25 percent, corresponding to an
implicit stiffness reduction factor φk of 0.80 to 0.85 on the stability calculation.
The concept of a stiffness reduction factor φk is discussed in R10.12.3
The moment of inertia of T-beams should be based on the effective flange width
defined in 8.10. It is generally sufficiently accurate to take I g of a T-beam as two
( )
times the I g for the web, 2 bw h 3 / 12 .
If the factored moments and shears from an analysis based on the moment of
inertia of a wall taken equal to 0.70 I g indicate that the wall will crack in flexure,
based on the modulus of rupture, the analysis should be repeated with I = 0.35I g in
those stories where cracking is predicted at factored loads.
The alternative values of the moments of inertia given in 10.11.1 were derived for
nonprestressed members. For pre-stressed members, the moments of inertia may
differ from the values in 10.11.1 depending on the amount, location, and type of
the reinforcement and the degree of cracking prior to ultimate. The stiffness values
for prestressed concrete members should include an allowance for the variability
of the stiffnesses.
Sections 10.11 through 10.13 provide requirements for strength and assume frame
analyses will be carried out using factored loads. Analyses of deflections,
vibrations, and building periods are needed at various service (unfactored) load
levels10.29,10.30 to determine the serviceability of the structure and to estimate the
wind forces in wind tunnel laboratories. The seismic base shear is also based on the
service load periods of vibration. The magnified service loads and deflections by a
second-order analysis should also be computed using service loads. The moments
of inertia of the structural members in the service load analyses should, therefore,
be representative of the degree of cracking at the various service load levels
investigated. Unless a more accurate estimate of the degree of cracking at design
service load level is available, it is satisfactory to use 1/0.70 = 1.43 times the
moments of inertia given in 10.11.1 for service load analyses.
Item (d) in 10.11.1 refers to the unusual case of sustained lateral loads. Such a case
might exist, for example, if there were permanent lateral loads resulting from
unequal earth pressures on two sides of a building.
R10.11.4 The moment magnifier design method requires the designer to distinguish between
nonsway frames, which are designed according to 10.12, and sway frames, which
are designed according to 10.13. Frequently this can be done by inspection by
comparing the total lateral stiffness of the columns in a story to that of the bracing
elements. A compression member may be assumed nonsway by inspection if it is
located in a story in which the bracing elements (shearwalls, shear trusses, or other
types of lateral bracing) have such substantial lateral stiffness to resist the lateral
deflections of the story that any resulting lateral deflection is not large enough to
affect the column strength substantially. If not readily apparent by inspection,
10.11.4.1 and 10.11.4.2 give two possible ways of doing this. In 10.11.4.1, a story in
a frame is said to be nonsway if the increase in the lateral load moments resulting
from P∆ effects does not exceed 5 percent of the first-order moments.10.28 Section
10.11.4.2 gives an alternative method of determining this based on the stability
index for a story Q . In computing Q , ∑ Pu should correspond to the lateral
loading case for which ∑ Pu is greatest. A frame may contain both nonsway and
sway stories. This test would not be suitable if Vu is zero.
If the lateral load deflections of the frame have been computed using service loads
and the service load moments of inertia given in 10.11.1, it is permissible to
compute Q in Eq. (10-6) using 1.2 times the sum of the service gravity loads, the
service load story shear, and 1.43 times the first-order service load story
deflections.
R10.11.5 An upper limit is imposed on the slenderness ratio of columns designed by the
moment magnifier method of 10.11 to 10.13. No similar limit is imposed if design
is carried out according to 10.10.1. The limit of kl u / r = 100 represents the upper
range of actual tests of slender compression members in frames.
R10.11.6 When biaxial bending occurs in a compression member, the computed moments
about each principal axes should be magnified. The magnification factors δ are
computed considering the buckling load Pc about each axis separately based on
the appropriate effective length klu and the stiffness EI . If the buckling
capacities are different about the two axes, different magnification factors will
result.
SECTION R10.12
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS – NONSWAY FRAMES
R10.12.1 The moment magnifier equations were derived for hinged end columns and should
be modified to account for the effect of end restraints. This is done by using an
effective length kl u in the computation of Pc .
The primary design aid to estimate the effective length factor k is the Jackson and
Moreland Alignment Charts (Fig. R10.12.1), which allow a graphical
determination of k for a column of constant cross section in a multibay frame.
10.31,10.32
The effective length is a function of the relative stiffness at each end of the
compression member. Studies have indicated that the effects of varying beam and
column reinforcement percentages and beam cracking should be considered in
determining the relative end stiffnesses. In determining ψ for use in evaluating the
effective length factor k , the rigidity of the flexural members may be calculated
on the basis of 0.35I g for flexural members to account for the effect of cracking and
reinforcement on relative stiffness, and 0.70I g for compression members.
The simplified equations (A-E), listed below for computing the effective length
factors for nonsway and sway members, may be used. Eq. (A), (B), and (E) are
taken from Reference 10.33 and 10.34. Eq. (C) and (D) for sway members were
developed in Reference 10.32
where ψ m is the average of the ψ -values at the two ends of the compression
member.
For compression members in a sway frame, hinged at one end, the effective length
factor may be taken as:
k = 2.0 + 0.3ψ (E)
Where ψ is the value at the restrained end.
The use of the charts in Fig. R10.12.1, or the equations in this section, may be
considered as satisfying the requirements of the SBC 304 to justify k less than 1.0.
R10.12.2 Eq. (10-7) is derived from Eq. (10-9) assuming that a 5 percent increase in
moments due to slenderness is acceptable.10.26 The derivation did not include φ in
the calculation of the moment magnifier. As a first approximation, k may be taken
equal to 1.0 in Eq. (10-7).
R10.12.3 Studies reported in Reference 10.35 indicate that the stiffness reduction factor φk ,
and the cross-sectional strength reduction φ -factors do not have the same values.
These studies suggest the stiffness reduction factor φk for an isolated column
should be 0.75 for both tied and spiral columns. The 0.75 factors in Eq. (10-9) and
(10-18) are stiffness reduction factors. This is done to avoid confusion between a
stiffness reduction factor φk in Eq. (10-9) and (10-18), and the cross-sectional
strength reduction φ -factors.
In defining the critical load, the main problem is the choice of a stiffness EI that
reasonably approximates the variations in stiffness due to cracking, creep, and the
nonlinearity of the the concrete stress-strain curve. Eq. (10-11) was derived for
small eccentricity ratios and high levels of axial load where the slenderness effects
are most pronounced.
Creep due to sustained load will increase the lateral deflections of a column and
hence the moment magnification. This is approximated for design by reducing the
SBC 304 C 2007 10/13
COMMENTARY FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
SECTION R10.13
MAGNIFIED MOMENTS – SWAY FRAMES
The design procedure of sway frames for slenderness consists of three steps:
(1) The magnified sway moments δ s M s are computed. This should be done in
one of three ways. First, a second-order elastic frame analysis may be used
(10.13.4.1).
Second, an approximation to such analysis (10.13.4.2) may be used. The third
option is to use the sway magnifier δ s from previous editions of the SBC 304
(10.13.4.3);
SBC 304 C 2007 10/14
COMMENTARY FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
(2) The magnified sway moments δ s M s are added to the unmagnified nonsway
moment M ns at each end of each column (10.13.3). The nonsway moments
may be computed using a first-order elastic analysis;
(3) If the column is slender and heavily loaded, it is checked to see whether the
moments at points between the ends of the column exceed those at the ends
of the column. As specified in 10.13.5 this is done using the nonsway frame
magnifier δ ns with Pc computed assuming k = 1.0 or less.
R10.13.3 The analysis described in this section deals only with plane frames subjected to
loads causing deflections in that plane. If torsional displacements are significant, a
three-dimensional second-order analysis should be used.
R10.13.4 Calculation of δ s M s
R10.13.4.1 A second-order analysis is a frame analysis that includes the internal force effects
resulting from deflections. When a second-order elastic analysis is used to
compute δ s M s , the deflections should be representative of the stage immediately
prior to the ultimate load. For this reason the reduced EcIg values given in 10.11.1
should be used in the second-order analysis.
The term β d is defined differently for nonsway and sway frames. See 10.0. Sway
deflections due to short-term loads such as wind or earthquake are a function of
the short-term stiffness of the columns following a period of sustained gravity
load. For this case the definition of β d in 10.0 gives β d = 0. In the unusual case of
a sway frame where the lateral loads are sustained, β d will not be zero. This might
occur if a building on a sloping site is subjected to earth pressure on one side but
not on the other.
In a second-order analysis the axial loads in all columns that are not part of the
lateral load resisting elements and depend on these elements for stability should be
included.
The second-order analysis method is based on the values of E and I from 10.11.1.
These lead to a 20 to 25 percent overestimation of the lateral deflections that
corresponds to a stiffness reduction factor φk between 0.80 and 0.85 on the P∆
moments. No additional φ -factor is needed in the stability calculation. Once the
moments are established, selection of the cross sections of the columns involves
the strength reduction factors φ from 9.3.2.2.
R10.13.4.2 The iterative P∆ analysis for second-order moments can be represented by an
infinite series. The solution of this series is given by Eq. (10-17).10.28 Reference
10.37 shows that Eq. (10-17) closely predicts the second order moments in a sway
frame until δ s exceeds 1.5.
The P∆ moment diagrams for deflected columns are curved, with ∆ related to the
deflected shape of the columns. Eq. (10-17) and most commercially available
second-order frame analyses have been derived assuming that the P∆ moments
result from equal and opposite forces of P∆ / l C applied at the bottom and top of
the story. These forces give a straight line P∆ moment diagram. The curved P∆
SBC 304 C 2007 10/15
COMMENTARY FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
R10.13.5 The unmagnified nonsway moments at the ends of the columns are added to the
magnified sway moments at the same points. Generally, one of the resulting end
moments is the maximum moment in the column. However, for slender columns
with high axial loads the point of maximum moment may be between the ends of
the column so that the end moments are no longer the maximum moments. If
l u / r is less than the value given by Eq. (10-19) the maximum moment at any
point along the height of such a column will be less than 1.05 times the maximum
end moment. When l u / r exceeds the value given by Eq. (10-19), the maximum
moment will occur at a point between the ends of the column and will exceed the
maximum end moment by more than 5 percent.10.25 In such a case the maximum
moment is calculated by magnifying the end moments using Eq. (10-8).
R10.13.6 The possibility of sidesway instability under gravity loads alone should be
investigated. When using second-order analyses to compile δ s M s (10.13.4.1), the
frame should be analyzed twice for the case of factored gravity loads plus a lateral
load applied to the frame. This load may be the lateral load used in design or it
may be a single lateral load applied to the top of the frame. The first analysis
should be a first-order analysis, the second analysis should be a second-order
analysis. The deflection from the second-order analysis should not exceed 2.5
times the deflection from the first-order analysis. If one story is much more
flexible than the others, the deflection ratio should be computed in that story. The
lateral load should be large enough to give deflections of a magnitude that can be
compared accurately. In unsymmetrical frames that deflect laterally under gravity
loads alone, the lateral load should act in the direction for which it will increase
the lateral deflections.
When using 10.13.4.2 to compute δ s M s the value of Q evaluated using factored
gravity loads should not exceed 0.60. This is equivalent to δ s = 2.5. The values of
Vu and ∆ o used to compute Q can result from assuming any real or arbitrary set of
lateral loads provided that Vu and ∆ o are both from the same loading. If Q as
computed in 10.11.4.2 is 0.2 or less, the stability check in 10.13.6 is satisfied.
When δ s M s is computed using Eq. (10-18), an upper limit of 2.5 is placed on δ s .
For higher δ s values, the frame will be very susceptible to variations in EI and
foundation rotations. If δ s exceeds 2.5 the frame should be stiffened to reduce
δ s . ∑ Pu shall include the axial load in all columns and walls including columns that
are not part of the lateral load resisting system. The value δ s = 2.5 is a very high
magnifier. It has been chosen to offset the conservatism inherent in the moment
magnifier procedure.
For nonsway frames, β d is the ratio of the maximum factored axial sustained load
to the maximum factored axial load.
R10.13.7 The strength of a sway frame is governed by the stability of the columns and by
the degree of end restraint provided by the beams in the frame. If plastic hinges
form in the restraining beam, the structure approaches a failure mechanism and its
axial load capacity is drastically reduced. Section 10.13.7 provides that the
designer make certain that the restraining flexural members have the capacity to
resist the magnified column moments.
SECTION R10.15
TRANSMISSION OF COLUMN LOADS THROUGH FLOOR SYSTEM
The requirements of this section are based on a paper on the effect of floor
concrete strength on column strength.10.38 The provisions mean that when the
column concrete strength does not exceed the floor concrete strength by more than
40 percent, no special precautions need be taken. For higher column concrete
strengths, methods in 10.15.1 or 10.15.2 should be used for corner or edge
columns. Methods in 10.15.1, 10.15.2, or 10.15.3 should be used for interior
columns with adequate restraint on all four sides.
R10.15.1 Application of the concrete placement procedure described in 10.15.1 requires the
placing of two different concrete mixtures in the floor system. The lower strength
mixture should be placed while the higher strength concrete is still plastic and
should be adequately vibrated to ensure the concretes are well integrated. This
requires careful coordination of the concrete deliveries and the possible use of
retarders. In some cases, additional inspection services will be required when this
procedure is used. It is important that the higher strength concrete in the floor in the
region of the column be placed before the lower strength concrete in the remainder
of the floor to prevent accidental placing of the low strength concrete in the column
area. It is the designer's responsibility to indicate on the drawings where the high
and low strength concretes are to be placed.
Since the concrete placement requirement should be carried out in the field, it is
now expressed in a way that is directly evident to workers. The new requirement
will also locate the interface between column and floor concrete farther out into
the floor, away from regions of very high shear. The amount of column concrete to
be placed within the floor is expressed as a simple 600-mm extension from face of
the column, to be directly evident to workers.
R10.15.3 Research10.39 has shown that heavily loaded slabs do not provide as much
confinement as lightly loaded slabs when ratios of column concrete strength to
slab concrete strength exceed about 2.5. Consequently, a limit is placed on the
concrete strength ratio assumed in design.
SECTION R10.16
COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS
R10.16.2 The same rules used for computing the load-moment interaction strength for
reinforced concrete sections can be applied to composite sections. Interaction
charts for concrete-filled tubing would have a form identical to those of Reference
10.40 and Reference 10.32 but with γ slightly greater than 1.0.
R10.16.3 and
R10.16.4 Direct bearing or direct connection for transfer of forces between steel and
concrete can be developed through lugs, plates, or reinforcing bars welded to the
structural shape or tubing before the concrete is cast. Flexural compressive stress
need not be considered a part of direct compression load to be developed by
bearing. A concrete encasement around a structural steel shape may stiffen the
shape, but it would not necessarily increase its strength.
R10.16.5 Eq. (10-20) is given because the rules of 10.11.2 for estimating the radius of
gyration are overly conservative for concrete filled tubing and are not applicable for
members with enclosed structural shapes.
In reinforced concrete columns subject to sustained loads, creep transfers some of
the load from the concrete to the steel, increasing the steel stresses. In the case of
lightly reinforced columns, this load transfer may cause the compression steel to
yield prematurely, resulting in a loss in the effective EI . Accordingly, both the
SBC 304 C 2007 10/18
COMMENTARY FLEXURAL AND AXIAL LOADS
concrete and steel terms in Eq. (10-11) are reduced to account for creep. For
heavily reinforced columns or for composite columns in which the pipe or
structural shape makes up a large percentage of the cross section, the load transfer
due to creep is not significant. Accordingly, Eq. (10-21) will be used so that only
the EI of the concrete is reduced for sustained load effects.
R10.16.6 Structural steel encased concrete core. Steel encased concrete sections should
have a metal wall thickness large enough to attain longitudinal yield stress before
buckling outward.
R10.16.7 Spiral reinforcement around structural steel core. Concrete that is laterally
confined by a spiral has increased load-carrying strength, and the size of the spiral
required can be regulated on the basis of the strength of the concrete outside the
spiral the same reasoning that applies for columns reinforced only with
longitudinal bars. The radial pressure provided by the spiral ensures interaction
between concrete, reinforcing bars, and steel core such that longitudinal bars will
both stiffen and strengthen the cross section.
R10.16.8 Tie reinforcement around structural steel core. Concrete that is laterally
confined by tie bars is likely to be rather thin along at least one face of a steel core
section. Therefore, complete interaction between the core, the concrete, and any
longitudinal reinforcement should not be assumed. Concrete will probably separate
from smooth faces of the steel core. To maintain the concrete around the structural
steel core, it is reasonable to require more lateral ties than needed for ordinary
reinforced concrete columns. Because of probable separation at high strains
between the steel core and the concrete, longitudinal bars will be ineffective in
stiffening cross sections even though they would be useful in sustaining
compression forces. The yield strength of the steel core should be limited to that
which exists at strains below those that can be sustained without spalling of the
concrete. It has been assumed that axially compressed concrete will not spall at
strains less than 0.0018. The yield strength of 0.0018 x 200,000, or 360 MPa,
represents an upper limit of the useful maximum steel stress.
SECTION R10.17
BEARING STRENGTH
R10.17.1 This section deals with bearing strength of concrete supports. The permissible
bearing stress of 0.85 f c' is based on tests reported in Reference 10.41. (See also
15.8).
When the supporting area is wider than the loaded area on all sides, the
surrounding concrete confines the bearing area, resulting in an increase in bearing
strength. No minimum depth is given for a supporting member. The minimum
depth of support will be controlled by the shear requirements of 11.12.
When the top of the support is sloped or stepped, advantage may still be taken of
the condition that the supporting member is larger than the loaded area, provided
the supporting member does not slope at too great an angle. Fig. R10.17 illustrates
the application of the frustum to find A2 . The frustum should not be confused with
the path by which a load spreads out as it travels downward through the support.
Such a load path would have steeper sides. However, the frustum described has
somewhat flat side slopes to ensure that there is concrete immediately surrounding
the zone of high stress at the bearing. A1 is the loaded area but not greater than the
bearing plate or bearing cross-sectional area.
CHAPTER 11
SHEAR AND TORSION
This chapter includes shear and torsion provisions for both non-prestressed and
prestressed concrete members. The shear-friction concept (11.7) is particularly
applicable to design of reinforcement details in precast structures. Special
provisions are included for deep flexural members (11.8), brackets and corbels
(11.9), and shear walls (11.10). Shear provisions for slabs and footings are given
in 11.12.
SECTION R11.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
Tests11.1 have indicated that the average shear stress over the full effective section
also may be applicable for circular sections. Note the special definition of d for
such sections.
Although the value of d may vary along the span of a prestressed beam, studies11.2
showed that, for prestressed concrete members, d need not be taken less than
0.80h . The beams considered had some straight tendons or reinforcing bars at the
bottom of the section and had stirrups that enclosed that steel.
SECTION R11.1
SHEAR STRENGTH
The shear strength is based on an average shear stress on the full effective cross
section bw d In a member without shear reinforcement, shear is assumed to be
carried by the concrete web. In a member with shear reinforcement, a portion of
the shear strength is assumed to be provided by the concrete and the remainder by
the shear reinforcement.
The shear strength provided by concrete Vc is assumed to be the same for beams
with and without shear reinforcement and is taken as the shear causing significant
inclined cracking. These assumptions are discussed in References 11.1, 11.2, and
11.3.
Appendix A allows the use of strut-and-tie models in the shear design of disturbed
regions. The traditional shear design procedures, which ignore D-regions, are
acceptable in shear spans that include B-regions.
R11.1.1.1 Openings in the web of a member can reduce its shear strength. The effects of
openings are discussed in Section 4.7 of Reference 11.1 and in References 11.4
and 11.5.
R11.1.1.2 In a member of variable depth, the internal shear at any section is increased or
decreased by the vertical component of the inclined flexural stresses. Computation
methods are outlined in various textbooks and in Reference 11.6
R11.1.2 Because of a lack of test data and practical experience with concretes having
compressive strengths greater than 70 MPa, a maximum value of 25/3 MPa is
SBC 304 C 2007 11/1
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
imposed on f c' for use in the calculation of shear strength of concrete beams,
joists, and slabs. Exceptions to this limit were permitted in beams and joists when
the transverse reinforcement satisfied an increased value for the minimum amount
of web reinforcement. There are limited test data on the two-way shear strength of
high-strength concrete slabs. Until more experience is obtained for two-way slabs
built with concretes that have strengths greater than 70 MPa, it is prudent to limit
f c' to 25/3 MPa for the calculation of shear strength.
R11.1.2.1 Based on the test results in References 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, and 11.11, an
increase in the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement is required for high-
strength concrete. These tests indicated a reduction in the reserve shear strength as
f c' increased in beams reinforced with the specified minimum amount of
transverse reinforcement, which is equivalent to an effective shear stress of 0.34
MPa.
Fig. R11.1.3.1(b)-Location of critical section for shear in a member loaded near bottom
R11.1.3.1 The closest inclined crack to the support of the beam in Fig. R11.1.3.1(a) will
extend upwards from the face of the support reaching the compression zone about
d from the face of the support. If loads are applied to the top of this beam, the
stirrups across this crack are stressed by loads acting on the lower freebody in Fig.
R11.1.3.1(a). The loads applied to the beam between the face of the column and
SBC 304 C 2007 11/2
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
the point d away from the face are transferred directly to the support by compression
in the web above the crack. Accordingly, the SBC 304 permits design for a
maximum factored shear force Vu at a distance d from the support for
nonprestressed members, and at a distance h / 2 for prestressed members. Two
things are emphasized: first, stirrups are required across the potential crack
designed for the shear at d from the support, and second, a tension force exists in
the longitudinal reinforcement at the face of the support.
Fig. R11.1.3.1(c), (d), (e), (f)-Typical support conditions for locating factored shear
force Vu
In Fig. R11.1.3.1(b), loads are shown acting near the bottom of a beam. In this case,
the critical section is taken at the face of the support. Loads acting near the support
should be transferred across the inclined crack extending upward from the support
face. The shear force acting on the critical section should include all loads applied
below the potential inclined crack.
Typical support conditions where the shear force at a distance d from the support
may be used include: (1) members supported by bearing at the bottom of the
member, such as shown in Fig. R11.1.3.1(c); and (2) members framing
monolithically into another member as illustrated in Fig. R11.1.3.1(d).
Support conditions where this provision should not be applied include: (1)
Members framing into a supporting member in tension, such as shown in Fig.
R11.1.3.1(e). For this case, the critical section for shear should be taken at the face
of the support. Shear within the connection should also be investigated and special
corner reinforcement should be provided. (2) Members for which loads are not
applied at or near the top of the member. This is the condition referred to in Fig.
11.1.3.1(b). For such cases the critical section is taken at the face of the support.
Loads acting near the support should be transferred across the inclined crack
extending upward from the support face. The shear force acting on the critical
section should include all loads applied below the potential inclined crack. (3)
Members loaded such that the shear at sections between the support and a distance
d from the support differs radically from the shear at distance d . This commonly
occurs in brackets and in beams where a concentrated load is located close to the
R11.1.3.2 Because d frequently varies in prestressed members, the location of the critical
section has arbitrarily been taken as h / 2 from the face of the support.
SECTION R11.2
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Two alternative procedures are provided to modify the provi sions for shear and
torsion when lightweight aggregate concrete is used. The lightweight concrete
modification applies only to the terms containing f c' in the equations of Chapter
11 SBC 304.
R11.2.1.1 The first alternative bases the modification on laboratory tests to determine the
relationship between splitting tensile strength f ct and the compressive strength f c'
for the lightweight concrete being used. For normal weight concrete, the splitting
tensile strength f ct is approximately equal to, f c' /1.8.11.10,11.11
R11.2.1.2 The second alternative bases the modification on the assumption that the tensile
strength of light-weight concrete is a fixed fraction of the tensile strength of
normalweight concrete11.12. The multipliers are based on data from tests11.13 on
many types of structural lightweight aggregate concrete.
SECTION R11.3
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE FOR
NONPRESTRESSED MEMBERS
R11.3.2.1 Eq. (11-5) is the basic expression for shear strength of members without shear
reinforcement.11.3 Designers should recognize that the three variables in Eq. (11-5),
f c' (as a measure of concrete tensile strength), ρ w and Vu d / M u , are known to
affect shear strength, although some research data 1l.l.1,1.14 indicate that Eq. (11-5)
overestimates the influence of f c' and underestimates the influence of ρ w and
Vu d / M u . Further information11.15 has indicated that shear strength decreases as
the overall depth of the member increases.
The minimum value of M u equal to Vu d in Eq. (11-5) is to limit Vc near points of
inflection.
For most designs, it is convenient to assume that the second term of Eq. (11-5)
equals 0.17 f c' and use Vc equal to (1 / 6 ) f c' bw d as permitted in 11.3.1.1.
R11.3.2.2 Eq. (11-6) and (11-7), for members subject to axial compression in addition to
shear and flexure are derived in Reference 11.3. As N u is increased, the value of
Vc computed from Eq. (11-5) and (11-6) will exceed the upper limit given by Eq.
(11-7) before the value of M m given by Eq. (11-6) becomes negative. The value of
Vc obtained from Eq. (11-5) has no physical significance if a negative value of
M m is substituted. For this condition, Eq. (11-7) or Eq. (11-4) should be used to
calculate Vc . Values of Vc for members subject to shear and axial load are
illustrated in Fig. R11.3.2.2. The background for these equations is discussed and
comparisons are made with test data in Reference 11.2.
Because of the complexity of Eq. (11-5) and (11-6), an alternative design
provision, Eq. (11-4), is permitted.
R11.3.2.3 Eq. (11-8) may be used to compute Vc for members subject to significant axial
tension. Shear reinforcement may then be designed for Vn – Vc .The term
significant is used to recognize that a designer must use judgment in deciding
whether axial tension needs to be considered. Low levels of axial tension often
occur due to volume changes, but are not important in structures with adequate
expansion joints and minimum reinforcement. It may be desirable to design shear
reinforcement to carry total shear if there is uncertainty about the magnitude of
axial tension.
R11.3.3 Shear tests of members with circular sections indicate that the effective area can be
taken as the gross area of the section or as an equivalent rectangular area.11.1, 11.16,
11.17
SECTION 11.4
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE FOR
PRESTRESSED MEMBERS
R11.4.1 Eq. (11-9) offers a simple means of computing Vc for prestressed concrete
beams.11.2 It may be applied to beams having prestressed reinforcement only, or to
members reinforced with a combination of prestressed reinforcement and
nonprestressed deformed bars. Eq. (11-9) is most applicable to members subject to
uniform loading and may give conservative results when applied to composite
girders for bridges.
In applying Eq. (11-9) to simply supported members subject to uniform loads
Vu d / M u can be expressed as
where l is the span length and x is the distance from the section being investigated
to the support. For concrete with f c' equal to 35 MPa, Vc from 11.4.1 varies as
shown in Fig. R11.4.1. Design aids based on this equation are given in Reference
11.18.
R11.4.2 Two types of inclined cracking occur in concrete beams: web-shear cracking and
flexure-shear cracking. These two types of inclined cracking are illustrated in Fig.
R11.4.2.
Web-shear cracking begins from an interior point in a member when the principal
tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. Flexure-shear cracking
is initiated by flexural cracking. When flexural cracking occurs, the shear stresses
in the concrete above the crack are increased. The flexure-shear crack develops
when the combined shear and tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the
concrete.
Eqn. (11-11) Eq. (11-10) and (11-12) may be used to determine the shear forces
causing flexure-shear and web-shear cracking, respectively. The shear strength
provided by the concrete Vc is assumed equal to the lesser of Vci and V cw . The
derivations of Eq. (11-10) and (11-12) are summarized in Reference 11.19.
In deriving Eq. (11-10) it was assumed that Vci is the sum of the shear required to
cause a flexural crack at the point in question given by:
VM
V = i cr
M max
plus an additional increment of shear required to change the flexural crack to a
flexure-shear crack. The externally applied factored loads, from which Vi and
M max are determined, include superimposed dead load, earth pressure, and live
load. In computing M cr for substitution into Eq. (11-10), I and yt , are the
properties of the section resisting the externally applied loads.
For a composite member, where part of the dead load is resisted by only a part of
the section, appropriate section properties should be used to compute f d . The
shear due to dead loads, Vd and that due to other loads Vi are separated in this case.
Vd is then the total shear force due to unfactored dead load acting on that part of
the section carrying the dead loads acting prior to composite action plus the
unfactored superimposed dead load acting on the composite member. The terms Vi
and M max may be taken as:
Vi = Vu − Vd
M max = M u − M d
where Vu and M u are the factored shear and moment due to the total factored
loads, and M d is the moment due to unfactored dead load (the moment
corresponding t o f d .
For noncomposite, uniformly loaded beams, the total cross section resists all the
shear and the live and dead load shear force diagrams are similar. In this case Eq.
(11-10) reduces to:
f c' Vu M ct
Vci = bw d +
20 Mu
where:
M ct = (I / y t ) ⎛⎜ f c' + f pe ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
The symbol M ct in the two preceding equations represents the total moment,
including dead load, required to cause cracking at the extreme fiber in tension. This
is not the same as M cr , in SBC 304 Eq. (11-10) where the cracking moment is that
due to all loads except the dead load. In Eq. (11-10) the dead load shear is added as
a separate term.
M u is the factored moment on the beam at the section under consideration, and Vu
is the factored shear force occurring simultaneously with M u . Since the same
section properties apply to both dead and live load stresses, there is no need to
SBC 304 C 2007 11/7
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
compute dead load stresses and shears separately. The cracking moment M ct
reflects the total stress change from effective prestress to a tension of f c' /2,
assumed to cause flexural cracking.
Eq. (11-12) is based on the assumption that web-shear cracking occurs due to the
shear causing a principal tensile stress of approximately (1/3) f c' at the centroidal
axis of the cross section. V p is calculated from the effective prestress force without
load factors.
R11.4.3 and
R11.4.4 The effect of the reduced prestress near the ends of pretensioned beams on the
shear strength should be taken into account. Section 11.4.3 relates to the shear
strength at sections within the transfer length of prestressing steel when bonding of
prestressing steel extends to the end of the member.
Section 11.4.4 relates to the shear strength at sections.within the length over which
some of the prestressing steel is not bonded to the concrete, or within the transfer
length of the prestressing steel for which bonding does not extend to the end of the
beam.
SECTION R11.5
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
R11.5.2 Limiting the design yield strength of shear reinforcement to 420 MPa provides a
control on diagonal crack width. Research11.20,11.21,11.22 has indicated that the
performance of higher strength steels as shear reinforcement has been satisfactory.
In particular, full-scale beam tests described in Reference 11.21 indicated that
the widths of inclined shear cracks at service load levels were less for beams
reinforced with smaller diameter deformed welded wire fabric cages designed on
the basis of a yield strength of 520 MPa than beams reinforced with deformed
Grade 420 stirrups.
R11.5.3 It is essential that shear (and torsion) reinforcement be adequately anchored at both
ends to be fully effective on either side of any potential inclined crack. This
generally requires a hook or bend at the end of the reinforcement as provided by
12.13.
Even when the total factored shear strength Vu is less than one-half of the shear
strength provided by the concrete φVc the use of some web reinforcement is
recommended in all: thin-web post-tensioned prestressed concrete members
(joists, waffle slabs, beams, and T-beams) to reinforce against tensile forces in
webs resulting from local deviations from the design tendon profile, and to provide
a means of supporting the tendons in the design profile during construction. If
sufficient support is not provided, lateral wobble and local deviations from the
smooth parabolic tendon profile assumed in design may result during placement of
the concrete. In such cases, the deviations in the tendons tend to straighten out
when the tendons are stressed. This process may impose large tensile stresses in
webs, and severe cracking may develop if no web reinforcement is provided.
Unintended curvature of the tendons, and the resulting tensile stresses in webs,
may be minimized by securely tying tendons to stirrups that are rigidly held in
place by other elements of the reinforcing cage and held down in the forms. The
maximum spacing of stirrups used for this purpose should not exceed the smaller of
1.5h or 1.2 m. When applicable, the shear reinforcement provisions of 11.5.4 and
11.5.5 will require closer stirrup spacings.
For repeated loading of flexural members, the possibility of inclined diagonal
tension cracks forming at stresses appreciably smaller than under static loading
should be taken into account in the design. In these instances, it would be prudent
to use at least the minimum shear reinforcement expressed by Eq. (11-13) or (11-
14), even though tests or calculations based on static loads show that shear
reinforcement is not required.
R11.5.5.2 When a member is tested to demonstrate that its shear and flexural strengths are
adequate, the actual member dimensions and material strengths are known. The
strength used as a basis for comparison should therefore be that corresponding to a
strength reduction factor of unity ( φ = 1.0 ), i.e. the required nominal strength Vn
and M n . This ensures that if the actual material strengths in the field were less than
specified, or the member dimensions were in error such as to result in a reduced
member strength, a satisfactory margin of safety will be retained.
R11.5.5.3 Tests11.9 have indicated the need to increase the minimum area of shear
reinforcement as concrete strength increases to prevent sudden shear failures when
inclined cracking occurs. Equation (11-13) provides for a gradual increase in the
minimum area of transverse reinforcement, while maintaining the previous
minimum value.
R11.5.5.4 Tests11.24 of prestressed beams with mini-mum web reinforcement based on Eq.
(11-13) and (11-14) indicated that the smaller Av from these two equations was
sufficient to develop ductile behavior.
Eq. (11-14) may be used only for prestressed members meeting the minimum
prestress force requirements given in 11.5.5.4. This equation is discussed in
Reference 11.24.
exceeding that which causes inclined cracking, provided the diagonal members in
the truss are assumed to be inclined at 45 deg.
Eq. (11-15), (11-16), and (11-17) are presented in terms of shear strength Vs
attributed to the shear reinforcement. When shear reinforcement perpendicular to
axis of member is used, the required area of shear reinforcement Av and its spacing
s are computed by
Av (Vu − φVc )
=
s φ f yd
Researchl1.25,11.26 has shown that shear behavior of wide beams with substantial
flexural reinforcement is improved if the transverse spacing of stirrup legs across
the section is reduced.
R11.5.6.3 Although the transverse reinforcement in a circular section may not consist of
straight legs, tests indicate that Eq. (11-15) is conservative if d is taken as defined
in 11.3.3.11.16, 11.17
SECTION R11.6
DESIGN FOR TORSION
The design for torsion is based on a thin-walled tube, space truss analogy. A beam
subjected to torsion is idealized as a thin-walled tube with the core concrete cross
section in a solid beam neglected as shown in Fig. R11.6(a). Once a reinforced
concrete beam has cracked in torsion, its torsional resistance is provided primarily
by closed stirrups and longitudinal bars located near the surface of the member. In
the thin-walled tube analogy the resistance is assumed to be provided by the outer
skin of the cross section roughly centered on the closed stirrups. Both hollow and
solid sections are idealized as thin-walled tubes both before and after cracking.
Fig. R11.6-(a) Thin-walled tube; (b) area enclosed by shear flow path
In a closed thin-walled tube, the product of the shear stress τ and the wall
thickness t at any point in the perimeter is known as the shear flow, q = τ t . The
shear flow q due to torsion acts as shown in Fig. R11.6(a) and is constant at all
points around the perimeter of the tube. The path along which it acts extends around
the tube at midthickness of the walls of the tube. At any point along the perimeter of
the tube the shear stress due to torsion is τ = T / (2 Ao t ) where Ao is the gross area
enclosed by the shear flow path, shown shaded in Fig. R11.6(b), and t is the
thickness of the wall at the point where τ is being computed. The shear flow
follows the midthickness of the walls of the tube and Ao is the area enclosed by the
path of the shearflow. For a hollow member with continuous walls, Ao includes the
area of the hole.
The elliptical interaction between the shear carried by the concrete, Vc and the
torsion carried by the concrete is not considered. Vc remains constant at the value
it has when there is no torsion, and the torsion carried by the concrete is always
taken as zero.
The design procedure is derived and compared with test results in References 11.27
and 11.28.
1 ⎛ Acp
2 ⎞
Tcr = f c' ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜ Pcp ⎟
⎝ ⎠
For solid members, the interaction between the cracking torsion and the inclined
cracking shear is approximately circular or elliptical. For such a relationship, a
torque of 0.25Tcr as used in 11.6.1, corresponds to a reduction of 3% in the
inclined cracking shear. This reduction in the inclined cracking shear was
considered negligible. The stress at cracking (1 / 3) f c' has purposely been taken as
a lower bound value for prestressed members, the torsional cracking load is
increased by the prestress. A Mohr's Circle analysis based on average stresses
indicates the torque required to cause a principal tensile stress equal to
(1 / 3) f c is 1 + 3 f pc / f 'c times the corresponding torque in a non-prestressed beam.
'
A similar modification is made in part (c) of 11.6.1 for members subjected to axial
load and torsion
For torsion, a hollow member is defined as having one or more longitudinal voids,
such as a single-cell or multiple-cell box girder. Small longitudinal voids, such as
un-grouted post-tensioning ducts that result in Ag / Acp greater than or equal to
0.95, can be ignored when computing the threshold torque in 11.6.1. The
interaction between torsional cracking and shear cracking for hollow sections is
assumed to vary from the elliptical relationship for members with small voids, to a
straight-line relationship for thin-walled sections with large voids. For a straight-
line interaction, a torque of 0.25Tcr would cause a reduction in the inclined cracking
shear of about 25%. This reduction was judged to be excessive.
Two changes are made to modify 11.6.1 to apply to hollow sections. First, the
minimum torque limits are multiplied by Ag / Acp because tests of solid and hollow
beams11.29 indicate that the cracking torque of a hollow section is approximately
Ag / Acp times the cracking torque of a solid section with the same outside
dimensions. The second change is to multiply the cracking torque by Ag / Acp a
second time to reflect the transition from the circular interaction between the
inclined cracking loads in shear and torsion for solid members, to the
approximately linear interaction for thin-walled hollow sections.
R11.6.2.1 and
R11.6.2.2 In designing for torsion in reinforced concrete structures, two conditions may be
identified:11.30,11.31
(a) The torsional moment cannot be reduced by redistribution of internal forces
(11.6.2.1). This is referred to as equilibrium torsion, since the torsional
moment is required for the structure to be in equilibrium.
For this condition, illustrated in Fig. R11.6.2.1, torsion reinforcement
designed according to 11.6.3 through 11.6.6 must be provided to resist the
total design torsional moments.
(b) The torsional moment can be reduced by redistribution of internal forces
after cracking (11.6.2.2) if the torsion arises from the member twisting to
maintain compatibility of deformations. This type of torsion is referred to as
compatibility torsion.
For this condition, illustrated in Fig. R11.6.2.2, the torsional stiffness before
cracking corresponds to that of the uncracked section according to St. Venant's
theory. At torsional cracking, however, a large twist occurs under an essentially
constant torque, resulting in a large redistribution of forces in the structure.11.30,11.31
The cracking torque under combined shear, flexure, and torsion corresponds to a
principal tensile stress somewhat less than the (1 / 3) f c' quoted in R11.6.1.
When the torsional moment exceeds the cracking torque, a maximum factored
torsional moment equal to the cracking torque may be assumed to occur at the
critical sections near the faces of the supports. This limit has been established to
control the width of torsional cracks. The replacement of Acp with Ag , as in the
calculation of the threshold torque for hollow sections in 11.6.1, is not applied here.
Thus, the torque after redistribution is larger and hence more conservative.
Section 11.6.2.2 applies to typical and regular framing conditions. With layouts
that impose significant torsional rotations within a limited length of the member,
such as a heavy i n 11.6.2.2. torque loading located close to a stiff column, or a
column that rotates in the reverse directions because of other loading, a more exact
analysis is advisable.
When the factored torsional moment from an elastic analysis based on uncracked
section properties is between the values in 11.6.1 and the values given in this
section, torsion reinforcement should be designed to resist the computed torsional
moments.
R11.6.2.4 and
R11.6.2.5 It is not uncommon for a beam to frame into one side of a girder near the support
of the girder. In such a case a concentrated shear and torque are applied to the
girder.
R11.6.3.1 The size of a cross section is limited for two reasons, first to reduce unsightly
cracking and second to prevent crushing of the surface concrete due to inclined
compressive stresses due to shear and torsion. In Eq. (11-18) and (11-19), the two
terms on the left hand side are the shear stresses due to shear and torsion. The sum
of these stresses may not exceed the stress causing shear cracking plus
2 / 3 f c' similar to the limiting strength given in 11.5.6.9 for shear without torsion.
The limit is expressed in terms of Vc to allow its use for nonprestressed or
prestressed concrete. It was originally derived on the basis of crack control. It is
SBC 304 C 2007 11/13
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
not necessary to check against crushing of the web since this happens at higher
shear stresses.
In a hollow section, the shear stresses due to shear and torsion both occur in the
walls of the box as shown in Fig. 11.6.3.1(a) and hence are directly additive at
point A as given in Eq. (11-19). In a solid section the shear stresses due to torsion
act in the "tubular" outside section while the shear stresses due to Vu . are spread
across the width of the section as shown in Fig. R11.6.3.1(b). For this reason
stresses are combined in Eq. (11-18) using the square root of the sum of the
squares rather than by direct addition.
R11.6.3.2 Generally, the maximum will be on the wall where the torsional and shearing
stresses are additive [Point A in Fig. R11.6.3.1(a)]. If the top or bottom flanges are
thinner than the vertical webs, it may be necessary to evaluate Eq. (11-19) at points
B and C in Fig. R11.6.3.1(a). At these points the stresses due to the shear force are
usually negligible.
R11.6.3.4 Limiting the design yield strength of torsion reinforcement to 420 MPa provides a
control on diagonal crack width.
R11.6.3.5 The factored torsional resistance φTn must equal or exceed the torsion Tn due to
the factored loads. In the calculation of Tn all the torque is assumed to be resisted
by stirrups and longitudinal steel with Tc = 0 . At the same time, the shear resisted
by concrete Vc is assumed to be unchanged by the presence of torsion. For beams
with Vu greater than about 0.8φVc the resulting amount of combined shear and
torsional reinforcement is essentially the same. For smaller values of Vu , more
shear and torsion reinforcement will be required.
R11.6.3.6 Eq. (11-21) is based on the space truss analogy shown in Fig. R11.6.3.6(a) with
compression diagonals at an angle θ , assuming the concrete carries no tension and
the reinforcement yields. After torsional cracking develops, the torsional resistance
is provided mainly by closed stirrups, longitudinal bars, and compression
SBC 304 C 2007 11/14
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
diagonals. The concrete outside these stirrups is relatively ineffective. For this
reason Ao ,the area enclosed by the shear flow path around the perimeter of the tube,
is defined after cracking in terms of Aoh , the area enclosed by the centerline of the
outermost closed hoops. The area Aoh is shown in Fig. R11.6.3.6(b) for various
cross sections. In an I-, T-, or L-shaped section, Aoh is taken as that area enclosed
by the outermost legs of interlocking stirrups as shown in Fig. R11.6.3.6(b). The
expression for Ao given in Reference 11.32 may be used if greater accuracy is
desired.
The shear flow q in the walls of the tube, discussed in R11.6, can be resolved into
the shear forces V1 to V4 acting in the individual sides of the tube or space truss, as
shown in Fig. R11.6.3.6(a).
The angle θ can be obtained by analysis11.32 or may be taken to be equal to the
values given in 11.6.3.6 (a) or (b). The same value of θ should be used in both
Eq. (11-21) and (11-22). As θ gets smaller, the amount of stirrups required by
Eq. (11-21) decreases. At the same time the amount of longitudinal steel required
by Eq. (11-22) increases.
R11.6.3.7 Fig. R11.6.3.6(a) shows the shear forces V1 to V4 resulting from the shear flow
around the walls of the tube. On a given wall of the tube, the shear flow Vi is
resisted tube by a diagonal compression component, Di = Vi / sin θ , in the
concrete. An axial tension force, N i = Vi (cot θ ) , is needed in he longitudinal steel
to complete the resolution of Vi .
Fig. R11.6.3.7 shows the diagonal compressive stresses and the axial tension force,
N i , acting on a short segment along one wall of the tube. Because the shear flow
due to torsion is constant at all points around the perimeter of the tube, the result-
ants of Di and N i act through the midheight of side i . As a result, half of N i can
be assumed to be resisted by each of the top and bottom chords as shown.
Longitudinal reinforcement with a capacity Ae f ye should be provided to resist the
sum of the N i forces, ∑N i
, acting in all of the walls of the tube.
Fig. R11.6.3.7-Resolution of shear forceV i ; into diagonal compression force D i ; and axial
tension force N i in one wall of the tube
In the derivation of Eq. (11-22), axial tension forces are summed along the sides of
the area Ao . These sides form a perimeter length, po , approximately equal to the
length of the line joining the centers of the bars in the corners of the tube. For ease
in computation this has been replaced with the perimeter of the closed stirrups, ph .
Frequently, the maximum allowable stirrup spacing governs the amount of stirrups
provided. Furthermore, when combined shear and torsion act, the total stirrup area
is the sum of the amounts provided for shear and torsion. To avoid the need to
provide excessive amounts of longitudinal reinforcement, 11.6.3.7 states that the
At / s used in calculating Al at any given section should be taken as the At / s calculated
at that section using Eq. (11-21).
R11.6.3.8 The stirrup requirements for torsion and shear are added and stirrups are provided
to supply at least the total amount required. Since the stirrup area Av for shear is
defined in terms of all the legs of a given stirrup while the stirrup area At for
torsion is defined in terms of one leg only, the addition of stirrups is carried out as
follows:
⎛ A + t ⎞ Av A
Total ⎜ v ⎟= +2 t
⎝ s ⎠ s s
If a stirrup group had four legs for shear, only the legs adjacent to the sides of the
beam would be included in this summation since the inner legs would be
ineffective for torsion.
The longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion is added at each section to the
longitudinal reinforcement required for bending moment that acts at the same time
as the torsion. The longitudinal reinforcement is then chosen for this sum, but
should not be less than the amount required for the maximum bending moment at
that section if this exceeds the moment acting at the same time as the torsion. If the
maximum bending moment occurs at one section, such as the midspan, while the
SBC 304 C 2007 11/16
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
maximum torsional moment occurs at another, such as the support, the total
longitudinal steel required may be less than that obtained by adding the maximum
flexural steel plus the maximum torsional steel. In such a case the required
longitudinal steel is evaluated at several locations.
The most restrictive requirements for spacing, cut-off points, and placement for
flexural, shear, and torsional steel should be satisfied. The flexural steel should be
extended a distance d , but not less than 12db , past where it is no longer needed for
flexure as required in 12.10.3.
R11.6.3.9 The longitudinal tension due to torsion is offset in part by the compression in the
flexural compression zone, allowing a reduction in the longitudinal torsion steel
required in the compression zone.
R11.6.3.10 As explained in R11.6.3.7, torsion causes an axial tension force. In a nonprestressed
beam this force is resisted by longitudinal reinforcement having an axial tensile
capacity of Al f yl . This steel is in addition to the flexural reinforcement and is
distributed uniformly around the sides of the perimeter so that the resultant of
Al f yl acts along the axis of the member.
R11.6.4.1 Both longitudinal and closed transverse reinforcement are required to resist the
diagonal tension stresses due to torsion. The stirrups must be closed, since inclined
cracking due to torsion may occur on all faces of a member.
In the case of sections subjected primarily to torsion, the concrete side cover over
the stirrups spoils off at high torques.11.33 This renders lapped-spliced stirrups
ineffective, leading to a premature torsional failure.11.34 In such cases, closed
stirrups should not be made up of pairs of U-stirrups lapping one another.
R11.6.4.2 When a rectangular beam fails in torsion, the corners of the beam tend to spoil off
due to the inclined compressive stresses in the concrete diagonals of the space
truss changing direction at the corner as shown in Fig. R11.6.4.2 (a). In tests,11.33
SBC 304 C 2007 11/17
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
closed stirrups anchored by 90 deg hooks failed when this occurred. For this
reason, 135 deg hooks are preferable for torsional stirrups in all cases. In regions
where this spalling is prevented by an adjacent slab or flange, 11.6.4.2(b) relaxes
this and allows 90 deg hooks.
R11.6.4.3 If high torsion acts near the end of a beam, the longitudinal torsion reinforcement
should be adequately anchored. Sufficient development length should be provided
outside the inner face of the support to develop the needed tension force in the bars
or tendons. In the case of bars, this may require hooks or horizontal U-shaped bars
lapped with the longitudinal torsion reinforcement.
R11.6.4.4 The closed stirrups provided for torsion in a hollow section should be located in
the outer half of the wall thickness effective for torsion where the wall thickness
can be taken as Aoh / ph .
R11.6.5.1 and
R11.6.5.2 If a member is subject to a factored torsional moment Tu greater than the values
specified in 11.6.1, the minimum amount of transverse web reinforcement for
combined shear and torsion is 0.35bw s / f y . The differences in the definition of Av ,
and the symbol At should be noted; Av is the area of two legs of a closed stirrup
while At is the area of only one leg of a closed stirrup.
Tests11.9 of high-strength reinforced concrete beams have indicated the need to
increase the minimum area of shear reinforcement to prevent shear failures when
inclined cracking occurs. Although there are a limited number of tests of high-
strength concrete beams in torsion, the equation for the minimum area of
transverse closed stirrups has been changed for consistency with calculations
SBC 304 C 2007 11/18
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
R11.6.6.1 The spacing of the stirrups is limited to ensure the development of the ultimate
torsional strength of the beam, to prevent excessive loss of torsional stiffness after
cracking, and to control crack widths. For a square cross section the ph / 8
limitation requires stirrups at d / 2 , which corresponds to 11.5.4.1.
R11.6.6.2 In R11.6.3.7 it was shown that longitudinal reinforcement is needed to resist the
sum of the longitudinal tensile forces due to torsion in the walls of the thin-walled
tube. Since the force acts along the centroidal axis of the section, the centroid of
the additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion should approximately
coincide with the centroid of the section. The code accomplishes this by requiring
the longitudinal torsional reinforcement to be distributed around the perimeter of
the closed stirrups. Longitudinal bars or tendons are required in each corner of the
stirrups to provide anchorage for the legs of the stirrups. Corner bars have also
been found to be very effective in developing torsional strength and in controlling
cracks.
R11.6.6.3 The distance (bt + d ) beyond the point theoretically required for torsional
reinforcement is larger than that used for shear and flexural reinforcement because
torsional diagonal tension cracks develop in a helical form.
SECTION R11.7
SHEAR-FRICTION
R11.7.1 With the exception of 11.7, virtually all provisions regarding shear are intended to
prevent diagonal tension failures rather than direct shear transfer failures. The
purpose of 11.7 is to provide design methods for conditions where shear transfer
should be considered: an interface between concretes cast at different times, an
interface between concrete and steel, reinforcement details for precast concrete
structures, and other situations where it is considered appropriate to investigate
shear transfer across a plane in structural concrete. (See References 11.35 and
11.36).
R11.7.3 Although untracked concrete is relatively strong in direct shear there is always the
possibility that a crack will form in an unfavorable location. The shear-friction
concept assumes that such a crack will form, and that reinforcement must be
provided across the crack to resist relative displacement along it. When shear acts
along a crack, one crack face slips relative to the other. If the crack faces are rough
and irregular, this slip is accompanied by separation of the crack faces. At
ultimate, the separation is sufficient to stress the reinforcement crossing the crack
to its yield point. The reinforcement provides a clamping force Avf f y across the
crack faces. The applied shear is then resisted by friction between the crack faces,
by resistance to the shearing off of protrusions on the crack faces, and by dowel
action of the reinforcement crossing the crack. Successful application of 11.7
depends on proper selection of the location of an assumed crack.11.18.11.35
In this equation, the first term represents the contribution of friction to shear-
transfer resistance (0.8 representing the coefficient of friction). The second term
represents the sum of the resistance to shearing of protrusions on the crack faces
and the dowel action of the reinforcement.
When the shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to the shear plane, such that the
shear force produces tension in that reinforcement, the shear strength Vn is given
by
Vn = Avf f y (0.8 sin α f + cos α f ) + Ac K1 sin 2 α f
where α f is the angle between the shear-friction reinforcement and the shear
plane, (i.e. 0 < α f < 90 deg).
When using the modified shear-friction method, the terms (Avf f y / Ac )or
(Avf f y sin α f / Ac ) should not be less than 1.4 MPa for the design equations to be
valid.
R11.7.4.2 When the shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to the shear plane, such that the
component of the shear force parallel to the reinforcement tends to produce tension
in the reinforcement, as shown in Fig. R11.7.4, part of the shear is resisted by the
component parallel to the shear plane of the tension force in the reinforcement. Eq.
(11-26) should be used only when the shear force component parallel to the
reinforcement produces tension in the reinforcement, as shown in Fig. R11.7.4.
When α f is greater than 90 deg, the relative movement of the surfaces tends to
compress the bar and Eq. (11-26) is not valid.
R11.7.4.3 In the shear-friction method of calculation, it is assumed that all the shear
resistance is due to the friction between the crack faces. It is, therefore, necessary
to use artificially high values of the coefficient of friction in the shear-friction
equations so that the calculated shear strength will be in reasonable agreement
with test results. For concrete cast against hardened concrete not roughened in
accordance with 11.7.9, shear resistance is primarily due to dowel action of the
reinforcement and tests1139 indicate that reduced value of µ = 0.6λ specified for
this case is appropriate.
The value of for concrete placed against as-rolled structural steel relates µ
specified to the design of connections between precast concrete members, or
between structural steel members and structural concrete members. The shear-
transfer reinforcement may be either reinforcing bars or headed stud; shear
connectors; also, field welding to steel plates after casting of concrete is common.
The design of shear connectors for composite action of concrete slabs and steel
beams is not covered by these provisions, but should be in accordance with
Reference 11.40.
R11.7.5 This upper limit on shear strength is specified because Eq. (11-25) and (11-
26) become un-conservative if Vn has a greater value.
R11.7.7 If a resultant tensile force acts across a shear plane, reinforcement to carry
that tension should be provided in addition to that provided for shear transfer.
Tension may be caused by restraint of deformations due to temperature
change, creep, and shrinkage. Such tensile forces have caused failures,
particularly in beam bearings.
When moment acts on a shear plane, the flexural tension stresses and flexural
compression stresses are in equilibrium. There is no change in the resultant
compression Avf f y acting across the shear plane and the shear-transfer strength is
not changed. It is therefore not necessary to provide additional reinforcement to
resist the flexural tension stresses, unless the required flexural tension
reinforcement exceeds the amount of shear-transfer reinforcement provided in the
flexural tension zone. This has been demonstrated experimentally.11.41
SBC 304 C 2007 11/21
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
R11.7.8 If no moment acts across the shear plane, reinforcement should be uniformly
distributed along the shear plane to minimize crack widths. If a moment acts
across the shear plane, it is desirable to distribute the shear-transfer
reinforcement primarily in the flexural tension zone.I
Since the shear-friction reinforcement acts in tension, it should have full tensile
anchorage on both sides of the shear plane. Further, the shear-friction
reinforcement anchorage should engage the primary reinforcement, otherwise a
potential crack may pass between the shear-friction reinforcement and the body of
the concrete. This requirement applies particularly to welded headed studs used
with steel inserts for connections in precast and cast-in-place concrete. Anchorage
may be developed by bond, by a welded mechanical anchorage, or by threaded
dowels and screw inserts. Space limitations often require a welded mechanical
anchorage. For anchorage of headed studs in concrete see Reference 11.18.
SECTION R11.8
DEEP BEAMS
R11.8.1 The behavior of a deep beam is discussed in References 11.5 and 11.38. For a
deep beam supporting gravity loads, this section applies if the loads are
applied on the top of the beam and the beam is supported on its bottom face.
If the loads are applied through the sides or bottom of such a member, the
design for shear should be the same as for ordinary beams.
The longitudinal reinforcement in deep beams should be extended to the
supports and adequately anchored by embedment, hooks, or welding to
special devices. Bent-up bars are not recommended.
R11.8.2 Deep beams can be designed using strut-and-tie models, regardless of how they are
loaded and supported. Section 10.7.1 allows the use of nonlinear stress fields when
proportioning deep beams. Such analyses should consider the effects of cracking
on the stress distribution.
R11.8.3and
R11.8.4 –
R11.8.4 and
R11.8.5 The relative amounts of horizontal and vertical shear reinforcement are set based
on tests11.42,11.43,11.44 that have shown that vertical shear reinforcement is more
effective than horizontal shear reinforcement. The maximum spacing of bars is
limited to 300 mm to restrain the width of the cracks.
SECTION R11.9
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS
Brackets and corbels are cantilevers having shear span-to-depth ratios not greater
than unity, which tend to act as simple trusses or deep beams, rather than flexural
members designed for shear according to 11.3.
The corbel shown in Fig. R11.9.1 may fail by shearing along the interface
between the column and the corbel, by yielding of the tension tie, by crushing or
splitting of the compression strut, or by localized bearing or shearing failure under
the loading plate. These failure modes are illustrated and are discussed more fully
in Reference 11.1. The notation used in 11.9 is illustrated in Fig. R11.9.2.
R11.9.1 An upper limit of 1.0 for a/d is imposed for design by 11.9.3 and 11.9.4 for two
reasons. First, for shear span-to-depth ratios exceeding unity, the diagonal tension
cracks are less steeply inclined and the use of horizontal stirrups alone as
specified in 11.9.4 is not appropriate. Second, this method of design has only been
validated experimentally for a/d of unity or less. An upper limit is provided for
N uc because this method of design has only been validated experimentally for N uc
less than or equal to Vu including N uc , equal to zero.
R11.9.2 A minimum depth is required at the outside edge of the bearing area so that a
premature failure will not occur due to a major diagonal tension crack propagating
from below the bearing area to the outer sloping face of the corbel or bracket.
Failures of this type have been observed 11.45 in corbels having depths at the
outside edge of the bearing area less than required in this section of the code.
11.46
R11.9.3.2.2 Tests have shown that the maximum shear strength of lightweight concrete
corbels or brackets is a function of both f c' and a/d . No data are available for
corbels or brackets made of sand-lightweight concrete. As a result, the same
limitations have been placed on both all-lightweight and sand-lightweight brackets
and corbels.
R11.9.3.5 Tests 11.46 suggest that the total amount of reinforcement ( A s + Ah ) required to
cross the face of support should be the greater of:
R11.9.4 Closed stirrups parallel to the primary tension reinforcement are necessary to
prevent a premature diagonal tension failure of the corbel or bracket. The
required area of closed stirrups Ah = 0.5( As − An ) automatically yields the
appropriate amounts, as discussed in R11.9.3.5 above.
R11.9.6 Because the horizontal component of the inclined concrete compression strut
(see Fig. R11.9.1) is transferred to the primary tension reinforcement at the
location of the vertical load, the reinforcement As is essentially uniformly
stressed from the face of the support to the point where the vertical load is
applied. It should, therefore, be anchored at its outer end and in the
supporting column, so as to be able to develop its yield strength from the face
of support to the vertical load. Satisfactory anchorage at the outer end can be
obtained by bending the As bars in a horizontal loop as specified in (b), or by
welding a bar of equal diameter or a suitably sized angle across the ends of
the As bars. The
R11.9.7 The restriction on the location of the bearing area is necessary to ensure
development of the yield strength of the reinforcement As near the load.
When corbels are designed to resist horizontal forces, the bearing plate should
be welded to the tension reinforcement As .
SECTION R11.10
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR WALLS
R11.10.1 Shear in the plane of the wall is primarily of importance for shear walls with
a small height-to-length ratio. The design of higher walls, particularly walls
with uniformly distributed reinforcement will probably be controlled by
flexural considerations.
R11.10.3 Although the width-to-depth ratio of shear-walls is less than that for ordinary
beams, tests 11.47 on shear-walls with a thickness equal to l w / 25 have
indicated that ultimate shear stresses in excess of (5 / 6 ) f c' ; can be obtained.
R11.10.5 and
R11.10.6 Eq. (11-29) and (11-30) may be used to determine the inclined cracking
strength at any section through a shear wall. Eq. (11-29) corresponds to the
occurrence of a principal tensile stress of approximately (1 / 3) f c' at the
centroid of the shear wall cross section. Eq. (11-30) corresponds
approximately to the occurrence of a flexural tensile stress of (1 / 2) f c' at a
section l w / 2 above the section being investigated. As the term
⎛ Mu lw ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ Vu 2 ⎠
decreases, Eq. (11-29) will control before this term becomes negative. When
this term becomes negative Eq. (11-29) should be used.
R11.10.7 The values of Vc computed from Eq. (11-29) and (11-30) at a section located a
lesser distance of l w / 2 or hw / 2 above the base apply to that and all sections
between this section and the base. However, the maximum factored shear
force Vu at any section, including the base of the wall, is limited to φVn in
accordance with 11.10.3.
SECTION R11.11
TRANSFER OF MOMENTS TO COLUMNS
R11.11.1 Tests 11.49 have shown that the joint region of a beam-to-column connection in
the interior of a building does not require shear reinforcement if the joint is
confined on four sides by beams of approximately equal depth. However,
joints without lateral confinement, such as at the exterior of a building, need
shear reinforcement to prevent deterioration due to shear cracking11.50.
SECTION R11.12
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS
11.12.1 Differentiation should be made between a long and narrow slab or footing
acting as a beam, and a slab or footing subject to two-way action where
failure may occur by punching along a truncated cone or pyramid around a
concentrated load or reaction area.
R11.12.1.2 The critical section for shear in slabs subjected to bending in two directions
follows the perimeter at the edge of the loaded area. 11.3 The shear stress
acting on this section at factored loads is a function of f c' , and the ratio of
the side dimension of the column to the effective slab depth. A much simpler
design equation results by assuming a pseudocritical section located at a
distance d / 2 from the periphery of the concentrated load. When this is done,
the shear strength is almost independent of the ratio of column size to slab
depth. For rectangular columns, this critical section was defined by straight
lines drawn parallel to and at a distance d / 2 from the edges of the loaded
area. Section 11.12.1.3 allows the use of a rectangular critical section.
For edge columns at points where the slab cantilevers beyond the column, the
critical perimeter will either be three-sided or four-sided.
R11.12.2.1 For square columns, the shear stress due to ultimate loads in slabs subjected to
bending in two directions is limited to (1 / 3) f c' . However, tests(Ref. 11.51) have
indicated that the value of (1 / 3) f c' is un-conservative when the ratio β c of the
lengths of the long and short sides of a rectangular column or loaded area is larger
than 2.0. In such cases, the actual shear stress on the critical section at punching
shear failure varies from a maximum of about (1 / 3) f c' around the corners of the
column or loaded area, down to (1/ 6) fc' or less along the long sides between the
two end sections. Other tests (Ref. 11.52) indicates that vc , decreases as the ratio
bo / d increases. Eq. (11-33) and (11-34) were developed to account for these two
effects. The words "interior," "edge," and "corner columns" in 11.12.2.1(b) refer to
critical sections with 4, 3, and 2 sides respectively.
For shapes other than rectangular, β c is taken to be the ratio of the longest overall
dimension of the effective loaded area to the largest overall perpendicular
dimension of the effective loaded area, as illustrated for an L-shaped reaction area
in Fig. R11.12.2. The effective loaded area is that area totally enclosing the actual
loaded area, for which the perimeter is a minimum.
R11.12.2.2 For prestressed slabs and footings, a modified form of code Eq. (11-33) and (11-
36) is specified for two-way action shear strength. Research11.53,11.54 indicates that
the shear strength of two-way prestressed slabs around interior columns is
conservatively predicted by Eq. (11-36). Vc from Eq. (11-36) corresponds to a
diagonal tension failure of the concrete initiating at the critical section defined in
11.12.1.2. The mode of failure differs from a punching shear failure of the
concrete compression zone around the perimeter of the loaded area predicted by
Eq. (11-33). Consequently, the term β c does not enter into Eq. (11-36). Design
values for f c' and f pc are restricted due to limited test data available for higher
values. When computing f pc , loss of prestress due to restraint of the slab by
shearwalls and other structural elements should be taken into account.
In a prestressed slab with distributed tendons, the V p term in Eq. (11-36) contributes
only a small amount to the shear strength; therefore, it may be conservatively
taken as zero. If V p is to be included, the tendon profile assumed in the cal-
culations should be noted.
For an exterior column support where the distance from the outside of the column
to the edge of the slab is less than four times the slab thickness, the prestress is not
fully effective around the total perimeter ba of the critical section. Shear strength in
this case is therefore conservatively taken the same as for a nonprestressed slab.
R11.12.3 Research 11.55-11.59 has shown that shear reinforcement consisting of properly
anchored bars or wires and single- or multiple-leg stirrups, or closed stirrups,
can increase the punching shear resistance of slabs. The spacing limits given in
11.12.3.3 correspond to slab shear reinforcement details that have been shown
to be effective. Sections 12.13.2 and 12.13.3 give anchorage requirements for
stirrup-type shear reinforcement that should also be applied for bars or wires
used as slab shear reinforcement. It is essential that this shear reinforcement
engage longitudinal reinforcement at both the top and bottom of the slab, as
shown for typical details in Fig. R11.12.3 (a) to (c). Anchorage of shear
reinforcement according to the requirements of 12.13 is difficult in slabs
thinner than 250 mm. Shear reinforcement consisting of vertical bars
mechanically anchored at each end by a plate or head capable of developing
the yield strength of the bars has been used successfully.11.59
In a slab-column connection for which the moment transfer is negligible, the shear
reinforcement should be symmetrical about the centroid of the critical section
(Fig. R11.12.3 (d)). Spacing limits defined in 11.12.3.3 are also shown in Fig.
R11.12.3 (d) and (e). At edge columns or for interior connections where
moment transfer is significant, closed stirrups are recommended in a pattern
as symmetrical as possible. Although the average shear stresses on faces AD
and BC of the exterior column in Fig. R11.12.3 (e) are lower than on face AB,
the closed stirrups extending from faces AD and BC provide some torsional
capacity along the edge of the slab.
R11.12.4 Based on reported test data,11.60 design procedures are presented for shearhead
reinforcement consisting of structural steel shapes. For a column connection
transferring moment, the design of shearheads is given in 11.12.6.3.
Three basic criteria should be considered in the design of shearhead reinforcement
for connections transferring shear due to gravity load. First, a minimum flexural
strength should be provided to ensure that the required shear strength of the slab is
reached before the flexural strength of the shearhead is exceeded. Second, the shear
stress in the slab at the end of the shearhead reinforcement should be limited.
Third, after these two requirements are satisfied, the designer can reduce the
negative slab reinforcement in pro-portion to the moment contribution of the
shearhead at the design section.
R11.12.4.5 and
R11.12.4.6 The assumed idealized shear distribution along an arm of a shearhead at an
interior column is shown in Fig. R11.12.4.5. The shear along each of the arms is
taken as α vVc / η , where α v and η are defined in 11.12.4.5 and 11.12.4.6, and
Vc is defined in 11.12.2.1. However, the peak shear at the face of the column is taken
as the total shear considered per arm Vu / φη minus the shear considered carried to
the column by the concrete compression zone of the slab. The latter term is expressed
as (Vc / η )(1 − α v ) , so that it approaches zero for a heavy shearhead and
approaches Vu / φη when a light shearhead is used. Equation (11-37) then follows
from the assumption that φVc is about one-half the factored shear force Vu . In
this equation, M p is the required plastic moment strength of each shearhead
arm necessary to ensure that factored shear Vu is attained as the moment
strength of the shearhead is reached. The quantity l v is the length from the
center of the column to the point at which the shearhead is no longer required,
and the distance c1 / 2 is one-half the dimension of the column in the direction
considered.
The critical section is taken through the shearhead arms three-fourths of the
distance [l v − (c1 / 2)] from the face of the column to the end of the
shearhead. However, this assumed critical section need not be taken closer
than d / 2 to the column. See Fig. R11.12.4.7.
R11.12.4.9 If the peak shear at the face of the column is neglected, and φVc , is again
assumed to be about one-half of Vu , the moment contribution of the shearhead
M v can be conservatively computed from Eq. (11-38), in which φ is the factor for
flexure.
Fig. R11.12.5-Effect of openings and free edges (effective perimeter shown with dashed
lines)
R11.12.6.1 In Reference 11.61 it was found that where moment is transferred between a
column and a slab, 60 percent of the moment should be considered transferred
by flexure across the perimeter of the critical section defined in 11.12.1.2, and
40 percent by eccentricity of the shear about the centroid of the critical
section. For rectangular columns, the portion of the moment transferred by
flexure increases as the width of the face of the critical section resisting the
moment increases, as given by Eq. (13-1).
Most of the data in Reference 11.61 were obtained from tests of square
columns, and little information is available for round columns. These can be
approximated as square columns. Fig. R13.6.2.5 shows square supports
having the same area as some nonrectangular members.
Vu γ v M u c AB
vu ( AB ) = −
Ac Jc
or
Vu γ v M u cCD
vu (CD ) =−
Ac Jc
where γ v is given by Eq. (11-39). For an interior column, Ac and J c may be
calculated by
Similar equations may be developed for Ac and J c for columns located at the
edge or corner of a slab.
The fraction of the unbalanced moment between slab and column not
transferred by eccentricity of the shear should be transferred by flexure in
accordance with 13.5.3. A conservative method assigns the fraction
transferred by flexure over an effective slab width defined in 13.5.3.2. Often
designers concentrate column strip reinforcement near the column to
accommodate this unbalanced moment. Available test data11.61 seem to
indicate that this practice does not increase shear strength but may be
desirable to increase the stiffness of the slab-column junction.
Test data11.62 indicate that the moment transfer capacity of a prestressed slab
to column connection can be calculated using the procedures of 11.12.6 and
13.5.3.
Where shear reinforcement has been used, the critical section beyond the shear
reinforcement generally has a polygonal shape (Fig. R11.12.3(d) and (e)).
Equations for calculating shear stresses on such sections are given in
SBC 304 C 2007 11/34
COMMENTARY SHEAR AND TORSION
Reference 11.58.
11.63
R11.12.6.3 Tests indicate that the critical sections are defined in 11.12.1.2(a) and
11.12.1.3 and are appropriate for calculations of shear stresses caused by
transfer of moments even when shearheads are used. Then, even though the
critical sections for direct shear and shear due to moment transfer differ, they
coincide or are in close proximity at the column corners where the failures
initiate. Because a shear-head attracts most of the shear as it funnels toward
the column, it is conservative to take the maximum shear stress as the sum of
the two components.
CHAPTER 12
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
The development length concept is based on the attainable average bond stress
over the length of embedment of the reinforcement. Development lengths are
required because of the tendency of highly stressed bars to split relatively thin
sections of restraining concrete. A single bar embedded in a mass of concrete
should not require as great a development length; although a row of bars, even in
mass concrete, can create a weakened plane with longitudinal splitting along the
plane of the bars.
In application, the development length concept requires minimum lengths or
extensions of reinforcement beyond all points of peak stress in the reinforcement.
Such peak stresses generally occur at the points in 12.10.2.
The strength reduction factor φ is not used in the development length and lap
splice equations. An allowance for strength reduction is already included in the
expressions for determining development and splice lengths.
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R12.1
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT GENERAL
SECTION R12.2
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND
DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION
The general development length equation (Eq. (12-1)) is given in 12.2.3. The
equation is based on the expression for development length endorsed in references:
12.2, 12.3. In Eq. (12-1), c is a factor that represents the smallest of the side cover,
the cover over the bar or wire (in both cases measured to the center of the bar or
wire), or one-half the center-to-center spacing of the bars or wires. ktr is a factor
that represents the contribution of confining reinforcement across potential splitting
planes. α is the traditional reinforcement location factor to reflect the adverse
effects of the top reinforcement casting position. β is a coating factor reflecting the
effects of epoxy coating. There is a limit on the product αβ . γ is a reinforcement
size factor that reflects the more favorable performance of smaller diameter
reinforcement. λ is a factor reflecting the lower tensile strength of lightweight
concrete and the resulting reduction of the splitting resistance, which increases the
development length in lightweight concrete. A limit of 2.5 is placed on the term
(c + ktr ) / db . When (c + ktr ) / db is less than 2.5, splitting failures are likely to occur.
For values above 2.5, a pullout failure is expected and an increase in cover or
SBC 304 C 2007 12/1
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
R12.2.4 The reinforcement location factor α accounts for position of the reinforcement in
freshly placed concrete. Section 12.2.4 allows a lower value to be used for factor
λ when the splitting tensile strength of the lightweight concrete is specified. See
5.1.4.
Studies12.3, 12.4, 12.5 of the anchorage of epoxy-coated bars show that bond strength
is reduced because the coating prevents adhesion and friction between the bar and
the concrete. The factors reflect the type of anchorage failure likely to occur. When
the cover or spacing is small, a splitting failure can occur and the anchorage or bond
strength is substantially reduced. If the cover and spacing between bars is large, a
splitting failure is precluded and the effect of the epoxy coating on anchorage
strength is not as large. Studies 12.6 have shown that although the cover or spacing
may be small, the anchorage strength may be increased by adding transverse steel
crossing the plane of splitting, and restraining the splitting crack.
Because the bond of epoxy-coated bars is already reduced due to the loss of
adhesion between the bar and the concrete, an upper limit of 1.7 is established for
the product of the top reinforcement and epoxy-coated reinforcement factors.
Although there is no requirement for transverse reinforcement along the tension
development or splice length, recent research 12.7, 12.8 indicates that in concrete with
very high compressive strength, brittle anchorage failure occurred in bars with
inadequate transverse reinforcement. In splice tests of Dia 25 and Dia 36 mm bars
in concrete with an f c' of approximately 100 MPa, transverse reinforcement
improved ductile anchorage behavior.
R12.2.5 Excess reinforcement. The reduction factor based on area is not to be used in
those cases where anchorage development for full f y , is required. For example, the
excess reinforcement factor does not apply for development of positive moment
reinforcement at supports according to 12.1 1.2, for development of shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement according to 7.12.2.3, or for development of
reinforcement provided according to 7.13 and 13.3.8.5.
SECTION R12.3
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND
DEFORMED WIRE IN COMPRESSION
The weakening effect of flexural tension cracks is not present for bars and wire in
compression, and usually end bearing of the bars on the concrete is beneficial.
Therefore, shorter development lengths are specified for compression than for
tension. The development length may be reduced 25 percent when the
reinforcement is enclosed within spirals or ties. A reduction in development
length is also permitted if excess reinforcement is provided.
SECTION R12.4
DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
R12.4.1 An increased development length for individual bars is required when three or
four bars are bundled together. The extra extension is needed because the
grouping makes it more difficult to mobilize bond resistance from the core between
the bars.
SBC 304 C 2007 12/3
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
The designer should also note 7.6.6.4 relating to the cutoff points of individual
bars within a bundle and 12.14.2.2 relating to splices of bundled bars. The increases
in development length of 12.4 do apply when computing splice lengths of bundled
bars in accordance with 12.14.2.2. The development of bundled bars by a standard
hook of the bundle is not covered by the provisions of 12.5.
R12.4.2 Although splice and development lengths of bundled bars are based on the
diameter of individual bars increased by 20 or 33 percent, as appropriate, it is
necessary to use an equivalent diameter of the entire bundle derived from the
equivalent total area of bars when determining factors in 12.2, which considers
cover and clear spacing and represents the tendency of concrete to split.
SECTION R12.5
DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION
Study of failures of hooked bars indicate that splitting of the concrete cover in the
plane of the hook is the primary cause of failure and that splitting originates at the
inside of the hook where the local stress concentrations are very high. Thus, hook
development is a direct function of bar diameter d b , which governs the magnitude
of compressive stresses on the inside of the hook. Only standard hooks (see 7.1)
are considered and the influence of larger radius of bend cannot be evaluated by
12.5.
The hooked bar anchorage provisions give the total hooked bar embedment length
as shown in Fig. R12.5. The development length l dh is measured from the critical
section to the outside end (or edge) of the hook.
The development length for standard hooks l dh of 12.5.2 can be reduced by all
applicable modification factors of 12.5.3. As an example, if the conditions of both
12.5.3(a) and (c) are met, both factors may be applied.
The effects of bar yield strength, excess reinforcement, lightweight concrete, and
factors to reflect the resistance to splitting provided from confinement by concrete
and trans-verse ties or stirrups are based on recommendations from References
12.1 and 12.2.
Tests12.9 indicate that closely spaced ties at or near the bend portion of a hooked bar
are most effective in confining the hooked bar. For construction purposes, this is
not always practicable. The cases where the modification factor of 12.5.3(b) may
be used are illustrated in Fig. R12.5.3(a) and (b). Figure R12.5.3(a) shows
placement of ties or stirrups perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced
along the development length, l dh of the hook. Figure R12.5.3(b) shows
placement of ties or stirrups parallel to the bar being developed along the length of
the tail extension of the hook plus bend. The latter configuration would be typical
in a beam column joint.
The factor for excess reinforcement in 12.5.3(d) applies only where anchorage or
development for full f y is not specifically required. Unlike straight bar
development, no distinction is made between top bars and other bars; such a
distinction is difficult for hooked bars in any case. A minimum value of l dh is
specified to prevent failure by direct pullout in cases where a hook may be located
very near the critical section. Hooks cannot be considered effective in
SBC 304 C 2007 12/4
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
compression.
Tests12.10 indicate that the development length for hooked bars should be
increased by 20 percent to account for reduced bond when reinforcement is epoxy
coated.
Fig. R12.5.3(a)-Ties or stirrups placed perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced
along the development length l dh .
Fig. R12.5.3(b)-Ties or stirrups placed parallel to the bar being developed, spaced along the
length of the tail extension of the hook plus bend.
R12.5.4 Bar hooks are especially susceptible to a concrete splitting failure if both side
cover (normal to plane of hook) and top or bottom cover (in plane of hook)
are small. See Fig. R12.5.4.
R12.5.5 In compression, hooks are ineffective and may not be used as anchorage.
SECTION R12.6
MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE
R12.6.1 Mechanical anchorage can be made adequate for strength both for tendons and for
bar reinforcement.
R12.6.3 Total development of a bar consists of the sum of all the parts that contribute to
anchorage. When a mechanical anchorage is not capable of developing the
required design strength of the reinforcement, additional embedment length of
reinforcement should be provided between the mechanical anchorage and the
critical section.
SECTION R12.7
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED DEFORMED
WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
Fig. R12.7 shows the development requirements for deformed wire fabric with
one cross wire within the development length. ASTM A 497 for deformed wire
fabric requires the same strength of the weld as required for plain wire fabric
(ASTM A 185). Some of the development is assigned to welds and some assigned
to the length of deformed wire. The factors in 12.7.2 are applied to the deformed
SBC 304 C 2007 12/6
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
wire development length computed from 12.2, but with an absolute minimum of
200 mm.
Tests12.11 have indicated that epoxy-coated welded wire fabric has essentially the
same development and splice strengths as uncoated fabric since the cross wires
provide the primary anchorage for the wire. Therefore, an epoxy-coating factor of
1.0 is used for development and splice lengths of epoxy-coated welded wire fabric
with cross wires within the splice or development length.
SECTION R12.8
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED PLAIN WIRE
FABRIC IN TENSION
Fig. R12.8 shows the development requirements for plain wire fabric with
development primarily dependent on the location of cross wires. For fabrics
made with the smaller wires, an embedment of at least two cross wires 50 mm
or more beyond the point of critical section is adequate to develop the full
yield strength of the anchored wires. However, for fabrics made with larger
closely spaced wires, a longer embedment is required and a minimum
development length is provided for these fabrics.
SECTION R12.9
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND
The first term in Eq. (12-2) represents the transfer length of the strand, that is, the
distance over which the strand should be bonded to the concrete to develop the
prestress f se in the strand. The second term represents the additional length over
which the strand should be bonded so that a stress f ps may develop in the strand at
nominal strength of the member.
The bond of strand is a function of a number of factors, including the
configuration and surface condition of the steel, the stress in the steel, the depth of
concrete beneath the strand, and the method used to transfer the force in the strand
to the concrete. For bonded applications, quality assurance procedures should be
used to confirm that the strand is capable of adequate bond.12.12,12.13 The precast
concrete manufacturer may rely on certification from the strand manufacturer that
the strand has bond characteristics that comply with this section. Strand with a
slightly rusted surface can have an appreciably shorter transfer length than clean
strand. Gentle release of the strand will permit a shorter transfer length than
abruptly cutting the strands.
The provisions of 12.9 do not apply to plain wires or to end-anchored tendons. The
length for smooth wire could be expected to be considerably greater due to the
absence of mechanical interlock. Flexural bond failure would occur with plain
wire when first slip occurred.
R12.9.1.1 Figure R12.9 shows the relationship between steel stress and the distance over
which the strand is bonded to the concrete represented by Eq. (12-2). This
idealized variation of strand stress may be used for analyzing sections within the
development region.12.14,12.15 The expressions for transfer length, and for the
Fig. R12.9-Idealized bilinear relationship between steel stress and distance from the
free end of strand.
R12.9.2 Where bonding of one or more strands does not extend to the end of the member,
critical sections may be at locations other than where full design strength is
required to be developed, and detailed analysis may be required. References 12.14
and 12.15 show a method that may be used in the case of strands with different
points of full development. Conservatively, only the strands that are fully
developed at a section may be considered effective at that section. If critical
sections occur in the transfer region, special considerations may be necessary.
Some loading conditions, such as where heavy concentrated loads occur within the
strand development length, may cause critical sections to occur away from the
section that is required to develop full design strength.
R12.9.3 Exploratory tests (Reference: 12.16) that study the effect of debonded strand
(bond not permitted to extend to the ends of members) on performance of
pretensioned girders indicated that the performance of these girders with
embedment lengths twice those required by 12.9.1 closely matched the flexural
performance of similar pretensioned girders with strand fully bonded to ends of
girders. Accordingly, doubled development length is required for strand not
bonded through to the end of a member. Subsequent tests12.19 indicated that in
pretensioned members designed for zero tension in the concrete under service load
conditions (see 18.4.2), the development length for debonded strands need not be
doubled. For analysis of sections with debonded strands at locations where strand
is not fully developed, it is usually assumed that both the transfer length and
development length are doubled.
SECTION R12.10
DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT – GENERAL
R12.10.2 Critical sections for a typical continuous beam are indicated with a "c" or an "x" in
Fig. R12.10.2. For uniform loading, the positive reinforcement extending into the
support is more apt to be governed by the requirements of 12.11.3 rather than by
development length measured from a point of maximum moment or bar cutoff.
R12.10.3 The moment diagrams customarily used in design are approximate; some shifting
of the location of maximum moments may occur due to changes in loading,
settlement of supports, lateral loads, or other causes. A diagonal tension crack in a
flexural member without stirrups may shift the location of the calculated tensile
stress approximately a distance d towards a point of zero moment. When stirrups
are provided, this effect is less severe, although still present to some extent.
To provide for shifts in the location of maximum moments, the SBC 304 requires
the extension of reinforcement a distance d or 12d b beyond the point at which it
is theoretically no longer required to resist flexure, except as noted.
Cutoff points of bars to meet this requirement are illustrated in Fig. R12.10.2.
When bars of different sizes are used, Cutoff points of bars to meet this requirement
are illustrated in Fig. R12.10.2. The extension should be in accordance with the
diameter of bar being terminated. A bar bent to the far face of a beam and
continued there may logically be considered effective, in satisfying this section, to
the point where the bar crosses the mid-depth of the member.
R12.10.4 Peak stresses exist in the remaining bars wherever adjacent bars are cut off, or
bent, in tension regions. In Fig. R12.10.2 an "x" is used to indicate the peak stress
points remaining in continuing bars after part of the bars have been cut off. If bars
are cut off as short as the moment diagrams allow, these peak stresses become the
full f y , which requires a full l d extension as indicated. This extension may exceed
the length required for flexure.
R12.10.5 Reduced shear strength and loss of ductility when bars are cut off in a tension
zone, as in Fig. R12.10.2, have been reported. The SBC 304 does not permit
flexural reinforcement to be terminated in a tension zone unless special conditions
are satisfied. Flexure cracks tend to open early wherever any reinforcement is
terminated in a tension zone. If the steel stress in the continuing reinforcement and
the shear strength are each near their limiting values, diagonal tension cracking
tends to develop prematurely from these flexure cracks. Diagonal cracks are less
likely to form where shear stress is low (see 12.10.5.1). Diagonal cracks can be
restrained by closely spaced stirrups (see 12.10.5.2). A lower steel stress reduces
the probability of such diagonal cracking (see 12.10.5.3). These requirements are
SBC 304 C 2007 12/10
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
not intended to apply to tension splices which are covered by 12.2, 12.13.5, and
the related 12.15.
R12.10.6 Brackets, members of variable depth, and other members where steel stress f s
does not decrease linearly in proportion to a decreasing moment require special
consideration for proper development of the flexural reinforcement. For the
bracket shown in Fig. R12.10.6, the stress at ultimate in the reinforcement is
almost constant at approximately f y from the face of support to the load point. In
such a case, development of the flexural reinforcement depends largely on the end
anchorage provided at the loaded end. Reference 12.20 suggests a welded cross
bar of equal diameter as a means of providing effective end anchorage. An end hook
in the vertical plane, with the minimum diameter bend, is not totally effective
because an essentially plain concrete corner will exist near loads applied close to
the corner. For wide brackets (perpendicular to the plane of the figure) and loads
not applied close to the corners, U-shaped bars in a horizontal plane provide
effective end hooks.
SECTION R12.11
DEVELOPMENT OF POSITIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT
R12.11.1 Positive moment reinforcement is carried into the support to provide for some
shifting of the moments due to changes in loading, settlement of supports, and
lateral loads.
R12.11.2 When a flexural member is part of a primary lateral load resisting system, loads
greater than those anticipated in design may cause reversal of moment at
supports; some positive reinforcement should be well anchored into the support.
This anchorage is required to ensure ductility of response in the event of serious
overstress, such as from blast or earthquake. It is not sufficient to use more
reinforcement at lower stresses.
R12.11.3 At simple supports and points of inflection such as "P.I." in Fig. R12.10.2, the
diameter of the positive reinforcement should be small enough so that computed
development length of the bar l d does not exceed M n / Vu + l a , or under favorable
R12.11.4 The use of the strut and tie model for the design of reinforced concrete deep flexural
members clarifies that there is significant tension in the reinforcement at the face of
the support. This requires the tension reinforcement to be continuous or be
developed through and beyond the support.12.21
SECTION R12.12
DEVELOPMENT OF NEGATIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT
SECTION R12.13
DEVELOPMENT OF WEB REINFORCEMENT
R12.13.1 Stirrups should be carried as close to the compression face of the member as
possible because near ultimate load the flexural tension cracks penetrate deeply.
R12.13.2.1 For a Dia 16 mm bar or smaller bar, anchorage is provided by a standard stirrup
hook, as defined in 7.1.3.
R12.13.2.2 Since it is not possible to bend a Dia 20, Dia 22, or Dia 25 mm stirrup tightly
around a longitudinal bar and due to the force in a bar with a design stress greater
than 300 MPa, stirrup anchorage depends on both the value of the hook and
whatever development length is provided. A longitudinal bar within a stirrup hook
limits the width of any flexural cracks, even in a tensile zone. Since such a stirrup
hook cannot fail by splitting parallel to the plane of the hooked bar, the hook
strength as utilized in 12.5.2 has been adjusted to reflect cover and confinement
around the stirrup hook.
For stirrups with f y of only 300 MPa, a standard stirrup hook provides sufficient
anchorage and these bars are covered in 12.13.2.1. For bars with higher strength,
the embedment should be checked. A 135 deg or 180 deg hook is preferred, but a
90 deg hook may be used provided the free end of the 90 deg hook is extended the
full 12 bar diameters as required in 7.1.3.
R12.13.2.3 The requirements for anchorage of welded plain wire fabric stirrups are illustrated
in Fig. R12.13.2.3.
R12.13.2.4 Use of welded wire fabric for shear reinforcement has become commonplace in
the precast, prestressed concrete industry. The rationale for acceptance of straight
sheets of wire fabric as shear reinforcement is based on the findings reported in
Reference 12.22.
The provisions for anchorage of single leg welded wire fabric in the tension face
SBC 304 C 2007 12/14
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
emphasize the location of the longitudinal wire at the same depth as the primary
flexural reinforcement to avoid a splitting problem at the tension steel level. Fig.
R12.13.2.4 illustrates the anchorage requirements for single leg, welded wire
fabric. For anchorage of single leg, welded wire fabric, the SBC 304 has permitted
hooks and embedment length in the compression and tension faces of members
(see 12.13.2.1 and 12.13.2.3), and embedment only in the compression face (see
12.13.2.2). Section 12.13.2.4 provides for anchorage of straight, single leg, welded
wire fabric using longitudinal wire anchorage with adequate embedment length in
compression and tension faces of members.
Fig. R12.13.2.4 Anchorage of single leg welded wire fabric shear reinforcement
R12.13.2.5 In joists, a small bar or wire can be anchored by a standard hook not engaging
longitudinal reinforcement, allowing a continuously bent bar to form a series of
single-leg stirrups in the joist.
R12.13.5 These requirements for lapping of double U-stirrups to form closed stirrups control
over the provisions of 12.15.
SECTION R12.14
SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT - GENERAL
Splices should, if possible, be located away from points of maximum tensile stress.
The lap splice requirements of 12.15 encourage this practice.
R12.14.2.1 Because of lack of adequate experimental data on lap splices of Dia 40 and Dia 56
mm bars in compression and in tension, lap splicing of these bar sizes is prohibited
except as permitted in 12.16.2 and 15.8.2.3 for compression lap.
R12.14.2.2 The increased length of lap required for bars in bundles is based on the reduction
in the exposed perimeter of the bars. Only individual bars are lap spliced along the
bundle.
R12.14.2.3 If individual bars in noncontact lap splices are too widely spaced, an unreinforced
section is created. Forcing a potential crack to follow a zigzag line (5 to 1 slope) is
considered a minimum precaution. The 150 mm maximum spacing is added
because most research available on the lap splicing of deformed bars was
conducted with reinforcement within this spacing.
SECTION R12.15
SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION
R12.15.1 Lap splices in tension are classified as Type A or B, with length of lap a multiple
of the tensile development length l d . The development length l d used to obtain
lap length should be based on f y because the splice classifications already reflect
any excess reinforcement at the splice location; therefore, the factor from 12.2.5
for excess As should not be used. When multiple bars located in the same plane are
spliced at the same section, the clear spacing is the minimum clear distance between
the adjacent splices. For splices in columns with offset bars, Fig. R12.15.1(a) illus-
trates the clear spacing to be used. For staggered splices, the clear spacing is the
minimum distance between adjacent splices [distance x in Fig. R12.15.1(b)].
R12.15.2 The tension lap splice requirements of 12.15.1 encourage the location of splices
away from regions of high tensile stress to locations where the area of steel provided
is at least twice that required by analysis. Table R12.15.2 presents the splice
requirements in tabular form.
TABLE R12.15.2-TENSION LAP SPLICES
R12.15.3 A mechanical or welded splice should develop at least 125 percent of the specified
yield strength when located in regions of high tensile stress in the reinforcement.
Such splices need not be staggered, although such staggering is encouraged where
the area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by the analysis.
R12.15.4 See R12.14.3.5. Section 12.15.4 concerns the situation where mechanical or
welded splices of strength less than 125 percent of the specified yield strength of
the reinforcement may be used. It provides a relaxation in the splice requirements
where the splices are staggered and excess reinforcement area is available. The
criterion of twice the computed tensile force is used to cover sections containing
partial tensile splices with various percentages of total continuous steel. The usual
partial tensile splice is a flare groove weld between bars or bar and structural steel
piece.
To detail such welding, the length of weld should be specified. Such welds are
rated at the product of total weld length times effective size of groove weld
(established by bar size) times allowable stress permitted by "Structural Welding
SBC 304-Reinforcing Steel" (ANSI/AWS D1.4).
A full mechanical or welded splice conforming to 12.14.3.2 or 12.14.3.4 can be
used without the stagger requirement in lieu of the lower strength mechanical or
welded splice.
R12.15.5 A tension tie member, has the following characteristics: member having an axial
tensile force sufficient to create tension over the cross section; a level of stress in
the reinforcement such that every bar must be fully effective; and limited concrete
cover on all sides. Examples of members that may be classified as tension ties are
arch ties, hangers carrying load to an overhead supporting structure, and main
tension elements in a truss.
SBC 304 C 2007 12/17
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
SECTION R12.16
SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION
Bond research has been primarily related to bars in tension. Bond behavior of
compression bars is not complicated by the problem of transverse tension cracking
and thus compression splices do not require provisions as strict as those specified
for tension splices.
R12.16.1 Tests (References: 12.20, 12.23) have shown that splice strengths in compression
depend considerably on end bearing and do not increase proportionally in strength
when the splice length is doubled. Accordingly, for yield strengths above 420
MPa, compression lap lengths are significantly increased, except where spiral
enclosures are used (as in spiral columns) where increase is about 10 percent for
an increase in yield strength from 420 to 520 MPa.
R12.16.2 The lap splice length is to be computed based on the larger of the compression
splice length of the smaller bar; or the compression development length of the
larger bar. Lap splices are generally prohibited for Dia 40 mm and larger bars;
however, for compression only, lap splices are permitted for Dia 40 mm and larger
bars to Dia 36 mm or smaller bars.
R12.16.4.1 Experience with end-bearing splices has been almost exclusively with vertical bars
in columns. If bars are significantly inclined from the vertical, special attention is
required to ensure that adequate end-bearing contact can be achieved and
maintained.
SECTION R12.17
SPECIAL SPLICE REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS
In columns subject to flexure and axial loads, tension stresses may occur on one
face of the column for moderate and large eccentricities as shown in Fig. R12.17.
When such tensions occur, 12.17 requires tension splices to be used or an adequate
tensile resistance to be provided. Furthermore, a minimum tension capacity is
required in each face of all columns even where analysis indicates compression
only.
The column splice should satisfy requirements for all load combinations for the
column. Frequently, the basic gravity load combination will govern the design of
the column itself, but a load combination including wind or seismic loads may
induce greater tension in some column bars, and the column splice should be
designed for this tension.
Fig. R.12.17.2-Tie legs which cross the axis of bending are used to compute effective
area. In the case shown, four legs are effective
R12.17.2.4 Reduced lap lengths are allowed when the splice is enclosed throughout its length
by minimum ties.
The tie legs perpendicular to each direction are computed separately and the
requirement must be satisfied in each direction. This is illustrated in Fig. R12.17.2,
where four legs are effective in one direction and two legs in the other direction.
This calculation is critical in one direction, which normally can be determined by
inspection.
R12.17.2.5 Compression lap lengths may be reduced when the lap splice is enclosed
throughout its length by spirals because of increased splitting resistance. Spirals
should meet requirements of 7.10.4 and 10.9.3.
R12.17.4 End-bearing splices in columns. End-bearing splices used to splice column bars
always in compression should have a tension capacity of 25 percent of the yield
strength of the steel area on each face of the column, either by staggering the end-
bearing splices or by adding additional steel through the splice location. The end-
bearing splice should conform to 12.16.4.
SECTION R12.18
SPLICES OF WELDED DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
Splice provisions for deformed fabric are based on available tests.12.24 The
development length l d is that computed in accordance with the provisions of 12.7
without regard to the 200 mm minimum. The 200 mm applies to the overall splice
length. See Fig. R12.18. If no cross wires are within the lap length, the provisions
for deformed wire apply.
SECTION R12.19
SPLICES OF WELDED PLAIN WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
The strength of lap splices of welded plain wire fabric is dependent primarily on
the anchorage obtained from the cross wires rather than on the length of wire in the
splice. For this reason, the lap is specified in terms of overlap of cross wires rather
than in wire diameters or millimeters. The 50 mm additional lap required is to
assure overlapping of the cross wires and to provide space for satisfactory
consolidation of the concrete between cross wires. Research12.25 has shown an
increased splice length is required when fabric of large, closely spaced wires is
SBC 304 C 2007 12/20
COMMENTARY D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S P L I C E S O F REINFORCEMENT
lapped and as a consequence additional splice length requirements are provided for
these fabrics, in addition to an absolute minimum of 150 mm. The development
length l d is that computed in accordance with the provisions of 12.8 without
regard to the 150 mm minimum. Splice requirements are illustrated in Fig. R12.19.
CHAPTER 13
TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
SECTION R13.0
NOTATION
The design methods given in Chapter 13 are based on analy- sis of the results of an
extensive series of test 13.1-13.7 and the well established performance record of
various slab systems. Much of Chapter 13 is concerned with the selection and
distribution of flexural reinforcement. The designer is cautioned that the problem
related to safety of a slab system is the transmission of load from the slab to the
columns by flexure, torsion, and shear. Design criteria for shear and torsion in slabs
are given in Chapter 11.
Design aids for use in the engineering analysis and design of two-way slab systems
are given in the ACI Design Handbook13.8. Design aids are provided to simplify
application of the direct design and equivalent frame methods of Chapter 13.
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R13.1
SCOPE
SECTION R13.2
DEFINITION
R13.2.3 A panel includes all flexural elements between column centerlines. Thus, the
column strip includes the beam, if any.
R13.2.4 For monolithic or fully composite construction, the beams include portions of
the slab as flanges. Two examples of the rule are provided in Fig. R13.2.4.
Fig. R13.2.4-Examples of the portion of slab to be included with the beam under 13.2.4
SECTION R13.3
SLAB REINFORCEMENT
R13.3.2 The requirement that the center-to-center spacing of the reinforcement be not more
than two times the slab thickness applies only to the reinforcement in solid slabs,
and not to reinforcement joists or waffle slabs.
This limitation is to ensure slab action, cracking, and provide for the possibility
of loads concentrated on small areas of the slab. See also R10.6.
R13.3.3-
R13.3.5 Bending moments in slabs at spandrel beams can be subject to great variation. If
spandrel beams are built solidly into walls, the slab approaches complete fixity.
Without an integral wall, the slab could approach simply supported, depending
on the torsional rigidity of the spandrel beam or slab edge. These requirements
provide for unknown conditions that might normally occur in a structure.
R13.3.8.4 Bent bars are not recommended because they are difficult to place properly,
however, they are permitted if they comply with 13.3.8.3.
For moments resulting from combined lateral and gravity loadings, the minimum
lengths and extensions of bars in Fig. 13.3.8 may not be sufficient.
R13.3.8.5 The continuous column strip bottom reinforcement provides the slab some residual
ability to span to the adjacent supports should a single support be damaged. The two
continuous column strip bottom bars or wires through the column may be termed
integrity steel, and are provided to give the slab some residual capacity following a
single punching shear failure at a single support13.9.
R13.3.8.6 This provision is used to require the same integrity steel as for other two-way slabs
without beams in case of a punching shear failure at a support.
In some instances, there is sufficient clearance so that the bonded bottom bars can
pass under shearheads and through the column. Where clearance under the
shearhead is inadequate, the bottom bars should pass through holes in the
SBC 304 C 2007 13/2
COMMENTARY TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
shearhead arms or within the perimeter of the lifting collar. Shearheads should be
kept as low as possible in the slab to increase their effectiveness.
Fig. 13.3.8 – Minimum extensions for reinforcement in slabs without beams. (See 12.11.1 for
reinforcement extension into supports)
SECTION R13.4
OPENINGS IN SLAB SYSTEMS
See R11.12.5.
SECTION R13.5
DESIGN PROCEDURES
R13.5.1 This section permits a designer to base a design directly on fundamental principles
of structural mechanics, provided it can be demonstrated explicitly that all safety
and serviceability criteria are satisfied. The design of the slab may be achieved
through the combined use of classic solutions based on a linearly elastic
continuum, numerical solutions based on discrete elements, or yield-line analyses,
including, in all cases, evaluation of the stress conditions around the supports in
relation to shear and torsion as well as flexure. The designer should consider that
the design of a slab system involves more than its analysis, and justify any
deviations in physical dimensions of the slab from common practice on the basis of
knowledge of the expected loads and the reliability of the calculated stresses and
deformations of the structure.
R13.5.1.1 For gravity load analysis of two-way slab systems, two analysis methods are
given in 13.6 and 13.7. The specific provisions of both design methods are
limited in application to orthogonal frames subject to gravity loads only. Both
methods apply to two-way slabs with beams as well as to flat slabs and flat plates.
In both methods, the distribution of moments to the critical sections of the slab
reflects the effects of reduced stiffness of elements due to cracking and support
geometry.
R13.5.1.2 During the life of a structure, construction loads, ordinary occupancy loads,
anticipated overloads, and volume changes will cause cracking of slabs.
Cracking reduces stiffness of slab members, and increases lateral flexibility
when lateral loads act on the structure. Cracking of slabs should be considered in
stiffness assumptions so that drift caused by wind or earthquake is not grossly
underestimated.
The designer may model the structure for lateral load analysis using any approach
that is shown to satisfy equilibrium and geometric compatibility and to be in
reasonable agreement with test data.13.10,13.11 The selected approach should
recognize effects of cracking as well as parameters such as l 2 / l 1 , c1 / l 1 , and
c 2 /c 1 . Some of the available approaches are summarized in Reference 13.12,
which includes a discussion on the effects of cracking. Acceptable approaches include
plate-bending finite-element models, the effective beam width model, and the
equivalent frame model. In all cases, framing member stiffnesses should be reduced to
account for cracking.
For nonprestressed slabs, it is normally appropriate to reduce slab bending
stiffness to between one-half and one quarter of the uncracked stiffness. For
prestressed construction, stiffnesses greater than those of cracked, nonprestressed
slabs may be appropriate. When the analysis is used to determine design drifts or
moment magnification, lower-bound slab stiffnesses should be assumed. When the
analysis is used to study interactions of the slab with other framing elements, such
as structural walls, it may be appropriate to consider a range of slab stiffnesses so
that the relative importance of the slab on those interactions can be assessed.
R13.5.3 This section is concerned primarily with slab systems without beams. Tests and
experience have shown that, unless special measures are taken to resist the
torsional and shear stresses, all reinforcement resisting that part of the moment to be
transferred to the column by flexure should be placed between lines that are one
and one-half the slab or drop panel thickness, 1.5h , on each side of the column.
The calculated shear stresses in the slab around the column are required to
conform to the requirements of 11.12.2. See R11.12.1.2 and R11.12.2.1 for
more details on application of this section.
R13.5.3.3 Under certain conditions the designer is permitted to adjust the level of moment
transferred by shear without revising member sizes. Tests indicate that some
flexibility in distribution of unbalanced moments transferred by shear and flexure
at both exterior and interior supports is possible. Interior, exterior, and corner
supports refer to slab-column connections for which the critical perimeter for
rectangular columns has 4, 3, or 2 sides, respectively.
At exterior supports, for unbalanced moments about an axis parallel to the edge,
the portion of moment transferred by eccentricity of shear γ v M u may be reduced
provided that the factored shear at the support (excluding the shear produced by
moment transfer) does not exceed 75 percent of the shear capacity φ Vc as defined
in 11.12.2.1 for edge columns or 50 percent for comer columns. Test13.14,13.15
indicate that there is no significant interaction between shear and unbalanced
moment at the exterior support in such cases. Note that as γ v M u is decreased
γ f M u is increased.
Tests of interior supports indicate that some flexibility in distributing unbalanced
moments transferred by shear and flexure is possible, but with more severe
limitations than for exterior supports. For interior supports, the unbalanced
moment transferred by flexure is permitted to be increased up to 25 percent
provided that the factored shear (excluding the shear caused by the moment
transfer) at the interior supports does not exceed 40 percent of the shear capacity
φ Vc as defined in 11.12.2.1.
SECTION R13.6
DIRECT DESIGN METHOD
The direct design method consists of a set of rules for distributing moments to
SBC 304 C 2007 13/5
COMMENTARY TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
slab and beam sections to satisfy safety requirements and most serviceability
requirements simultaneously. Three fundamental steps are involved as follows:
(1) Determination of the total factored static moment (see 13.6.2);
(2) Distribution of the total factored static moment to negative and positive
sections (see 13.6.3);
(3) Distribution of the negative and positive factored moments to the
column and middle strips and to the beams, if any (see 13.6.4 through
13.6.6). The distribution of moments to column and middle strips is also
used in the equivalent frame method (see 13.7).
R13.6.1 Limitations
The direct design method was developed from consider- ations of theoretical
procedures for the determination of moments in slabs with and without beams,
requirements for simple design and construction procedures, and precedents
supplied by performance of slab systems. Consequently, the slab systems to be
designed using the direct design method should conform to the limitations in this
section.
R13.6.1.1 The primary reason for the limitation in this section is the magnitude of the
negative moments at the interior support in a structure with only two
continuous spans. The rules given for the direct design method assume that the
slab system at the first interior negative moment section is neither fixed against
rotation nor discontinuous.
R13.6.1.2 If the ratio of the two spans (long spad/short span) of a panel exceeds two, the slab
resists the moment in the shorter span essentially as a one-way slab.
R13.6.1.3 The limitation in this section is related to the possibility of developing negative
moments beyond the point where negative moment reinforcement is terminated,
as prescribed in Fig. 13.3.8.
R13.6.1.4 Columns can be offset within specified limits from a regular rectangular array. A
cumulative total offset of 20 percent of the span is established as the upper
limit.
R13.6.1.5 The direct design method is based on tests13.16 for uniform gravity loads and
resulting column reactions determined by statics. Lateral loads such as wind or
seismic require a frame analysis. Inverted foundation mats designed as two-way
slabs (see 15.10) involve application of known column loads. Therefore, even where
the soil reaction is assumed to be uniform, a frame analysis should be performed.
R13.6.1.6 The elastic distribution of moments will deviate significantly from those
assumed in the direct design method unless the requirements for stiffness
are satisfied.
R13.6.1.7 Moment redistribution as permitted by 8.4 is not intended for use where
approximate values for bending moments are used. For the direct design method, 10
percent modification is allowed by 13.6.7.
R13.6.1.8 The designer is permitted to use the direct design method even if the structure
does not fit the limitations in this section, provided it can be shown by analysis
that the particular limitation does not apply to that structure. For a slab system
carrying a nonmovable load (such as a water reservoir in which the load on all
panels is expected to be the same), the designer need not satisfy the live load
limitation of 13.6.1.5.
R13.6.2.2 Eq. (13-3) follows directly from Nichol's derivation 1 3 . 1 7 with the simplifying
assumption that the reactions are concentrated along the faces of the support
perpendicular to the span considered. In general, the designer will find it
expedient to calculate static moments for two adjacent half panels that include a
column strip with a half middle strip along each side.
R13.6.2.4 The definition of l 2 in this section is for computing the moment. However, l 2 used in
other sections shall be measured center to center of support.
R13.6.2.5 If a supporting member does not have a rectangular cross section or if the sides
of the rectangle are not parallel to the spans, it is to be treated as a square support
having the same area, as illustrated in Fig. R13.6.2.5.
R13.6.3.3 The moment coefficients for an end span are based on the equivalent column
stiffness expressions from References 13.18, 13.19, and 13.20. The coefficients for
an unrestrained edge would be used, for example, if the slab were simply
supported on a masonry or concrete wall.
Those for a fully restrained edge would apply if the slab were constructed
integrally with a concrete wall having a flexural stiffness so large compared to
that of the slab that little rotation occurs at the slab-to-wall connection.
For other than unrestrained or fully restrained edges, coefficients in the table were
selected to be near the upper bound of the range for positive moments and interior
negative moments. As a result, exterior negative moments were usually closer to a
lower bound. The exterior negative moment capacity for most slab systems is
governed by minimum reinforcement to control cracking. The final coefficients in
the table have been adjusted so that the absolute sum of the positive and average
moments equal M o .
For two-way slab systems with beams between supports on all sides (two-way
slabs), moment coefficients of column (2) of the table apply. For slab systems
without beams between interior supports (flat plates and flat slabs), the
moment coefficients of column (3) or (4) apply, without or with an edge (spandrel)
beam, respectively.
SBC 304 C 2007 13/7
COMMENTARY TWO-WAY SLAB SYSTEM
R13.6.3.4 The differences in slab moment on either side of a column or other type of
support should be accounted for in the design of the support. If an analysis is
made to distribute unbalanced moments, flexural stiffness may be obtained on
the basis of the gross concrete section of the members involved.
R13.6.3.5 Moments perpendicular to, and at the edge of, the slab structure should be
transmitted to the supporting columns or walls. Torsional stresses caused by the
moment assigned to the slab should be investigated.
R13.6.4, R13.6.5,
and R13.6.6 Factored moments in column strips, beams, and middle strips
The rules given for assigning moments to the column strips, beams, and middle
strips are based on studies13.21 of moments in linearly elastic slabs with different
beam stiffness tempered by the moment coefficients that have been used
successfully.
The effect of the torsional stiffness parameter β t is to assign all of the exterior
negative factored moment to the column strip, and none to the middle strip,
unless the beam torsional stiffness is high relative to the flexural stiffness of
the supported slab. In the definition of β t , the shear modulus has been taken as
Ecb / 2 .
Where walls are used as supports along column lines, they can be regarded as very
stiff beams with an (α 1l 2 / l 1 ) value greater than one. Where the exterior support
consists of a wall perpendicular to the direction in which moments are being
determined, β t may be taken as zero if the wall is of masonry without torsional
resistance, and β t may be taken as 2.5 for a concrete wall with great torsional
resistance that is monolithic with the slab.
SECTION R13.7
EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD
R13.7.3 Slab-beams
R13.7.4 Columns
Column stiffness is based on the length of the column from mid-depth of slab
above to mid-depth of slab below. Column moment of inertia is computed on the
basis of its cross section, taking into account the increase in stiffness provided by
the capital, if any.
When slab-beams are analyzed separately for gravity loads, the concept of an
equivalent column, combining the stiffness of the slab-beam and torsional member
into a composite element, is used. The column flexibility is modified to account
for the torsional flexibility of the slab-to-column connection that reduces its
efficiency for transmission of moments. The equivalent column
consists of the actual columns above and below the slab-beam, plus attached
torsional members on each side of the columns extending to the centerline of the
adjacent panels as shown in Fig. R13.7.4.
distribution along the torsional member that varies linearly from a maximum at the
center of the column to zero at the middle of the panel. The assumed distribution
of unit twisting moment along the column centerline is shown in Fig. R13.7.5.
An approximate expression for the stiffness of the torsional member, based on the
results of three-dimensional analyses of various slab configurations (References
13.18, 13.19, and 13.20) is given below as
9 E cs C
Kt = ∑ 3
⎛ c ⎞
l 2 ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ l2 ⎠
where an expression for C i s given in 13.0.
CHAPTER 14
WALLS
SECTION R14.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R14.1
SCOPE
SECTION R14.2
GENERAL
Walls should be designed to resist all loads to which they are subjected, including
eccentric axial loads and lateral forces. Design is to be carried out in accordance
with 14.4 unless the wall meets the requirements of 14.5.1.
SECTION R14.3
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
The requirements of 14.3 apply to wall designed according to 14.4, 14.5, or 14.8.
For walls resisting horizontal shear forces in the plane of the wall, reinforcement
designed according to 11.10.9.2 and 11.10.9.4 may exceed the minimum
reinforcement in 14.3.
SECTION R14.5
EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHOD
The empirical design method applies only to solid rectangular cross sections. All
other shapes should be designed according to 14.4.
Eccentric loads and lateral forces are used to determine the total eccentricity of the
factored axial load Pu . When the resultant load for all applicable load
combinations falls within the middle third of the wall thickness (eccentricity not
greater than h / 6 ) at all sections along the length of the undeformed wall, the
empirical design method may be used. The design is then carried out considering
Pu as the concentric load. The factored axial load Pu should be less than or equal
to the design axial load strength φPnw computed by Eq. (14-l), Pu ≤ φ Pnw .
Eq. 14-1 reflects the general range of end conditions encountered in wall designs.
Values of effective vertical length factors k are given for commonly occurring
wall end conditions.
The end condition "restrained against rotation" required for a k-factor of 0.8
implies attachment to a member having flexural stiffness EI / l at least as large as
that of the wall.The slenderness portion of Eq. (14-1) results in relatively
comparable strengths by either 14.3 or 14.4 for members loaded at the middle third
of the thickness with different braced and restrained end conditions. See Fig.
R14.5.
The slenderness portion of Eq. (14-1) results in relatively comparable strengths
by either 14.3 or 14.4 for members loaded at the middle third of the thickness
with different braced and restrained end conditions. See Fig. R14.5.
SECTION R14.8
ALTERNATIVE DESIGN OF SLENDER WALLS
CHAPTER 15
FOOTINGS
SECTION R15.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R15.1
SCOPE
SECTION R15.2
LOADS AND REACTIONS
In the case of eccentric loading, load factors may cause eccentricities and
reactions that are different from those obtained by unfactored loads.
SECTION R15.5
SHEAR IN FOOTINGS
R15.5.1 and
R15.5.2 The shear strength of footings are determined for the more severe condition of
11.12.1.1 or 11.12.1.2. The critical section for shear is measured from the face of
supported member (column, pedestal, or wall), except for supported members on
steel base plates.
Computation of shear requires that the soil reaction q s be obtained from the
factored loads and the design be in accordance with the appropriate equations of
Chapter 11.
Where necessary, shear around individual piles may be investigated in accordance
with 11.12.1.2. If shear perimeters overlap, the modified critical perimeter bo should
be taken as that portion of the smallest envelope of individual shear perimeter that
will actually resist the critical shear for the group under consideration. One such
situation is illustrated in Fig. R15.5.
R15.5.3 Pile caps supported on piles in more than one plane can be designed using three-
dimensional strut-and-tie models satisfying Appendix A.15.3 The effective concrete
compressive strength is from A.3.2.2(b) because it is generally not feasible to
provide confining reinforcement satisfying A.3.3.1 and A.3.3.2 in a pile cap.
Fig. R15.5-Modifed critical perimeter for shear with overlapping critical perimeters
R15.5.4 When piles are located inside the critical sections d or d / 2 from face of column,
for one-way or two-way shear, respectively, an upper limit on the shear strength at a
section adjacent to the face of the column should be considered CRSI Handbook 15.4
offers guidance for this situation.
SECTION R15.8
TRANSFER OF FORCE AT BASE OF COLUMN,
WALL, OR REINFORCED PEDESTAL
Section 15.8 provides the specific requirements for force transfer from a column,
wall, or pedestal (supported member) to a pedestal or footing (supporting
member). Force transfer should be by bearing on concrete (compressive force
SBC 304 C 2007 15/2
COMMENTARY FOOTINGS
R15.8.2.1 and
R15.8.2.2 A minimum amount of reinforcement is required between all supported and
supporting members to ensure ductile behavior. The SBC 304 does not require
that all bars in a column be extended through and be anchored into a footing.
However, reinforcement with an area of 0.005 times the column area or an
equal area of properly spliced dowels is required to extend into the footing with
proper anchorage. This reinforcement is required to provide a degree of structural
integrity during the construction stage and during the life of the structure.
R15.8.2.3 Lap splices of Dia 40 mm and larger longitudinal bars in compression only to
dowels from a footing are specifically permitted in 15.8.2.3. The dowel bars
SBC 304 C 2007 15/3
COMMENTARY FOOTINGS
should be Dia 36 mm or smaller in size. The dowel lap splice length should meet the
larger of the two criteria: (a) be able to transfer the bar stress in the Dia 40 mm
and larger bars, and (b) fully develop the stress in the dowels as a splice.
This provision is an exception to 12.14.2.1, which prohibits lap splicing of Dia 40
mm and larger bars. This exception results from many years of successful
experience with the lap splicing of these large column bars with footing dowels of
the smaller size. The reason for the restriction on dowel bar size is recognition of
the anchorage length problem of the large bars, and to allow use of the smaller size
dowels. A similar exception is allowed for compression splices between different
size bars in 12.16.2.
R15.8.3.1 and
R15.8.3.2 For cast-in-place columns, 15.8.2.1 requires a minimum area of reinforcement
equal to 0.005 Ag across the column-footing interface to provide some degree
of structural been arbitrarily chosen, it is not necessary to include integrity. For
precast columns this requirement is expressed in terms of an equivalent tensile
force that should be transferred. Thus, across the joint, As f y = 1.5 Ag [see
16.5.1.3(a)]. The minimum tensile strength required for precast wall-to-footing
connection [see 16.5.1.3(b)] is somewhat less than that required for columns,
since an overload would be distributed laterally and a sudden failure would be
less likely. Since the tensile strength values of 16.5.1.3 have a strength reduction
factor φ for these calculations.
SECTION R15.10
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MATS
R15.10.1 Any reasonable assumption with respect to the distribution of soil pressure or pile
reactions can be used as long as it is consistent with the type of structure and
the properties of the soil, and conforms with established principles of soil
mechanics (see 15.1). Similarly, as prescribed in 15.2.2 for isolated footings, the
base area or pile arrangement of combined footings and mats should be
determined using the unfactored forces, moments, or both, transmitted by the
footing to the soil, considering permissible soil pressures and pile reactions.
Design methods using factored loads and strength reduction factors φ can be
applied to combined footings or mats, regardless of the soil pressure distribution.
Detailed recommendations for design of combined footings and mats are reported
by Ref. 15.1. See also Ref. 15.2.
CHAPTER 16
PRECAST CONCRETE
SECTION R16.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R16.1
SCOPE
SECTION R16.2
GENERAL
R16.2.1 Stresses developed in precast members during the period from casting to final
connection may be greater than the service load stresses. Handling procedures
may cause undesirable deformations. Care should be given to the methods of
storing, transporting, and erecting precast members so that performance at service
loads and strength under factored loads meet SBC 304 requirements.
R16.2.2 The structural behavior of precast members may differ substantially from that of
similar members that are cast-in-place. Design of connections to minimize or
transmit forces due to shrinkage, creep, temperature change, elastic deformation,
differential settlement, wind, and earth-quake require special consideration in
precast construction.
R16.2.4 The additional requirements may be included in either contract documents or shop
drawings, depending on the assignment of responsibility for design.
SECTION R16.3
DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES AMONG MEMBERS
R16.3.1 Concentrated point and line loads can be distributed among members provided
they have sufficient torsional stiffness and that shear can be transferred
across joints. Torsionally stiff members such as hollow-core or solid slabs have
more favorable load distribution properties than do torsionally flexible members
such as double tees with thin flanges. The actual distribution of the load
depends on many factors discussed in detail in References 16.13 through 16.19.
Large openings can cause significant changes in distribution of forces.
R16.3.2 In-plane forces result primarily from diaphragm action in floors and roofs, causing
tension or compression in the chords and shear in the body of the diaphragm. A
continuous path of steel, steel reinforcement, or both, using lap splices, mechanical
or welded splices, or mechanical connectors, should be provided to carry the
tension, whereas the shear and compression may be carried by the net concrete
section. A continuous path of steel through a connection includes bolts, weld
plates, headed studs, or other steel devices. Tension forces in the connections
are to be transferred to the primary reinforcement in the members.
In-plane forces in precast wall systems result primarily from diaphragm reactions
and external lateral loads.
Connection details should provide for the forces and deformations due to
shrinkage, creep, and thermal effects. Connection details may be selected to
accommodate volume changes and rotations caused by temperature gradients and
long-term deflections. When these effects are restrained, connections and
members should be designed to provide adequate strength and ductility.
SECTION R16.4
MEMBER DESIGN
R16.4.1 For prestressed concrete members not wider than 4 m, such as hollow-core
slabs, solid slabs, or slabs with closely spaced ribs, there is usually no need to
provide transverse reinforcement to withstand shrinkage and temperature stresses
in the short direction. This is generally true also for nonprestressed floor and roof
slabs. The 4 m width is less than that in which shrinkage and temperature stresses
can build up to a magnitude requiring transverse reinforcement. In addition, much
of the shrinkage occurs before the members are tied into the structure. Once in the
final structure, the members are usually not as rigidly connected transversely as
monolithic concrete, thus the transverse restraint stresses due to both shrinkage
and temperature change are significantly reduced.
The waiver does not apply to members such as single and double tees with thin,
wide flanges.
R16.4.2 This minimum area of wall reinforcement, instead of the minimum values in
14.3, is recommended by Refs 16.4 and 16.20. The provisions for reduced minimum
reinforcement and greater spacing recognize that precast wall panels have very
little restraint at their edges during early stages of curing and develop less
shrinkage stress than comparable cast-in-place walls.
SECTION R16.5
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
R16.5.1 The provisions of 7.13.3 apply to all precast concrete structures. Sections 16.5.1 and
16.5.2 give minimum requirements to satisfy 7.13.3. It is not intended that these
minimum requirements override other applicable provisions of the SBC 304 for
design of precast concrete structures.
The overall integrity of a structure can be substantially enhanced by minor
changes in the amount, location, and detailing of member reinforcement and in
the detailing of connection hardware.
R16.5.1.1 Individual members may be connected into a lateral load resisting system by
alternative methods. For example, a load-bearing spandrel could be connected to
a diaphragm (part of the lateral load resisting system). Structural integrity could be
achieved by connecting the spandrel into all or a portion of the deck members
forming the diaphragm. Alternatively, the spandrel could be connected only to its
supporting columns, which in turn is connected to the diaphragm.
R16.5.1.2 Diaphragms are typically provided as part of the lateral load resisting system.
The ties prescribed in 16.5.1.2 are the minimum required to attach members to the
floor or roof diaphragms. The tie force is equivalent to the service load value of
3.0 kN/m.
R16.5.1.3 Base connections and connections at horizontal joints in precast columns and wall
panels, including shear walls, are designed to transfer all design forces and
moments. The minimum tie requirements of 16.5.1.3 are not additive to these
design requirements. Common practice is to place the wall ties symmetrically
about the vertical centerline of the wall panel and within the outer quarters of the
panel width, wherever possible.
R16.5.1.4 In the event of damage to a beam, it is important that displacement of its
supporting members be minimized, so that other members will not lose their load-
carrying capacity. This situation shows why connection details that rely solely
on friction caused by gravity loads are not used. An exception could be heavy
modular unit structures (one or more cells in cell-type structures) where resistance
to overturning or sliding in any direction has a large factor of safety. Acceptance
of such systems should be based on the provisions of 1.4.
R16.5.2 The structural integrity minimum tie provisions for bearing wall structures, often
called large panel structures, are intended to provide catenary hanger supports in
case of loss of a bearing wall support, as shown by test.16.21
Forces induced by loading, temperature change, creep, and wind or seismic action
may require a larger amount of tie force. It is intended that the general precast
concrete provisions of 16.5.1 apply to bearing wall structures less than three
stories in height.
R16.5.2.1 Longitudinal ties may project from slabs and be lap spliced, welded, or
mechanically connected, or they may be embedded in grout joints, with sufficient
length and cover to develop the required force. Bond length for unstressed
prestressing steel should be sufficient to develop the yield strength 1 6 . 2 3 It is
uncommon to have ties positioned in the walls reasonably close to the plane of
the floor or roof system.
R16.5.2.3 Transverse ties may be uniformly spaced either encased in the panels or in a
topping, or they may be concentrated at the transverse bearing walls.
R16.5.2.4 The perimeter tie requirements need not be additive with the longitudinal and
transverse tie requirements.
SECTION R16.6
CONNECTION AND BEARING DESIGN
R16.6.1 The SBC 304 permits a variety of methods for connecting members. These are
intended for transfer of forces both in-plane and perpendicular to the plane of the
members.
R16.6.1.2 Various components in a connection (such as bolts, welds, plates, and inserts) have
different properties that can affect the overall behavior of the connection.
R16.6.2.1 When tensile forces occur in the plane of the bearing, it may be desirable to
reduce the allowable bearing stress, provide confinement reinforcement, or both.
Guidelines are provided in Reference 16.4.
R16.6.2.2 This section differentiates between bearing length and length of the end of a
precast member over the support (Fig. R16.6.2). Bearing pads distribute
concentrated loads and reactions over the bearing area, and allow limited
SBC 304 C 2007 16/4
COMMENTARY PRECAST CONCRETE
horizontal and rotational movements for stress relief. To prevent spalling under
heavily loaded bearing areas, bearing pads should not extend to the edge of the
support unless the edge is armored. Edges can be armored with anchored steel
plates or angles. Section 11.9.7 gives requirements for bearing on brackets or
corbels.
SECTION R16.7
ITEMS EMBEDDED AFTER CONCRETE PLACEMENT
R16.7.1 Section 16.7.1 is an exception to the provisions of 7.5.1. Many precast products are
manufactured in such a way that it is difficult, if not impossible, to position
reinforcement that protrudes from the concrete before the concrete is placed. Such
items as ties for horizontal shear and inserts can be placed while the concrete is
plastic, if proper precautions are taken. This exception is not applicable to
reinforcement that is completely embedded, or to embedded items that will be
hooked or tied to embedded reinforcement.
SECTION R16.9
HANDLING
R16.9.1 The SBC 304 requires acceptable performance at service loads and adequate strength
under factored loads. However, handling loads should not produce permanent
stresses, strains, cracking, or deflections inconsistent with the provisions of the SBC
304. A precast member should not be rejected for minor cracking or spalling where
strength and durability are not affected. Guidance on assessing cracks is given in PCI
reports on fabrication and shipment cracks. 16.24, 16.25
R16.9.2 All temporary erection connections, bracing, shoring as well as the sequencing of
removal of these items are shown on contract or erection drawings.
SECTION R16.10
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION
CHAPTER 17
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
SECTION R17.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R17.1
SCOPE
R17.1.1 The scope of Chapter 17 is intended to include all types of composite concrete
flexural members. In some cases with fully cast-in-place concrete, it may be
necessary to design the interface of consecutive placements of concrete as
required for composite members. Composite structural steel-concrete members are
not covered in this chapter. Design provisions for such composite members are
covered in Reference 17.1.
SECTION R17.2
GENERAL
R17.2.4 Tests have indicated that the strength of a composite member is the same whether or
not the first element cast is shored during casting and curing of the second
element.
R17.2.6 The extent of cracking is dependent on such factors as environment, aesthetics, and
occupancy. In addition, composite action should not be impaired.
R17.2.7 The premature loading of precast elements can cause excessive creep and
shrinkage deflections. This is especially so at early ages when the moisture
content is high and the strength low.
The transfer of shear by direct bond is important if excessive deflection from
slippage is to be prevented. A shear key is an added mechanical factor of safety
but it does not operate until slippage occurs.
SECTION R17.3
SHORING
SECTION R17.5
HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRENGTH
R17.5.1 Full transfer of horizontal shear between segments of composite members should
be ensured by honzontal shear strength at contact surfaces or properly anchored
ties, or both.
R17.5.2 The nominal horizontal shear strengths V nh apply when the design is based on the load
factors and φ factors of Chapter 9.
R17.5.3.1 The distribution of horizontal shear stresses along the contact surface in a composite
member will reflect the distribution of shear along the member. Horizontal shear
failure will initiate where the horizontal shear stress is a maximum and will spread to
regions of lower stress. Because the slip at peak horizontal shear resistance is small for
a concrete- to-concrete contact surface, longitudinal redistribution of horizontal shear
resistance is very limited. The spacing of the ties along the contact surface should,
therefore, be such as to provide horizontal shear resistance distributed approximately
as the shear acting on the member is distributed.
R17.5.4 Proper anchorage of ties extending across interfaces is required to maintain contact
of the interfaces.
SECTION R17.6
TIES FOR HORIZONTAL SHEAR
The minimum areas and maximum spacings are based on test data given in
References 17.2 through 17.6.
CHAPTER 18
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION R18.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
The factored prestressing force Psu is the product of the load factor (1.2 from
Section 9.2.5) and the maximum prestressing force allowed. Under 18.5.1 this is
usually overstressing to 0.94 f py but not greater than 0.8 f pu , which is permitted for
short periods of time.
SECTION R18.1
SCOPE
R18.1.1 The provisions of Chapter 18 were developed primarily for structural members
such as slabs, beams, and columns that are commonly used in buildings. Many of
the provisions may be applied to other types of construction, such as, pressure
vessels, pavements, pipes, and crossties. Application of the provisions is left to
the judgment of the engineer in cases not specifically cited in the SBC 304.
R18.1.3 Some sections of the SBC 304 are excluded from use in the design of prestressed
concrete for specific reasons. The following discussion provides explanation
for such exclusions:
Section 7.6.5 of the SBC 304 is excluded from application to prestressed concrete
because the requirements for bonded reinforcement and unbonded tendons for cast-
in-place members are provided in 18.9 and 18.12, respectively.
The empirical provisions of 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4 for T-beams were developed
for nonprestressed reinforced concrete, and if applied to prestressed concrete
would exclude many standard prestressed products in satisfactory use today. Hence,
proof by experience permits variations.
By excluding 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4, no special requirements for prestressed
concrete T-beams appear in the SBC 304. Instead, the determination of an effective
width of flange is left to the experience and judgment of the engineer. Where
possible, the flange widths in 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4 should be used unless
experience has proven that variations are safe and satisfactory. It is not necessarily
conservative in elastic analysis and design considerations to use the maximum
flange width as permitted in 8.10.2.
Sections 8.10.1 and 8.10.5 provide general requirements for T-beams that are also
applicable to prestressed concrete members. The spacing limitations for slab
reinforcement are based on flange thickness, which for tapered flanges can be taken
as the average thickness.
In Section 8.11, the empirical limits established for nonprestressed reinforced
SBC 304 C 2007 18/1
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION R18.2
GENERAL
R18.2.1 and
R18.2.2 The design investigation should include all stages that may be significant. The
three major stages are: (1) jacking stage, or prestress transfer stage–when the
tensile force in the prestressing steel is transferred to the concrete and stress levels
may be high relative to concrete strength; (2) service load stage–after long-term
volume changes have occurred; and (3) the factored load stage–when the
strength of the member is checked. There may be other load stages that require
investigation. For example, if the cracking load is significant, this load stage may
require study, or the handling and transporting stage may be critical.
From the standpoint of satisfactory behavior, the two stages of most importance
are those for service load and factored load.
Service load stage refers to the loads defined in the general building SBC 304
(without load factors), such as live load and dead load, while the factored load
stage refers to loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors.
Section 18.3.2 provides assumptions that may be used for investigation at service
loads and after transfer of the prestressing force.
R18.2.5 Section 18.2.5 refers to the type of post-tensioning where the prestressing steel
makes intermittent contact with an oversize duct. Precautions should be taken to
prevent buckling of such members.
If the prestressing steel is in complete contact with the member being prestressed,
or is unbonded with the sheathing not excessively larger than the prestressing steel,
it is not possible to buckle the member under the prestressing force being
introduced.
R18.2.6 In considering the area of the open ducts, the critical sections should include
those that have coupler sheaths that may be of a larger size than the duct containing
SBC 304 C 2007 18/2
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
the prestressing steel. Also, in some instances, the trumpet or transition piece from
the conduit to the anchorage may be of such a size as to create a critical section. If
the effect of the open duct area on design is deemed negligible, section properties
may be based on total area.
In post-tensioned members after grouting and in pretensioned members, section
properties may be based on effective sections using transformed areas of bonded
prestressing steel and nonprestressed reinforcement gross sections, or net sections.
SECTION R18.3
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
R18.3.3 This section defines three classes of behavior of prestressed flexural members.
Class U members are assumed to behave as uncracked members. Class C members
are assumed to behave as cracked members. The behavior of Class T members
is assumed to be in transition between uncracked and cracked. The serviceability
requirements for each class are summarized in Table R18.3.3. For comparison,
Table R18.3.3 also shows corresponding requirements for nonprestressed members.
These classes apply to both bonded and unbonded prestressed flexural
members, but prestressed two-way slab systems must be designed as Class U.
The precompressed tensile zone is that portion of the member cross section in
which flexural tension occurs under dead and live loads. Prestressed concrete is
usually designed so that the prestress force introduces compression into this zone,
thus effectively reducing the magnitude of the tensile stress.
R18.3.4 A method for computing stresses in a cracked section is given in Reference 18.1.
SECTION R18.4
SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS – FLEXURAL MEMBERS
R18.4.1 The concrete stresses at this stage are caused by the force in the prestressing steel
at transfer reduced by the losses due to elastic shortening of the concrete, relaxation
of the prestressing steel, seating at transfer, and the stresses due to the weight
of the member. Generally, shrinkage and creep effects are not included at this
stage. These stresses apply to both pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete with
proper modifications of the losses at transfer.
R18.4.l(b)
and (c) The tension stress limits of (1 / 4) f ci' and (1 / 2) f ci' refer to tensile stress at
locations other than the precompressed tensile zone. Where tensile stresses
exceed the permissible values, the total force in the tensile stress zone may be
calculated and reinforcement proportioned on the basis of this force at a stress of
0.6 f y , but not more than 200 MPa. The effects of creep and shrinkage begin to
reduce the tensile stress almost immediately; however, some tension remains in
these areas after allowance is made for all prestress losses.
R18.4.2(a)
and (b) The compression stress limit of 0.45 f c' was conservatively established to
decrease the probability of failure of prestressed concrete members due to
repeated loads. This limit seemed reasonable to preclude excessive creep
deformation. At higher values of stress, creep strains tend to increase more
rapidly as applied stress increases.
Designs with transient live loads that are large compared to sustain live and dead
loads have been penalized by the previous single compression stress limit.
Therefore, the stress limit of 0.60 f c' , permits a one-third increase in allowable
compression stress for members subject to transient loads.
Sustained live load is any portion of the service live load that will be sustained
for a sufficient period to cause significant time-dependent deflections. Thus, when
the sustained live and dead loads are a large percentage of total service load, the
0.45 f c' limit of 18.4.2(a) may control. On the other hand, when a large portion of the
total service load consists of a transient or temporary service live load, the
increased stress limit of 18.4.2(b) may apply.
The compression limit of 0.45 f c' for prestress plus sustained loads will continue to
control the long-term behavior of prestressed members.
R18.4.4.4 The steel area of reinforcement, bonded tendons, or a combination of both may
be used to satisfy this requirement.
SECTION R18.5
PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN PRESTRESSING STEEL
The SBC 304 does not distinguish between temporary and effective prestressing
steel stresses. Only one limit on prestressing steel stress is provided because the
initial prestressing steel stress (immediately after transfer) can prevail for a
considerable time, even after the structure has been put into service. This stress,
therefore, should have an adequate safety factor under service conditions and
cannot be considered as a temporary stress. Any subsequent decrease in
prestressing steel stress due to losses can only improve conditions and no limit on
such stress decrease is provided in the SBC 304.
R18.5.1 For higher yield strength of low-relaxation wire and strand meeting the
requirements of ASTM A 421M and A 416M, it is more appropriate to specify
permissible stresses in terms of specified minimum ASTM yield strength rather
than specified minimum ASTM tensile strength. For the low-relaxation wire and
strands, with f py equal to 0.90 f pu , the 0.94 f py and 0.82 f py limits are equivalent to
0.85 f pu and 0.74 f pu , respectively. The higher yield strength of the low-relaxation
prestressing steel does not change the effectiveness of tendon anchorage devices;
thus, the permissible stress at post-tensioning anchorage devices and couplers is
not increased above the previously permitted value of 0.70 f pu . For ordinary
prestressing steel (wire, strands, and bars) with f py equal to 0.85 f pu the 0.94 f py
and 0.82 f py limits are equivalent to 0.80 f pu , and 0.70 f pu , respectively. For bar
prestressing steel with f py equal to 0.80 f pu , the same limits are equivalent to
0.75 f pu and 0.66 f pu , respectively.
Designers should be concerned with setting a limit on final stress when the
structure is subject to corrosive conditions or repeated loadings.
SECTION R18.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
R18.6.1 For an explanation of how to compute prestress losses, see Ref. 18.3 through 18.6.
Reasonably accurate estimates of prestress losses can be calculated in
accordance with the recommendations in Reference 18.6, which include
consideration of initial stress level ( 0.70 f pu or higher), type of steel (stress-
relieved or low-relaxation wire, strand, or bar), exposure conditions, and type of
construction (pretensioned, bonded post-tensioned, or unbonded post-tensioned).
Actual losses, greater or smaller than the computed values, have little effect on the
design strength of the member, but affect service load behavior (deflections,
camber, cracking load) and connections. At service loads, overestimation of
prestress losses can be almost as detrimental as underestimation, since the former
can result in excessive camber and horizontal movement.
R18.6.2 Friction loss in post-tensioning tendons. The coefficients tabulated in Table R18.6.2
give a range that generally can be expected. Due to the many types of prestressing
steel ducts and sheathing available, these values can only serve as a guide. Where
rigid conduit is used, the wobble coefficient K can be considered as zero. For
large diameter prestressing steel in semirigid type conduit, the wobble factor can
also be considered zero. Values of the coefficients to be used for the particular
types of prestressing steel and particular types of ducts should be obtained from
the manufacturers of the tendons. An unrealistically low evaluation of the friction
loss can lead to improper camber of the member and inadequate prestress,
Overestimation of the friction may result in extra prestressing force. This could
lead to excessive camber and excessive shortening of a member. If the friction
factors are determined to be less than those assumed in the design, the tendon
stressing should be adjusted to give only that prestressing force in the critical
portions of the structure required by the design.
R18.6.2.3 When the safety or serviceability of the structure may be involved, the acceptable
range of prestressing steel jacking forces or other limiting requirements should
either be given or approved by the structural engineer in conformance with the
permissible stresses of 18.4 and 18.5.
SBC 304 C 2007 18/6
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION R18.7
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
R18.7.1 Design moment strength of prestressed flexural members may be computed using
strength equations similar to those for nonprestressed concrete members. When
part of the prestressing steel is in the compression zone, a method based on applicable
conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains at a factored load condition
should be used.
For cross sections other than rectangular, the design moment strength φ M n is
computed by an analysis based on stress and strain compatibility, using the stress-strain
properties of the pre-stressing steel and the assumptions given in 10.2.
R18.7.2 Eq. (18-3) may underestimate the strength of beams with high percentages of
reinforcement and, for more accurate evaluations of their strength, the strain
compatibility and equilibrium method should be used. Use of Eq. (18-3) is
appropriate when all of the prestressed reinforcement is in the tension zone.
When part of the prestressed reinforcement is in the compression zone, a strain
compatibility and equilibrium method should be used.
By inclusion of the ω ' term, Eq. (18-3) reflects the increased value of f ps obtained
when compression reinforcement is provided in a beam with a large
reinforcement index. When the term [ρ p f pu / f c' + (d / d p )(ω − ω ')]in Eq. (18-3) is
small, the neutral axis depth is small, the compressive reinforcement does not
develop its yield strength, and Eq. (18-3) becomes unconservative. This is the
reason why the term [ρ p f pu / f c' + (d / d p )(ω − ω ')] in Eq. (18-3) may not be taken
less than 0.17 if compression reinforcement is taken into account when
computing f ps . If the compression reinforcement is neglected when using Eq. (18-
[ ( )]
3), d ' is taken as zero, then the term ρ p f pu / f c + d / d p ω may be less than 0.17
'
When d ' is large, the strain in compression reinforcement can be considerably less
than its yield strain. In such a case, the compression reinforcement does not
influence f ps as favorably as implied by Eq. (18-3). For this reason, the
applicability of Eq. (18-3) is limited to beams in which d ' is less than or equal to
0.15d p .
(
may also be written ρp f pu/fc' + As fy / (bdp fc' ) − As'fy / (bdp fc' ) .)
This form may be more convenient, such as when there is no unprestressed tension
reinforcement.
Eq. (18-5) reflects results of tests on members with unbonded tendons and
span-to-depth ratios greater than 35
Eq. (18.5) reflects results of tests on members with unbonded tendons and span-to-
depth ratios greater than 35 (one-way slabs, flat plates, and flat slabs).18.7 These
tests also indicate that Eq. (18-4), overestimates the amount of stress increase in
SBC 304 C 2007 18/7
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
such members. Although these same tests indicate that the moment strength of
those shallow members designed using Eq. (18-4) meets the factored load
strength requirements, this reflects the effect of the SBC 304 requirements for
minimum bonded reinforcement, as well as the limitation on concrete tensile
stress that often controls the amount of prestressing force provided.
SECTION R18.8
LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
R18.8.1 The net tensile strain limits for compression- and tension-controlled sections given
in 10.3.3 and 10.3.4 apply to prestressed sections.
The net tensile strain limits for tension-controlled sections given in 10.3.4 may
also be stated in terms of ω p . The net tensile strain limit of 0.005 corresponds to
ω p = 0.32β1 for pre- stressed rectangular sections.
R18.8.3 Some bonded steel is required to be placed near the tension face of prestressed
flexural members. The purpose of this bonded steel is to control cracking under
full service loads or overloads.
SECTION R18.9
MINIMUM BONDED REINFORCEMENT
R18.9.1 Some bonded reinforcement is required by the SBC 304 in members prestressed
with unbonded tendons to ensure flexural performance at ultimate member strength,
rather than as a tied arch, and to limit crack width and spacing at service load when
concrete tensile stresses exceed the modulus of rupture. Providing the minimum
bonded reinforcement as stipulated in 18.9helps to ensure adequate performance.
Research has shown that unbonded post-tensioned members do not inherently
provide large capacity for energy dissipation under severe earthquake loadings
because the member response is primarily elastic. For this reason, unbonded
post-tensioned structural elements reinforced in accordance with the provisions of
this section should be assumed to carry only vertical loads and to act as horizontal
diaphragms between energy dissipating elements under earthquake loadings of the
magnitude defined in 21.2.1.1. The minimum bonded reinforcement areas required
by Eq. (18-6) and (18-8) are absolute minimum areas independent of grade of
steel or design yield strength.
R18.9.2 The minimum amount of bonded reinforcement for members other than two-way
flat slab systems is based on research comparing the behavior of bonded
and unbonded post-tensioned beams.18.8 Based on this research, it is advisable to apply
the provisions of 18.9.2 also to one-way slab systems.
SBC 304 C 2007 18/8
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
R18.9.3 The minimum amount of bonded reinforcement in two-way flat slab systems is
based on reports of References: 18.3 & 18.9.Limited research available for two-
way flat slabs with drop panels 18.16 indicates that behavior of these particular
systems is similar to the behavior of flat plates.
R18.9.3.1 For usual loads and span lengths, flat plate tests summarized in Reference: 18.3
indicate satisfactory performance without bonded reinforcement in the areas
described in 18.9.3.1.
R18.9.3.2 In positive moment areas, where the concrete tensile stresses are between
(1 / 6) fc' and (1/ 2) fc' a minimum bonded reinforcement area proportioned
according to Eq. (18-7) is required. The tensile force N , is computed at service
load on the basis of an uncracked, homogeneous section.
R18.9.3.3 Research on unbonded post-tensioned two way flat slab systems shows that
bonded reinforcement in negative moment regions, proportioned on the basis of
0.075 percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab-beam strip, provides sufficient
ductility and reduces crack width and spacing (References: 18.1, 18.3, 18.9,
18.10). To account for different adjacent tributary spans, Eq. (18-8) is given on
the basis of the equivalent frame as defined in 13.7.2 and pictured in Fig. R13.7.2.
For rectangular slab panels, Eq. (18-8) is conservatively based upon the larger of
the cross-sectional areas of the two intersecting equivalent frame slab-beam
strips at the column. This ensures that the minimum percentage of steel
recommended by research is provided in both directions. Concentration of this
reinforcement in the top of the slab directly over and immediately adjacent to
the column is important. Research also shows that where low tensile stresses
occur at service loads, satisfactory behavior has been achieved at factored loads
without bonded reinforcement. However, the SBC 304 requires minimum bonded
reinforcement regardless of service load stress levels to help ensure flexural
continuity and ductility, and to limit crack widths and spacing due to overload,
temperature, or shrinkage. Research on post-tensioned flat plate-to-column
connections is reported in References 18.11, 18.12, 18.13, 18.14,and 18.15.
SECTION R18.10
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
R18.10.3 For statically indeterminate structures, the moments due to reactions induced by
prestressing forces, referred to as secondary moments, are significant in both the
elastic and inelastic states. When hinges and full redistribution of moments occur
to create a statically determinate structure, secondary moments disappear.
However, the elastic deformations caused by a nonconcordant tendon change the
SBC 304 C 2007 18/9
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
SECTION R18.11
COMPRESSION MEMBERS-COMBINED FLEXURE
AND AXIAL LOADS
R18.11.2.3 The minimum amounts of reinforcement in 14.3 need not apply to prestressed
concrete walls, provided the average prestress is 1.5 MPa or greater and a
structural analysis is performed to show adequate strength and stability with lower
amounts of reinforcement.
SECTION R18.12
SLAB SYSTEMS
R18.12.1 Use of the equivalent frame method of analysis (see 13.7) or more precise analysis
procedures is required for determination of both service and factored moments and
shears for prestressed slab systems. The equivalent frame method of analysis has
been shown by tests of large structural models to satisfactorily predict factored
moments and shears in prestressed slab systems. (See References 18.11, 18.12,
18.13, 18.17, 18.18, and 18.19.). The referenced research also shows that analysis
using prismatic sections or other approximations of stiffness may provide erroneous
results on the unsafe side. Section 13.7.7.4 is excluded from application to
prestressed slab systems because it relates to reinforced slabs designed by the
direct design method, and because moment redistribution for prestressed slabs is
covered in 18.10.4. Section 13.7.7.5 does not apply to prestressed slab systems
because the distribution of moments between column strips and middle strips
SBC 304 C 2007 18/10
COMMENTARY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
R18.12.2 Tests indicate that the moment and shear strength of prestressed slabs is controlled
by total prestessing steel strength and by the amount and location of nonprestressed
reinforcement, rather than by tendon distribution. (See References 18.11, 18.12, 18.13,
18.17, 18.18, and 18.19.).
R18.12.3 For prestressed flat slabs continuous over two or more spans in each direction, the
span-thickness ratio generally should not exceed 42 for floors and 48 for roofs;
these limits may be increased to 48 and 52, respectively, if calculations verify that
both short- and long-term deflection, camber, and vibration frequency and amplitude
are not objectionable.
Short- and long-term deflection and camber should be computed and checked
against the requirements of serviceability of the structure.
The maximum length of a slab between construction joints is generally limited to
30 to 45 m to minimize the effects of slab shortening, and to avoid excessive loss of
prestress due to friction.
R18.12.4 This section provides specific guidance concerning tendon distribution that will
permit the use of banded tendon distributions in one direction. This method of
tendon distribution has been shown to provide satisfactory performance by
structural research.
SECTION R18.13
POST-TENSIONED TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES
R18.13.1 Anchorage zone. Based on the Principle of Saint-Venant, the extent of the
anchorage zone may be estimated as approximately equal to the largest dimension
of the cross section. Local zone and general zone are shown in Fig. R18.13.l(a).
When anchorage devices located away from the end of the member are tensioned,
large tensile stresses exist locally behind and ahead of the device. These tensile
stresses are induced by incompatibility of deformations ahead of [as shown in Fig.
R.18.13.l(b)] and behind the anchorage device. The entire shaded region should
be considered, as shown in Fig. R18.13.l(b).
R18.13.2 Local zone. The local zone resists the very high local stresses introduced by the
anchorage device and transfers them to the remainder of the anchorage zone. The
behavior of the local zone is strongly influenced by the specific characteristics
of the anchorage device and its confining reinforcement, and less influenced by
the geometry and loading of the overall structure. Local-zone design sometimes
cannot be completed until specific anchorage devices are determined at the shop
drawing stage. When special anchorage devices are used, the anchorage device
supplier should furnish the test information to show the device is satisfactory
under AASHTO “Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges”,18.2 Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3) and provide information regarding necessary conditions for use
of the device. The main considerations in local-zone design are the effects
of the high bearing pressure and the adequacy of any confining reinforcement
provided to increase the capacity of the concrete resisting bearing stresses.
Fig.R18.13.1-Anchorage zone
R18.13.3 General zone. Within the general zone the usual assumption of beam theory that
plane sections remain plane is not valid.
Design should consider all regions of tensile stresses that can be caused by the tendon
anchorage device, including bursting, spalling, and edge tension as shown in Fig.
R18.13.l(c). Also, the compressive stresses immediately ahead [as shown in
Abrupt changes in section can cause substantial deviation in force paths. These
deviations can greatly increase tension forces as shown in Fig. R18.13.3.
R18.13.5 Design methods. The list of design methods in 18.13.5.1 include those procedures
for which fairly specific guidelines have been given in References 18.20 and 18.21.
These procedures have been shown to be conservative predictors of strength when
compared to test results. 18.23 The use of strut-and-tie model is especially helpful
for general zone design. 18.23 In many applications, where substantial or massive
concrete regions surround the anchorages, simplified equations can be used
except in the cases noted in 18.13.5.2.
For many cases, simplified equations based on References 18.20 and 18.21 can be
used. Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst , and for its centroidal
distance from the major bearing surface of the anchorage, d burst may be estimated
from Eq. (R18-1) and (R18-2), respectively. The terms of Eq. (R18-1) and (R18-2)
are shown in Fig. R18.13.5 for a prestressing force with small eccentricity. In the
applications of Eq. (R18-1) and (R18-2), the specified stressing sequence should be
considered if more than one tendon is present.
⎛ a⎞
Tburst = 0.25∑ Psu ⎜1 − ⎟ ( R18-1)
⎝ h⎠
d burst = 0.5(h − 2e ) (R18-2)
where:
∑ Psu = the sum of the total factored prestressing force for the stressing
arrangement considered, N;
a = the depth of anchorage device or single group of closely spaced devices
in the direction considered, mm;
e = the eccentricity (always taken as positive) of the anchorage device or
group of closely spaced devices with respect to the centroid of the cross
section, mm;
h = the depth of the cross section in the direction considered. mm
R18.13.5.3 The sequence of anchorage device stressing can have a significant effect on the
general zone stresses. Therefore, it is important to consider not only the final
stage of a stressing sequence with all tendons stressed, but also intermediate stages
during construction. The most critical bursting forces caused by each of the
sequentially post-tensioned tendon combinations, as well as that of the entire
group of tendons, should be taken into account.
R18.13.5.4 The provision for three-dimensional effects was included to alert the designer to
effects perpendicular to the main plane of the member, such as bursting forces in
the thin direction of webs or slabs. In many cases these effects can be
determined independently for each direction, but some applications require a
fully three-dimensional analysis (for example diaphragms for the anchorage of
external tendons).
R18.13.5.5 Where anchorages are located away from the end of a member, local tensile
stresses are generated behind these anchorages [see Fig. R18.13.l(b)] due to
compatibility requirements for deformations ahead of and behind the anchorages.
Bonded tie-back reinforcement is required in the immediate vicinity of the
anchorage to limit the extent of cracking behind the anchorage. The requirement
0.35Psu was developed using 25 percent of the unfactored prestressing force being
resisted by reinforcement at 0.60 f y .
SECTION R18.14
DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR MONOSTRAND
OR SINGLE 16 MM DIAMETER BAR TENDONS
R18.14.2 General-zone design for slab tendons. For monostrand slab tendons, the general-
zone minimum reinforcement requirements are based on the recommendations of
the ACI-ASCE Committee 42318.22, which shows typical details. The horizontal
bars parallel to the edge required by 18.14.2.2 should be continuous where
possible.
The tests on which the recommendations of Ref. 18.24 were based were limited to
anchorage devices for 12.5 mm diameter, 1860 MPa strand, unbonded tendons in
normal-weight concrete. Thus, for larger strand anchorage devices and for all use
in lightweight concrete slabs, the Ref. 18.22 recommended that the amount and
spacing of reinforcement should be conservatively adjusted to provide for the
larger anchorage force and smaller splitting tensile strength of lightweight
concrete.18.22
Both Refs. 18.21 and 18.22 recommend that hairpin bars also be furnished for
anchorages located within 300 mm of slab comers to resist edge tension forces. The
words “ahead of" in 18.14.2.3 have the meaning shown in Fig. R18.13.1.
In those cases where multistrand anchorage devices are used for slab tendons, 18.15
is applicable.
The bursting reinforcement perpendicular to the plane of the slab required by
18.14.2.3 for groups of relatively closely spaced tendons should also be
provided in the case of widely spaced tendons if an anchorage device failure
could cause more than local damage.
SECTION R18.15
DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR MULTISTRAND TENDONS
R18.15.2 Use of special anchorage devices. Skin reinforcement is reinforcement placed near
the outer faces in the anchorage zone to limit local crack width and spacing.
Reinforcement in the general zone for other actions (flexure, shear, shrinkage,
temperature and similar)may be used in satisfying the supplementary skin
reinforcement requirement. Determination of the supplementary skin reinforcement
depends on the anchorage device hardware used and frequently cannot be determined
until the shop-drawing stage.
SECTION R18.16
CORROSION PROTECTION FOR UNBONDED TENDONS
R18.16.1 Suitable material for corrosion protection of unbonded prestressting steel should
have the properties identified in Section 5.1 of Reference 18.23.
SECTION R18.17
POST-TENSIONING DUCTS
R18.17.4 Water in ducts may cause distress to the surrounding concrete upon freezing.
When strands are present, ponded water in ducts should also be avoided. A
corrosion inhibitor should be used to provide temporary corrosion protection if
prestressing steel is exposed to prolonged periods of moisture in the ducts before
grouting .18.24
SECTION R18.18
GROUT FOR BONDED TENDONS
SECTION R18.20
APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT
OF PRESTRESSING FORCE
R18.20.4 This provision applies to all prestressed concrete members. For cast-in-place
post-tensioned slab systems, a member should be that portion considered as an
element in the design, such as the joist and effective slab width in one-way joist
systems, or the column strip or middle strip in two-way flat plate systems.
SECTION R18.21
POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS
R18.21.1 The prestressing steel material should comply with the minimum provisions of the
applicable ASTM specifications as outlined in 3.5.5. The specified strength of
anchorages and couplers exceeds the maximum design strength of the prestressing
steel by a substantial margin, and, at the same time, recognizes the stress-riser
effects associated with most available post-tensioning anchorages and couplers.
Anchorage and coupler strength should be attained with a minimum amount of
permanent deformation and successive set, recognizing that some deformation
and set will occur when testing to failure. Tendon assemblies should conform to
the 2 percent elongation requirements in Ref 18.28 and industry
recommendation. 1 8 . 1 4 Anchorages and couplers for bonded tendons that develop
less than 100 percent of the specified breaking strength of the prestressing steel
should be used only where the bond transfer length between the anchorage or
coupler and critical sections equals or exceeds that required to develop the
prestressing steel strength. This bond length may be calculated by the results of tests
of bond characteristics of untensioned prestressing strand 18.29 or by bond tests on
other prestressing steel materials, as appropriate.
For detailed recommendations on tests for static and cyclic loading conditions for
tendons and anchorage fittings of unbonded tendons, see Section 4.1.3 of Reference
18.9, and Section 15.2.2 of Reference 18.28.
R18.21.4 For recommendations regarding protection see Sections 4.2 and 4.3 of Reference
18.9, and also Reference 18.23.
SECTION R18.22
EXTERNAL POST-TENSIONING
R18.22.3 External tendons are often attached to the concrete member at various locations
between anchorages (such as midspan, quarter points, or third points) for desired
load balancing effects, for tendon alignment, or to address tendon vibration
concerns. Consideration should be given to the effects caused by the tendon profile
shifting in relationship to the concrete centroid as the member deforms under
effects of post-tensioning and applied load.
R18.22.4 Permanent corrosion protection can be achieved by a variety of methods. The
corrosion protection provided should be suitable to the environment in which the
tendons are located. Some conditions will require that the prestressing steel be
protected by concrete cover or by cement grout in polyethylene or metal
tubing; other conditions will permit the protection provided by coatings such as
paint or grease. Corrosion protection methods should meet the fire protection
requirements of the general building SBC 304, unless the installation of external
post-tensioning is to only improve serviceability.
CHAPTER 19
SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
SECTION R19.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R19.1
SCOPE AND DEFINITIONS
The SBC 304 and commentary provide information on the design, analysis,
and construction of concrete thin shells and folded plates. Additional information
may be found in Refs. 19.1 and 19.2.
Since Chapter 19 applies to concrete thin shells and folded plates of all shapes,
extensive discussion of their design, analysis, and construction in the
commentary is not possible. Additional information can be obtained from the
references. Performance of shells and folded plates requires special attention to
detail.19.3
R19.1.1 Discussion of the application of thin shells in special structures such as cooling
towers and circular prestressed concrete tanks may be found in Refs. 19.4 and
19.5.
R19.1.4 Folded plates may be prismatic,19.6,19.7 nonprismatic19.7 or faceted. The first two
types consist generally of planar thin slabs joined along their longitudinal edges
to form a beam-like structure spanning between supports. Faceted folded plates are
made up of triangular or polygonal planar thin slabs joined along their edges to
form three-dimensional spatial structures.
R19.1.5 Ribbed shell19.8,19.9 generally have been used for larger spans where the increased
thickness of the curved slab alone becomes excessive or uneconomical. Ribbed
shells are also used because of the construction techniques employed and to
enhance the aesthetic impact of the completed structure.
R19.1.6 Most thin shell structures require ribs or edge beams at their boundaries to carry
the shell boundary forces, to assist in transmitting them to the supporting
structure, and to accommodate the increased amount of reinforcement in these
areas.
R19.1.7 Elastic analysis of thin shells and folded plates can be performed using any
method of structural analysis based on assumptions that provide suitable
approximations to the three-dimensional behavior of the structure. The
method should determine the internal forces and displacements needed in the
design of the shell proper, the rib or edge members, and the supporting structure.
SBC 304 C 2007 19/1
COMMENTARY SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
R19.1.8 Inelastic analysis of thin shells and folded plates can be performed using a refined
method of analysis based on the specific nonlinear material properties,
nonlinear behavior due to the cracking of concrete, and time-dependent effects
such as creep, shrinkage, temperature, and load history. These effects are
incorporated in order to trace the response and crack propagation of a
reinforced concrete shell through the elastic, inelastic, and ultimate ranges. Such
analyses usually require incremental loading and iterative procedures to
converge on solutions that satisfy both equilibrium and strain
compatibility.19.12,19.13
SECTION R19.2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
R19.2.1 For types of shell structures where experience, tests, and analyses have shown that
the structure can sustain reasonable overloads without undergoing brittle
failure, elastic analysis is an acceptable procedure. The designer may assume
that reinforced concrete is ideally elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic, having
identical properties in all directions. An analysis should be performed for the shell
considering service load conditions. The analysis of shells of unusual size,
shape, or complexity should consider behavior through the elastic, cracking, and
inelastic stages.
R19.2.4 Experimental analysis of elastic model19.14 has been used as a substitute for an
analytical solution of a complex shell structure. Experimental analysis of
reinforced micro concrete models through the elastic, cracking, inelastic, and
ultimate stages should be considered for important shells of unusual size, shape, or
complexity.
For model analysis, only those portions of the structure that significantly affect the
items under study need be simulated. Every attempt should be made to ensure
that the experiments reveal the quantitative behavior of the prototype
structure.
Wind tunnel tests of a scaled-down model do not necessarily provide usable results
and should be conducted by a recognized expert in wind tunnel testing of structural
models.
R19.2.5 Solutions that include both membrane and bending effects and satisfy conditions of
compatibility and equilibrium are encouraged. Approximate solutions that satisfy
statics but not the compatibility of strains may be used only when extensive
experience has proved that safe designs have resulted from their use. Such
methods include beam-type analysis for barrel shells and folded plates having large
ratios of span to either width or radius of curvature, simple membrane analysis for
shells of revolution, and others in which the equations of equilibrium are
satisfied, while the strain compatibility equations are not.
R19.2.6 If the shell is prestressed, the analysis should include its strength at factored
loads as well as its adequacy under service loads, under the load that causes
cracking, and under loads induced during prestressing. Axial forces due to draped
tendons may not lie in one plane and due consideration should be given to the
resulting force components. The effects of post-tensioning of shell supporting
members should be taken into account.
R19.2.7 The thin shell's thickness and reinforcement are required to be proportioned to
satisfy the strength provisions of this SBC 304, and to resist internal forces
obtained from an analysis, an experimental model study, or a combination
thereof. Reinforcement sufficient to minimize cracking under service load
conditions should be provided. The thickness of the shell is often dictated by
the required reinforcement and the construction constraints, by 19.2.8, or by the
SBC 304 minimum thickness requirements.
R19.2.8 Thin shells, like other structures that experience in-plane membrane compressive
forces, are subject to buckling when the applied load reaches a critical value.
Because of the surface-like geometry of shells, the problem of calculating buckling
load is complex. If one of the principal membrane forces is tensile, the shell is
less likely to buckle than if both principal membrane forces are compressive.
The kinds of membrane forces that develop in a shell depend on its initial
shape and the manner in which the shell is supported and loaded. In some types of
shells, post-buckling behavior should be considered in determining safety
against instability. 19.2
Investigation of thin shells for stability should consider the effect of (1)
anticipated deviation of the geometry of the shell surface as-built from the
idealized, geometry, (2) large deflections, (3) creep and shrinkage of concrete, (4)
inelastic properties of materials, (5) cracking of concrete, (6) location, amount,
and orientation of reinforcement, and (7) possible deformation of supporting
elements.
Measures successfully used to improve resistance to buckling include the
provision of two mats of reinforcement-one near each outer surface of the shell, a
local increase of shell curvatures, the use of ribbed shells, and the use of concrete
with high tensile strength and low creep.
A procedure for determining critical buckling loads of shells is given in the
recommendation of Ref. 19.2. Some recommendations for buckling design of
domes used in industrial applications are given in Refs.19.5 and 19.15.
R19.2.10 The stresses and strains in the shell slab used for design are those determined
by analysis (elastic or inelastic) multiplied by appropriate load factors. Because
of detrimental effects of membrane cracking, the computed tensile strain in
the reinforcement under factored loads should be limited.
SBC 304 C 2007 19/3
COMMENTARY SHELLS AND FOLDED PLATE MEMBERS
R19.2.11 When principal tensile stress produces membrane cracking in the shell,
experiments indicate the attainable compressive strength in the direction parallel
to the cracks is reduced.19.16,19.17
SECTION R19.4
SHELL REINFORCEMENT
R19.4.1 At any point in a shell, two different kinds of internal forces may occur
simultaneously: those associated with membrane action, and those associated with
bending of the shell. The membrane forces are assumed to act in the tangential
plane midway between the surfaces of the shell, and are the two axial forces and
the membrane shears. Flexural effects include bending moments, twisting
moments, and the associated transverse shears. Limiting membrane crack width
and spacing due to shrinkage, temperature, and service load conditions is a major
design consideration.
R19.4.5 The requirement that the tensile reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes
anywhere is consistent with 10.3.3. Such crushing can also occur in regions near
supports and for some shells where the principal membrane forces are
approximately equal and opposite in sign.
R19.4.6 Generally, for all shells, and particularly in regions of substantial tension, the
orientation of reinforcement should approximate the directions of the principal
tensile membrane forces. However, in some structures it is not possible to detail the
reinforcement to follow the stress trajectories. For such cases, orthogonal component
reinforcement is allowed.
R19.4.7 When the directions of reinforcement deviate significantly (more than 10 deg) from
the directions of the principal membrane forces, higher strains in the shell occur to
develop the capacity of reinforcement. This might lead to the development of
unacceptable wide cracks. The crack width should be estimated and limited if
necessary.
Permissible crack widths for service loads under different environmental conditions
are given in Ref. 19.20. Crack width can be limited by an increase in the amount
of reinforcement used, by reducing the stress at the service load level, by providing
reinforcement in three or more directions in the plane of the shell, or by using closer
spacing of smaller diameter bars.
R19.4.9 The design method should ensure that the concrete sections, including
consideration of the reinforcement, are capable of developing the internal forces
required by the equations of equilibrium.19.21 The sign of bending moments may
change rapidly from point to point of a shell. For this reason, reinforcement to
resist bending, where required, is to be placed near both outer surfaces of the
shell. In many cases, the thickness required to provide proper cover and spacing
for the multiple layers of reinforcement may govern the design of the shell
thickness.
R19.4.10 The value of φ to be used is that prescribed in 9.3.2.1 for axial tension.
R19.4.11 and
R19.4.12 On curved shell surfaces it is difficult to control the alignment of precut
reinforcement. This should be considered to avoid insufficient splice and
development lengths. Sections 19.4.11 and 19.4.12 require extra reinforcement
length to maintain the minimum lengths on curved surfaces.
SECTION R19.5
CONSTRUCTION
R19.5.1 When early removal of forms is necessary, the magnitude of the modulus of
elasticity at the time of proposed form removal should be investigated to ensure
safety of the shell with respect to buckling, and to restrict deflections.19.3,19.22 The
value of the modulus of elasticity Ec should be obtained from a flexural test of field-
cured specimens. It is not sufficient to determine the modulus from the formula in
8.5.1, even if f c' is determined for the field-cured specimen.
R19.5.2 In some types of shells, small local deviations from the theoretical geometry of
the shell can cause relatively large changes in local stresses and in overall
safety against instability. These changes can result in local cracking and
yielding that may make the structure unsafe or can greatly affect the critical
load producing instability. The effect of such deviations should be evaluated
and any necessary remedial actions should be taken. Special attention is needed
when using air supported form systems. 19.23
CHAPTER 20
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
SECTION R20.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same symbol,
such as m or kN.
SECTION R20.1
STRENGTH EVALUATION –GENERAL
Chapter 20 does not cover load testing for the approval of new design or
construction methods. (See 16.10 for recommendations on strength evaluation of
precast concrete members.) Provisions of Chapter 20 may be used to evaluate
whether a structure or a portion of a structure satisfies the safety requirements of
the SBC. A strength evaluation may be required if the materials are considered to
be deficient in quality, if there is evidence indicating faulty construction, if a
structure has deteriorated, if a building will be used for a new function, or if, for
any reason, a structure or a portion of it does not appear to satisfy the requirements
of the SBC 304. In such cases, Chapter 20 provides guidance for investigating the
safety of the structure.
If the safety concerns are related to an assembly of elements or an entire structure, it
is not feasible to load test every element and section to the maximum. In such cases,
it is appropriate that an investigation plan be developed to address the specific
safety concerns. If a load test is described as part of the strength evaluation
process, it is desirable for all parties involved to come to an agreement
about the region to be loaded, the magnitude of the load, the load test procedure,
and acceptance criteria before any load tests are conducted.
R20.1.2 Strength considerations related to axial load, flexure, and combined axial load
and flexure are well understood. There are reliable theories relating strength and
short-term displacement to load in terms of dimensional and material data for
the structure.
To determine the strength of the structure by analysis, calculations should be based
on data gathered on the actual dimensions of the structure, properties of the
materials in place, and all pertinent details. Requirements for data collection are in
20.2.
R20.1.3 If the shear or bond strength of an element is critical in relation to the doubt
expressed about safety, a test may be the most efficient solution to eliminate or
confirm the doubt. A test may also be appropriate if it is not feasible to determine
the material and dimensional properties required for analysis, even if the cause of
the concern relates to flexure or axial load.
Wherever possible and appropriate, support the results of the load test by analysis.
R20.1.4 For a deteriorating structure, the acceptance provided by the load test may not be
assumed to be without limits in terms of time. In such cases, a periodic inspection
program is useful. A program that involves physical tests and periodic inspection
SBC 304 C 2007 20/1
COMMENTARY STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
can justify a longer period in service. Another option for maintaining the structure
in service, while the periodic inspection program continues, is to limit the live load
to a level determined to be appropriate.
The length of the specified time period should be based on consideration of (a) the
nature of the problem, (b) environmental and load effects, (c) service history of
the structure, and (d) scope of the periodic inspection program. At the end of a
specified time period, further strength evaluation is required if the structure is to
remain in service.
With the agreement of all concerned parties, special procedures may be devised for
periodic testing that do not necessarily conform to the loading and acceptance
criteria specified in Chapter 20 of SBC 304.
SECTION R20.2
DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED DIMENSIONS
AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
R20.2.1 Critical sections are where each type of stress calculated for the load in question
reaches its maximum value.
R20.2.2 For individual elements, amount, size, arrangement, and location should be
determined at the critical sections for reinforcement or tendons, or both, designed to
resist applied load. Nondestructive investigation methods are acceptable. In
large structures, determination of these data for approximately 5 percent of the
reinforcement or tendons in critical regions may suffice if these measurements
confirm the data provided in the construction drawings.
R20.2.3 The number of tests may depend on the size of the structure and the sensitivity of
structural safety to concrete strength. In cases where the potential problem involves
flexure only, investigation of concrete strength can be minimal for a lightly
reinforced section ( ρ f y / f c' ≤ 0.15 for rectangular section).
R20.2.4 The number of tests required depends on the uniformity of the material and is
best determined by the engineer for the specific application.
SECTION R20.3
LOAD TEST PROCEDURE
R20.3.1 Load arrangement. It is important to apply the load at locations so that its effects
on the suspected defect are a maximum and the probability of unloaded members
sharing the applied load is a minimum. In cases where it is shown by analysis that
adjoining unloaded elements will help carry some of the load, the load should be
placed to develop effects consistent with the intent of the load factor.
R20.3.2 Load intensity. The required load intensity follows previous load test practice.
The live load L may be reduced as permitted by SBC 301 governing safety
considerations for the structure. The live load should be increased to compensate
for resistance provided by unloaded portions of the structure in questions. The
increase in live load is determined from analysis of the loading conditions in
relation to the selected pass/fail criterion for the test.
SBC 304 C 2007 20/2
COMMENTARY STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
The test load intensity remained the same. It is considered appropriate for designs
using the load combinations and strength reduction factors of Chapter 9.
SECTION R20.4
LOADING CRITERIA
R20.4.3 Arching refers to the tendency for the load to be transmitted nonuniformly to the
flexural element being tested. For example, if a slab is loaded by a
uniform arrangement of bricks with the bricks in contact, arching would results
in reduction of the load on the slab near the midspan of the slab.
SECTION R20.5
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
R20.5.1 A general acceptance criterion for the behavior of a structure under the test load is
that it does not show evidence of failure. Evidence of failure includes cracking,
spalling, or deflection of such magnitude and extent that the observed result is
obviously excessive and incompatible with the safety requirements of the
structure. No simple rules have been developed for application to all types of
structures and conditions. If sufficient damage has occurred so that the structure is
considered to have failed that test, retesting is not permitted since it is considered
that damaged members should not be put into service even at a lower load rating.
Local spalling or flaking of the compressed concrete in flexural elements related to
casting imperfections need not indicate overall structural distress. Crack widths
are good indicators of the state of the structure and should be observed to help
determine whether the structure is satisfactory. However, exact prediction or
measurement of crack widths in reinforced concrete elements is not likely to be
achieved under field conditions. Establish criteria before the test, relative to the
types of cracks anticipated; where the cracks will be measured; how they will be
measured; and approximate limits or criteria to evaluate new cracks or limits for the
changes in crack width.
R20.5.2 The deflection limits and the retest option follow past practice. If the structure
shows no evidence of failure, recovery of deflection after removal of the test load
is used to determine whether the strength of the structure is satisfactory. In the
case of a very stiff structure, however, the errors in measurements under field
conditions may be of the same order as the actual deflections and recovery. To
avoid penalizing a satisfactory structure in such a case, recovery measurements
are waived if the maximum deflection is less than l 2t / (20,000h ) . The residual
deflection ∆ r max is the difference between the initial and final (after load
removal) deflections for the load test or the repeat load test.
R20.5.3 Forces are transmitted across a shear crack plane by a combination of aggregate
interlock at the interface of the crack that is enhanced by clamping action of
transverse stirrup reinforcing and by dowel action of stirrups crossing the crack.
As crack lengths increase to approach a horizontal projected length equal to the
depth of the member and concurrently widen to the extent that aggregate
interlock cannot occur, and as transverse stirrups if present begin to yield or
SBC 304 C 2007 20/3
COMMENTARY STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
R20.5.4 The intent of 20.5.4 is to make the professionals in charge of the test pay attention
to the structural implication of observed inclined cracks that may lead to brittle
collapse in members without transverse reinforcement.
R20.5.5 Cracking along the axis of the reinforcement in anchorage zones may be related to
high stresses associated with the transfer of forces between the reinforcement and
the concrete. These cracks may be indicators of pending brittle failure of the
element if they are associated with the main reinforcement. It is important that
their causes and consequences be evaluated.
SECTION R20.6
PROVISION FOR LOWER LOAD RATING
Except for load tested members that have failed under a test (see 20.5), the
building official may permit the use of a structure or member at a lower load
rating that is judged to be safe and appropriate on the basis of the test results.
CHAPTER 21
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION R21.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the Notation to assist the user and are not
intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the same
symbol, such as m or kN.
SECTION R21.1
DEFINITION
SECTION R21.2
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
forces relative to values that would occur were the structure to remain linearly
elastic and lightly damped21.8. Thus, the use of design forces representing
earthquake effects such as those in Reference 21.2 requires that the lateral-force
resisting system retain a substantial portion of its strength into the inelastic
range under displacement reversals.
The provisions of Chapter 21 relate detailing requirements to type of structural
framing, earthquake risk level at the site, level of inelastic deformation intended in
structural design, and use and occupancy of the structure. Earthquake risk levels
traditionally have been classified as low, moderate, and high. The seismic risk
level of a region or the seismic performance or design category of a structure is
regulated by provisions of SBC 301.
The design and detailing requirements should be compatible with the level of
energy dissipation (or toughness) assumed in the computation of the design
seismic loads. The terms ordinary, intermediate, and special are specifically used
to facilitate this compatibility. The degree of required toughness, and therefore the
level of required detailing, increases for structures progressing from ordinary
through intermediate to special categories. It is essential that structures in higher
seismic zones or assigned to higher seismic performance or design categories
possess a higher degree of toughness. It is permitted, however, to design for higher
toughness in the lower seismic zones or design categories and take advantage of
the lower design force levels.
The provisions of Chapters 1 through 18 are intended to provide adequate
toughness for structures in regions of low seismic risk, or assigned to ordinary
categories. Therefore, it is not required to apply the provisions of Chapter 21 to
lateral-force resisting systems consisting of ordinary structural walls.
Chapter 2 1 requires special details for reinforced concrete structures in regions of
moderate seismic risk, or assigned to intermediate seismic performance or design
categories. These requirements are contained in 21.2.1.3, 21.12, and 21.13.
Although new provisions are provided in 21.13 for design of intermediate precast
structural walls, general building codes that address seismic performance or
design categories currently do not include intermediate structural walls.
Structures in regions of high seismic risk, or assigned to high seismic performance
or design categories, may be subjected to strong ground shaking. Structures
designed using seismic forces based upon response modification factors for special
moment frames or special reinforced concrete structural walls are likely to
experience multiple cycles of lateral displacements well beyond the point where
reinforcement yields should the design earthquake ground shaking occur. The
provisions of 2 1.2 through 2 1.11 have been developed to provide the structure
with adequate toughness for this special response.
The requirements of Chapter 21 as they apply to various components of structures
in regions of intermediate or high seismic risk, or assigned to intermediate or high
seismic performance or design categories, are summarized in Table R21.2.1
The special proportioning and detailing requirements in Chapter 21 are based
predominantly on field and laboratory experience with monolithic reinforced
concrete building structures and precast concrete building structures designed and
detailed to behave like monolithic building structures. Extrapolation of these
requirements to other types of cast-in-place or precast concrete structures should
be based on evidence provided by field experience, tests, or analysis. ACI T1.1-01,
forces, unless the governing SBC 304 specifies the factors to be used as in
References 21.1 and 21.2. For lateral displacement calculations, assuming all the
horizontal structural members to be fully cracked is likely to lead to better
estimates of the possible drift than using uncracked stiffness for all members.
The main concern of Chapter 21 is the safety of the structure. The intent of
21.2.2.1 and 21.2.2.2 is to draw attention to the influence of nonstructural members
on structural response and to hazards from falling objects.
Section 21.2.2.3 alerts the designer that the base of the structure as defined in
analysis may not necessarily correspond to the foundation or ground level.
In selecting member sizes for earthquake-resistant structures, it is important to
consider problems related to congestion of reinforcement. The designer should
ensure that all reinforcement can be assembled and placed and that concrete can be
cast and consolidated properly. Use of upper limits of reinforcement ratios permitted
is likely to lead to insurmountable construction problems especially at frame joints.
SECTION R21.3
FLEXURAL MEMBERS OF SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES
R21.3.1 Scope. This section refers to beams of special moment frames resisting lateral
loads induced by earthquake motions. Any frame member subjected to a factored
axial compressive force exceeding (Ag f c' / 10 ) is to be proportioned and detailed
as described in 21.4.
R21.3.2 Longitudinal reinforcement. Section 10.3.5 limits the net tensile strain, ε t ,
thereby indirectly limiting the tensile reinforcement ratio in a flexural member to
a fraction of the amount that would produce balanced conditions. For a section
subjected to bending only and loaded monotonically to yielding, this approach is
feasible because the likelihood of compressive failure can be estimated reliably
with the behavioral model assumed for determining the reinforcement ratio
corresponding to balanced failure. The same behavioral model (because of
incorrect assumptions such as linear strain distribution, well-defined yield point for
the steel, limiting compressive strain in the concrete of 0.003, and compressive
stresses in the shell concrete) fails to describe the conditions in a flexural member
subjected to reversals of displacements well into the inelastic range. Thus, there is
little rationale for continuing to refer to balanced conditions in earthquake-resistant
design of reinforced concrete structures.
R21.3.2.1 The limiting reinforcement ratio of 0.02 is based primarily on considerations of
steel congestion and, indirectly, on limiting shear stresses in girders of typical
proportions. The requirement of at least two bars, top and bottom, refers again to
construction rather than behavioral requirements.
R21.3.2.3 Lap splices of reinforcement are prohibited at regions where flexural yielding is
anticipated because such splices are not reliable under conditions of cyclic loading
into the inelastic range. Transverse reinforcement for lap splices at any location is
mandatory because of the likelihood of loss of shell concrete.
In the case of members with varying strength along the span or members for which
the permanent load represents a large proportion of the total design load,
concentrations of inelastic rotation may occur within the span. If such a condition is
anticipated, transverse reinforcement also should be provided in regions where
yielding is expected.
SBC 304 C 2007 21/6
COMMENTARY SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
R21.3.4.1 Design forces. In determining the equivalent lateral forces representing earthquake
effects for the type of frames considered, it is assumed that frame members will
dissipate energy in the nonlinear range of response. Unless a frame member
possesses a strength that is a multiple on the order of 3 or 4 of the design forces, it
should be assumed that it will yield in the event of a major earthquake. The design
shear force should be a good approximation of the maximum shear that may
develop in a member. Therefore, required shear strength for frame members is
related to flexural strengths of the designed member rather than to factored shear
forces indicated by lateral load analysis. The conditions described by 21.3.4.1 are
illustrated in Fig. R21.3.4.
Because the actual yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement may exceed
the specified yield strength and because strain hardening of the reinforcement
is likely to take place at a joint subjected to large rotations, required shear
strengths are determined using a stress of at least 1.25 f y in the longitudinal
reinforcement.
R21.3.4.2 Transverse reinforcement. Experimental studies21.13,21.14 of reinforced concrete
members subjected to cyclic loading have demonstrated that more shear
reinforcement is required to ensure a flexural failure if the member is subjected to
alternating nonlinear displacements than if the member is loaded in only one
direction: the necessary increase of shear reinforcement being higher in the case of
no axial load. This observation is reflected in the SBC 304 (see 21.3.4.2) by
eliminating the term representing the contribution of concrete to shear strength. The
added conservatism on shear is deemed necessary in locations where potential
flexural hinging may occur. However, this stratagem, chosen for its relative
simplicity, should not be interpreted to mean that no concrete is required to resist
shear. On the contrary, it may be argued that the concrete core resists all of the
shear with the shear (transverse) reinforcement confining and strengthening the
concrete. The confined concrete core plays an important role in the behavior of
the beam and should not be reduced to a minimum just because the design
expression does not explicitly recognize it.
SECTION R21.4
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAME MEMBERS SUBJECTED
TO BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD
R21.4.1 Scope. Section 21.4.1 is intended primarily for columns of special moment frames.
Frame members, other than columns, that do not satisfy 21.3.1 are to be
proportioned and detailed according to this section.
The geometric constraints in 21.4.1.1 and 21.4.1.2 follow from previous practice.21.12
R21.4.2 Minimum flexural strength of columns. The intent of 21.4.2.2 is to reduce the
likelihood of yielding in columns that are considered as part of the lateral force
resisting system. If columns are not stronger than beams framing into a joint, there
is likelihood of inelastic action. In the worst case of weak columns, flexural yielding
can occur at both ends of all columns in a given story, resulting in a column failure
mechanism that can lead to collapse.
In 21.4.2.2, the nominal strengths of the girders and columns are calculated at the
joint faces, and those strengths are compared directly using Eq. (21-1).
When determining the nominal flexural strength of a girder section in negative
bending (top in tension), longitudinal reinforcement contained within an effective
flange width of a top slab that acts monolithically with the girder increases the
girder strength. Research21.15 on beam-column subassemblies under lateral loading
indicates that using the effective flange widths defined in 8.10 gives reasonable
estimates of girder negative bending strengths of interior connections at interstory
displacement levels approaching 2 percent of story height. This effective width is
conservative where the slab terminates in a weak spandrel.
If 21.4.2.2 cannot be satisfied at a joint, any positive contribution of the column or
columns involved to the lateral strength and stiffness of the structure is to be
ignored. Negative contributions of the column or columns should not be ignored.
For example, ignoring the stiffness of the columns ought not be used as a
justification for reducing the design base shear. If inclusion of those columns in
the analytical model of the building results in an increase in torsional effects, the
increase should be considered as required by the provisions of SBC 301.
R21.4.5.1 Design forces. The provisions of 21.3.4.1 also apply to members subjected to axial
loads (for example, columns). Above the ground floor the moment at a joint
may be limited by the flexural strength of the beams framing into the joint. Where
beams frame into opposite sides of a joint, the combined strength may be the
sum of the negative moment strength of the beam on one side of the joint
and the positive moment strength of the beam on the other side of the joint.
Moment strengths are to be determined using a strength reduction factor of 1.0
and reinforcing steel stress equal to at least 1.25 f y . Distribution of the combined
moment strength of the beams to the columns above and below the joint should be
based on analysis. The value of M pr in Fig. R21.3.4 may be computed from the
flexural member strengths at the beam- column joints.
SECTION R21.5
JOINTS OF SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES
R21.5.1.4 Research 21.20-21.24 has shown that straight beam bars may slip within the beam-
column joint during a series of large moment reversals. The bond stresses on
these straight bars may be very large. To substantially reduce slip during the
formation of adjacent beam hinging, it would be necessary to have a ratio
of column dimension to bar diameter of approximately 1/32, which would
result in very large joints. On reviewing the available tests, the limit of 1/25 of
the column depth in the direction of loading for the maximum size of beam bars
for normalweight concrete and a limit of 1/30 for lightweight concrete were
chosen. Due to the lack of specific data, the modification for lightweight
concrete used a factor of 1.2. These limits provide reasonable control on the
amount of potential slip of the beam bars in a beam-column joint, considering
the number of anticipated inelastic excursions of the building frames during a
major earthquake. A thorough treatment of this topic is given in Reference
21.25.
R21.5.2 Transverse reinforcement. No matter how low the calculated shear force in a
joint of a frame resisting earthquake-induced forces, confining reinforcement (see
21.4.4) should be provided through the joint around the column reinforcement (see
21.5.2.1). In 21.5.2.2, confining reinforcement may be reduced if horizontal
members frame into all four sides of the joint. A maximum limit on spacing to
these areas is based on available data (References 21.26 through 21.29).
Section 21.5.2.3 refers to a joint where the width of the girder exceeds the
corresponding column dimension. In that case, girder reinforcement not confined
by the column reinforcement should be provided lateral support either by a girder
framing into the same joint or by transverse reinforcement.
R21.5.3 Shear strength. The requirements in Chapter 21 for proportioning joints are based
on Reference 21.10 in that behavioral phenomena within the joint are interpreted
in terms of a nominal shear strength of the joint. Because tests of joints2120 and
deep beams21.11 indicated that shear strength was not as sensitive to joint (shear)
reinforcement as implied by the expression developed by Reference 21.30 for
beams and adopted to apply to joints by Reference 21.10. This SBC 304 set the
strength of the joint as a function of only the compressive strength of the concrete
(see 21.5.3) and to require a minimum amount of transverse reinforcement in the
joint (see 21.5.2). The effective area of joint A j is illustrated in Fig. R21.5.3.
The three levels of shear strength required by 21.5.3.1 are based on the
recommendation of Reference 21.10.
Lack of reference to Dia 40 mm bars and larger in 21.5.4 is due to the paucity of
information on anchorage of such bars subjected to load reversals simulating
earthquake effects.
SECTION R21.6
SPECIAL MOMENT FRAMES CONSTRUCTED
USING PRECAST CONCRETE
The detailing provisions in 21.6.1 and 21.6.2 are intended to produce frames that
SBC 304 C 2007 21/13
COMMENTARY SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
R21.6.3 Precast frame systems not satisfying the prescriptive requirements of Chapter
21 have been demonstrated in experimental studies to provide satisfactory
seismic performance characteristic.21.36,21.37 ACI TI. 1 defines a protocol for
establishing a design procedure, validated by analysis and laboratory tests, for such
frames. The design procedure should identify the load path or mechanism by
which the frame resists gravity and earthquake effects. The tests should be
configured to test critical behaviors, and the measured quantities should establish
upper-bound acceptance values for components of the load path, which may be in
terms of limiting stresses, forces, strains, or other quantities. The design procedure
used for the structure should not deviate from that used to design the test
specimens, and acceptance values should not exceed values that were demonstrated
by the tests to be acceptable. Materials and components used in the structure
should be similar to those used in the tests. Deviations may be acceptable if the
engineer can demonstrate that those deviations do not adversely affect the
behavior of the framing system.
SECTION R21.7
SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE STRCTURAL WALLS
AND COUPLING BEAMS
R21.7.1 Scope. This section contains requirements for the dimensions and details of special
reinforced concrete structural walls and coupling beams. Provisions for
SBC 304 C 2007 21/14
COMMENTARY SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
R21.7.3 Design forces. Design shears for structural walls are obtained from lateral load
analysis with the appropriate load factors. However, the designer should consider
the possibility of yielding in components of such structures, as in the portion of a
wall between two window openings, in which case the actual shear may be in excess
of the shear indicated by lateral load analysis based on factored design forces.
R21.7.4 Shear strength. Eq. (21-7) recognizes the higher shear strength of walls with high
shear-to-moment ratios. 21.10,21.30,21.38. The nominal shear strength is given in terms
of the net area of the section resisting shear. For a rectangular section without
openings, the term Acv refers to the gross area of the cross section rather than to
the product of the width and the effective depth. The definition of Acv in Eq. (21-
7) facilitates design calculations for walls with uniformly distributed
reinforcement and walls with openings.
A wall segment refers to a part of a wall bounded by openings or by an opening
and an edge. Traditionally, a vertical wall segment bounded by two window
openings has been referred to as a pier.
The ratio hw / l w may refer to overall dimensions of a wall, or of a segment of the
wall bounded by two openings, or an opening and an edge. The intent of 21.7.4.2 is to
make certain that any segment of a wall is not assigned a unit strength larger than
that for the whole wall. However, a wall segment with a ratio of hw / l w higher than
that of the entire wall should be proportioned for the unit strength associated with the
ratio hw / l w based on the dimensions for that segment.
To restrain the inclined cracks effectively, reinforcement included in ρ n and
ρ v should be appropriately distributed along the length and height of the wall (see
21.7.4.3). Chord reinforcement provided near wall edges in concentrated amounts
for resisting bending moment is not to be included in determining ρ n and ρ v within
practical limits, shear reinforcement distribution should be uniform and at a small
spacing.
If the factored shear force at a given level in a structure is resisted by several
walls or several piers of a perforated wall, the average unit shear strength
assumed for the total available cross-sectional area is limited to 2 / 3 f c' with the
additional requirement that the unit shear strength assigned to any single pier does
not exceed 5 / 6 f c' . The upper limit of strength to be assigned to any one member
is imposed to limit the degree of redistribution of shear force.
“Horizontal wall segments” in 21.7.4.5 refers to wall sections between two
vertically aligned openings (see Fig. R21.7.4.5). It is, in effect, a pier rotated through
90 deg. A horizontal wall segment is also referred to as a coupling beam when the
openings are aligned vertically over the building height.
R21.7.6.1 Two design approaches for evaluating detailing requirements at wall boundaries
are included in 21.7.6.1. Section 21.7.6.2 allows the use of displacement-based
design of walls, in which the structural details are determined directly on the basis
of the expected lateral displacements of the wall. Requirements of 21.7.6.4 and
21.7.6.5 apply to structural walls designed by either 21.7.6.2 or 21.7.6.3.
R21.7.6.2 Section 21.7.6.2 is based on the assumption that inelastic response of the wall is
dominated by flexural action at a critical, yielding section. The wall should be
proportioned so that the critical section occurs where intended.
Eq. (21-8) follows from a displacement-based approach.21.41,21.42 The approach
assumes that special boundary elements are required to confine the concrete where
the strain at the extreme compression fiber of the wall exceeds a critical value when
the wall is displaced to the design displacement. The horizontal dimension of the
special boundary element is intended to extend at least over the length where the
compression strain exceeds the critical value. The height of the special boundary
element is based on upper bound estimates of plastic hinge length and extends
beyond the zone over which concrete spalling is likely to occur. The lower limit of
0.007 on the quantity δ u / hw requires moderate wall deformation capacity for stiff
buildings.
The neutral axis depth c in Eq. (21-8) is the depth calculated according to 10.2,
except the nonlinear strain requirements of 10.2.2 need not apply, corresponding to
development of nominal flexural strength of the wall when displaced in the same
direction as δ u . The axial load is the factored axial load that is consistent with the
design load combination that produces the displacement δ u .
R21.7.6.3 By this procedure, the wall is considered to be acted on by gravity loads Wand the
maximum shear and moment induced by earthquake in a given direction. Under
this loading, the compressed boundary at the critical section resists the tributary
gravity load plus the compressive resultant associated with the bending moment.
Recognizing that this loading condition may be repeated many times during the
strong motion, the concrete is to be confined where the calculated compressive
stresses exceed a nominal critical value equal to 0.2 f c' . The stress is to be calculated
for the factored forces on the section assuming linear response of the gross concrete
section. The compressive stress of 0.2 f c' is used as an index value and does not
necessarily describe the actual state of stress that may develop at the critical
section under the influence of the actual inertia forces for the anticipated
earthquake intensity.
R21.7.6.4 The value of c / 2 in 21.7.6.4(a) is to provide a minimum length of the special
boundary element. Where flanges are heavily stressed in compression, the web-to-
flange interface is likely to be heavily stressed and may sustain local crushing
failure unless special boundary element reinforcement extends into the web. Eq.
(21-3) does not apply to walls.
Because horizontal reinforcement is likely to act as web reinforcement in
walls requiring boundary elements, it should be fully anchored in boundary
elements that act as flanges (21.7.6.4). Achievement of this anchorage is difficult
when large transverse cracks occur in the boundary elements. Therefore, standard
90 deg hooks or mechanical anchorage schemes are recommended instead of
straight bar development.
R21.7.6.5 Cyclic load reversals may lead to buckling of boundary longitudinal reinforcement
even in cases where the demands on the boundary of the wall do not require special
boundary elements. For walls with moderate amounts of boundary longitudinal
reinforcement, ties are required to inhibit buckling. The longitudinal
reinforcement ratio is intended to include only the reinforcement at the wall
boundary as indicated in Fig. R21.7.6.5. A larger spacing of ties relative to
21.7.6.4(c) is allowed due to the lower deformation demands on the walls.
The addition of hooks or U-stirrups at the ends of horizontal wall reinforcement
provides anchorage so that the reinforcement will be effective in resisting shear
forces. It will also tend to inhibit the buckling of the vertical edge reinforcement.
In walls with low in-plane shear, the development of horizontal reinforcement is
not necessary.
R21.7.7 Coupling beams. Coupling beams connecting structural walls can provide stiffness
and energy dissipation. In many cases, geometric limits result in coupling beams
that are deep in relation to their clear span. Deep coupling beams may be
controlled by shear and may be susceptible to strength and stiffness deterioration
under earthquake loading. Test results 21.43, 21.44 have shown that confined
diagonal reinforcement provides adequate resistance in deep coupling beams.
Experiments show that diagonally oriented reinforcement is effective only if the
bars are placed with a large inclination. Therefore, diagonally reinforced coupling
beams are restricted to beams having aspect ratio l n / h < 4 .
Each diagonal element consists of a cage of longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement as shown in Fig. R21.7.7. The cage contains at least four
longitudinal bars and confines a concrete core. The requirement on side
dimensions of the cage and its core is to provide adequate toughness and stability to
the cross section when the bars are loaded beyond yielding. The minimum
dimensions and required reinforcement clearances may control the wall width.
When coupling beams are not used as part of the lateral force resisting system,
the requirements for diagonal reinforcement may be waived. Nonprestressed
coupling beams are permitted at locations where damage to these beams does
not impair vertical load carrying capacity or egress of the structure, or integrity of
the nonstructural components and their connections to the structure.
Tests in Reference 21.44 demonstrated that beams reinforced as described in
Section 21.7.7 have adequate ductility at shear forces exceeding (5 / 6) f c' bw d .
Consequently, the use of a limit of (5 / 6) f c' Acp provides an acceptable upper limit.
SECTION R21.9
STRUCTUREAL DIAPHRAGMS AND TRUSSES
R21.9.1 Scope. Diaphragms as used in building construction are structural elements (such
as a floor or roof) that provide some or all of the following functions:
SBC 304 C 2007 21/19
COMMENTARY SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
(a) Support for building elements (such as walls, partitions, and cladding)
resisting horizontal forces but not acting as part of the building vertical
lateral-force-resisting system;
(b) Transfer of lateral forces from the point of application to the building vertical
lateral-force-resisting system;
(c) Connection of various components of the building vertical lateral-force-
resisting system with appropriate strength, stiffness, and toughness so the
building responds as intended in the design21.45
R21.9.3 Cast-in-place topping slab diaphragms. Composite action between the topping
slab and the precast floor elements is not required, provided that the topping slab is
designed to resist the design seismic forces.
R21.9.7 Shear strength. The shear strength requirements for monolithic diaphragms, Eq.
(21-10) in 21.9.7.1, are the same as those for slender structural walls. The term
Acv refers to the thickness times the width of the diaphragm. This corresponds to
the gross area of the effective deep beam that forms the diaphragm. The shear
reinforcement should be placed perpendicular to the span of the diaphragm.
The shear strength requirements for topping slab diaphragms are based on a shear
friction model, and the contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear strength is
not included in Eq. (21-9) for topping slabs placed over precast floor elements.
Following typical construction practice, the topping slabs are roughened
immediately above the boundary between the flanges of adjacent precast floor
members to direct the paths of shrinkage cracks. As a result, critical sections of
the diaphragm are cracked under service loads, and the contribution of the
concrete to the shear capacity of the diaphragm may have already been reduced
before the design earthquake occurs.
SECTION R21.10
FOUNDATIONS
R21.10.1 Scope. Requirements for foundations supporting buildings assigned to high seismic
performance or design categories, represent a consensus of a minimum level of
good practice in designing and detailing concrete foundations including piles,
drilled piers, and caissons. It is desirable that inelastic response in strong ground
shaking occurs above the foundations, as repairs to foundations can be extremely
difficult and expensive.
R21.10.2.4 The purpose of 21.10.2.4 is to alert the designer to provide top reinforcement
as well as other required reinforcement.
R21.10.2.5 In region of high seismicity, it is desirable to reinforce foundation, and basement
wall.
R21.10.3 Grade beams and slabs on grade. For seismic conditions, slabs on grade (soil-
supported slabs) are often part of the lateral-force-resisting system and should be
designed in accordance with this SBC 304 as well as other appropriate standards or
guidelines. See 1.1.6.
R21.10.3.2 Grade beams between pile caps or footings can be separate beams beneath the
slab on grade or can be a thickened portion of the slab on grade. The cross-
sectional limitation and minimum tie requirements provide reasonable proportions.
R21.10.3.3 Grade beams resisting seismic flexural stresses from column moments should
have reinforcing details similar to the beams of the frame above the foundation.
R21.10.3.4 Slabs on grade often act as a diaphragm to hold the building together at the ground
level and minimize the effects of out-of-phase ground motion that may occur over
the footprint of the building. In these cases, the slab on grade should be adequately
reinforced and detailed. The design drawings should clearly state that these
slabs on grade are structural members so as to prohibit saw cutting of the slab.
R21.10.4 Piles, piers, and caissons. Adequate performance of piles and caissons for
seismic loadings requires that these provisions be met in addition to other
applicable standards or guidelines. See R1.1.5.
R21.10.4.2 A load path is necessary at pile caps to transfer tension forces from the
reinforcing bars in the column or boundary member through the pile cap to the
reinforcement of the pile or caisson.
R21.10.4.3 Grouted dowels in a blockout in the top of a precast concrete pile need to be
developed, and testing is a practical means of demonstrating capacity.
Alternatively, reinforcing bars can be cast in the upper portion of the pile, exposed
by chipping of concrete and mechanically connected or welded to an extension.
R21.10.4.4 During earthquakes, piles can be subjected to extremely high flexural demands at
points of discontinuity, especially just below the pile cap and near the base of a
soft or loose soil deposit. The requirement for confinement reinforcement at the
top of the pile is based on numerous failures observed at this location in recent
earthquakes. Transverse reinforcement is required in this region to provide
ductile performance. The designer should also consider possible inelastic action
in the pile at abrupt changes in soil deposits, such as changes from soft to firm or
loose to dense soil layers. Where precast piles are to be used, the potential for the
pile tip to be driven to an elevation different than that specified in the drawings
needs to be considered when detailing the pile. If the pile reaches refusal at a
shallower depth, a longer length of pile will need to be cut off. If this possibility is
not forseen, the length of transverse reinforcement required by 21.10.4.4 may not
be available after the excess pile length is cut off.
R21.10.4.7 Extensive structural damage has often been observed at the junction of batter piles
and the buildings. The pile cap and surrounding structure should be designed for the
potentially large forces that can be developed in batter piles.
SBC 304 C 2007 21/22
COMMENTARY SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION R21.11
FRAME MEMBERS NOT PROPORTIONED TO RESIST
FORCES INDUCED BY EARTHQUAKE MOTIONS
The detailing requirements for members that are part of the lateral-force resisting
system assume that the members may undergo deformations that exceed the yield
limit of the member without significant loss of strength. Members that are not part
of the designated lateral-force-resisting system are not required to meet all the
detailing requirements of members that are relied on to resist lateral forces.
They should, however, be able to resist the gravity loads at lateral displacements
corresponding to the design level prescribed by the governing SBC 304 for
earthquake-resistant design. The design displacement is defined in 2 1.1.
Section 21.1 recognizes that actual displacements resulting from earthquake forces
may be larger than the displacements calculated using the design forces and
commonly used analysis models. Section 21.11.1 defines a nominal displacement
for the purpose of prescribing detailing requirements. This section is consistent
with the strength design approach of Ref. 21.2. Actual displacements may exceed
the value of 21.11.1.
Section 2 1.11.2 prescribes detailing requirements intended to provide a system
capable of sustaining gravity loads under moderate excursions into the inelastic range.
Section 2 1.11.3 prescribes detailing requirements intended to provide a system capable
of sustaining gravity loads under larger displacements.
Models used to determine design deflections of buildings should be chosen to
produce results that conservatively bound the values expected during the design
earthquake considering vertical, horizontal, and diaphragm systems as appropriate.
For gravity load factors, see R9.2.
The poor performance of some buildings with precast concrete gravity systems
during the Northridge Earthquake was attributed to several factors addressed in 21.1
1.4. Columns should contain ties over their entire height, frame members not
proportioned to resist earthquake forces should be tied together, and longer
bearing lengths should be used to maintain integrity of the gravity system
during shaking. The 50 mm increase in bearing length is based on an
assumed 4 percent story drift ratio and 1.3 m beam depth, and is considered to be
conservative for the ground motions expected in high seismic zones. In addition to
the provisions of 21.11.4, precast frame members assumed not to contribute to
lateral resistance should also satisfy 21.1 1.1 through 21.1 1.3.
SECTION R21.12
REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES
indicated in Fig. R21.12.3, the shear associated with this condition [(M nl + M nr ) / l n ]
added algebraically to the effect of the factored gravity loads indicates the design
shear for of the beam. For this example, both the dead load wD and the live load
wL have been assumed to be uniformly distributed.
Fig. R21.12.3-Design shears for frames in regions of moderate seismic risk (see 21.12)
Determination of the design shear for a column is also illustrated for a particular
example in Fig. R21.12.3. The factored design axial load, Pu , should be chosen to
develop the largest moment strength of the column.
In all applications of option (a) of 21.12.3, shears are required to be
calculated for moment, acting clockwise and counter-clockwise. Fig. R21.12.3
demonstrates only one of the two conditions that are to be considered for every
member. Option (b) bases Vu on the load combination including the earthquake
effect, E , which should be doubled. For example, the load combination defined by
Eq. (9-5) would be:
U = 1.2D + 2.0E + 1.0L
where E is the value specified by the governing SBC 304. Section 21.12.4 contains
requirements for providing beams with a threshold level of toughness. Transverse
reinforcement at the ends of the beam shall be hoops. In most cases, stirrups
required by 21.12.3 for design shear force will be more than those required by
21.12.4. Requirements of 21.12.5 serve the same purpose for columns.
Section 21.12.6 applies to two-way slabs without beams, such as flat plates.
Using load combinations of Eq. (9-5) and (9-7) may result in moments requiring
top and bottom reinforcement at the supports.
The moment M s refers, for a given design load combination with E acting in one
horizontal direction, to that portion of the factored slab moment that is balanced by
the supporting members at a joint. It is not necessarily equal to the total design
moment at support for a load combination including earthquake effect. In
accordance with 13.5.3.2, only a fraction (γ f M s ) of the moment M s is assigned to
the slab effective width. For edge and corner connections, flexural reinforcement
perpendicular to the edge is not considered fully effective unless it is placed within
the effective slab width. 21.48,49 See Fig. 21.12.6.1.
Application of the provisions of 21.12.6 are illustrated in Fig. R21.12.6.2 and Fig.
R21.12.6.3.
Fig, R21.12.6.1 - Effective width for reinforcement placement in edge and corner
connections
R21.12.6.8 The requirements apply to two-way slabs that are part of the primary lateral
force-resisting system. Slab-column connections in laboratory tests 21.49 e' xhibited
reduced lateral displacement ductility when the shear at the column connection
exceeded the recommended limit.
SECTION R21.13
INTERMEDIATE PRECAST STRUCTURAL WALLS
Connections between precast wall panels or between wall panels and the
foundation are required to resist forces induced by earthquake motions and to
provide for yielding in the vicinity of connections. When Type 2 mechanical
splices are used to directly connect primary reinforcement, the probable strength of
the splice should be at least 1-1/2 times the specified yield strength of the
reinforcement.
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 1
1.1. ACI Committee 307, “Standard Practice for the Design and Construction of Cast-
in-Place Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI307-98),” American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1998,32 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
1.2. ACI Committee 313, “Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete
Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials (ACI3 13-97),” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1997, 22 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
1.3. ACI Committee 350, “Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures (ACI 350R-
89),” American Concrete Institute, Farming- ton Hills, MI, 1989,20pp. Also ACI
Manual of Concrete Practice.
1.4. ACI Committee 349, “Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related Concrete
Structures (ACI349-97),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1997,
129 pp., plus 1997 Supplement. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
1.5. ACI-ASME Committee 359, “Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments
(ACI 359-92),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1992.
1.6. ACI Committee 543, “Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and Installation
of Concrete Piles, (ACI 543R-74) (Reapproved 1980),” ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 71, No. 10, Oct.1974, pp. 477-492.
1.7. ACI Committee 336, “Design and Construction of Drilled Piers (ACI 336.3R-93),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1993,30 pp. Also ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice.
1.8. “Recommended Practice for Design, Manufacture and Installation of Pre-stressed
Concrete Piling,” PCI Journal, V. 38, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1993, pp. 14-41.
1.9. ACI Committee 311, “Guide for Concrete Inspection (ACI31 1.4R-93,” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,1995, 11 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
1.10. ACI Committee 3 11, ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection,SP-2, 8th Edition,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1992,200 pp.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 2
2.1. ACI Committee 116, “Cement and Concrete Terminology (ACI 116R-90),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990,58 pp. Also ACI Manual
of Concrete Practice.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 3
3.1. ACI Committee 214, “Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Strength Test
Results of Concrete (ACI 214-77) (Reapproved 1989),” (ANSVACI 214-77),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1977, 14 pp. Also ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice.
3.2. ACI Committee 223, “Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating
Concrete (ACI 223-98),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 29 pp.
Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 4
Exposed to a Sulfate Solution,” ASTM Book of Standards, Part 04.01, ASTM, West
Conshohocken, PA, 5 pp.
4.2. ACI Committee 201, “Guide to Durable Concrete (ACI201.2R-92),” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,1992,39 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
4.3. ACI Committee 222, “Corrosion of Metals in Concrete (ACI222R-96),” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,1996, 30 pp. Also ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice.
4.4. Ozyildirim, C., and Halstead, W., “Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration of
Concretes Containing Fly Ash, Silica Fume, or Slag,. Permeability of Concrete,
SP-108, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1988, pp. 35-61.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 5
5.1. ACI Committee 21 1, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal,
Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI21 1.1-98),” American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1998, 38 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
5.2 ACI Committee 21 1, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural
Lightweight Concrete (ACI 21 1.2-91),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, M1, 1991, 18 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
5.3. Municipality of Riyadh, “Quality of ready-mixed concrete production in Riyadh,
Internal Report. Quality scheme for ready-mixed concrete plants, Riyadh, 2005.
5.4. Al-Negheimish, A and Alhozaimy, A., “Assessment of production control by ready-
mixed concrete plants in Riyadh”, submitted to Journal of King Saud University,
Engineering Sciences, 2007.
5.5. ASTM C 1077-92, “Standard Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete and
Concrete Aggregates for Use in Construction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation,”
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA,5 PP.
5.6. ASTM D 3665-99, “Standard Practice for Random Sampling of Construction
Materials,” ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 5 pp.
5.7. Bloem, D. L., “Concrete Strength Measurement-Cores vs. Cylinders,”
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 65, 1965, pp. 668-696.
5.8. Bloem, Delmar L., “Concrete Strength in Structures,” ACI JOURNAL
,Proceedings V. 65, No. 3, Mar. 1968, pp. 176-187.
5.9. Malhotra, V. M., Testing Hardened Concrete: Nondestructive Methods, ACI
Monograph No. 9, American Concrete Institute. Iowa State University Press,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1976, 188 pp.
5.10. Malhotra, V. M., “Contract Strength Requirements-Cores Versus In Situ
Evaluation,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 74, No. 4, Apr. 1977, pp. 163-172.
5.11 Bartlett, M.F., and Macgregor, J.G., "Effect of Moisture Condition on Concrete Core
Strengths," ACI Materials Journal, V. 91, No. 3, May-June, 1994, pp. 227-236.
5.12. ACI Committee 304, ”Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing
Concrete (ACI304R-89), ” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1989,
49 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
5.13. Newlon, H., Jr., and 0201, A., ”Delayed Expansion of Concrete Delivered by
Pumping through Aluminum Pipe Line, ” Concrete Case Study No. 20; Virginia
Highway Research Council, Oct.1969,39 pp.
5.14. ACI Committee 309, ”Guide for Consolidation of Concrete (ACI 309R-96), ”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1996,40 pp. Also ACI Manual
of Concrete Practice.
5.15. ACI Committee 308, ”Standard Practice for Curing Concrete (ACI 308-92), ”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,1992, 11 pp. Also ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice.
SBC 304 C 2007 R/2
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
5.16. ACI Committee 305, ”Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 305R- 91), ” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1991, 17 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 6
6.1. ACI Committee 347, ”Guide to Formwork for Concrete (ACI 347R-94), ” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1994, 33 pp. Also ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice.
6.2. Hurd, M. K., and ACI Committee 347, Formwork for Concrete, SP-4, 5th
Edition, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1989, 475 pp.
6.3. Liu, X. L.; Lee, H. M.; and Chen, W. F., ”Shoring and Re-shoring of High-Rise
Buildings, ” Concrete International, V. 10, No. 1, Jan. 1989, pp. 64-68.
6.4. ASTM C 873-99, ”Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Concrete Cylinders Cast-in-Place in Cylindrical Molds, ” ASTM, West
Conshohocken, PA, 4 pp.
6.5. ASTM C 803K 803M-97, ”Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened
Concrete, ” ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 4 pp.
6.6. ASTM C 900, ”Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete,
”ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 5 pp.
6.7. ASTM C 1074-87, ”Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method, ” ASTM,
West Conshohocken, PA.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 7
7.1. ACI Committee 315, ACI Detailing Manual-I994, SP-66, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1994, 244 pp. Also “Details and Detailing of
Concrete Reinforcement (ACI 315-92),” and “Manual of Engineering and Placing
Drawings for Reinforced Structures (ACI 3 15R-94).” Also ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
7.2. Black, William C., “Field Corrections to Partially Embedded Reinforcing Bars,” ACI
JOURNAL ,Proceedings V. 70, No. 10, Oct. 1973, pp. 690-691.
7.3. Stecich, J.; Hanson, J. M.; and Rice, P. F.; “Bending and Straightening of
Grade 60 Reinforcing Bars,” Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6,
No. 8, Aug. 1984, pp. 14-23.
7.4. Sason, A. S. “Evaluation of Degree of Rusting on Pre-stressed Concrete Strand,” PCI
Journal, V. 37, No. 3, May-June 1992,pp. 25-30.
7.5. ACI Committee 117, “Standard Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials
(ACI 117-90),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 22 pp. Also ACI
Manual of Concrete Practice.
7.6. PCI Design Handbook: Precast and Pre-stressed Concrete, 4th Edition, Pre-cast/Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,1992,580 pp.
7.7. ACI Committee 408, “Bond Stress-The State of the Art,” ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 63, No. 11, Nov. 1966, pp. 1161-1188.
7.8. Deatherage, J. H., Burdette, E. G. and Chew, C. K., “Development Length and
Lateral Spacing Requirements of Pre-stressing Strand for Pre-stressed Concrete
Bridge Girders,” PCI Journal, V.39, No. 1,Jan.-Feb. 1994, pp. 70-83.
7.9. Russell, B. W., and Bums, N. H. “Measured Transfer Lengths of 0.5 and 0.6 in.
Strands in Pre-tensioned Concrete,” PCI Journal, V. 41, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1996, pp.
44-65.
7.10. ACI Committee 362, “Design of Parking Structures (ACI 362.1R-97),” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1997,40 pp.
7.11. Hanson, N. W., and Conner, H. W., “Seismic Resistance of Reinforced Concrete
Beam-Column Joints,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 93, ST5, Oct. 1967, pp. 533-560.
7.12. ACI-ASCE Committee 352, “Recommendations for Design of Beam-Column Joints
SBC 304 C 2007 R/3
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
8.1. Fintel, M.; Ghosh, S. K.; and Iyengar, H., Column Shortening in Tall Buildings-
Prediction and Compensation, EB 108D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Ill.,
1986, 34 pp.
8.2. Cohn, M. Z., “Rotational Compatibility in the Limit Design of Reinforced Concrete
Continuous Beams,” Flexural Mechanic of Reinforced Concrete, SP-12, American
Concrete/Institute American Society of Civil Engineers, Farmington Hills, MI,
1965, pp.359-382.
8.3. Mattock, A. H., “Redistribution of Design Bending Moments in Reinforced Concrete
Continuous Beams,” Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers (London), V. 13,
1959, pp. 35-46.
8.4. Mast, R.F., “Unified Design Provision for Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete
Flexural and Compression Members,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 89, No. 2, Mar.-
Apr., 1992, pp. 185-199.
8.5. Pauw, Adrian, “Static Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete as Affected by Density,”
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. 6, Dec.1960, pp. 679-687.
8.6. ASTM C 469-94, “Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio
of Concrete in Compression,” ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
8.7. “Handbook of Frame Constants,” Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL,
1972,34 pp.
8.8. “Continuity in Concrete Building Frames,” Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
IL, 1959,56pp.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 9
9.1. MacGregor, J. G., “Safety and Limit States Design for Reinforced Concrete,”
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 3, No. 4, Dec. 1976, pp. 484-513.
9.2. Winter, G., “Safety and Serviceability Provisions in the ACI Building Code,”
Concrete Design: US. and European Practices, SP-59, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1979,pp. 35-49.
9.3. Deflections of Concrete Structures, SP-43, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1974,637 pp.
9.4. ACI Committee 213, “Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (ACI 2
13R-87),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1987, 27 pp. Also
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
9.5. Branson, D. E., “Instantaneous and Time-Dependent Deflections on Simple and
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Beams,” HPR Report No. 7, Part 1, Alabama
Highway Department, Bureau of Public Roads, Aug. 1965, pp. 1-78.
9.6. ACI Committee 435, “Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members
(ACI 435.2R-66) (Reapproved 1989),” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No. 6,
June 1966, pp. 637-674. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
9.7. Subcommittee 1, ACI Committee 435, “Allowable Deflections (ACI 435.3R-68)
(Reapproved 1989),” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 65, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 433-
SBC 304 C 2007 R/4
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 10
10.1. Nedderman, H., “Flexural Stress Distribution in Extra High Strength Concrete,”
MS thesis, University of Texas at Arlington,1973.
10.2. Karr, P. H.; Hanson, N. W; and Capell, H. T.; “Stress- train Characteristics of High
Strength Concrete”, Douglas McHenry International Symposium on Concrete and
Concrete Structures, SP-55, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,
1978, pp.161-185.
10.3. Mattock, A. H.; Kriz, L. B.; and Hognestad, E., “Rectangular Concrete Stress
Distribution in Ultimate Strength Design,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No.
8, Feb. 1961, pp. 875-928.
10.4. ACI Design Handbook, Vol. 2-Colurnns, SP-l7A(90), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1990, pp. 161-163 and 207-221.
10.5. CRSI Handbook, 7th Edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumberg, IL,
1992, 840 pp.
10.6. Bresler, B., “Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Columns under Axial Load and
Biaxial Bending,” ACI JOURNAL ,Proceedings V. 57, No. 5, Nov. 1960, pp. 481-
490.
SBC 304 C 2007 R/5
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
10.7. Parme, A. L.; Nieves, J. M.; and Gouwens, A., “Capacity of Reinforced Rectangular
Columns Subjected to Biaxial Bending,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No. 9,
Sept. 1966, pp. 911-923.
10.8. Heimdahl, P. D., and Bianchini, A. C., “Ultimate Strength of Bi-axially Eccentrically
Loaded Concrete Columns Reinforced with High Strength Steel,” Reinforced
Concrete Columns, SP-50, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1975,
pp. 100-101.
10.9. Furlong, R. W., “Concrete Columns Under Bi-axially concentric Thrust,” ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 76, No. 10, Oct. 1979, pp. 1093-11 18.
10.10. Hansell, W., and Winter, G., “Lateral Stability of Reinforced Concrete Beams,” ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No. 3, Sept. 1959,pp. 193-214.
10.11. Sant, J. K., and Bletzacker, R. W., “Experimental Study of Lateral Stability of
Reinforced Concrete Beams,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, No. 6, Dec. 1961,
pp. 713-736.
10.12. Gergeiy, P., and Lutz, L. A., “Maximum Crack Width in Reinforced Concrete
Flexural Members,” Causes, Mechanism, and Control of Cracking in Concrete, SP-
20, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1968, pp. 87-1 17.
10.13. Kaar, P. H., “High Strength Bars as Concrete Reinforcement, Part 8: Similitude
in Flexural Cracking of T-Beam Flanges,” Journal, PCA Research and Development
Laboratories, V. 8, No.2, May 1966, pp. 2-12.
10.14. Base, G. D.; Reed, J. B.; Beeby, A. W.; and Taylor, H. P. J., “An Investigation of the
Crack Control Characteristics of Various Types of Bar in Reinforced Concrete
Beams,” Research Report No. 18, Cement and Concrete Association, London, Dec.
1966,44 pp.
10.15. Beeby, A. W., “The Prediction of Crack Widths in Hardened Concrete,” The
Structural Engineer, V. 57A, No. 1,Jan. 1979,pp. 9-17.
10.16. Frosch, R. J., “Another Look at Cracking and Crack Control in Reinforced
Concrete,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 96, No. 3, May-June 1999, pp. 437-442.
10.17. ACI Committee 3 18, “Closure to Public Comments on ACI 318-99,” Concrete
International, May 1999, pp. 318-1 to 3 18-50.
10.18. Darwin, D., et al., “Debate: Crack Width, Cover, and Corrosion,” Concrete
International, V. 7, No. 5, May 1985, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, pp. 20-35.
10.19. Oesterle, R. G., “The Role of Concrete Cover in Crack Control Criteria and Corrosion
Protection,” RD Serial No. 2054, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1997.
10.20. Chow, L.; Conway, H.; and Winter, G., “Stresses in Deep Beams,” Transactions,
ASCE, V. 118, 1953, pp. 686-708.
10.21. “Design of Deep Girders,” IS079D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1946,
10 pp.
10.22. Park, R., and Paulay, T., Reinforced Concrete Structures, Wiley-Inter-Science,
New York, 1975,769 pp.
10.23. Furlong, R. W., “Column Slenderness and Charts for Design’’, ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 68, No. l, Jan. 197l, pp. 9-18.
10.24. “Reinforced Concrete Column Investigation-Tentative Final Report of Committee
105,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 29, No. 5, Feb. 1933, pp. 275-282.
10.25. MacGregor, J. G., “Design of Slender Concrete Columns- Revisited,” ACI Structural
Journal, V. 90, No. 3, May-June 1993, pp. 302-309.
10.26. MacGregor, J. G.; Breen, J. E.; and Pfrang, E. O., “Design of Slender Concrete
Columns,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 67, NO.1, Jan. 1970, pp. 6-28.
10.27. Ford, J. S.; Chang, D. C.; and Breen, J. E., “Design Indications from Tests of Un-
braced Multipanel Concrete Frames,” Concrete International: Design and
Construction, V. 3, NO. 3, Mar. 1981, pp. 37-47.
10.28. MacGregor, J. G., and Hage, S. E., “Stability Analysis and Design Concrete,”
SBC 304 C 2007 R/6
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 11
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 12
12.1. ACI Committee 408, “Suggested Development, Splice, and Standard Hook
Provisions for Deformed Bars in Tension,” (ACI 408.1R-90), American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990, 3 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
12.2. Jirsa, J. O.; Lutz, L. A.; and Gergely, P., “Rationale for Suggested Development,
Splice, and Standard Hook Provisions for Deformed Bars in Tension,” Concrete
International: Design & Construction, V. 1, No. 7, July 1979, pp. 47-61.
12.3. Treece, R. A., “Bond Strength of Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Bars,” Master’s thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, May 1987.
12.4. Johnston, D. W., and Zia, P., “Bond characteristics of Epoxy- Coated Reinforcing
Bars,” Department of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State University, Report No.
F“C/82-002, Aug. 1982.
12.5. Mathey, R. G., and Clifton, J. R., “Bond of Coated Reinforcing Bars in Concrete,”
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V.102, No. ST1, Jan. 1976, pp. 215-228.
12.6. Orangun, C. O.; Jirsa, J. O.; and Breen, J. E., “A Reevaluation of Test Data on
Development Length and Splices,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 74, No. 3, Mar.
1977, pp. 114-122.
12.7. Azizinamini, A.; Pavel, R.; Hatfield, E.; and Ghosh, S. K., “Behavior of Spliced
Reinforcing Bars Embedded in High-Strength Concrete,” ACI Structural Journal, V.
96, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1999, pp. 826-835.
12.8. Azizinamini, A.; Darwin, D.; Eligehausen, R.; Pavel, R.; and Ghosh, S. K.,
“Proposed Modifications to ACI 318-95 Development and Splice Provisions for
High-Strength Concrete,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 96, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1999,
pp. 922-926.
12.9. Jirsa, J. O., and Marques, J. L. G., “A Study of Hooked Bar Anchorages in Beam-
Column Joints,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 72, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 198-200.
12.10. Hamad, B. S.; Jirsa, J. O.; and D’Abreu, N. I., “Anchorage Strength of Epoxy-Coated
Hooked Bars,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 90, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1993, pp. 210-217.
12.11. Bartoletti, S. J., and Jirsa, J. O., “Effects of Epoxy-Coating on Anchorage and
Development of Welded Wire Fabric,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 6, Nov.-
Dec. 1995, pp. 757-764.
12.12. Rose, D. R., and Russell, B. W., 1997, “Investigation of Standardized Tests to
Measure the Bond Performance of Pre-stressing Strand,” PCI Journal, V. 42, No. 4,
Jul.-Aug., 1997, pp. 56-60.
12.13. Logan, D. R., “Acceptance Criteria for Bond Quality of Strand for Pre-tensioned
Pre-stressed Concrete Applications,” PCI Journal, V. 42, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., 1997,
pp. 52-90.
12.14. Martin, L., and Korkosz, W., “Strength of Pre-stressed Members at Sections Where
Strands Are Not Fully Developed,” PCI Journal, V. 40, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1995, pp.
58-66.
12.15. PCI Design Handbook -Precast and Pre-stressed Concrete, 5th Edition, Pre-
cast/Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1998, pp. 4-27 to 4-29.
12.16. Kaar, P., and Magura, D., “Effect of Strand Blanketing on Performance of Pre-
tensioned Girders,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 10, No. 6, Dec.
1965, pp. 20-34.
12.17. Hanson, N. W., and Kaar, P. H., “Flexural Bond Tests Pre-tensioned Beams,” ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 55, No. 7, Jan. 1959, pp. 783-802.
12.18. Kaar, P. H.; La Fraugh, R. W.; and Mass, M. A., “Influence of Concrete Strength on
Strand Transfer Length,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 8, No.
5, Oct. 1963, pp. 47-67.
12.19. Rabbat, B. G.; Kaar, P. H.; Russell, H. G.; and Bruce, R. N., Jr., “Fatigue Tests of
Pre-tensioned Girders with Blanketed and Draped Strands,” Journal of the Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute, V. 24. NO. 4, July-Aug. 1979, pp. 88-1 14.
12.20. ACI Committee 408, “Bond Stress- The State of the Art,” ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 63, No.11, Nov.1966,pp. 1161-1188.
12.21. Rogowsky, D. M., and Macgregor, J. G., “Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep
Beams,” Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 8, No. 8, Aug. 1986, pp.
46-58.
12.22. Joint PCVWRI Ad Hoc Committee on Welded Wire Fabric for Shear
Reinforcement, “Welded Wire Fabric for Shear Reinforcement,” Journal of the
Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 25, NO.4, July-Aug. 1980, pp. 32-36.
12.23. Pfister, J. F., and Mattock, A. H., “High Strength Bars as Concrete Reinforcement,
Part 5: Lapped Splices in Concentrically Loaded Columns,” Journal, PCA Research
and Development Laboratories, V. 5, No. 2, May 1963, pp. 27-40.
12.24. Lloyd, J. P., and Kesler, C. E., “Behavior of One-way Slabs Reinforced with
Deformed Wire and Deformed Wire Fabric,” T&AM Report No. 323, University
of Illinois, 1969, 129 pp.
12.25. Lloyd, J. P., “Splice Requirements for One-way Slabs Reinforced with Smooth
Welded Wire Fabric,” Publication No. R(S)4, Civil Engineering, Oklahoma State
University, June 1971, 37 pp.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 13
13.1. Hatcher, D. S.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Test of a Reinforced Concrete Flat
Plate,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 91, ST5, Oct. 1965, pp. 205-231.
13.2. Guralnick, S. A., and LaFraugh, R. W., “Laboratory Study of a Forty-Five-Foot
Square Flat Plate Structure,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 60, No. 9, Sept. 1963,
pp. 1107-1185.
13.3. Hatcher, D. S.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Test of a Reinforced Concrete Flat
Slab,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, No. ST6, June 1969, pp. 1051-1072.
13.4. Jirsa, J. O.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Test of a Flat Slab Reinforced with
Welded Wire Fabric,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 92, No. ST3, June 1966, pp. 199-224.
13.5. Gamble, W. L.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Tests of a Two-way Reinforced
Concrete Floor Slab,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, No. ST6, June 1969, pp. 1073-
1096.
13.6. Vanderbilt, M. D.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Test of a Modified Reinforced
Concrete Two-way Slab,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, No. ST6, June 1969, pp.
1097-1116.
13.7. Xanthakis, M., and Sozen, M. A., “An Experimental Study of Limit Design in
Reinforced Concrete Flat Slabs,” Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research
Series No. 277, University of Illinois, Dec. 1963, 159 pp.
13.8. ACI Design Handbook, V. 3-Two-way Slabs, SP-l7(91)(S), American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1991, 104 pp.
13.9. Mitchell, D., and Cook, W. D., “Preventing Progressive Collapse of Slab
Structures,” Journal of Structural Engineering, V.110, NO.7, July 1984, pp.
1513-1532.
13.10. Carpenter, J. E.; Kaar, P. H.; and Corley, W. G., “Design of Ductile Flat-Plate
Structures to Resist Earthquakes,” Proceedings, Fifth World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering Rome, June 1973, International Association for Earthquake
Engineering, V. 2, pp. 2016-2019.
13.11. Morrison, D. G., and Sozen, M. A., “Response to Reinforced Concrete Plate-Column
Connections to Dynamic and Static Horizontal Loads,” Civil Engineering Studies,
Structural Research Series NO.490, University of Illinois, Apr. 1981, 249 pp.
13.12. Vanderbilt, M. D., and Corley, W. G., “Frame Analysis of Concrete Buildings,”
Concrete International: Design and Construction, V. 5, No. 12, Dec. 1983, pp. 33-
SBC 304 C 2007 R/12
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
43.
13.13. Grossman, J. S., “Code Procedures, History, and Shortcomings: Column-Slab
Connections,” Concrete International, V. 11, No. 9, Sept. 1989, pp. 73-77.
13.14. Moehle, J. P., “Strength of Slab-Column Edge Connections,” ACI Structural Journal,
V. 85, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1988, pp. 89-98.
13.15. ACI-ASCE Committee 352,“Recommendations for Design of Slab-Column
Connections in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures (ACI352.1R-S9),”ACI
Structural Journal, V. 85, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1988, pp. 675-696.
13.16. Jirsa, J. O.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Pattern Loadings on Reinforced Concrete
Floor Slabs,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, No. ST6, June 1969, pp. 1117-1137.
13.17. Nichols, J. R., “Statical Limitations upon the Steel Requirement in Reinforced
Concrete Flat Slab Floors,” Transactions, ASCE, V. 77, 1914, pp. 1670-1736.
13.18. Corley, W. G.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Equivalent- Frame Analysis for
Reinforced Concrete Slabs,” Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research Series
No. 218, University of Illinois, June 1961, 166 pp.
13.19. Jirsa, J. O.; Sozen, M. A.; and Siess, C. P., “Effects of Pattern Loadings on
Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs,” Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research
Series No. 269, University of Illinois, July 1963.
13.20. Corley, W. G., and Jirsa, J. O., “Equivalent Frame Analysis for Slab Design,” ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 67, No. 11, Nov. 1970, pp. 875-884.
13.21. Gamble, W. L., “Moments in Beam Supported Slabs,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 69, No. 3, Mar. 1972, pp. 149-157.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 14
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 15
15.1. ACI Committee 336, “Suggested Analysis and Design Procedures for Combined
Footings and Mats (ACI 336.2R-88),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 1988, 21 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
15.2. Kramrisch, F., and Rogers, P., “Simplified Design of Combined Footings,”
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 87, No. SM5, Oct. 1961, p. 19.
15.3 Adebar, P.; Kuchma, D.; and Collins, M. P., “Strut-and-Tie Models for the Design
of Pile Caps: An Experimental Study,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 87, No. 1, Jan.-
Feb. 1990, pp. 81-92.
15.4. CRSI Handbook, 7th Edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, IL,
1992, 840 pp.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 16
16.21. “Design and Construction of Large-Panel Concrete Structures,” six reports, 762 pp.,
1976-1980, EB 100D; three studies, 300 pp., 1980, EB 102D, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL
16.22. PCI Committee on Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings, “Considerations for the
Design of Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to Withstand Abnormal
Loads,” PCI Journal, V. 21, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1976, pp. 18-51.
16.23. Salmons, J. R., and McCrate, T. E., “Bond Characteristics of Untensioned Pre-
stressing Strand,” PCI Journal, V. 22, No. I, Jan.- Feb. 1977, pp. 52-65.
16.24. PCI Committee on Quality Control and Performance Criteria, “Fabrication and
Shipment Cracks in Pre-stressed Hollow-Core Slabs and Double Tees,” PCI Journal,
V. 28, No. 1,Jan.-Feb. 1983,pp. 18-39.
16.25. PCI Committee on Quality Control and Performance Criteria, “Fabrication and
Shipment Cracks in Precast or Pre-stressed Beams and Columns,” PCI Journal, V.
30, No. 3, May-June 1985,pp. 24-49.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 17
17.1. “Specification for Structural Steel Buildings-Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
Design, with Commentary” June 1989, and “Load and Resistance Factor Design
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,’’ Sept. 1986, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago.
17.2. Kaar, P. H.; Kriz, L. B.; and Hognestad, E., “Pre-cast\Pre-stressed Concrete
Bridges: (1) Pilot Tests of Continuous Girders,” Journal, PCA Research and
Development Laboratories, V. 2, No. 2, May 1960, pp. 21-37.
17.3. Saemann, J. C., and Washa, G. W., “Horizontal Shear Connections between Precast
Beams and Cast-in-Place Slabs,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 61, No.1 Nov.
1964, pp. 1383-1409. Also see discussion, ACI JOURNAL, June 1965.
17.4. Hanson, N. W., “Pre-cast\Pre-stressed Concrete Bridges: Horizontal Shear
Connections,” Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 2, NO.2,
May 1960, pp. 38-58.
17.5. Grossfield, B., and Birnstiel, C., “Tests of T-Beams with Precast Webs and Cast-in-
Place Flanges,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No. 6, June 1962, pp. 843-851.
17.6. Mast, R. F., “Auxiliary Reinforcement in Concrete Connections,” Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 94, No. ST6, June 1968,pp. 1485-1504.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 18
18.7. Mojtahedi, S., and Gamble, W. L., “Ultimate Steel Stresses in Unbonded Pre-
stressed Concrete,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 104, ST7, July 1978, pp. 1159-1165.
18.8. Mattock, A. H.; Yamazaki, J.; and Kattula, B. T., “Comparative Study of Pre-stressed
Concrete Beams, with and without Bond,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 68, No. 2,
Feb. 1971, pp. 116-125.
18.9. ACI-ASCE Committee 423, “Recommendations for Concrete Members Pre-stressed
with Unbonded Tendons (ACI 423.3R3-89),” ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 3,
May-June 1989, pp. 301-318. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
18.10. Odello, R. J., and Mehta, B. M., “Behavior of a Continuous Pre-stressed Concrete
Slab with Drop Panels,” Report, Division of Structural Engineering and Structural
Mechanics, University of California, Berkeley, 1967.
18.11. Smith, S. W., and Burns, N. H., “Post-Tensioned Flat Plate to Column Connection
Behavior,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 19, No. 3, May-June
1974, pp. 74-91.
18.12. Burns, N. H., and Hemakom, R., “Test of Scale Model Post- Tensioned Flat Plate,”
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, ST6, June 1977, pp. 1237-1255.
18.13. Hawkins, N. M., “Lateral Load Resistance of Unbonded Post- Tensioned Flat Plate
Construction,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 26, No. 1, Jan.-Feb.
1981, pp. 94- 116.
18.14. “Guide Specifications for Post-Tensioning Materials,” Post- Tensioning Manual, 5th
Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Anz., 1990, pp. 208-216.
18.15. Foutch, D. A.; Gamble, W. L.; and Sunidja, H., “Tests of Post-Tensioned Concrete
Slab-Edge Column Connections,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 87, No. 2, Mar.-Apr.
1990, pp. 167-179.
18.16. Mast, R.F., “Unified Design Provision for Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete
Flexural and Compression Members,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 89, No. 2, Mar.-
Apr., 1992, pp. 185-199.
18.17. “Design of Post-Tensioned Slabs,” Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Ariz.,
1984,54 pp.
18.18. Gerber, L. L., and Bums, N. H., “Ultimate Strength Tests of Post-Tensioned Flat
Plates,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 16, No. 6, Nov.-Dec.
1971, pp. 40-58.
18.19. Scordelis, A. C.; Lin, T. Y.; and Itaya, R., “Behavior of a Continuous Slab Pre-
stressed in Two Directions,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No. 6, Dec.
1959, pp. 441-459.
18.20. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, “Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges,” 16th Edition, 1996.
18.21. Breen, J. E.; Burdet, O.; Roberts, C.; Sanders, D.;Wollmann, G.; and Falconer, B.,
“Anchorage Zone Requirements for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders,” NCHRP
Report 356, Transportation Research Board, National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C., 1994.
18.22. ACI-ASCE Committee 423, “Recommendations for Concrete Members Pre-
stressed with Unbonded Tendons,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 3, May-June
1989, p. 312.
18.23. “Specification for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons,” revised 1993, Post-
Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1993,20 pp.
18.24. “Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1989,50 pp.
18.25. Gerwick, B. C. Jr., “Protection of Tendon Ducts,” Construction of Pre-stressed
Concrete Structures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1971,411 pp.
18.26. “Recommended Practice for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Pre-stressed Concrete,”
Post-Tensioning Manual, 5th Edition, Post- Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1990,
pp. 230-236.
SBC 304 C 2007 R/16
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
18.27. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Pre-cast and Pre-stressed
Concrete Products, 3rd Edition, MNL-116-85, Pre-cast/Pre-stressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, 1985, 123 pp.
18.28. ACI Committee 301, “Standard Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings
(ACI 301-96),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1996, 34 pp.
Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
18.29. Salmons, J. R., and McCrate, T. E., “Bond Characteristics of Untensioned Pre-
stressing Strand,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 22, No. 1, Jan.-
Feb. 1977, pp. 52-65.
18.30. ACI Committee 215, “Considerations for Design of Concrete Structures Subjected
to Fatigue Loading (ACI 215R- 4)(Revised 1992),” American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1992,24 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
18.31. Barth, F., “Unbonded Post-Tensioning in Building Construction,” Concrete
Construction Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 1997, pp. 12.32-12.47.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 19
19.15. Concrete Shell Buckling, SP-67, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,
1981,234 pp.
19.16. Gupta, A. K., “Membrane Reinforcement in Concrete Shells: A Review,”
Nuclear Engineering and Design, Nofi-Holland Publishing, Amsterdam, V. 82, Oct.
1984, pp. 63-75.
19.17. Vecchio, F. J., and Collins, M. P., “Modified Compression-Field Theory for
Reinforced Concrete Beams Subjected to Shear,” ACI JOURNAL Proceedings V.
83, No. 2, Mar.-Apr.1986, pp. 219-223.
19.18. Fialkow, M. N., “Compatible Stress and Cracking in Reinforced Concrete
Membranes with Multidirectional Reinforcement,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 88,
No. 4, July-Aug. 1991, pp. 445-457.
19.19. Medwadowski, S., “Multidirectional Membrane Reinforcement,” ACI
Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 5, Sept.-Oct.1989, PP. 563-569.
19.20. ACI Committee 224, “Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures (ACI 224R-90),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990,43 pp. Also ACI Manual
of Concrete Practice.
19.21. Gupta, A. K., “Combined Membrane and Flexural Reinforcement in Plates and
Shells,” Structural Engineering, ASCE, V.112, NO. 3, Mar, 1986, pp. 550-557.
19.22. Tedesko, A., “Construction Aspects of Thin Shell Structures,” ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 49, No. 6, Feb. 1953, pp. 505-520.
19.23. Huber, R. W., “Air Supported Forming-Will it Work" Concrete International, V.
8, No. 1, Jan. 1986, pp. 13-17.
REFERENCES, CHAPTER 21
21.1. “NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and
Other Structures,” Part 1: Provisions (FEMA 302,353 pp.) and Part 2: Commentary
(FEMA 303,335 pp.), Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington, D. C., 1997.
21.2. Uniform Building Code, V. 2, “Structural Engineering Design Provisions,” 1997
Edition, International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, CA, 1997, 492
pp.
21.3. “BOCA National Building Code,” 13th Edition, Building Officials and Code
Administration International, Inc., Country Club Hills, IL, 1996, 357 pp.
21.4. “Standard Building Code,” Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc.,
Birmingham, Ala., 1996, 656 pp.
21.5. “International Building Code,” International Code Council, Falls Church, VA,
International Council, 2000.
21.6. Blume, J. A.; Newmark, N. M.; and Coming, L. H., Design of Multistory Reinforced
Concrete Buildings for Earthquake Motions, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
IL, 1961, 318 pp.
21.7. Clough, R. W., “Dynamic Effects of Earthquakes,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 86, ST4,
Apr. 1960, pp. 49-65.
21.8. Gulkan, P., and Sozen, M. A., “Inelastic Response of Reinforced Concrete Structures
to Earthquake Motions,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 71, No. 12, Dec. 1974.,
pp. 604-610.
21.9. “NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and
Other Structures: Part 1: Provisions (FEMA 368, 374 pp.); and Part 2:
Commentary (FEMA 369, 444 pp.), Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington,
DC, 2000.
21.10. ACI-ASCE Committee 352, “Recommendations for Design of Beam-Column Joints
in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures (ACI 352R-9 I),” American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1991, 18 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice.
21.11. Hirosawa, M., “Strength and Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Members,” Report
SBC 304 C 2007 R/18
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
No. 76, Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, Tokyo, Mar. 1977 (in
Japanese). Also, data in Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research Series No.
452, University of Illinois, 1978.
21.12. “Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary,” Seismology
Committee of the Structural Engineers Association of California, Sacramento, CA,
6th Edition, 504 pp.
21.13. Popov, E. P.; Bertero, V. V.; and Krawinkler, H., “Cyclic Behavior of Three R/C
Flexural Members with High Shear,” EERC Report No. 72-5, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Oct. 1972.
21.14. Wight, J. K., and Sozen, M. A., “Shear Strength Decay of RC Columns under Shear
Reversals,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 101, ST5, May 1975, pp. 1053-1065.
21.15. French, C. W., and Moehle, J. P., “Effect of Floor Slab on Behavior of Slab-Beam-
Column Connections,” ACI SP- 123, Design of Beam-Column Joints for Seismic
Resistance, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1991, pp. 225-258.
21.16. Sivakumar, B.; Gergely, P.; White, R. N., “Suggestions for the Design of R/C Lapped
Splices for Seismic Loading,” Concrete International, V. 5, No. 2, Feb. 1983, pp. 46-
50.
21.17. Sakai, K., and Sheikh, S. A., “What Do We Know about Confinement in
Reinforced Concrete Columns” (A Critical Review of Previous Work and Code
Provisions),” ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1989, pp. 192-207.
21.18. Park, R. “Ductile Design Approach for Reinforced Concrete Frames,” Earthquake
Spectra, V. 2, No. 3, May 1986, pp. 565-619.
21.19. Watson, S.; Zahn, F. A.; and Park, R., “Confining Reinforcement for Concrete
Columns,” Journal of Structural Engineering, V. 120, No. 6, June 1994, pp. 1798-
1824.
21.20. Meinheit, D. F., and Jirsa, J. O., “Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beam-
Column Joints,” Report No. 77-1, Department of Civil Engineering, Structures
Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, Jan. 1977.
21.21. Briss, G. R.; Paulay, T; and Park, R., “Elastic Behavior of Earthquake Resistant R. C.
Interior Beam-Column Joints,” Report 78- 13, University of Canterbury, Department
of Civil Engineering, Christchurch, New Zealand, Feb. 1978.
21.22. Ehsani, M. R., “Behavior of Exterior Reinforced Concrete Beam to Column
Connections Subjected to Earthquake Type Loading,’’ Report No. UMEE 82R5,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan, July 1982,275 pp.
21.23. Durrani, A. J., and Wight, J. K., “Experimental and Analytical Study of Internal
Beam to Column Connections Subjected to Reversed Cyclic Loading,” Report No.
UMEE 82R3, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan, July
1982,275 pp.
21.24. Leon, R. T., “Interior Joints with Variable Anchorage Lengths,” Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 115,No. 9, Sept. 1989, pp. 2261- 2275.
21.25. Zhu, S., and Jirsa, J. O., “Study of Bond Deterioration in Reinforced Concrete Beam-
Column Joints,” PMFSEL Report No. 83-1, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Texas at Austin, July 1983.
21.26. Meinheit, D. F., and Jirsa, J. O., “Shear Strength of R/C Beam-Column
Connections,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 107, NO.ST11,
NOV.1982, pp. 2227-2244.
21.27. Ehsani, M. R., and Wight, J. K., “Effect of Transverse Beams and Slab on
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beam to Column Connections,” ACI JOURNAL
,Proceedings V. 82, No. 2, Mar.- Apr. 1985, pp. 188-195.
21.28. Ehsani, M. R., “Behavior of Exterior Reinforced Concrete Beam to Column
Connections Subjected to Earthquake Type Loading,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 82, No. 4, July-Aug. 1985,pp. 492-499.
21.29. Durrani, A. J., and Wight, J. K., “Behavior of Interior Beam to Column Connections
under Earthquake Type Loading,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 82, No. 3, May-
SBC 304 C 2007 R/19
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
REFERENCES, APPENDIX A
A.l. Schlaich, J.; Schäfer, K.; and Jennewein, M., “Toward a Consistent Design of
Structural Concrete,” PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June, 1987, pp 74-150.
A.2. Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., Pre-stressed Concrete Structures, Prentice Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991, 766 pp.
A.3. Macgregor, J. G., Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design, 3rd Edition., Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1997, 939 pp. A.4.
A.4. FIP Recommendations, Practical Design of Structural Concrete, FIP-
Commission 3, “Practical Design,” Sept. 1996, Pub.: SE- TO, London, Sept. 1999.
A5. Menn, C, Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Birkhäuser, Basie, 535 pp.
A.6. MuttoN, A; Schwartz,J.; and Thiirlimann,B., Design of Concrete Structures with
Stress Fields, Birkhauser,Boston, Mass., 1997,143pp.
A.7. Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445, “Recent Approaches to Shear Design of
Structural Concrete,” ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Dec., 1998, pp 1375-
1417.
A.8. Bergmeister, K.; Breen, J. E.; and Jirsa, J. O., “Dimensioning of the Nodes and
Development of Reinforcement,” IABSE Colloquium Stuttgart 1991, International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1991, pp. 551-556.
REFERENCES, APPENDIX B
B.l. Cohn, M. A., “Rotational Compatibility in the Limit Design of Reinforced Concrete
Continuous Beams,” Flexural Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete, ACI SP-12,
American Concrete Institute/ American Society of Civil Engineers, Farmington
Hills, MI, 1965, pp. 35-46.
B.2. Mattock, A. H., “Redistribution of Design Bending Moments in Reinforced Concrete
Continuous Beams,” Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, V. 13,
1959, pp. 35-46.
B.3. “Design of Post-Tensioned Slabs,” Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Ariz., 1984,
54 pp.
B.4. Gerber, L. L., and Bums, N. H., “Ultimate Strength Tests of Post-Tensioned Flat
Plates,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 16, No. 6, Nov.-Dec.
1971, pp. 40-58.
B.5. Smith, S. W., and Bums, N. H., “Post-Tensioned Flat Plate to Column Connection
Behavior,” Journal of the Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, V. 19, No. 3, May-June,
1974, pp. 74-91.
B.6. Bums, N. H., and Hemakom, R., “Test of Scale Model Post- Tensioned Hat Plate,”
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, ST6, June 1977, pp. 1237-1255.
B.7. Bums, N. H., and Hemakom, R., “Test of Flat Plate with Bonded Tendons,”
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 111, No. 9, Sept. 1985, pp. 1899-1915.
B.8. Kosut, G. M.; Bums, N. H.; and Winter, C. V., “Test of Four- Panel Post-Tensioned
Flat Plate,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 111, No. 9, Sept. 1985, pp. 1916-1929.
REFERENCES, APPENDIX D
D.1. ANSI/ASME B1.l, “Unified Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form),
ASME, Fairfield, N.J., 1989.
SBC 304 C 2007 R/21
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
D.2. ANSVASME B18.2.1, “Square and Hex Bolts and Screws, Inch Series,” ASME,
Fairfield, N.J., 1996.
D.3. ANSUASME B 18.2.6, “Fasteners for Use in Structural Applications,” ASME,
Fairfield, N.J., 1996.
D.4. Cook, R. A., and Klingner, R. E., “Behavior of Ductile Multiple- Anchor Steel-to-
Concrete Connections with Surface-Mounted Base- plates,” Anchors in Concrete:
Design and Behavior, SP-130, 1992, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, pp. 61-122.
D.5. Cook, R. A., and Klingner, R. E., “Ductile Multiple-Anchor Steel-to-Concrete
Connections,” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 118, No. 6, June 1992,
pp. 1645-1665.
D.6. Lotze, D., and Klingner, R.E., “Behavior of Multiple-Anchor Attachments to
Concrete from the Perspective of Plastic Theory,” Report PMFSEL 96-4, Ferguson
Structural Engineering Laboratory, The University of Texas at Austin, Mar., 1997.
D.7. Primavera, E. J.; Pinelli, J.-P.; and Kalajian, E. H., “Tensile Behavior of Cast-in-
Place and Undercut Anchors in High-Strength Concrete,” ACI Structural Journal, V.
94, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1997, pp. 583-594.
D.8. Design of Fastenings in Concrete, Comite Euro-Intemational du Beton (CEB),
Thomas Telford Services Ltd., London, Jan. 1997.
D.9. Fuchs, W.; Eligehausen, R.; and Breen, J., “Concrete Capacity Design (CCD)
Approach for Fastening to Concrete,” ACZ Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 1, Jan.-
Feb., 1995, pp. 73-93. Also discussion, ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 6, Nov.-
Dec., 1995, pp. 787-802.
D.10. Eligehausen, R., and Balogh, T., “Behavior of Fasteners Loaded in Tension in
Cracked Reinforced Concrete,” ACZ Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 3, May-June
1995, pp. 365-379.
D.11. “Fastenings to Concrete and Masonry Structures, State of the Art Report,” Comite
Euro-International du Beton, (CEB), Bulletin No. 216, Thomas Telford Services Ltd.,
London, 1994.
D.12. Klingner, R.; Mendonca, J.; and Malik, J., “Effect of Reinforcing Details on the Shear
Resistance of Anchor Bolts under Reversed Cyclic Loading,” ACI
JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 79, NO. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1982, pp. 3-12.
D.13. Eligehausen, R.; Fuchs, W.; and Mayer, B., “Load Bearing Behavior of Anchor
Fastenings in Tension,” Betonwerk + Fertigteiltechnik, 12/1987, pp. 826-832, and
111988,pp. 29-35.
D.14. Eligehausen, R., and Fuchs, W., “Load Bearing Behavior of Anchor Fastenings under
Shear, Combined Tension and Shear or Flexural Loadings,” Betonwerk +
Fertigteiltechnik,2/1988, pp. 48-56.
D.15. ACI Committee 349, “Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related Concrete
Structures (ACI 349-85),” See also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 4, 1987.
D.16. Farrow, C.B., and Klingner, R.E., “Tensile Capacity of Anchors with Partial or
Overlapping Failure Surfaces: Evaluation of Existing Formulas on an LRFD Basis,”
ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1995, pp. 698-710.
D.17. PCI Design Handbook, 5th Edition, Pre-cast/Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
1999.
D.18. “AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications for Structural Steel
Buildings,” Dec. 1999, 327 pp.
D.19. Zhang, Y., “Dynamic Behavior of Multiple Anchor Connections in Cracked
Concrete,” PhD dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Aug. 1997.
D.20. Lutz, L., “Discussion to Concrete Capacity Design (CCD) Approach for Fastening
to Concrete,” ACI Structural Journal, Nov.-Dec. 1995, pp. 791-792. Also authors’
closure, pp. 798-799.
D.21. Kuhn, D., and Shaikh, F., “Slip-Pullout Strength of Hooked Anchors,” Research
SBC 304 C 2007 R/22
COMMENTARY REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS
SECTION RA.0
NOTATION
Units of measurement are given in the notation to assist the user and are
not intended to preclude the use of other correctly applied units for the
same symbol, such as m or kN.
lb = width of bearing, mm
R = reaction, N
T = tension force acting on a nodal zone, N
ws = effective width of a strut perpendicular to the axis of the
strut, mm
wt = effective width of concrete concentric with a tie, used to
dimension nodal zone, mm
wt ,max = maximum effective width of concrete concentric with a tie,
mm
β1 = factor defined in 10.2.7.3
SECTION RA.1
DEFINITIONS
D-region - The shaded regions in Fig. RA.l.l(a) and (b) show typical D-
regions.A.1 The plane sections assumption of 10.2.2 is not applicable in
such regions.
Deep beam - See Fig. RA. 1.2(a), RA.1.2(b), and RA. 1.3,and Sections
10.7 and 11.8.
Node -For equilibrium, at least three forces should act on a node in a strut-
and-tie model, as shown in Fig. RA.1.4. Nodes are classified according to
the signs of these forces. A C-C-C node resists three compressive forces, a
C-C-T node resists two compressive forces and one tensile force, and so
on.
Nodal zone - Historically, hydrostatic nodal zones as shown in Fig. RA.1.5
were used. These were largely superseded by what are called extended
nodal zones, shown in Fig. RA.1.6.
Fig.RA.1.5-Hydrostatic nodes
A hydrostatic nodal zone has loaded faces perpendicular to the axes of the
struts and ties acting on the node and have equal stresses on the loaded
faces. Figure RA. 1.5(a) shows a C-C-C nodal zone. If the stresses on the
face of the nodal zone are the same in all three struts, the ratios of the
lengths of the sides of the nodal zone, wn1 : wn 2 : wn 3 are in the same
proportions as the three forces C1 : C2 : C3 . The faces of a hydrostatic
nodal zone are perpendicular to the axes of the struts and ties acting on the
nodal zone.
These nodal zones are called hydrostatic nodal zones because the in-plane
stresses are the same in all directions.
Fig. RA.1.6 -Extended nodal zone showing the effect of the distribution of the force.
The shaded areas in Fig. RA.1.6(a) and (b) are extended nodal zones.
An extended nodal zone is that portion of a member bounded by the
intersection of the effective strut width, ws , and the effective tie width,
wt (see RA.4.2).
In the nodal zone shown in Fig. RA.1.7(a), the reaction R equilibrates the
vertical components of the forces C1 and C 2 . Frequently, calculations
are easier if the reaction R is divided into R1 , which equilibrates the
vertical component of C1 and R2 , which equilibrates the vertical
component of the force C 2 , as shown in Fig. RA1.7(b).
Fig. RA.1.8 - Bottle-shaped strut: (a ) cracking of a bottle-shaped strut; and (b) strut-and-
tie model of a bottle-shaped strut.
SECTION RA.2
STRUT-AND-TIE MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE
RA.2.3 The struts, ties, and nodal zones making up the strut-and-tie model all
have finite widths that should be taken into account in selecting the
dimensions of the truss. Figure RA.2.3(a) shows a node and the
corresponding nodal zone. The vertical and horizontal forces equilibrate
the force in the inclined strut. If the stresses are equal in all three
struts, a hydrostatic nodal zone can be used and the widths of the struts
will be in proportion to the forces in the struts.
RA.2.5 The angle between the axes of struts and ties acting on a node should be
large enough to mitigate cracking and to avoid incompatibilities due to
shortening of the struts and lengthening of the ties occurring in almost
the same directions. This limitation on the angle prevents modeling the
shear spans in slender beams using struts inclined at less than 25 degrees
from the longitudinal steel. See Reference A.6.
RA.2.6 Factored loads are applied to the strut-and-tie model, and the forces in
all the struts, ties, and nodal zones are computed. If several loading cases
exist, each should be investigated. The strut-and-tie model, or models, are
analyzed for the loading cases and, for a given strut, tie, or nodal
zone, Fu is the largest force in that element for all loading cases.
SECTION RA.3
STRENGTH OF STRUTS
RA.3.2 The strength coefficient, 0.85 f c' , in Eq. (A-3), represents the effective
concrete strength under sustained compression, similar to that used in Eq.
(10-1) and (10-2).
RA.3.2.2 The value of β s in A.3.2.2 applies to bottle- shaped struts as shown in Fig.
RA.1.3. The internal lateral spread of the compression forces can lead to
splitting parallel to the axis of the strut near the ends of the strut, as shown
in Fig. RA.1.8. Reinforcement placed to resist the splitting force
restrains crack width, allows the strut to resist more axial load, and
permits some redistribution of force.
The value of β s in A.3.2.2(b) includes the correction factor, λ for
lightweight concrete because the strength of a strut without transverse
reinforcement is assumed to be limited to less than the load at which
longitudinal cracking develops.
RA.3.3 The reinforcement required by A.3.3 is related to the tension force in the
concrete due to the spreading of the strut, as shown in the strut-and-tie
model in Fig. RA.1.8 (b). Section RA.3.3 allows designers to use local
strut-and-tie models to compute the amount of transverse reinforcement
SBC – 304C 2007 A/10
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-A
RA.3.3.2 In a corbel with a shear span-to-depth ratio less than 1.0, the confinement
reinforcement required to satisfy A.3.3 is usually provided in the form of
horizontal stirrups crossing the inclined compression strut, as shown in
Fig. R.11.9.2.
RA.3.4 The design of tendon anchorage zones for pre- stressed concrete
sometimes uses confinement to enhance the compressive strength of the
struts in the local zone. Confinement of struts is discussed in References
A.4 and A.8.
SBC – 304C 2007 A/11
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-A
RA.3.5 The strength added by the reinforcement is given by the last term in Eq.
(A-5). The stress f s' in the reinforcement in a strut at nominal strength can
be obtained from the strains in the strut when the strut crushes. For Grade
300 or 420 reinforcement, f s' can be taken as f y .
SECTION RA.4
STRENGTH OF TIES
RA.4.2 The effective tie width assumed in design wt can vary between the
following limits, depending on the distribution of the tie reinforcement:
1. If the bars in the tie are in one layer, the effective tie width can be
taken as the diameter of the bars in the tie plus twice the cover to the
surface of the bars, as shown in Fig. RA.1.6(a); and
2. A practical upper limit of the tie width can be taken as the width
corresponding to the width in a hydrostatic nodal cone, calculated as
wt ,max = Fnt / f cu
Where f cu is the applicable effective compression strength of the nodal
zone given in A.5.2. If the tie width exceeds the value from Item 1, the tie
reinforcement should be distributed approximately uniform over the width
and thickness of the tie, as shown in Fig. RA.1.6(b).
RA.4.3 Anchorage of ties often requires special attention in nodal zones of corbels
or in nodal zones adjacent to exterior supports of deep beams. The
reinforcement in a tie should be anchored before it leaves the extended
nodal zone at the point defined by the intersection of the centroid of the
bars in the tie and the extensions of the outlines of either the strut or the
bearing area. In Fig. RA.1.6(a) and (b), this occurs where the outline
of the extended nodal zone is crossed by the centroid of the
reinforcement in the tie. Some of the anchorage may be achieved by
extending the reinforcement through the nodal zone as shown in
Fig. RA.1.5(c), and developing it beyond the nodal zone. If the tie is
anchored using 90 deg hooks, the hooks should be confined within the
reinforcement extending into the beam from the supporting member to
avoid cracking along the outside of the hooks in the support region.
In deep beams, hairpin bars spliced with the tie reinforcement can be used
to anchor the tension tie forces at exterior supports, provided the beam
width is large enough to accommodate such bars.
SECTION RA.5
STRENGTH OF NODAL ZONES
RA5.1 If the stresses in all the struts meeting at a node are equal, a hydrostatic
nodal zone can be used. The faces of such a nodal zone are perpendicular
to the axes of the struts, and the widths of the faces of the nodal zone are
proportional to the forces in the struts.
Assuming the principal stresses in the struts and ties act parallel to the axes
of the struts and ties, the stresses on faces perpendicular to these axes are
principal stresses, and A5.l(a) is used. If, as shown in Fig. RA4.1.6(b), the
face of a nodal zone is not perpendicular to the axis of the strut, there will
be both shear stresses and normal stresses on the face of the nodal zone.
Typically, these stresses are replaced by the normal (principal
compression) stress acting on the cross-sectional area Ac of the strut, taken
perpendicular to the axis of the strut as given in A5.l(a).
RA.5.3 This description of the shape and orientation of the faces of the nodal
zones is introduced to simplify the calculations of the geometry of a
three-dimensional strut-and-tie model.
APPENDIX B
SECTION RB.1
SCOPE
Fig, RB.8.4 - Permissible moment redistribution for mini- mum rotation capacity.
If ρ ( f y / f c' ) is sufficiently low, the strain in the tension steel will greatly
exceed the yield strain when the concrete strain reaches its limiting value,
with large deflection and ample warning of impending failure (ductile
failure condition). With a larger ρ ( f y / f c' ) , the strain in the tension steel
may not reach the yield strain when the concrete strain reaches its limiting
value, with consequent small deflection and little warning of impending
failure (brittle failure condition). For design it is considered more
conservative to restrict the nominal strength condition so that a ductile
failure mode can be expected.
Unless unusual amounts of ductility are required, the 0.65ρ b limitation will
provide ductile behavior for most designs. One condition where greater
ductile behavior is required is in design for redistribution of moments in
continuous members and frames. Section B.8.4 permits negative moment
redistribution. Since moment redistribution is dependent on adequate
ductility in hinge regions, the amount of tension reinforcement in hinging
regions is limited to 0.5ρ b .
For ductile behavior of beams with compression reinforcement, only that
portion of the total tension steel balanced by compression in the concrete
need be limited; that portion of the total tension steel where force is
balanced by compression reinforcement need not be limited by the 0.75
factor.
B/2
SBC – 304C 2007
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-B
RB.18.1 Scope
RB.18.1.3 Some sections of the code are excluded from use in the design of
prestressed concrete for specific reasons. The following discussion
provides an explanation for such exclusions:
Section 7.6.5 - Section 7.6.5 is excluded from application to prestressed
concrete since the requirements for bonded reinforcement and un-bonded
tendons for cast-in-place members are provided in 18.9 and 18.12,
respectively.
Section B.8.4 - Moment redistribution for prestressed concrete is provided
in B.18.10.4.
Sections 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4 - The empirical provisions of 8.10.2,
8.10.3, and 8.10.4 for T-beams were developed for conventionally
reinforced concrete and, if applied to prestressed concrete, would exclude
many standard prestressed products in satisfactory use today. Hence, proof
by experience permits variations.
By excluding 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4, no special requirements for
prestressed concrete T-beams appear in the code. Instead, the determination
of an effective width of flange is left to the experience and judgment of the
engineer. Where possible, the flange widths in 8.10.2, 8.10.3, and 8.10.4
should be used unless experience has proven that variations are safe and
satisfactory. It is not necessarily conservative in elastic analysis and design
considerations to use the maximum flange width as permitted in 8.10.2.
Sections 8.10.1 and 8.10.5 provide general requirements for T-beams that
are also applicable to prestressed concrete units. The spacing limitations
for slab reinforcement are based on flange thickness, which for tapered
flanges can be taken as the average thickness.
Section 8.11 - The empirical limits established for conventionally
reinforced concrete joist floors are based on successful past performance
of joist construction using “standard” joist forming systems. See
R8.11. For prestressed joist construction, experience and judgment should
be used. The provisions of 8.11 may be used as a guide.
Sections B.10.3.2, 10.5, 10.9.1, and 10.9.2 - For prestressed concrete, the
limitations on reinforcement given in B.10.3.2, 10.5, 10.9.1, and 10.9.2 are
replaced by those in B.18.8, 18.9, and 18.11.2.
Section 10.6 - When originally prepared, the provisions of 10.6 for
distribution of flexural reinforcement were not intended for prestressed
concrete members. The behavior of a prestressed member is considerably
different from that a non-prestressed member. Experience and judgment
should be used for proper distribution of reinforcement in a prestressed
member.
Chapter 13 - The design of prestressed concrete slabs requires recognition
of secondary moments induced by the undulating profile of the prestressing
tendons. Also, volume changes due to the prestressing force can create
additional loads on the structure that are not adequately covered in Chapter
B/3
SBC – 304C 2007
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-B
RB.18.8.1 The terms ω p , [ω p + (d / d p )(ω − ω ')] and [ω pw + (d / d p )(ω w − ω w ')] are each
equal to 0.85a / d p where α is the depth of the equivalent rectangular
stress distribution for the section under consideration, as defined in
10.2.7.1. Use of this relationship can simplify the calculations necessary to
check compliance with RB. 18.8.1.
RB.18.8.2 Design moment strength of over-reinforced sections may be computed
using strength equations similar to those for non-prestressed concrete
members.
RB.18.8.3 This provision is a precaution against abrupt flexural failure developing
immediately after cracking. A flexural member designed according to code
provisions requires considerable additional load beyond cracking to reach
its flexural strength. This additional load should result in considerable
deflection that would warn when the member nominal strength is being
approached. If the flexural strength is reached shortly after cracking, the
warning deflection would not occur.
Due to the very limited extent of initial cracking in the negative moment
region near columns of two-way flat plates, deflection under load does not
reflect any abrupt change in stiffness as the modulus of rupture of concrete
is reached.
Only at load levels beyond the factored loads is the additional cracking
extensive enough to cause an abrupt change in the deflection under load.
Tests have shown that it is not possible to rupture (or even yield) un-
bonded post-tensioning tendons in two-way slabs before a punching
shear failure.B.3-B.8 The use of un-bonded tendons in combination
with the minimum bonded reinforcement requirements of 18.9.3 and
18.9.4 has been shown to ensure post-cracking ductility and that a brittle
failure mode will not develop at first cracking.
for a beam with a given inelastic rotation capacity, the amount by which
the moment at the support may be varied is changed by an amount equal to
the secondary moment at the support due to prestressing. Thus, the code
requires that secondary moments be included in determining design
moments.
To determine the moments used in design, the order of calculation should
be: (a) determine moments due to dead load and live load; (b) modify by
algebraic addition of secondary moments; and (c) redistribute as permitted.
A positive secondary moment at the support caused by a tendon
transformed downward from a concordant profile will reduce the negative
moments near the supports and increase the positive moments in the mid-
span regions. A tendon that is transformed upward will have the reverse
effect.
B/5
SBC – 304C 2007
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-D
APPENDIX D
ANCHORING TO CONCRETE
SECTION RD.0
NOTATION
SECTION RD.1
DEFINITIONS
SECTION RD.2
SCOPE
RD.2.2 The wide variety of shapes and configurations of specialty inserts makes it
difficult to prescribe generalized tests and design equations for many
insert types. Hence, they have been excluded from the scope of
Appendix D. Adhesive anchors are widely used and can perform
adequately. At this time, however, such anchors are outside the scope of
this appendix.
RD.2.3 Typical cast-in headed studs and headed bolts with geometries
consistent with ANSI/ASME B 1.1 B18.2.1 and B18.2.6D.3 have
D.l D.2
RD.2.4 The exclusion from the scope of load applications producing high cycle
fatigue or extremely short duration impact (such as blast or shock wave)
are not meant to exclude seismic load effects. D.3.3 presents additional
requirements for design when seismic loads are included.
SECTION RD.3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
require testing of post- installed anchors in concrete with f c' greater than
55 MPa because some post-installed anchors may have difficulty
expanding in very high-strength concretes. Because of this, f c' is limited
to 55 MPa in the design of post-installed anchors unless testing is
performed.
SECTION RD.4
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRENGTH OF ANCHORS
RD.4.1 This section provides requirements for establishing the strength of anchors
to concrete. The various types of steel and concrete failure modes for
anchors are shown in Fig. RD.4.1(a) and RD.4.1(b) Comprehensive
discussions of anchor failure modes are included in References D.8 to
D.l0. Any model that complies with the requirements of D.4.2 and D.4.3
can be used to establish the concrete-related strengths. For anchors such
as headed bolts, headed studs, and post- installed anchors, the concrete
breakout design methods of D.5.2 and D.6.2 are acceptable. The anchor
strength is also dependent on the pullout strength of D.5.3, the side-
face blowout strength of D.5.4, and the minimum spacings and edge
distances of D.8. The design of anchors for tension recognizes that the
strength of anchors is sensitive to appropriate installation; installation
requirements are included in D.9. Some post-installed anchors are less
sensitive to installation errors and tolerances. This is reflected in varied
φ factors based on the assessment criteria of ACI 355.2.
Test procedures can also be used to determine the single-anchor breakout
strength in tension and in shear. The test results, however, are required to
be evaluated on a basis statistically equivalent to that used to select the
values for the concrete breakout method “considered to satisfy” provisions
of D.4.2. The basic strength cannot be taken greater than the 5 percent
fractile. The number of tests has to be sufficient for statistical validity and
should be considered in the determination of the 5 percent fractile.
RD.4.2
And RD.4.3 D.4.2 and D.4.3 establish the performance factors for which anchor design
models are required to be verified. Many possible design approaches exist
and the user is always permitted to “design by test” using D.4.2 as long as
sufficient data are available to verify the model.
RD.4.2.1 The addition of supplementary reinforcement in the direction of the
load, confining reinforcement, or both, can greatly enhance the strength
and ductility of the anchor connection. Such enhancement is practical with
castin anchors such as those used in precast sections.
The shear strength of headed anchors located near the edge of a member
can be significantly increased with appropriate supplementary
reinforcement. References D.8, D. 11, and provide substantial information
on design of such reinforcement. The effect of such supplementary
reinforcement is not included in the ACI 355.2 anchor acceptance tests or
in the concrete breakout calculation method of D.5.2 and D.6.2. The
designer has to rely on other test data and design theories in order to
SBC – 304C 2007 D/4
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-D
RD.4.4 The factors for steel strength are based on using f ut to determine the
nominal strength of the anchor (see D.5.1 and D.6.1) rather than f y as
used in the design of reinforced concrete members. Although the φ factors
for use with f ut appear low, they result in a level of safety consistent with
the use of higher φ factors applied to f y . The smaller φ factors for shear
than for tension do not reflect basic material differences but rather
account for the possibility of a non-uniform distribution of shear in
connections with multiple anchors. It is acceptable to have a ductile
failure of a steel element in the attachment if the attachment is designed so
that it will undergo ductile yielding at a load level no greater than 75
percent of the minimum design strength of an anchor (See D.3.3.4). For
anchors governed by the more brittle concrete breakout or blowout failure,
two conditions are recognized. If supplementary reinforcement is provided
to tie the failure prism into the structural member (Condition A), more
ductility is present than in the case where such supplementary
reinforcement is not present (Condition B). Design of supplementary
reinforcement is discussed in RD.4.2.1 and References D.8, D.11, D. 12,
and D.15.
The ACI 355.2 tests for sensitivity to installation procedures determine the
category appropriate for a particular anchoring device. In the ACI 355.2
tests, the effects of variability in anchor torque during installation,
tolerance on drilled hole size, energy level used in setting anchors,
and for anchors approved for use in cracked concrete, increased
crack widths are considered. The three categories of acceptable post-
installed anchors are:
Category 1 - low sensitivity to installation and high reliability;
SECTION RD.5
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TENSILE LOADING
exceeds this value, the anchoring may be subjected to service loads above
f y under service loads. Although not a concern for standard structural
steel anchors (maximum value of f ut / f y is 1.6 for ASTM A 307), the
limitation is applicable to some stainless steels.
RD.5.2.1 The effects of multiple anchors, spacing of anchors, and edge distance on
the nominal concrete breakout strength in tension are included by applying
the modification factors AN / ANo and ψ 2 in Eq.(D-4) and (D-5).
Figure RD.5.2.1(a) shows ANo and the development of Eq. (D-6). ANo is
the maximum projected area for a single anchor. Figure RD.5.2.l(b)
shows examples of the projected areas for various single-anchor and
multiple-anchor arrangements. Because AN is the total projected area for
a group of anchors, and ANo is the area for a single anchor, there is no
need to include n , the number of anchors, in Eq. (D-4) or (D-5). If anchor
groups are positioned in such a way that their projected areas overlap, the
value of AN is required to be reduced accordingly.
RD.5.2.2 The basic equation for anchor capacity was derived D.9-D.11,D.14 assuming a
concrete failure prism with an angle of about 35 degrees, considering
fracture mechanics concepts.
The values of k in Eq. (D-7) were determined from a large database of
test results in uncracked concreteD.9 at the 5 percent fractile. The values
were adjusted to corresponding k values for cracked concrete.D.10,D.19
Higher k values for post-installed anchors may be permitted, provided
they have been determined from product approval testing in
accordance with ACI 355.2. When using k values from ACI 355.2
product approval reports, ψ 3 shall be taken as 1.0 because the published
test results of the ACI 355.2 product approval tests provide specific k
values for cracked or uncracked concrete. For anchors with a deep
embedment ( hef >280 mm), some test evidence indicates the use of hef1.5 can
be overly conservative for some cases. Often such tests have been used
with selected aggregates for special applications. An alternative expression
(Eq. (D-8)) is provided using hef5 / 3 for evaluation of cast-in anchors with
280 mm ≤ hef ≤ 635mm. The limit of 635 mm corresponds to the upper
range of test data. This expression can also be appropriate for some
undercut post-installed anchors. D.4.2, however, should be used with test
results to justify such applications.
Fig. RD.5.2.1(a) - Calculation of ANo ; and (b )projected areas for single anchors and
groups of anchors and calculation of A N
RD.5.2.3 For anchors influenced by three or more edges where any edge distance is
less than 1.5hef , the tensile break-out strength computed by the ordinary
CCD Method, which is the basis for Eq. (D-7) and (D-8), gives misleading
results. This occurs because the ordinary definitions of AN / ANo do not
correctly reflect the edge effects. If the value of hef is limited cmax / 1.5 ,
however, where cmax is the largest of the influencing edge distances that
are less than or equal to the actual 1.5hef , this problem is corrected.
As shown by Lutz,D.20 this limiting value of hef is to be used in Eq. (D-
6) to (D-11). This approach is best understood when applied to an actual
case. Figure RD.5.2.3 shows how the failure surface has the same area for
any embedment beyond the proposed limit on hef (taken as hef' in the
figure). In this example, the proposed limit on the value of hef to be used
in the computations where hef = cmax / 1.5 , results in hef = hef' = 100 mm/1.5
= 67 mm. For this example, this would be the proper value to be used for
Fig. RD.5.2.3 - Failure surfaces in narrow members for different embedment depths.
RD.5.2.4 Figure RD.5.2.4(a) shows dimension eN' = eN for a group of anchors that
are all in tension but that have a resultant force eccentric with respect to
the centroid of the anchor group. Groups of anchors can be loaded in
such a way that only some of the anchors are in tension [Fig. RD.5.2.4(b)].
In this case, only the anchors in tension are to be considered in the
determination of eN' . The anchor loading has to be determined as the
resultant anchor tension at an eccentricity with respect to the center of
gravity of the anchors in tension. Equation (D-9) is limited to cases where
eN' ≤ s / 2 to alert the designer that all anchors may not be in tension.
RD.5.2.5 If anchors are located close to an edge so that there is not enough space for
a complete breakout prism to develop, the load-bearing capacity of the
anchor is further reduced beyond that reflected in AN / ANo . If the
smallest side cover distance is greater than 1.5hef a complete prism can
form and there is no reduction (ψ 2 = 1). If the side cover is less than 1.5hef
the factor ψ 2 is required to adjust for the edgeD.9
RD.5.2.6 Post-installed and cast-in anchors that have not met the requirements for
use in cracked concrete according to ACI 355.2 should be used in un-
cracked regions only. The analysis for the determination of crack
formation should include the effects of restrained shrinkage (see
7.12.1.2). The anchor qualification tests of ACI 355.2 require that
anchors in cracked concrete zones perform well in a crack that is 0.3 mm
wide. If wider cracks are expected, confining reinforcement to control the
crack width to about 0.3 mm should be provided.
The concrete breakout strengths given by Eq. (D-7) and (D-8) assume
cracked concrete (that is, ψ 3 = 1.0) with ψ 3 k = 10 for cast-in-place, and 7
for post-installed (cast-in 40 percent higher). When the un-cracked
concrete ψ 3 factors are applied (1.25 for cast-in, and 1.4 for post-
installed), the results are ψ 3 k factors of 13 for cast-in and 10 for post-
installed (25 percent higher for cast-in). This agrees with field
observations and tests that show cast-in anchor strength exceeds that of
post-installed for both cracked and un-cracked concrete.
RD.5.3.2 The pullout strength equations given in D.5.3.4 and D.5.3.5 are only
applicable to cast-in headed and hooked anchors;D.8,D.21
they are not applicable to expansion and undercut anchors that use various
mechanisms for end anchorage unless the validity of the pullout
strength equations are verified by tests.
RD.5.3.3 The pullout strength in tension of headed studs or headed bolts can be
increased by providing confining reinforcement, such as closely spaced
spirals, throughout the head region. This increase can be demonstrated by
tests.
RD.5.3.4 Equation (D-13) corresponds to the load at which the concrete under
the anchor head begins to crush.D.8,D.15 It is not the load required to
pull the anchor completely out of the concrete, so the equation contains no
term relating to embedment depth. The designer should be aware that local
crushing under the head will greatly reduce the stiffness of the
connection, and generally will be the beginning of a pullout failure.
RD.5.3.5 Equation (D-14) for hooked bolts was developed by Lutz based on the
results of Reference D.21. Reliance is placed on the bearing component
only, neglecting any frictional component because crushing inside the
hook will greatly reduce the stiffness of the connection, and generally will
be the beginning of pullout failure. The limits on eh are based on the range
of variables used in the three tests programs reported in Reference D.2 1.
SECTION RD.6
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEAR LOADING
RD.6.1.2 The nominal shear strength of anchors is best represented by Ase f ut for
headed stud anchors and 0.6 Ase f ut for other anchors rather than a
function of Ase f y because typical anchor materials do not exhibit a well-
defined yield point. The use of Eq. (D-17) and (D-18) with 9.2 load factors
and the φ factors of D.4.4 give design strengths consistent with the SBC
306 Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications. D.18
RD.6.2.1 The shear strength equations were developed from the CCD method. They
assume a breakout cone angle of approximately 35 degrees (See Fig.
RD.4.2.2(b)), and consider fracture mechanics theory. The effects of
multiple anchors, spacing of anchors, edge distance, and thickness of the
concrete member on nominal concrete breakout strength in shear are
included by applying the reduction factor Av / AVo in Eq. (D-20) and (D-
21), andψ 5 in Eq. (D-21). For anchors far from the edge, D.6.2 usually
will not govern. For these cases, D.6.1 and D.6.3 often govern.
of the load.
RD.6.2.2 Like the concrete breakout tensile capacity, the concrete breakout shear
capacity does not increase with the failure surface, which is proportional
to (c1 ) . Instead the capacity increases proportionally to (c1 ) due to
2 1.5
size effect. The capacity is also influenced by the anchor stiffness and the
anchor diameter. D.9-D.11,D.14
The constant, 0.6, in the shear strength equation was determined from test
data reported in Reference D.9 at the 5 percent fractile adjusted for
cracking.
Fig. RD.6.2.l(b) - Projected area for single anchors and groups of anchors and
calculation of AV
RD.6.2.3 For the special case of cast-in headed bolts continuously welded to an
attachment, test dataD.23,D.24 show that somewhat higher shear capacity
exists, possibly due to the stiff welding connection clamping the bolt more
effectively than an attachment with an anchor gap. Because of this, the
basic shear value for such anchors is increased. Limits are imposed to
ensure sufficient rigidity. The design of supplementary reinforcement is
discussed in References D.8, D.11, and D.12.
RD.6.2.4 For anchors influenced by three or more edges where any edge distance is
less than 1.5c1 , the shear breakout strength computed by the basic CCD
Method, which is the basis for Eq. (D-23) and (D-24), gives safe but
misleading results. These special cases were studied for the
κ MethodD.l4 and the problem was pointed out by Lutz. D.20 Similar to the
approach used for tensile breakouts in D.5.2.3, a correct evaluation of the
capacity is determined if the value of c1 to be used in Eq. (D-22) to (D-27)
is limited to h / 1.5 .
RD.6.2.5 This section provides a modification factor for an eccentric shear force
towards an edge on a group of anchors. If the shear load originates above
the plane of the concrete surface, the shear should first be resolved as
a shear in the plane of the concrete surface, with a moment that may or
may not also cause tension in the anchors, depending on the normal
force. Figure RD.6.2.5 defines the term ev' for calculating the ψ 5
modification factor that accounts for the fact that more shear is
applied on one anchor than the other, tending to split the concrete near an
edge. If ev' ≤ s / 2 , the CCD procedure is not applicable.
SECTION RD.7
INTERACTION OF TENSILE AND SHEAR FORCES
SECTION RD.8
REQUIRED EDGE DISTANCES, SPACINGS, AND
THICKNESSES TO PRECLUDE SPLITTING FAILURE
RD.8.2 Because the edge cover over a deep embedment close to the edge can have
a significant effect on the side- face blowout strength of D.5.4, in
RD.8.3 Drilling holes for post-installed anchors can cause micro-cracking. The
requirement for a minimum edge distance twice the maximum aggregate
size is to minimize the effects of such micro-cracking.
RD.8.4 In some cases, it may be desirable to use a larger- diameter anchor than
the requirements on D.8.1 to D.8.3 permit. In these cases, it is permissible
to use a larger-diameter anchor provided the design strength of the
anchor is based on a smaller assumed anchor diameter, d o' .
SECTION RD.9
INSTALLATION OF ANCHORS
APPENDIX F
WD 6.5 6.5 33.2 0.26 664 443 332 221 166 133 111 95 83
WD 7.0 7 38.5 0.302 770 513 385 257 193 154 128 110 96
WD 7.5 7.5 44.2 0.347 884 589 442 295 221 177 147 126 111
WD 8.0 8 50.3 0 1006 671 503 335 252 201 168 144 126
WD 8.5 8.5 56.7 0.445 1134 756 567 378 284 227 189 162 142
WD 9.0 9 63.6 0.499 1272 848 636 424 318 254 212 182 159
WD 9.5 9.5 70.9 0.556 1418 945 709 473 355 284 236 203 177
WD 10.0 10 78.5 0.617 1570 1047 785 523 393 314 262 224 196
WD 10.5 10.5 86.6 0.68 1732 1155 866 577 433 346 289 247 217
WD 11.0 11 95 0.746 1900 1267 950 633 475 380 317 271 238
WD 11.5 11.5 103.9 0.815 2078 1385 1039 693 520 416 346 297 260
WD 12.0 12 113.1 0.888 2262 1508 1131 754 566 452 377 323 283
APPENDIX G
DESIGN AIDS
G.1 Design reference materials illustrating applications of the code requirements may
be found in the following documents. The design aids listed may be obtained from
the sponsoring organization.
G.1.1 “ACI Design Handbook,” ACI Committee 340, Publication SP-17(97),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1997,482 pp.
G.1.1.1 (Provides tables and charts for design of eccentrically loaded columns by the
Strength Design Method. Provides design aids for use in the engineering design
and analysis of reinforced concrete slab systems canying loads by two-way action.
Design aids are also provided for the selection of slab thickness and for
reinforcement required to control deformation and assure adequate shear and
flexural strengths.)
G.1.5 “CRSI Handbook,” Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, Ill., 8th
Edition, 1996, 960 pp.
G.1.5.1 (Provides tabulated designs for structural elements and slab systems. Design
examples are provided to show the basis of and use of the load tables. Tabulated
designs are given for beams; square, round and rectangular columns; one-way
slabs; and one-way joist construction. The design tables for two-way slab systems
include flat plates, flat slabs and waffle slabs. The chapters on foundations provide
design tables for square footings, pile caps, drilled piers (caissons) and
SBC – 304 C 2007 G/1
COMMENTARY APPENDIX-G
cantilevered retaining walls. (Other design aids are presented for crack control;
and development of reinforcement and lap splices.)
G.1.11 “Design and Typical Details of Connections for Precast and Prestressed
Concrete,” Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 2nd Edition, 1988, 270
pp.
G.1.11.1 (Updates available information on design of connections for both structural and
architectural products, and presents a full spectrum of typical details. Provides
design aids and examples.)
ISBN: 9960-9885-3-8
201 Architectural
301 Structural – Loading and Forces
302 Structural – Testing and Inspection
303 Structural – Soil and Foundations
304 Structural – Concrete Structures
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code is a set of legal, administrative and technical systems that
establish building construction in the Kingdom on scientific and engineering bases with the aim
of ensuring the minimum requirements of safety and public health. It started with the issuance of
the Royal Decree No. 7/B/3230 dated 11th June 2000 so as to form a national committee
composed of representatives of Saudi universities and the governmental and private sectors. In
the beginning of September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the general plan of the
National Committee to prepare a unified building code for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
To choose a reference code on which a Saudi Building Code is to be based, a number of
Arab and International experiences, building standards, regulations and plans of the governmental
departments and authorities have been studied. The National Committee has also been acquainted
with the results of the national researches and the international codes, such as the regulations of
the International Code Council (ICC) issued in U.S.A., European Code (EC), Arab Codes, the
Canadian Building Code (NBC). It has also sought the opinions of specialists in relevant Saudi
universities, governmental and private sectors through holding a questionnaire, a symposium and
specialized workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has been chosen. It has also endorsed the use
of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in respect of the electrotechnical
regulations and requirements, the codes of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) for concrete
and masonry structures, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) for loading and forces
and the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) for steel structures.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and construction
industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the universities and
research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to code content by
holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of experts from inside
and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of April
2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base code with
the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of soil and
properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers Decree No.
279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-committees started
preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code Structural Requirements for Masonry Construction (SBC 305)
were based on Chapter 21 of The International Building Code (IBC 2003) and the standards of
the American Concrete Institute (ACI 530-02). American Concrete Institute (ACI) grants
permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions of ACI codes and standards in the SBC, and
ACI is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any other party or entity for any
modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents. International Code Council
(ICC) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions of ICC codes and standards in
the SBC, and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any other party or
entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents.
The development process of SBC 305 followed the methodology approved by the Saudi
Building Code National Committee. Many changes and modifications were made on Chapter 21
of the base code and only SI units were used throughout the Code.
SBC 305 was reviewed and significantly revised by special technical committee during the period Aug.-
Sept. 2007. The committee members are:
Dr. Ahmed B. Shuraim, (SBC-STC chairman) (Civil Eng. Dept., King Saud Univ.)
Dr. Magdy K. Moustafa, (STC member) (Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs)
Engr. Rais M. Mirza. (Civil Eng. Dept., King Saud Univ.)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL
1.1 Scope
1.2 Design methods
1.3 Construction documents
1.4 Loading
CHAPTER 4 CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Masonry construction
4.2 Corbeled masonry
4.3 Cold weather construction
4.4 Hot weather construction
4.5 Wetting of brick
4.6 Grouting, minimum spaces
4.7 Embedded conduits, pipes, and sleeves
4.8 Reinforcement
REFERENCED STANDARDS
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
1.1.0 The Saudi Building Code for Masonry Structures referred to as SBC 305, provides
minimum requirements for design and construction of Masonry Structures. SBC
305 shall govern the materials, design, construction, and quality of masonry.
SECTION 1.2
DESIGN METHODS
1.2.0 Masonry shall comply with the provisions of one of the following design methods in
this code as well as the requirements of Chapter 1 through Chapter 4. Masonry
designed by the working stress design provisions of Section 1.2.1, the strength
design provisions of Section 1.2.2 or the seismic provisions of Section 1.2.3 shall
comply with Chapter 5.
1.2.1 Working stress design. Masonry designed by the working stress design method
shall comply with the provisions of Chapter 6 and Chapter 7.
1.2.2 Strength design. Masonry designed by the strength design method shall comply
with the provisions of Chapter 6 and Chapter 8.
1.2.3 Seismic design. Masonry shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 6. Special
inspection during construction shall be provided as set forth in SBC 302.
1.2.4 Empirical design. Masonry designed by the empirical design method shall
comply with the provisions of Chapter 6 and Chapter 9.
1.2.5 Glass masonry. Glass masonry shall comply with the provisions of Chapter 10.
1.2.6 Masonry veneer. Masonry veneer shall comply with the provisions of Chapter
14.
SECTION 1.3
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
1.3.0 The construction documents shall show all of the items required by this code
including the following:
1. Specified size, grade, type and location of reinforcement, anchors and wall
ties.
2. Reinforcing bars to be welded and welding procedure.
3. Size and location of structural elements.
4. Provisions for dimensional changes resulting from elastic deformation,
creep, shrinkage, temperature and moisture.
5. All loads used in the design of masonry.
6. Specified compressive strength of masonry at stated ages or stages of
construction for which masonry is designed, except where specifically
exempted by Code provisions.
7. Size and location of conduits, pipes, and sleeves.
1.3.1 Fireplace drawings. The construction documents shall describe in sufficient detail
the location, size and construction of masonry fireplaces. The thickness and
characteristics of materials and the clearances from walls, partitions and ceilings
shall be clearly indicated.
1.3.3 Construction documents shall specify the minimum level of quality assurance as
defined in Chapter 5, or shall include an itemized quality assurance program that
exceeds the requirements of Chapter 5.
1.3.4 Calculations pertinent to design shall be filed with the drawings when required by
the building official. When automatic data processing is used, design assumptions,
program documentation and identified input and output data may be submitted in
lieu of calculations.
SECTION 1.4
LOADING
1.4.2 Load provisions. Service loads shall be in accordance with SBC 301 with such
live load reductions as are permitted in SBC 301.
1.4.3 Lateral load resistance. Buildings shall be provided with a structural system
designed to resist wind and earthquake loads and to accommodate the effect of the
resulting deformation.
1.4.4 Other effects. Consideration shall be given to effects of forces and deformations
due to pre-stressing, vibrations, impact, shrinkage, expansion, temperature
changes, creep, unequal settlement of supports, and differential movement.
1.4.5 Lateral load distribution. Lateral loads shall be distributed to the structural
system in accordance with member stiffnesses and shall comply with the
requirements of this section.
1.4.5.1 Flanges of intersecting walls designed in accordance with Section 3.13.4.2 shall be
included in stiffness determination.
1.4.5.2 Distribution of load shall be consistent with the forces resisted by foundations.
1.4.5.3 Distribution of load shall include the effect of horizontal torsion of the structure
due to eccentricity of wind or seismic loads resulting from the non-uniform
distribution of mass.
CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS
SECTION 2.1
DEFINITIONS
2.1.0 The following words and terms shall have the meanings shown herein.
ANCHOR. Metal rod, wire or strap that secures masonry to its structural support.
Anchor pullout. Anchor failure defined by the anchor sliding out of the material
in which it is embedded without breaking out a substantial portion of the
surrounding material.
AREA.
Bedded. The area of the surface of a masonry unit that is in contact with mortar
in the plane of the joint.
Gross cross-sectional. The area delineated by the out-to-out specified
dimensions of masonry in the plane under consideration.
Net cross-sectional. The area of masonry units, grout and mortar crossed by
the plane under consideration based on out-to-out specified dimensions.
BED JOINT. The horizontal layer of mortar on which a masonry unit is laid.
BRICK.
Calcium silicate (sand lime brick). A masonry unit made of sand and lime.
Clay or shale. A masonry unit made of clay or shale, usually formed into a
rectangular prism while in the plastic state and burned or fired in a kiln.
Concrete. A masonry unit having the approximate shape of a rectangular prism
and composed of inert aggregate particles embedded in a hardened
cementitious matrix.
CELL. A void space having a gross cross-sectional area greater than 950 mm2.
CHIMNEY TYPES.
High-heat appliance type. An approved chimney for removing the products
of combustion from fuel-burning, high-heat appliances producing combustion
gases in excess of 1100 ° C measured at the appliance flue outlet see Section
13.11.3.
Low-heat appliance type. An approved chimney for removing the products
of combustion from fuel-burning, low-heat appliances producing combustion
gases not in excess of 540 ° C under normal operating conditions, but capable of
producing combustion gases of 760 ° C during intermittent forces firing for
periods up to 1 hour. Temperatures shall be measured at the appliance flue
outlet.
Masonry type. A field-constructed chimney of solid masonry units or stones.
Medium-heat appliance type. An approved chimney for removing the
products of combustion from fuel-burning, medium-heat appliances
producing combustion gases not exceeding 1100 ° C measured at the appliance
flue outlet see Section 13.11.2.
DESIGN STORY DRIFT. The difference of deflections at the top and bottom of
the story under consideration, calculated by multiplying the deflections determined
from an elastic analysis by the appropriate deflection amplification factor, Cd from
SBC 301.
DIMENSIONS.
Actual. The measured dimension of a masonry unit or element.
Nominal. A dimension equal to a specified dimension plus an allowance for
the joints with which the units are to be laid. Thickness is given first,
followed by height and then length.
Specified. The dimensions specified for the manufacture or construction of
masonry, masonry units, joints or any other component of a structure.
EFFECTIVE HEIGHT. For braced members, the effective height is the clear
height between lateral supports and is used for calculating the slenderness ratio.
The effective height for unbraced members is calculated in accordance with
engineering mechanics.
FIREPLACE. A hearth and fire chamber or similar prepared place in which a fire
may be made and which is built in conjunction with a chimney.
FIREPLACE THROAT. The opening between the top of the firebox and the
smoke chamber.
GROUTED MASONRY.
Grouted hollow-unit masonry. That form of grouted masonry construction in
which certain designated cells of hollow units are continuously filled with
grout.
Grouted multiwythe masonry. That form of grouted masonry construction in
which the space between the wythes is solidly or periodically filled with grout.
HEAD JOINT. Vertical mortar joint placed between masonry units within the
wythe at the time the masonry units are laid.
HEADER (Bonder). A masonry unit that connects two or more adjacent wythes of
masonry.
HEIGHT, WALLS. The vertical distance from the foundation wall or other
immediate support of such wall to the top of the wall.
Veneer, masonry. A masonry wythe that provides the exterior finish of a wall
system and transfer out-of-plane load directly to a backing, but is not
considered to add load resisting capacity to the wall system.
MASONRY UNIT. Brick, tile, stone, glass block or concrete block conforming to
the requirements specified in Chapter 3.
Clay. A building unit larger in size than a brick, composed of burned clay,
shale, fired clay or mixtures thereof.
Concrete. A building unit or block larger in size than 300 mm by 100 mm by
100 mm made of cement and suitable aggregates.
Hollow. A masonry unit whose net cross-sectional area in any plane parallel
to the load-bearing surface is less than 75% of its gross cross-sectional area
measured in the same plane.
Solid. A masonry unit whose net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to
the load-bearing surface is 75% or more of its gross cross-sectional area
measured in the same plane.
PLASTIC HINGE. The zone in a structural member in which the yield moment is
anticipated to be exceeded under loading combinations that include earthquakes.
PRISM. An assemblage of masonry units and mortar with or without grout used
as a test specimen for determining properties of the masonry.
RUNNING BOND. The placement of masonry units such that head joints in
successive courses are horizontally offset at least one-quarter the unit length.
SHEAR WALL.
Detailed plain masonry shear wall. A masonry shear wall designed to resist
lateral forces neglecting stresses in reinforcement, and designed in accordance
with 6.1.1.2.
Intermediate reinforced masonry shear wall. A masonry shear wall designed
to resist lateral forces considering stresses in reinforcement, and designed in
accordance with 6.1.1.4.
Ordinary plain masonry shear wall. A masonry shear wall designed to resist
lateral forces neglecting stresses in reinforcement, and designed in accordance
with 6.1.1.1.
Ordinary reinforced masonry shear wall. A masonry shear wall designed to
resist lateral forces considering stresses in reinforcement, and designed in
accordance with 6.1.1.3.
Special reinforced masonry shear wall. A masonry shear wall designed to
resist lateral forces considering stresses in reinforcement, and designed in
accordance with 6.1.1.5.
STACK BOND. The placement of masonry units in a bond pattern is such that
head joints in successive courses are vertically aligned. For the purpose of this
code, requirements for stack bond shall apply to masonry laid in other than
running bond.
STRENGTH.
Design strength. Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor.
Nominal strength. Strength of a member or cross-section calculated in
accordance with these provisions before application of any strength-reduction
factors.
TILE. A ceramic surface unit, usually relatively thin in relation to facial area, made
from clay or a mixture of clay or other ceramic materials, called the body of the
tile, having either a “glazed” or “unglazed” face and fired above red heat in the
course of manufacture to a temperature sufficiently high enough to produce
specific physical properties and characteristics.
SECTION 2.2
NOTATIONS
CHAPTER 3
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
SECTION 3.1
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
3.1.0 Concrete masonry units shall conform to the following standards: ASTM C 55 for
concrete brick; ASTM C 73 for calcium silicate face brick; ASTM C 90 for load-
bearing concrete masonry units or ASTM C 744 for prefaced concrete and calcium
silicate masonry units.
SECTION 3.2
CLAY OR SHALE MASONRY UNITS
3.2.0 Clay or shale masonry units shall conform to the following standards: ASTM C 34
for structural clay load-bearing wall tile; ASTM C 56 for structural clay nonload-
bearing wall tile; ASTM C 62 for building brick (solid masonry units made from
clay or shale); ASTM C 1088 for solid units of thin veneer brick; ASTM C 126 for
ceramic-glazed structural clay facing tile, facing brick and solid masonry units;
ASTM C 212 for structural clay facing tile; ASTM C 216 for facing brick (solid
masonry units made from clay or shale) and ASTM C 652 for hollow brick (hollow
masonry units made from clay or shale).
Exception: Structural clay tile for nonstructural use in fire-proofing of structural
members and in wall furring shall not be required to meet the compressive strength
specifications. The fire-resistance rating shall be determined in accordance with
ASTM E 119.
SECTION 3.3
STONE MASONRY UNITS
3.3.0 Stone masonry units shall conform to the following standards: ASTM C 503 for
marble building stone (exterior): ASTM C 568 for limestone building stone;
ASTM C 615 for granite building stone; ASTM C 616 for sandstone building
stone or ASTM C 629 for slate building stone.
SECTION 3.4
CERAMIC TILE
3.4.0 Ceramic tile shall be as defined in, and shall conform to the requirements of ANSI
A137.1.
SECTION 3.5
GLASS UNIT MASONRY
3.5.0 Hollow glass units shall be partially evacuated and have a minimum average glass
face thickness of 5 mm. Solid glass-block units shall be provided when required.
The surfaces of units intended to be in contact with mortar shall be treated with a
polyvinyl butyral coating or latex-based paint. Reclaimed units shall not be used.
SECTION 3.6
SECOND-HAND UNITS
3.6.0 Second-hand masonry units shall not be reused unless they conform to the
requirements of new units. The units shall be of whole, sound materials and free
from cracks and other defects that will interfere with proper laying or use. Old
SBC 305 2007 3/1
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
SECTION 3.7
MORTAR
3.7.0 Mortar for use in masonry construction shall conform to ASTM C 270 and shall
conform to the proportion specifications of Table 3.7.1 or the property
specifications of Table 3.7.2. Type S or N mortar shall be used for glass unit
masonry. The amount of water used in mortar for glass unit masonry shall be
adjusted to account for the lack of absorption. Retempering of mortar for glass unit
masonry shall not be permitted after initial set. Unused mortar shall be discarded
within 2½ hours after initial mixing except that unused mortar for glass unit
masonry shall be discarded within 1½ hours after initial mixing.
TABLE 3.7.1
MORTAR PROPORTIONS
PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
(cementitious Materials) AGGREGATE
Portland Masonry cementc Mortar HYDRATED MEASURED IN A
cementa or cementd LIMEe OR DAMP, LOOSE
blended M S N M S N LIME PUTTY CONDITION
Mortar
Type Cementb
Cement- M 1 − − − − − − ¼
lime
S 1 − − − − − − Over ¼ to ½
N 1 − − − − − − Over ½ to 1¼
O 1 − − − − − − Over 1¼ to 2½
M 1 − − − − − 1 −
Mortar M − − − − 1 − − − Not less than 2¼ and
not more than 3
cement
S ½ − − − − − 1 − times the sum of the
separate volumes of
S − − − − − 1 − − cementitious
N − − − − − − 1 − materials
O − − − − − − 1 −
Masonry M 1 − − 1 − − − −
cement M − 1 − − − − − −
S ½ − − 1 − − − −
S − − 1 − − − − −
N − − − 1 − − − −
O − − − 1 − − − −
a. Portland cement conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 150.
b. Blended cement conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 595.
c. Masonry cement conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 91.
d. Mortar cement conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 1329.
e. Hydrated lime conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 207.
SECTION 3.8
SURFACE-BONDING MORTAR
3.8.0 Surface-bonding mortar shall comply with ASTM C 887. Surface bonding of concrete
masonry units shall comply with ASTM C 946.
SECTION 3.9
MORTARS FOR CERAMIC WALL AND FLOOR TILE
3.9.0 Portland cement mortars for installing ceramic wall and floor tile shall comply
SBC 305 2007 3/2
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
with ANSI A108.1A and ANSI A108.1B and be of the compositions indicated in
Table 3.9.1.
TABLE 3.7.2
MORTAR PROPERTYa
AVERAGE
COMPRESSIVEb WATER AIR
STRENGTH AT RETENTION CONTENT
MORTAR TYPE
28 DAYS Minimum Minimum
Minimum (MPa) (%) (%)
M 17.25 75 12
Cement-lime S 12.25 75 12
N 5.0 75 14c
O 2.25 75 14c
M 17.25 75 12
Mortar cement S 12.25 75 12
N 5.0 75 14c
O 2.25 75 14c
M 17.25 75 18
Masonry cement S 12.25 75 1
N 5.0 75 20d
O 2.25 75 20d
a. This aggregate ratio (measured in damp, loose condition) shall not be less than 21/4 and not more than 3 times the sum of the
separate volumes of cementitious materials.
b. In accordance with ASTM C 270.
c. When structural reinforcement is incorporated in cement-lime or mortar cement mortars, the maximum air
content shall not exceed 12 %.
d. When structural reinforcement is incorporated in masonry cement mortar, the maximum air content shall not
exceed 18 percent.
TABLE 3.9.1
CERAMIC TILE MORTAR COMPOSITIONS
LOCATION MORTAR COMPOSITION
1 cement; 1/5 hydrated lime;
Scratchcoat
4 dry or 5 damp sand
1 cement; ½ hydrated lime;
Setting bed and
Walls 5 damp sand to 1 cement
Leveling coat
1 hydrated lime, 7 damp sand
1 cement; 1/10 hydrated lime;
Floors Setting bed 5 dry or 6 damp sand; or 1
cement; 5 dry or 6 damp sand
Scratchcoat and 1 cement; ½ hydrated lime;
Ceilings
sand bed 2½ dry sand or 3 damp sand
3.9.1 Dry-set Portland cement mortars. Premixed prepared Portland cement mortars,
which require only the addition of water and are used in the installation of ceramic
tile, shall comply with ANSI A118.1. The shear bond strength for tile set in such
mortar shall be as required in accordance with ANSI A118.1. Tile set in dry-set
Portland cement mortar shall be installed in accordance with ANSI A108.5.
3.9.2 Electrically conductive dry-set mortars. Pre-mixed prepared Portland cement
mortars, which require only the addition of water and comply with ANSI A118.2,
shall be used in the installation of electrically conductive ceramic tile. Tile set in
3.9.4 Epoxy mortar. Ceramic tile set and grouted with chemical-resistant epoxy shall
comply with ANSI A118.3. Tile set and grouted with epoxy shall be installed in
accordance with ANSI A108.6.
3.9.5 Furan mortar and grout. Chemical-resistant furan mortar and grout that are used
to install ceramic tile shall comply with ANSI A118.5. Tile set and grouted with
furan shall be installed in accordance with ANSI A108.8.
3.9.7 Organic adhesives. Water-resistant organic adhesives used for the installation of
ceramic tile shall comply with ANSI A136.1. The shear bond strength after water
immersion shall not be less than 275 kPa for Type I adhesive, and not less than 140
kPa for Type II adhesive, when tested in accordance with ANSI A136.1. Tile set
in organic adhesives shall be installed in accordance with ANSI A108.4.
3.9.8 Portland cement grouts. Portland cement grouts used for the installation of
ceramic tile shall comply with ANSI A118.6. Portland cement grouts for tile work
shall be installed in accordance with ANSI A108.10.
SECTION 3.10
GROUT
3.10.0 Grout shall conform to Table 3.10.1 or to ASTM C 476. When grout conforms to
ASTM C 476, the grout shall be specified by proportion requirements or property
requirements.
TABLE 3.10.1
GROUT PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME FOR MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
PARTS BY PARTS BY AGGREGATE, MEASURED IN A
VOLUME OF VOLUME OF DAMP, LOOSE CONDITION
PORTLAND HYDRATED
TYPE
CEMENT OR LIME OR
BLENDED LIME PUTTY Fine Coarse
CEMENT
2¼-3 times the sum of
Fine the volumes of the −
grout 1 0-1/10 cementitious materials
2¼-3 times the sum of 1-2 times the sum
Coarse the volumes of the of the volumes of
grout 1 0-1/10 cementitious materials the cementitious
materials
SECTION 3.11
METAL REINFORCEMENT AND ACCESSORIES
3.11.0 Metal reinforcement and accessories shall conform to Section 3.11.1 through Section
3.11.6 in conjunction with SBC 304 Appendix F.
3.11.1 Deformed reinforcing bars. Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to one of
the following standards: ASTM A 615 for deformed and plain billet-steel bars for
concrete reinforcement; ASTM A 706 for low-alloy steel deformed bars for
concrete reinforcement; ASTM A 767 for zinc-coated reinforcing steel bars; ASTM
A 775 for epoxy-coated reinforcing steel bars and ASTM A 996 for rail steel and
axle steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement.
3.11.2 Joint reinforcement. Joint reinforcement shall comply with ASTM A 951. The
maximum spacing of cross-wires in ladder-type joint reinforcement and of point of
connection of cross wires to longitudinal wires of truss-type reinforcement shall be
400 mm.
3.11.3 Deformed reinforcing wire. Deformed reinforcing wire shall conform to ASTM A
496.
3.11.4 Wire fabric. Wire fabric shall conform to ASTM A 185 for plain steel-welded wire
fabric for concrete reinforcement or ASTM A 496 for welded deformed steel wire
fabric for concrete reinforcement.
3.11.5 Anchors, ties and accessories. Anchors, ties and accessories shall conform to the
following standards: ASTM A 36 for structural steel; ASTM A 82 for plain steel
wire for concrete reinforcement; ASTM A 185 for plain steel-welded wire fabric
for concrete reinforcement; ASTM A 167, Type 304, for stainless and heat-
resisting chromium-nickel steel plate, sheet and strip and ASTM A 366 for cold-
rolled carbon steel sheet, commercial quality.
3.11.6 Corrosion protection. Corrosion protection for carbon steel accessories used in
exterior wall construction or interior walls exposed to a mean relative humidity
exceeding 75% shall comply with either Section 3.11.7.1 or Section 3.11.7.2.
Corrosion protection for carbon steel accessories used in interior walls exposed to a
mean relative humidity equal to or less than 75% shall comply with either
Section 3.11.7.1, 3.11.7.2 or Section 3.11.7.3.
3.11.6.1 Hot-dipped galvanized. Apply a hot-dipped galvanized coating after
fabrication as follows:
1. For joint reinforcement, wall ties, anchors and inserts, apply a minimum
2
coating of 460 g/m complying with the requirements of ASTM A 153,
Class B.
2. For sheet metal ties and sheet metal anchors, comply with the requirements
of ASTM A 153, Class B.
3. For steel plates and bars, comply with the requirements of either ASTM
A 123 or ASTM A 153, Class B.
3.11.6.2 Epoxy coatings. Carbon steel accessories shall be epoxy coated as follows:
1. For joint reinforcement, comply with the requirements of ASTM A 884
Class B, Type 2 – 460 µm .
2. For wire ties and anchors, comply with the requirements of ASTM A 899
Class C – 510 µm .
3. For sheet metal ties and anchors, provide a minimum thickness of 510
µm or in accordance with the manufacturer’s specification.
3.11.6.3 Mill galvanized. Apply a mill galvanized coating as follows:
1. For joint reinforcement, wall ties, anchors and inserts, apply a minimum
2
coating of 30 g/m complying with the requirements of ASTM A 641.
2. For sheet metal ties and sheet metal anchors, apply a minimum coating
complying with Coating Designation G-60 according to the requirements
of ASTM A 653.
3. For anchor bolts, steel plates or bars not exposed to the earth, weather or a
mean relative humidity exceeding 75 percent, a coating is not required.
3.11.7 Tests. Where unidentified reinforcement is approved for use, not less than three
tension and three bending tests shall be made on representative specimens of the
reinforcement from each shipment and grade of reinforcing steel proposed for use
in the work.
SECTION 3.12
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.12.1 General. Unless otherwise determined by test, the following moduli and
coefficients shall be used in determining the effects of elasticity, temperature,
moisture expansion, shrinkage, and creep.
SECTION 3.13
SECTION PROPERTIES
concept for elastic analysis, in which areas of dissimilar materials are transformed
in accordance with relative elastic moduli ratios shall apply. Actual stresses shall
be used to verify compliance with allowable stress requirements.
3.13.3 Radius of gyration. Radius of gyration shall be computed using average net cross-
sectional area of the member considered.
CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 4.1
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
4.1.0 Masonry construction shall comply with the requirements of Section 4.1.1
through Section 4.8.6 and with ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602.
4.1.1 Tolerances. Masonry, except masonry veneer, shall be constructed within the
tolerances specified in ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602.
4.1.2 Placing mortar and units. Placement of mortar and units shall comply with
Sections 4.1.2.1 through 4.1.2.5.
4.1.2.1 Bed and head joints. Unless otherwise required or indicated on the construction
documents, head and bed joints shall be 10 mm thick, except that the thickness of the
bed joint of the starting course placed over foundations shall not be less than 6 mm
and not more than 20 mm.
4.1.2.1.1 Open-end units. Open-end units with beveled ends shall be fully grouted. Head
joints of open-end units with beveled ends need not be mortared. The beveled
ends shall form a grout key that permits grouts within 15 mm of the face of the
unit. The units shall be tightly butted to prevent leakage of the grout.
4.1.2.2 Hollow units. Hollow units shall be placed such that face shells of bed joints are
fully mortared. Webs shall be fully mortared in all courses of piers, columns,
pilasters, in the starting course on foundations where adjacent cells or cavities are
to be grouted, and where otherwise required. Head joints shall be mortared a
minimum distance from each face equal to the face shell thickness of the unit.
4.1.2.3 Solid units. Unless otherwise required or indicated on the construction documents,
solid units shall be placed in fully mortared bed and head joints. The ends of the
units shall be completely buttered. Head joints shall not be filled by slushing with
mortar. Head joints shall be constructed by shoving mortar tight against the
adjoining unit. Bed joints shall not be furrowed deep enough to produce voids.
4.1.2.4 Glass unit masonry. Glass units shall be placed so head and bed joints are filled
solidly. Mortar shall not be furrowed.
Unless otherwise required, head and bed joints of glass unit masonry shall be 6 mm
thick, except that vertical joint thickness of radial panels shall not be less than 3
mm. The bed joint thickness tolerance shall be minus 2 mm and plus 3 mm. The
head joint thickness tolerance shall be plus or minus 3 mm.
4.1.2.5 All units. Units shall be placed while the mortar is soft and plastic. Any unit
disturbed to the extent that the initial bond is broken after initial positioning shall be
removed and re-laid in fresh mortar.
4.1.2.6 Adhered veneer. Tap the veneer unit into place, completely filling the space
between the veneer unit and the backing. Sufficient mortar shall be used to create a
slight excess to be forced out between the edges of the veneer units. The resulting
thickness of the mortar in back of the veneer unit shall not be less than 10 mm nor
more than 30 mm.
4.1.3 Installation of wall ties. The ends of wall ties shall be embedded in mortar joints.
Wall tie ends shall engage outer face shells of hollow units by at least 12 mm.
SBC 305 2007 4/1
CONSTRUCTION
Wire wall ties shall be embedded at least 38 mm into the mortar bed of solid
masonry units or solid-grouted hollow units. Wall ties shall not be bent after being
embedded in grout or mortar.
4.1.4 Chases and recesses. Chases and recesses shall be constructed as masonry units are
laid. Masonry directly above chases or recesses wider than 300 mm shall be
supported on lintels.
4.1.5 Deflection
4.1.5.1 Deflection of beams and lintels. Deflection of beams and lintels due to dead plus
live loads shall not exceed the lesser of 8 mm when providing vertical support to
masonry designed in accordance with Chapter 7 or Chapter 8. Minimum length of
end support shall be 100 mm.
4.1.5.2 Connection to structural frames. Masonry walls shall not be connected to
structural frames unless the connections and walls are designed to resist design
interconnecting forces and to accommodate calculated deflections.
4.1.6 Support on wood. Masonry shall not be supported on wood girders or other forms of
wood construction.
4.1.7 Masonry protection. The top of unfinished masonry work shall be covered to
protect the masonry from the weather.
4.1.8 Weep holes. Weep holes provided in the outside wythe of masonry walls shall be at
a maximum spacing of 850 mm on center. Weep holes shall not be less than 5 mm
in diameter.
SECTION 4.2
CORBELED MASONRY
4.2.0 The maximum corbeled projection beyond the face of the wall shall not be more
than one-half of the wall thickness nor one-half the wythe thickness for hollow
walls. The maximum projection of one unit shall neither exceed one-half the
height of the unit nor one-third the thickness at right angles to the wall.
4.2.1 Molded cornices. Unless structural support and anchorage are provided to resist
the overturning moment, the center of gravity of projecting masonry or molded
cornices shall lie within the middle one-third of the supporting wall. Terra cotta and
metal cornices shall be provided with a structural frame of approved
noncombustible material anchored in an approved manner.
SECTION 4.3
COLD WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
4.3.0 The cold weather construction provisions of ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602,
Article 1.8 C, or the following procedures shall be implemented when either the
ambient temperature falls below 4 ° C or the temperature of masonry units is below
4 ° C.
4.3.1 Preparation.
1. Temperatures of masonry units shall not be less than -7 ° C when laid in
the masonry. Masonry units containing frozen moisture, visible ice or
snow on their surface shall not be laid.
2. Visible ice and snow shall be removed from the top surface of existing
foundations and masonry to receive new construction. These surfaces
shall be heated to above freezing, using methods that do not result in
damage.
4.3.2 Construction. The following requirements shall apply to work in progress and
shall be based on ambient temperature.
4.3.2.1 Construction requirements for temperatures between 4 ° C and 0 ° C . The
following construction requirements shall be met when the ambient temperature is
between 4 ° C and 0 ° C :
1. Glass unit masonry shall not be laid.
2. Water and aggregates used in mortar and grout shall not be heated above
60 ° C.
3. Mortar sand or mixing water shall be heated to produce mortar
temperatures between 4 ° C and 49 ° C at the time of mixing. When water
and aggregates for grout are below 0 ° C , they shall be heated.
4.3.2.2 Construction requirements for temperatures between 0 ° C and -4 ° C. The
requirements of Section 4.3.2.1 and the following construction requirements shall
be met when the ambient temperature is between 0 ° C and -4 ° C:
1. The mortar temperature shall be maintained above freezing until used in
masonry.
2. Aggregates and mixing water for grout shall be heated to produce grout
temperature between 21 ° C and 49 ° C at the time of mixing. Grout
temperature shall be maintained above 21 ° C at the time of grout
placement.
4.3.2.3 Construction requirements for temperatures between -4 ° C and -7 ° C. The
requirements of Section 4.3.2.1 and 4.3.2.2 and the following construction
requirements shall be met when the ambient temperature is between -4 ° C and
-7 ° C:
1. Masonry surfaces under construction shall be heated to 4 ° C.
2. Wind breaks or enclosures shall be provided when the wind velocity
exceeds 24 km/h.
3. Prior to grouting, masonry shall be heated to a minimum of 4 ° C.
SBC 305 2007 4/3
CONSTRUCTION
4.3.3 Protection. The requirements of this section and Section 4.3.3.1 through 4.3.3.4
apply after the masonry is placed and shall be based on anticipated minimum daily
temperature for grouted masonry and anticipated mean daily temperature for
ungrouted masonry.
4.3.3.1 Glass unit masonry. The temperature of glass unit masonry shall be maintained
above 4 ° C for 48 hours after construction.
4.3.3.2 Protection requirements for temperatures between 4 ° C and -4 ° C. When the
temperature is between 4 ° C and -4 ° C, newly constructed masonry shall be
covered with a weather-resistive membrane for 24 hours after being completed.
4.3.3.3 Protection requirements for temperatures between -4 ° C and -7 ° C. When the
temperature is between -4 ° C and -7 ° C, newly constructed masonry shall be
completely covered with weather-resistive insulating blankets, or equal protection,
for 24 hours after being completed. The time period shall be extended to 48 hours for
grouted masonry, unless the only cement in the grout is Type III Portland cement.
4.3.3.4 Protection requirements for temperatures below -7 ° C. When the temperature is
below -7 ° C, newly constructed masonry shall be maintained at a temperature
above 0 ° C for at least 24 hours after being completed by using heated enclosures,
electric heating blankets, infrared lamps or other acceptable methods. The time
period shall be extended to 48 hours for grouted masonry, unless the only cement in
the grout is Type III Portland cement.
SECTION 4.4
HOT WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
4.4.0 The hot weather construction provisions of ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602, Article
1.8 D, or the following procedures shall be implemented when the temperature or
the temperature and wind-velocity limits of this section are exceeded.
4.4.1 Preparation. The following requirements shall be met prior to conducting masonry
work.
4.4.1.1 Temperature. When the ambient temperature exceeds 38 ° C, or exceeds 32 ° C
with a wind velocity greater than 13 km/h:
1. Necessary conditions and equipment shall be provided to produce mortar
having a temperature below 49 ° C.
2. Sand piles shall be maintained in a damp, loose condition.
4.4.1.2 Special conditions. When the ambient temperature exceeds 46 ° C, or 40 ° C with a
wind velocity greater than 13 km/h, the requirements of Section 4.4.1.1 shall be
implemented, and materials and mixing equipment shall be shaded from direct
sunlight.
4.4.2 Construction. The following requirements shall be met while masonry work is in
progress.
4.4.3 Protection. When the mean daily temperature exceeds 38 ° C, or exceeds 32 ° C with
a wind velocity greater than 13 km/h, newly constructed masonry shall be fog
sprayed until damp at least three times a day until the masonry is three days old.
SECTION 4.5
WETTING OF BRICK
4.5.0 Brick (clay or shale) at the time of laying shall require wetting if the unit’s initial
rate of water absorption exceeds 30 grams per 20,000 mm2 per minute or 1 g/645
mm2, as determined by ASTM C 67.
SECTION 4.6
GROUTING, MINIMUM SPACES
4.6.0 The minimum dimensions of spaces provided for the placement of grout shall be in
accordance with Table 4.6.1. Higher group pours, higher grout lifts, smaller cavity
widths, or smaller cell sizes than those shown in Table 4.6.1 are permitted if the
results of a grout demonstration panel show that the grout spaces are filled and
adequately consolidated. In that case, the procedures used in constructing the grout
demonstration panel shall be the minimum acceptable standard for grouting, and
the quality assurance program shall include inspection during construction to
verify grout placement.
SECTION 4.7
EMBEDDED CONDUITS, PIPES, AND SLEEVES
4.7.0 Conduits pipes and sleeves of any material to be embedded in masonry shall be
compatible with masonry and shall comply with the following requirements.
4.7.1 Design shall not consider conduits, pipes, or sleeves as structurally replacing
the displaced masonry.
4.7.2 Design shall consider the structural effects resulting from the removal of
masonry to allow for the placement of pipes or conduits.
4.7.3 Conduits, pipes, and sleeves in masonry shall be no closer than 3 diameters on
center.
Coarse 0.3 38 38 x 76
Coarse 1.5 50 63 x 76
Coarse 3.7 60 76 x 76
Coarse 7.3 75 76 x 102
1
Fine and coarse grouts are defined in ASTM C 476.
2
For grouting between masonry wythes.
3
Grout space dimension is the clear dimension between any masonry protrusion and shall be
increased by the diameters of the horizontal bars within the cross section of the grout space.
4
Area of vertical reinforcement shall not exceed 6 percent of the area of the grout space.
SECTION 4.8
REINFORCEMENT
4.8.1 Embedment
Reinforcing bars shall be embedded in grout.
Table 4.8.1
Minimum diameters of bend
(Dia 10) through (Dia 25) Grade 350 or 420 6 bar diameters
(Dia 28), (Dia 32), and (Dia 36) Grade 350 or 420 8 bar diameters
CHAPTER 5
QUALITY ASSURANCE
SECTION 5.1
GENERAL
5.1.0 A quality assurance program shall be used to ensure that the constructed masonry
is in compliance with the construction documents.
The minimum quality assurance program shall comply with the requirements of
this chapter and Table 5.1.1. The quality assurance program shall itemize the
methods used to verify conformance of material composition, quality, storage,
handling, preparation, and placement with the requirements of ACI 530.1/ASCE
6/TMS 602.
5.1.1 The quality assurance program shall define the qualifications for testing
laboratories and for inspection agencies and shall comply with the inspection and
testing requirements of SBC 302.
TABLE 5.1.1
QUALITY ASSURANCE
MINIMUM TESTS AND SUBMITTALS MINIMUM INSPECTION
Certificates for materials used in masonry From the beginning of masonry construction and
construction indicating compliance with the continuously during construction of masonry,
contract documents. verify the following are in compliance:
'
Verification of f m • proportions of site-mixed mortar,
• Prior to construction grout, and prestressing grout for bonded
• Every 500 m2 tendons
during construction • grade and size of reinforcement,
prestressing tendons and anchorages
Verification of proportions of materials in • placement of masonry units and
mortar and grout as delivered to the site. construction of mortar joints
• placement of reinforcement, connectors,
and prestressing tendons and anchorages
• grout space prior to grouting
• placement of grout and prestressing grout
for bonded tendons
Observe preparation of grout specimens, mortars
specimens, and/or prisms.
Verify compliance with the required inspection
provisions of the contract documents and the
approved submittals.
SECTION 5.2
ACCEPTANCE RELATIVE TO STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
5.2.2 Determination of compressive strength. The compressive strength for each wythe
shall be determined by the unit strength method or by the prism test method as
specified herein.
SBC 305 2007 5/1
QUALITY ASSURANCE
5.2.2.2.2 Number of prisms per test. A prism test shall consist of three prisms
constructed and tested in accordance with ASTM C 1314.
TABLE 5.2.2
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MASONRY
NET AREA COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF NET AREA
CLAY MASONRY UNITS (MPa) COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF
Type M or S mortar Type N mortar
MASONRY (MPa)a
9 9 7
13 15 10.5
19 21 14
26 28 17.5
33 36 21
a. For units of less than 100 mm in height, 85 percent of the values listed.
SECTION 5.3
TESTING PRISMS FROM CONSTRUCTED MASONRY
5.3.0 When approved by the building official, acceptance of masonry that does not meet
the requirements of Section 5.2.2.1 or 5.2.2.2 shall be permitted to be based on tests
of prisms cut from the masonry construction in accordance with Section 5.3.1,
5.3.2 and 5.3.3.
5.3.1 Prism sampling and removal. A set of three masonry prisms that are at least 28
days old shall be saw cut from the masonry for each 500 m2 of the wall area that is
in question but not less than one set of three masonry prisms for the project. The
length, width and height dimensions of the prisms shall comply with the
requirements of ASTM C 1314. Transporting, preparation and testing of prisms
shall be in accordance with ASTM C 1314.
5.3.3 Compliance. Compliance with the requirement for the specified compressive
strength of masonry, f m' shall be considered satisfied provided the modified
compressive strength equals or exceeds the specified f m' . Additional testing of
specimens cut from locations in question shall be permitted.
CHAPTER 6
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 6.1
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR MASONRY
6.1.0 Masonry structures and components shall comply with the requirements in Section
6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.1.4, 6.1.5 depending on the structure's seismic design category
as determined in SBC 301. All masonry walls, unless isolated on three edges from
in-plane motion of the basic structures systems, shall be considered to be part of
the seismic-force-resisting system.
6.1.4.2 Design of elements that are not part of basic seismic-force-resisting system
6.1.4.2.1 Load-bearing frames or columns that are not part of the lateral force-resisting
system shall be analyzed as to their effect on the response of the system. Such
frames or columns shall be adequate for vertical load carrying capacity and
induced moment due to the design story drift.
6.1.4.2.2 Masonry partition walls, masonry screen walls and other masonry elements that
are not designed to resist vertical or lateral loads, other than those induced by their
own mass, shall be isolated from the structure so that vertical and lateral forces are
not imparted to these elements. Isolation joints and connectors between these
elements and the structure shall be designed to accommodate the design story drift.
6.1.4.2.3 Reinforcement requirements. Masonry elements listed in Section 6.1.4.2.2 shall
be reinforced in either the horizontal or vertical direction in accordance with the
following:
(a) Horizontal reinforcement. Horizontal joint reinforcement shall consist of at
least two longitudinal WD 4 wires spaced not more than 400 mm for walls
greater than 100 mm in width and at least one longitudinal WD 4 wire spaced
not more 400 mm for walls not exceeding 100 mm in width; or at least one
(Dia 12) bar spaced not more than 1200 mm. Where two longitudinal wires of
joint reinforcement are used, the space between these wires shall be the widest
that the mortar joint will accommodate. Horizontal reinforcement shall be
provided within 400 mm of the top and bottom of these masonry walls.
(b) Vertical reinforcement. Vertical reinforcement shall consist of at least one
(Dia 12) bar spaced not more than 1200 mm. Vertical reinforcement shall be
located within 400 mm of the ends of masonry walls.
6.1.4.3 Design of elements that are part of the Basic seismic-force-resisting system
6.1.4.3.1 Connections to masonry columns. Connectors shall be provided to transfer
forces between masonry columns and horizontal elements in accordance with the
requirements of Section 7.1.8. Where anchor bolts are used to connect horizontal
elements to the tops of columns, anchor bolts shall be placed within lateral ties.
Lateral ties shall enclose both the vertical bars in the column and the anchor bolts.
There shall be a minimum of two (Dia 12) lateral ties provided in the top 130 mm
of the column.
6.1.4.3.2 Masonry shear walls. Masonry shear walls shall comply with the requirements
for ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls, intermediate reinforced masonry
shear walls, or special reinforced masonry shear walls.
6.1.4.4 Design of discontinuous members that are part of the lateral-force-resisting
system. Columns and pilasters that are part of the lateral-force-resisting system
and that support reactions from discontinuous stiff members such as walls shall be
provided with transverse reinforcement spaced at no more than one-fourth of the
least nominal dimension of the column or pilaster. The minimum transverse
reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0015. Beams supporting reactions from
discontinuous walls or frames shall be provided with transverse reinforcement
spaced at no more than one-half of the nominal depth of the beam. The minimum
transverse reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0015.
6.1.5.2 Design requirements – Masonry elements, other than those covered by Section
6.1.4.2.2, shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Sections 7.1
and 7.3 or Chapter 8.
6.1.5.3 Minimum reinforcement requirements for masonry walls – Masonry walls
other than those covered by section 6.1.4.2.3 shall be reinforced in both the
vertical and horizontal direction. The sum of the cross-sectional area of horizontal
and vertical reinforcement shall be at least 0.002 times the gross cross-sectional
area of the wall, and the minimum cross-sectional area in each direction shall be
not less than 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, using
specified dimensions. Reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed. The
maximum spacing of reinforcement shall be 1200 mm except for stack bond
masonry. Wythes of stack bond masonry shall be constructed of fully grouted
hollow open-end units, fully grouted hollow units laid with full head joints or solid
units. Maximum spacing of reinforcement for walls with stack bond masonry shall
be 600 mm.
6.1.5.4 Masonry shear walls – Masonry shear walls shall comply with the requirements
for special reinforced masonry shear walls.
6.1.5.5 Minimum reinforcement for masonry columns – Lateral ties in masonry
columns shall be spaced not more than 200 mm on center and shall be at least 10
mm diameter. Lateral ties shall be embedded in grout.
6.1.5.6 Material requirements – Neither Type N mortar nor masonry cement shall be
used as part of the lateral force-resisting system.
6.1.5.7 Lateral tie anchorage – Standard hooks for lateral tie anchorage shall be either a
135 degree standard hook or a 180 degree standard hook.
6.1.5.8 Loads for shear walls designed by the working stress design method – When
calculating shear or diagonal tension stresses by the working stress design method.
Shear walls that resist seismic forces shall be designed to resist 1.5 times the
forces required by SBC 301. The multiplier need not be applied to the overturning
moment.
6.1.5.9 Shear walls shear strength – For all shear walls whose nominal shear strength
exceeds the shear corresponding to development of its nominal flexural strength,
two shear regions exist.
For all cross sections within a region defined by the base of the shear wall and a
plane at a distance Lw above the base of the shear wall, the nominal shear strength
shall be determined by Equation (6-1).
Vn = An ρ nfy Eq. (6-1)
The required shear strength for this region shall be calculated at a distance Lw/2
above the base of the shear wall, but not to exceed one-half story height.
For the other region, the nominal shear strength of the shear wall shall be
determined from Chapter 8.
SECTION 6.2
ANCHORAGE OF MASONRY WALLS
6.2.1 Masonry walls shall be anchored to the roof and floors that provide lateral support
for the wall in accordance with Section 10.11 SBC 301.
CHAPTER 7
WORKING STRESS DESIGN
SECTION 7.1
GENERAL
7.1.1 Scope. This chapter provides minimum requirements for allowable stress design of
masonry. Masonry designed by working stress design method shall comply with
the requirements of Section 7.1 and either Section 7.2 or Section 7.3.
7.1.2 Load combinations: Loads and Load Combinations are in accordance with SBC
301. The allowable stresses and allowable loads are permitted to be increased by
one third when considering load combinations of Section 2.4, SBC 301.
7.1.4.2.2.2 The effective embedment length of plate or headed bolts, lb, shall be the length of
embedment measured perpendicular from the surface of the masonry to the bearing
surface of the plate or head of the anchor bolt.
7.1.4.2.2.3 The effective embedment length of bent anchors, lb, shall be the length of
embedment measured perpendicular from the surface of the masonry to the bearing
surface of the bent end minus one anchor bolt diameter.
7.1.4.2.3 The allowable load in shear, where lbe equals or exceeds 12 bolt diameters, shall be
the lesser of that given by Eq. (7-5) or Eq. (7-6).
4
Bv = 1072 f 'm Ab Eq. (7-5)
Bv = 0.12 Ab fy Eq. (7-6)
Where lbe is less than 12 bolt diameters, the value of Bv in Eq. (7-5) shall be
reduced by linear interpolation to zero at an lbe distance of 25 mm.
7.1.4.2.4 Combined shear and tension – Anchors in Section 7.1.4.2 subjected to combined
shear and tension shall be designed to satisfy Eq. (7-7).
ba b
+ v ≤ 1 Eq. (7-7)
Ba Bv
The maximum spacing between ties shall be 900 mm horizontally and 600 mm
vertically.
The use of rectangular wall ties to tie walls made with any type of masonry units
is permitted. The use of Z wall ties to tie walls made with other than hollow
masonry units is permitted. Cross wires of joint reinforcement are permitted to be
used in lieu of wall ties.
7.1.5.3 Noncomposite action. Masonry designed for noncomposite action shall comply to
the following provisions:
7.1.5.3.1 Each wythe shall be designed to resist individually the effects of loads imposed on
it.
Unless a more detailed analysis is performed, the following requirements shall be
satisfied:
(a) Collar joints shall not contain headers, grout, or mortar.
(b) Gravity loads from supported horizontal members shall be resisted by the
wythe nearest to the center of span of the supported member. Any resulting
bending moment about the weak axis of the wall shall be distributed to each
wythe in proportion to its relative stiffness.
(c) Loads acting parallel to the plane of a wall shall be carried only by the
wythe on which they are applied. Transfer of stresses from such loads
between wythes shall be neglected.
(d) Loads acting transverse to the plane of a wall shall be resisted by all wythes
in proportion to their relative flexural stiffnesses.
(e) Specified distances between wythes shall not exceed a width of 100 mm
unless a detailed wall tie analysis is performed.
7.1.5.3.2 Wythes of walls designed for noncomposite action shall be connected by wall ties
meeting the requirements of Section 7.1.5.2.4 or by adjustable ties. Where the
cross wires of joint reinforcement are used as ties, the joint reinforcement shall be
ladder-type. Wall ties shall be without cavity drips.
Adjustable ties shall meet the following requirements:
(a) One tie shall be provided for each 0.16 m2 of wall area.
(b) Horizontal and vertical spacing shall not exceed 400 mm.
(c) Adjustable ties shall not be used when the misalignment of bed joints from
one wythe to the other exceeds 32 mm.
(d) Maximum clearance between connecting parts for the tie shall be 1.5 mm.
(e) Pintle ties shall have at least two pintle legs of wire size (WD 5).
7.1.6 Columns. Design of columns shall meet the general requirements of this section.
7.1.6.1 Minimum side dimension shall be 200 mm nominal.
7.1.6.2 The ratio between the effective height and least nominal dimension shall not
exceed 25.
7.1.6.3 Columns shall be designed to resist applied loads. As a minimum, columns shall
be designed to resist loads with an eccentricity equal to 0.1 times each side
dimension. Consider each axis independently.
SBC 305 2007 7/3
WORKING STRESS DESIGN
7.1.6.4 Vertical column reinforcement shall not be less than 0.0025 An nor exceed 0.04 An.
The minimum number of bars shall be four.
7.1.6.5 Lateral ties. Lateral ties shall conform to the following:
a) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties at least 10 mm in
diameter.
b) Vertical spacing of lateral ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters,
48 lateral tie bar or wire diameters, or least cross-sectional dimension of the
member.
c) Lateral ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal
bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a lateral tie with an
included angle of not more than 135 degrees. No bar shall be farther than 150
mm clear on each side along the lateral tie from such a laterally supported bar.
Lateral ties shall be placed in either a mortar joint or in grout. Where
longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete
circular lateral is permitted. Lap length for circular ties shall be 48 tie
diameters.
d) Lateral ties shall be located vertically not more than one-half lateral tie
spacing above the top of footing or slab in any story, and shall be spaced as
provide herein to not more than one-half a lateral tie spacing below the lowest
horizontal reinforcement in beam, girder, slab, or drop panel above.
e) Where beams or brackets frame into a column from four directions, lateral ties
may be terminated not more than 76 mm below the lowest reinforcement in
the shallowest of such beams or brackets.
7.1.6.6 Masonry columns used only to support light-frame roofs of car-ports, porches,
sheds or similar structures with a maximum area of 42 m2 assigned to Seismic
Design Category A, B or C are permitted to be designed and constructed as
follows:
1. Concrete masonry materials shall be in accordance with Section 3.1. Clay or
shale masonry units shall be in accordance with Section 3.2.
2. The nominal cross-sectional dimension of columns shall not be less than 200
mm.
3. Columns shall be reinforced with not less than one Dia 12 mm bar centered in
each cell of the column.
4. Columns shall be grouted solid.
5. Columns shall not exceed 3.65 m in height.
6. Roofs shall be anchored to the columns. Such anchorage shall be capable of
resisting the design load specified in SBC 301.
7. Where such columns are required to resist uplift loads, the columns shall be
anchored to their footings with two Dia 12 mm bars extending a minimum of
600 mm into the columns and bent horizontally a minimum of 400 mm in
opposite directions into the footings. One of these bars is permitted to be the
reinforcing bar specified in Item 3 above. The total weight of a column and its
footing shall not be less than 1.5 times the design uplift load.
7.1.7 Pilasters
7.1.7.1 Walls interfacing with pilasters shall not be considered as flanges unless the
provisions of Section 3.13.4.2 are met.
7.1.7.2 Where vertical reinforcement is provided to resist axial compressive stress, lateral
ties shall meet all applicable requirements of Section 7.1.6.5.
When epoxy-coated bars or wires are used, development length determined by Eq.
(7-8) shall be increased by 50 percent.
7.1.10.4 Hooks
7.1.10.4.1 Standard hooks in tension shall be considered to develop an equivalent embedment
length, le, equal to 11.25 db.
7.1.10.4.2 The effect of hooks for bars in compression shall be neglected in design
computations.
7.1.10.5 Development of Shear reinforcement
7.1.10.5.1 Bar and wire reinforcement
7.1.10.5.1.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression
face and shall be carried as close to the compression and tension surfaces of the
member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement permit.
Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its calculated stress.
7.1.10.5.1.2 The ends of single leg or U-stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following
means:
(a) A standard hook plus an effective embedment of 0.5 ld. The effective
embedment of a stirrup leg shall be taken as the distance between mid
depth of the member d/2 and the start of the hook (point of tangency).
(b) For bar (Dia 16) and (WD16.0) wire and smaller, bending around
longitudinal reinforcement through at least 135 degrees plus an
embedment of 0.33 ld. The 0.33 ld embedment of a stirrup leg shall be
taken as the distance between mid depth of member d/2 and start of hook
(point of tangency).
7.1.10.5.1.3 Between the anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a transverse U-
stirrup shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
7.1.10.5.1.4 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement, where extended into a region
of tension, shall be continuous with longitudinal reinforcement and, where
extended into a region of compression, shall be developed beyond mid depth of the
member d/2.
7.1.10.5.1.5 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties placed to form a closed unit shall be considered properly
spliced when length of laps are 1.7 ld. In grout at least 450 mm deep, such splices
with Av fy not more than 40000 N per leg may be considered adequate if legs
extend the full available depth of grout.
7.1.10.5.2 Welded wire fabric
7.1.10.5.2.1 For each leg of welded wire fabric forming simple U-stirrups, there shall be either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires at a 50 mm spacing along the member at the top of
the U, or
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression
face and a second wire closer to the compression face and spaced not less
than 50 mm from the first wire. The second wire shall be located on the
stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend with an inside diameter of bend not
less than 8 db.
7.1.10.5.2.2 For each end of a single leg stirrup of welded smooth or deformed wire fabric,
there shall be two longitudinal wires spaced minimum of 50 mm with the inner
wire placed at a distance at least d/4 or 50 mm from middepth of member d/2.
Outer longitudinal wire at tension face shall not be farther from the face than the
portion of primary flexural reinforcement closest to the face.
SBC 305 2007 7/7
WORKING STRESS DESIGN
nf ' m
ρ max = Eq. (7-9)
⎛ fy ⎞
2 f y ⎜⎜ n + ⎟
⎝ f ' m ⎟⎠
The maximum reinforcement ratio does not apply in the out-of-plane direction.
7.1.13 Special inspection during construction shall be provided as set forth in SBC 302.
SECTION 7.2
UNREINFORCED MASONRY
7.2.1 Scope. This section provides requirements for unreinforced masonry as defined in
Chapter 2, except as otherwise indicated in Section 7.2.4.
7.2.4 Axial tension. The tensile strength of masonry shall be neglected in design when
the masonry is subjected to axial tension forces.
7.2.5 Shear
7.2.5.1 Shear stresses due to forces acting in the direction considered shall be computed in
accordance with Section 3.13.1 and determined by Eq. (7-17).
f v = VQ/Inb Eq.(7-17)
Table 7.1.1 Allowable flexural tension for clay and concrete masonry, kPa
Mortar types
Direction of flexural tensile Masonry cement or air
Portland cement/lime
Stress and masonry type entrained Portland
or mortar cement
cement/lime
M or S N M or S N
Normal to bed joints 270 200 160 100
Solid units
Hollow units,#
Ungrouted 170 130 100 60
Fully grouted 445 430 420 400
Parallel to bed joints 550 400 330 200
in running bond
Solid units
Hollow Units –
Ungrouted and partially grouted 345 260 200 130
Fully grouted 550 410 330 200
# For partially grouted masonry, allowable stresses shall be determined on the basis of linear interpolation
between hollow units that are fully grouted and ungrouted hollow units based on amount of grouting.
SECTION 7.3
REINFORCED MASONRY
7.3.1 Scope. This section provides requirements for the design of structures neglecting
the contribution of tensile strength of masonry, except as provided in Section
7.3.5.
7.3.2.2 Compression
7.3.2.2.1 The compressive resistance of steel reinforcement shall be neglected unless lateral
reinforcement is provided in compliance with the requirement of Section 7.1.6.5.
7.3.2.2.2 Compressive stress in reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of 0.4fy or 165
MPa.
7.3.4 Axial tension and flexural tension. Axial tension and flexural tension shall be
resisted entirely by steel reinforcement.
7.3.5 Shear
7.3.5.1 Members that are not subjected to flexural tension shall be designed in accordance
with the requirements of Section 7.2.5 or shall be designed in accordance with the
following:
7.3.5.1.1 Reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with the requirements of Section
7.3.5.3.
7.3.5.1.2 The calculated shear stress, f v , shall not exceed Fv , where Fv is determined in
accordance with Section 7.3.5.2.3.
7.3.5.2 Members subjected to flexural tension shall be reinforced to resist the tension and
shall be designed in accordance with the following:
7.3.5.2.1 Calculated shear stress in the masonry shall be determined by the relationship:
f v = V/bd Eq. (7-20)
7.3.5.2.2 Where reinforcement is not provided to resist all of the calculated shear, f v shall
not exceed Fv , where:
(a) for flexural members:
Fv = 0.083 f 'm Eq. (7-21)
but shall not exceed 345 kPa.
(b) for shear walls,
where M/Vd < 1
Fv = 0.028 [4 – (M/Vd)] f 'm Eq. (7-22)
but shall not exceed (0.55-0.31 (M/Vd))
where M/Vd ≥ 1,
Fv = 0.083 f 'm Eq. (7-23)
but shall not exceed 240kPa
7.3.5.2.3 Where shear reinforcement is provided in accordance with Section 7.3.5.3 to resist
all of the calculated shear, f v shall not exceed Fv , where:
(a) for flexural members:
Fv = 0.25 f 'm Eq. (7-24)
but shall not exceed 1000 kPa
(b) for shear walls,
CHAPTER 8
STRENGTH DESIGN OF MASONRY
SECTION 8.1
GENERAL
8.1.1 Scope. This Chapter provides minimum requirements for strength design of
masonry. Masonry design by the strength design method shall comply with the
requirements of Section 8.1 and either Section 8.2 or Section 8.3.
The minimum nominal thickness for hollow clay masonry in accordance with
Section 8.2.2 shall be 100 mm.
8.1.2 Required strength. Required strength shall be determined in accordance with the
strength design load combinations of SBC 301. Members subject to compressive
axial load shall be designed for the maximum design moment accompanying the
axial load. The factored moment, Mu, shall include the moment induced by relative
lateral displacement.
8.1.3 Design strength. Masonry members shall be proportioned such that the design
strength equals or exceeds the required strength. Design strength is the nominal
strength multiplied by the strength reduction factor, φ , as specified in Section
8.1.4.
The design shear strength, φ Vn, shall exceed the shear corresponding to the
development of 1.25 times the nominal flexural strength, Mn, of the member,
except that the nominal shear strength, Vn, need not exceed 2.5 times required
shear strength, Vu.
8.1.3.1 Seismic design provisions. At each story level, at least 80 percent of the lateral
stiffness shall be provided by lateral-force-resisting walls. Along each column line
at a particular story level, at least 80% of the lateral stiffness shall be provided by
lateral-force-resisting walls.
Exception: Where seismic loads are determined based on a seismic response
modification factor, R, not greater than 1.5, piers and columns are permitted to be
used to provide seismic load resistance.
8.1.6 Headed and bent-bar anchor bolts. All embedded bolts shall be grouted in place
with at least 13 mm of grout between the bolt and the masonry, except that 6.5
mm diameter bolts are permitted to be placed in bed joints that are at least 13 mm
in thickness.
8.1.6.1 Nominal axial tensile strength of headed anchor bolts. The nominal axial tensile
strength, Ban, of headed anchor bolts embedded in masonry shall be computed by
Eq. (8-1) (strength governed by masonry breakout) and Eq. (8-2) (strength
governed by steel). In computing the capacity, the smaller of the design strengths
shall be used.
8.1.6.2 Nominal axial tensile strength of bent-bar anchor bolts. The nominal axial tensile
strength, Ban, for bent-bar anchor bolts (J- or L-bolts) embedded in masonry shall
be computed by Eq. (8-4) (strength governed by masonry breakout), Eq. (8-5)
(strength governed by steel), and Eq. (8-6) (strength governed by anchor pullout).
In computing the capacity, the smaller of the design strengths shall be used.
8.1.6.4 Combined axial and shear strength of anchor bolts. Anchor bolts subjected to
combined shear and tension shall be designed to satisfy Eq. (8-11).
baf bvf
+ ≤1 Eq. (8-11)
φ Ban φ Bvn
φ Ban and φ Bvn, used in Eq. (8-11) shall be the governing design tensile and shear
strengths, respectively.
8.1.7 Material properties
8.1.7.1 Compressive strength
8.1.7.1.1 Masonry compressive strength. The specified compressive strength of
masonry, f m shall equal or exceed 10.5 MPa. The value of f m' used to determine
'
nominal strength values in this chapter shall not exceed 28 MPa for concrete
masonry and shall not exceed 42 MPa for clay masonry.
8.1.7.1.2 Grout compressive strength. For concrete masonry, the specified compressive
strength of grout, f g' , shall equal or exceed the specified compressive strength of
masonry, f m' , but shall not exceed 35 MPa. For clay masonry, the specified
compressive strength of grout, f g' , shall not exceed 42 MPa.
SECTION 8.2
REINFORCED MASONRY
8.2.1 Scope. The requirements of this section are in addition to the requirements of
Section 8.1 and govern masonry design in which reinforcement is used to resist
tensile forces.
8.2.2 Design assumptions. The following assumptions apply to the design of reinforced
masonry:
(a) There is strain continuity between the reinforcement, grout, and masonry
such that all applicable loads are resisted in a composite manner.
(b) The nominal strength of reinforced masonry cross-sections for combined
flexure and axial load shall be based on applicable conditions of
equilibrium.
(c) The maximum usable strain, ε mu at the extreme masonry compression
fiber shall be assumed to be 0.0035 for clay masonry and 0.0025 for
concrete masonry.
(d) Strain in reinforcement and masonry shall be assumed to be directly
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
(e) Reinforcement stress below specified yield strength, fy, shall be taken as
Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy,
stress in reinforcement shall be taken equal to fy.
(f) The tensile strength of masonry shall be neglected in calculating flexural
strength but shall be considered in calculating deflection.
(g) The relationship between masonry compressive stress and masonry strain
shall be assumed to be defined by the following:
Masonry stress of 0.80 f m' shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an
equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight
SBC 305 2007 8/5
STRENGTH DESIGN OF MASONRY
line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = 0.80 c, from the fiber of
maximum compressive strain. The distance, c, from the fiber of maximum strain
to the neutral axis shall be measured perpendicular to that axis. For out-of-plane
bending, the width of the equivalent stress block shall not be taken greater than
six times the nominal thickness of the masonry wall or the spacing between
reinforcement, whichever is less. For in-plane bending of flanged walls, the
effective flange width shall not exceed six times the thickness of the flange.
8.2.3.3.1 Development of shear reinforcement. Shear reinforcement shall extend the depth
of the member less cover distances.
8.2.3.3.1.1 Except at wall intersections, the end of a horizontal reinforcing bar needed to
satisfy shear strength requirements of Section 8.2.4.1.2 shall be bent around the
edge vertical reinforcing bar with a 180-degree hook. The ends of single leg or U-
stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means:
(a) A standard hook plus an effective embedment of ld/2. The effective
embedment of a stirrup leg shall be taken as the distance between the
mid-depth of the member, d/2, and the start of the hook (point of
tangency).
(b) For (Dia 16) bars and smaller, bending around longitudinal reinforcement
(b) A welded splice shall have the bars butted and welded to develop at least
125% of the yield strength, fy, of the bar in tension or compression, as
required. Welded splices shall be of ASTM A 706 steel reinforcement.
Welded splices shall not be permitted in plastic hinge zones of
intermediate or special reinforced walls or special moment frames of
masonry.
(c) Mechanical splices shall be classified as Type 1 or 2 according to SBC
304. Type 1 mechanical splices shall not be used within a plastic hinge
zone or within a beam-column joint of intermediate or special reinforced
masonry shear walls or special moment frames. Type 2 mechanical
splices are permitted in any location within a member.
8.2.3.5 Maximum reinforcement percentages
8.2.3.5.1 For structures designed using an R value greater than 1.5, the ratio of
reinforcement, ρ , shall not exceed the lesser of the values required to satisfy the
following two critical strain conditions:
(a) For walls subjected to in-plane forces, for columns, and for beam, a
strain of 5 times yield in the extreme tension reinforcement and a
maximum masonry strain defined by Section 8.2.2(c).
(b) For walls subjected to out-of-plane forces, a strain of 1.3 times yield in
the extreme tension reinforcement and a maximum masonry strain
defined by Section 8.2.2(c).
In calculating the maximum reinforcement ratio for each case, equilibrium shall
include unfactored gravity axial loads. The stress in the tension reinforcement
shall be assumed to be 1.25 fy. Tension in the masonry shall be neglected. The
strength of the compression zone shall be calculated as 80 percent of f m' times 80
percent of the area of the compressive zone. Stress in reinforcement in the
compression zone shall be based on a linear strain distribution.
8.2.3.5.2 For structures designed using an R value less than or equal to 1.5, the ratio of
reinforcement, ρ , shall not exceed the ratio as calculated using the following
critical strain condition:
A strain of 2 times yield in the extreme tension reinforcement and a maximum
SBC 305 2007 8/7
STRENGTH DESIGN OF MASONRY
8.2.4.1.2.1 Nominal masonry shear strength - Shear strength provided by the masonry,
Vm, shall be computed using Eq. (8-21):
⎡ ⎛ M ⎞⎤
Vm = 0.83 ⎢4.0 − 1.75 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ An f ' m + 0.25 P Eq. (8-21)
⎢⎣ ⎝ Vd v ⎠⎥⎦
8.2.5.3 Moment and deflection calculations. All moment and deflection calculations
in Section 8.2.5.4 are based on simple support conditions top and bottom. For
other support and fixity conditions, moments and deflections shall be calculated
using established principles of mechanics.
8.2.5.4 Walls with factored axial stress of 0.05 f m' or less. The procedures set forth in this
section shall be used when the factored axial load stress at the location of
maximum moment satisfies the requirement computed by Eq. (8-23).
⎛ Pu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≤ 0.05 f m' Eq. (8-23)
⎜ Ag ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Factored moment and axial force shall be determined at the midheight of the wall
and shall be used for design. The factored moment, Mu, at the midheight of the
wall shall be computed using Eq. (8-24).
wu h 2 eu
Mu = + Puf + Pu δ u Eq. (8-24)
8 2
where:
Pu = Puw + Puf Eq. (8-25)
The design strength for out-of-plane wall loading shall be in accordance with Eq.
(8-26).
Mu ≤ φ Mn Eq. (8-26)
where:
⎛ a⎞
Mn = (As fy + Pu) ⎜ d − ⎟ Eq. (8-27)
⎝ 2⎠
(Pu + As f y )
a= Eq. (8-28)
0.80 f ' m b
The nominal shear strength shall be determined by Section 8.2.4.1.2.
8.2.5.5 Walls with factored axial stress greater than 0.05 f m' . The procedures set forth
in this section shall be used for the design of masonry walls when the factored
axial load stress at the location of maximum moment exceeds 0.05 f m' . These
provisions shall not be applied to walls with factored axial load stress equal to or
exceeding 0.2 f m' or slenderness ratios exceeding 30. Such walls shall be designed
in accordance with the provisions of Section 8.2.5.4 and shall have a minimum
nominal thickness of 150 mm.
The nominal shear strength shall be determined by Section 8.2.4.1.2.
8.2.5.6 Deflection design. The horizontal midheight deflection, δ s , under service lateral
and service axial loads (without load factors) shall be limited by the relation:
δ s ≤ 0.007 h Eq. (8-29)
P-delta effects shall be included in deflection calculation. The midheight
deflection shall be computed using either Eq. (8-30) or Eq. (8-31), as applicable.
(a) Where Mser < Mcr
5M ser h 2
δs = For Mser ≤ Mcr Eq. (8-30)
48E m I g
SECTION 8.3
UNREINFORCED (PLAIN) MASONRY
8.3.1 Scope. The requirements of Section 8.3 are in addition to the requirements of
Section 8.1 and govern masonry design in which masonry is used to resist tensile
forces.
8.3.1.1 Strength for resisting loads. Unreinforced (plain) masonry members shall be
designed using the strength of masonry units, mortar, and grout in resisting design
loads.
8.3.1.2 Strength contribution from reinforcement. Stresses in reinforcement shall not
be considered effective in resisting design loads.
8.3.1.3 Design criteria. Unreinforced (plain) masonry members shall be designed to
remain uncracked.
(a) For members having an h/r ratio not greater than 99:
⎛ ⎡ ⎛ h ⎞2 ⎤⎞
⎜
Pn = 0.80 0.80 An f ' m ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎟ For
h
≤ 99 Eq. (8-33)
⎜ ⎢ ⎝ 140r ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎟ r
⎝ ⎣ ⎠
(b) For members having an h/r ratio greater than 99:
⎛ ⎛ 70r ⎞ ⎞⎟
2
h
Pn = 0.80 ⎜ 0.80 An f ' m ⎜ ⎟ For > 99 Eq. (8-34)
⎜ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎟ r
⎝ ⎠
8.3.4 Nominal shear strength. Nominal shear strength, Vn, shall be the smallest of the
following:
(a) 0.375 An f 'm
(b) 0.83 An
(c) For running bond masonry not solidly grouted;
0.26 An + 0.3 Nv
(d) For stack bond masonry with open end units and grouted solid;
0.26 An + 0.3 Nv
(e) For running bond masonry grouted solid;
0.414 An + 0.3 Nv
(f) For stack bond other than open end units grouted solid.
0.103An
CHAPTER 9
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
SECTION 9.1
GENERAL
9.1.0 Empirically designed masonry shall conform to this chapter. The provisions of
Chapter 1 through Chapter 5, excluding Sections 1.3(item 5), 1.3(item 6), 1.4,
3.12, 3.13, 5.2, shall apply to empirical design.
9.1.1 Limitations. Empirical masonry design shall not be utilized for any of the
following conditions:
1. The design or construction of masonry in buildings assigned to Seismic
Design Category D, as specified in SBC 301, and the design of the
seismic-force-resisting system for buildings assigned to Seismic Design
Category B or C.
2. The design or construction of masonry structures located in areas where
the 3-second gust wind speed exceeds 145 km/hr.
3. Buildings more than 10700 mm in height which have masonry wall
lateral-force-resisting systems.
4. Glass unit masonry.
In buildings that exceed one or more of the above limitations, masonry shall be
designed in accordance with the engineered design provisions of Chapter 7 or
Chapter 8, or the foundation wall provisions of Foundation Walls (SBC 303).
SECTION 9.2
LATERAL STABILITY
9.2.1 Shear walls. Where the structure depends upon masonry walls for lateral stability,
shear walls shall be provided parallel to the direction of the lateral forces resisted.
9.2.1.1 Shear wall thickness. Minimum nominal thickness of masonry shear walls shall
be 200 mm.
Exception: Shear walls of one-story buildings are permitted to be a
minimum nominal thickness of 150 mm.
9.2.1.2 Cumulative length of shear walls. In each direction in which shear walls are
required for lateral stability, shear walls shall be positioned in two separate planes.
The minimum cumulative length of shear walls provided shall be 0.4 times the
long dimension of the building. Cumulative length of shear walls shall not include
openings or any element whose length is less than one-half its height.
9.2.1.3 Maximum diaphragm ratio. Masonry shear walls shall be spaced so that the
length-to-width ratio of each diaphragm transferring lateral forces to the shear walls
does not exceed the values given in Table 9.2.1.
TABLE 9.2.1
DIAPHRAGM LENGTH-TO-WIDTH RATIOS
FLOOR OR ROOF DIAPHRAGM MAXIMUM LENGTH-TO-WIDTH
CONSTRUCTION RATIO OF DIAPHRAGM PANEL*
9.2.2 Roofs. The roof construction shall be designed so as not to impart out-of-plane
lateral thrust to the walls under roof gravity load.
Shear 70
Flexural tension
Vertical span 124
Horizontal span 207
SECTION 9.3
COMPRESSIVE STRESS REQUIREMENTS
9.3.1 Calculations. Compressive stresses in masonry due to vertical dead plus live loads,
excluding wind or seismic loads, shall be determined in accordance with Section
9.3.2.
9.3.1.1 Dead and live loads shall be in accordance with SBC 301 with live load reductions
as permitted in SBC 301.
9.3.2 Allowable compressive stresses. The compressive stresses in masonry shall not
exceed the values given in Table 9.3.1. Stress shall be calculated based on specified
rather than nominal dimensions.
TABLE 9.3.1
ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESSES FOR
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
Allowable compressive stressesa gross cross-
Construction; Compressive Strength Of Unit Gross sectional area,
Area MPa MPa
Type M or S mortar Type N mortar
Solid masonry of brick and other solid units of clay or
shale; sand-lime or concrete brick:
56 or greater 2.5 2
31 1.6 1.4
17.5 1.1 1.0
10.5 0.8 0.7
Grouted masonry, of clay or shale; sand-lime or concrete:
31 or greater 1.6 1.4
17.5 1.1 1.0
10.5 0.8 0.7
Solid masonry of solid concrete masonry units:
21 or greater 1.6 1.4
14 1.1 1.0
8.5 0.8 0.7
Masonry of hollow load-bearing units:
14 or greater 1.0 0.8
10.5 0.8 0.7
7.0 0.5 0.5
5.0 0.4 0.4
Hollow walls (noncomposite masonry bonded)b
Solid units:
17.5 or greater 1.1 1.0
10.5 0.8 0.7
Hollow units 0.5 0.4
Stone ashlar masonry:
Granite 5.0 4.5
Limestone or marble 3.0 2.8
Sandstone or cast stone 2.5 2.2
Rubble stone masonry
Coursed, rough or random 0.8 0.7
a. Linear interpolation for determining allowable stresses for masonry units having compressive strengths which are
intermediate between those given in the table is permitted.
b. Where floor and roof loads are carried upon one wythe, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the wythe under load; if both
wythes are loaded, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the wall minus the area of the cavity between the wythes. Walls
bonded with metal ties shall be considered as noncomposite walls unless collar joints are filled with mortar or grout.
SECTION 9.4
LATERAL SUPPORT
9.4.1 Intervals. Masonry walls shall be laterally supported in either the horizontal or
vertical direction at intervals not exceeding those given in Table 9.4.1.
SBC 305 2007 9/3
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
TABLE 9.4.1
WALL LATERAL SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS
Maximum Wall Length to Thickness
Construction or Wall Height to Thickness (Ratio)
Bearing walls
Solid units or fully grouted 20
All others 18
Nonbearing walls
Exterior 18
Interior 36
9.4.2 Thickness. Except for cavity walls and cantilever walls, the thickness of a wall
shall be its nominal thickness measured perpendicular to the face of the wall. For
cavity walls, the thickness shall be determined as the sum of the nominal
thicknesses of the individual wythes. For cantilever walls, except for parapets, the
ratio of height-to-nominal thickness shall not exceed six for solid masonry or four
for hollow masonry. For parapets, see Section 9.5.5.
In computing the ratio for multiwythe walls, use the following
thickness:
1. The nominal wall thickness for solid walls and for hollow walls bonded
with masonry headers Section 9.6.2.
2. The sum of the nominal thicknesses of the wythes for non-composite walls
connected with wall ties Section 9.6.3.
9.4.3 Support elements. Lateral support shall be provided by cross walls, pilasters,
buttresses or structural frame members when the limiting distance is taken
horizontally, or by floors, roofs acting as diaphragms or structural frame
members when the limiting distance is taken vertically.
SECTION 9.5
THICKNESS OF MASONRY
9.5.1 Thickness of walls. The thickness of masonry walls shall conform to the
requirements of Section 9.5.
9.5.2 Minimum thickness. The minimum thickness of masonry bearing walls more than
one story high shall be 200 mm. Bearing walls of one-story buildings shall not be
less than 150 mm thick.
9.5.3 Rubble stone walls. The minimum thickness of rough or random or coursed
rubble stone walls shall be 400 mm.
9.5.4 Change in thickness. Where walls of masonry of hollow units or masonry bonded
hollow walls are decreased in thickness, a course or courses of solid masonry shall
be interposed between the wall below and the thinner wall above, or special units or
SBC 305 2007 9/4
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
construction shall be used to transmit the loads from face shells or wythes above to
those below.
9.5.6 Foundation walls. Foundation walls shall comply with the requirements of Section
9.5.6.1 and 9.5.6.2.
9.5.6.1 Minimum thickness. Minimum thickness for foundation walls shall comply with
the requirements of Table 9.5.1. The provisions of Table 9.5.1 are only applicable
where the following conditions are met:
1. The foundation wall does not exceed 2400 mm in height between lateral
supports,
2. The terrain surrounding foundation walls is graded to drain surface water
away from foundation walls,
3. Backfill is drained to remove ground water away from foundation walls,
4. Lateral support is provided at the top of foundation walls prior to
backfilling,
5. The length of foundation walls between perpendicular masonry walls or
pilasters is a maximum of three times the basement wall height,
6. The backfill is granular and soil conditions in the area are nonexpansive,
and
7. Masonry is laid in running bond using Type M or S mortar.
9.5.6.2 Design requirements. Where the requirements of Section 9.5.6.1 are not met,
foundation walls shall be designed in accordance with SBC 303.
TABLE 9.5.1
FOUNDATION WALL CONSTRUCTION
Wall Nominal Wall Maximum Depth of
Construction Thickness Unbalanced Backfill
mm m
SECTION 9.6
BOND
9.6.1 General. The facing and backing of multiwythe masonry walls shall be bonded in
accordance with Section 9.6.2, 9.6.3 or 9.6.4.
on prefabricated joint reinforcement shall not be less than (WD 4) and shall be
without drips. The longitudinal wires shall be embedded in the mortar.
SECTION 9.7
ANCHORAGE
9.7.1 General. Masonry elements shall be anchored in accordance with Section 9.7.2
through 9.7.4.
9.7.2 Intersecting walls. Masonry walls depending upon one another for lateral support
shall be anchored or bonded at locations where they meet or intersect by one of
the methods indicated in Sections 9.7.2.1 through 9.7.2.5.
9.7.2.1 Bonding pattern. Fifty percent of the units at the intersection shall be laid in an
overlapping masonry bonding pattern, with alternate units having a bearing of not
less than 75 mm on the unit below.
9.7.2.2 Steel connectors. Walls shall be anchored by steel connectors having a minimum
section of 6 mm by 40 mm, with ends bent up at least 50 mm or with cross pins to
form anchorage. Such anchors shall be at least 600 mm long and the maximum
spacing shall be 1200 mm.
9.7.2.3 Joint reinforcement. Walls shall be anchored by joint reinforcement spaced at a
maximum distance of 200 mm. Longitudinal wires of such reinforcement shall be
at least wire size (WD 4) and shall extend at least 800 mm in each direction at the
intersection.
9.7.2.4 Interior nonload-bearing walls. Interior nonload-bearing walls shall be anchored
at their intersection, at vertical intervals of not more than 400 mm with joint
reinforcement or 6.5 mm mesh galvanized hardware cloth.
9.7.2.5 Ties, joint reinforcement or anchors. Other metal ties, joint reinforcement or
anchors, if used, shall be spaced to provide equivalent area of anchorage to that
required by this section.
SBC 305 2007 9/7
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY
9.7.3 Floor and roof anchorage. Floor and roof diaphragms providing lateral support
to masonry shall comply with the live loads in Uniform Live Loads (Structural
Design) and shall be connected to the masonry in accordance with Section 9.7.3.1
through 9.7.3.3.
9.7.3.1 Steel floor joists. Steel floor joists bearing on masonry walls shall be anchored to the
wall with 10 mm round bars, or their equivalent, spaced not more than 1800 mm o.c.
Where joists are parallel to the wall, anchors shall be located at joist bridging.
9.7.3.2 Roof diaphragms. Roof diaphragms shall be anchored to masonry walls with 13
mm bolts, 1800 mm o.c. or their equivalent. Bolts shall extend and be embedded at
least 400 mm into the masonry, or be hooked or welded to not less than 130 mm2
of bond beam reinforcement placed not less than 150 mm from the top of the
wall.
9.7.4 Walls adjoining structural framing. Where walls are dependent upon the
structural frame for lateral support, they shall be anchored to the structural
members with metal anchors or otherwise keyed to the structural members. Metal
anchors shall consist of 13 mm bolts spaced at 1200 mm o.c. embedded 100 mm into
the masonry, or their equivalent area.
SECTION 9.8
ADOBE CONSTRUCTION
9.8.0 Adobe construction shall comply with this section and shall be subject to the
requirements of this code.
9.8.3 Working stress. The allowable compressive stress based on gross cross-sectional
area of adobe shall not exceed 200 kPa.
9.8.3.1 Bolts. Bolt values shall not exceed those set forth in Table 9.8.1.
TABLE 9.8.1
ALLOWABLE SHEAR ON BOLTS IN ADOBE MASONRY
Diameter of Bolts Minimum Embedment Shear
mm mm N
14 − −
16 300 900
20 400 1400
22 500 1800
26 550 2250
30 600 2700
9.8.4 Construction.
9.8.4.1 General.
9.8.4.1.1 Height restrictions. Adobe construction shall be limited to buildings not
exceeding one story, except that two-story construction is allowed when designed
by a registered design professional.
9.8.4.1.2 Mortar restrictions. Mortar for stabilized adobe units shall comply with this
Code or adobe soil. Adobe soil used as mortar shall comply with material
requirements for stabilized adobe. Mortar for unstabilized adobe shall be Portland
cement mortar.
9.8.4.1.3 Mortar joints. Adobe units shall be laid with full head and bed joints and in full
running bond.
9.8.4.1.4 Parapet walls. Parapet walls constructed of adobe units shall be waterproofed.
9.8.4.2 Wall thickness. The minimum thickness of exterior walls in one-story buildings
shall be 250 mm. The walls shall be laterally supported at intervals not exceeding
7000 mm. The minimum thickness of interior load-bearing walls shall be 200 mm.
In no case shall the unsupported height of any wall constructed of adobe units
exceed 10 times the thickness of such wall.
9.8.4.3 Foundations.
9.8.4.3.1 Foundation support. Walls and partitions constructed of adobe units shall be
supported by foundations or footings that extend not less than 150 mm above
adjacent ground surfaces and are constructed of solid masonry (excluding adobe) or
concrete. Footings and foundations shall comply with SBC 303.
9.8.4.3.2 Lower course requirements. Stabilized adobe units shall be used in adobe walls
for the first 100 mm above the finished first-floor elevation.
9.8.4.4 Isolated piers or columns. Adobe units shall not be used for isolated piers or
columns in a load-bearing capacity. Walls less than 600 mm in length shall be
considered isolated piers or columns.
9.8.4.5 Tie beams. Exterior walls and interior load-bearing walls constructed of adobe
units shall have a continuous tie beam at the level of the floor or roof bearing and
meeting the following requirements.
9.8.4.5.1 Concrete tie beams. Concrete tie beams shall be a minimum depth of 150 mm and a
minimum width of 250 mm. Concrete tie beams shall be continuously reinforced
with a minimum of two Dia 12mm reinforcing bars. The ultimate compressive
strength of concrete shall be at least 20 MPa at 28 days.
9.8.4.6 Exterior finish. Exterior walls constructed of unstabilized adobe units shall have
their exterior surface covered with a minimum of two coats of Portland cement
plaster having a minimum thickness of 20 mm and conforming to ANSI A42.2.
Lathing shall comply with ANSI A42.3. Fasteners shall be spaced at 400 mm o.c.
maximum. Exposed wood surfaces shall be treated with an approved wood
preservative or other protective coating prior to lath application.
SECTION 9.9
MISCELLANEOUS REQUIREMENT
9.9.1 Chases and recesses. Masonry directly above chases or recesses wider than 300
mm shall be supported on lintels.
9.9.2 Lintels. Lintels shall be considered structural members and shall be designed in
accordance with the applicable provisions of SBC 301.
9.9.3 Support on wood. No masonry shall be supported on wood girders or other forms
of wood construction.
9.9.4 Corbelling. Solid masonry units shall be used for corbelling. The maximum
corbelled projection beyond the face of the wall shall be not more than one-half of
the wall thickness or one-half the wythe thickness for hollow walls; the maximum
projection of one unit shall neither exceed one-half the height of the unit nor one-
third its thickness at right angles to the wall.
CHAPTER 10
GLASS UNIT MASONRY
SECTION 10.1
10.1.0 This section covers the empirical requirements for nonload-bearing glass unit
masonry elements in exterior or interior walls.
The provisions of Chapter 1 through Chapter 4, excluding Section 1.3 (5 to 6),
3.12, 3.13 shall apply to design and construction of glass unit masonry, except as
stated herein. Section (5.2) shall not apply to construction of glass unit masonry.
10.1.1 Limitations. Solid or hollow approved glass block shall not be used in fire walls,
party walls, fire barriers or fire partitions, or for load-bearing construction. Such
blocks shall be erected with mortar and reinforcement in metal channel-type frames,
structural frames, masonry or concrete recesses, embedded panel anchors as
provided for both exterior and interior walls or other approved joint materials. Wood
strip framing shall not be used in walls required to have a fire-resistance rating by
other provisions of SBC.
Exceptions:
1. Glass-block assemblies having a fire protection rating of not less than 3 4
hour shall be permitted as opening protectives in accordance with Chapter
4 SBC 801 in barriers and fire partitions that have a required fire-
resistance rating of 1 hour or less and do not enclose exit stairways or exit
passageways.
2. Glass-block assemblies as permitted in Section 2.16.5, SBC 201.
SECTION 10.2
UNITS
10.2.1 Standard units. The specified thickness of standard units shall be 100 mm.
10.2.2 Thin units. The specified thickness of thin units shall be 80 mm for hollow units or
75 mm for solid units.
SECTION 10.3
PANEL SIZE
10.3.1 Exterior standard-unit panels. The maximum area of each individual exterior
standard-unit panel shall be 13 m2 when the design wind pressure is 960 N/m2. The
maximum panel dimension between structural supports shall be 7500 mm in width or
6000 mm in height. The panel areas are permitted to be adjusted in accordance
with Figure 10.3.1 for other wind pressures.
2.9
2.4
1.9
1.4
0.96
0.48
0
4.6 9.3 13.9 18.6 23.2 27.9 m2
Figure 10.3.1
Glass Masonry Design Wind Load Resistance
10.3.2 Exterior thin-unit panels. The maximum area of each individual exterior thin-unit
panel shall be 8 m2. The maximum dimension between structural supports shall be
4500 mm in width or 3000 mm in eight. Thin units shall not be used in applications
where the design wind pressure exceeds 950 N/m2.
10.3.3 Interior panels. The maximum area of each individual standard-unit panel shall
be 23 m2. The maximum area of each thin-unit panel shall be 14 m2. The maximum
dimension between structural supports shall be 7600 mm in width or 6000 mm in
height.
10.3.4 Solid units. The maximum area of solid glass-block wall panels in both exterior
and interior walls shall not be more than 9 m2.
10.3.5 Curved panels. The width of curved panels shall conform to the requirements of
Section 10.3.1, 10.3.2 and 10.3.3, except additional structural supports shall be
provided at locations where a curved section joins a straight section, and at
inflection points in multi-curved walls.
SECTION 10.4
SUPPORT
10.4.1 Isolation. Glass unit masonry panels shall be isolated so that in-plane loads are not
imparted to the panel.
10.4.2 Vertical. Maximum total deflection of structural members supporting glass unit
masonry shall not exceed l /600.
10.4.3 Lateral. Glass unit masonry panels more than one unit wide or one unit high shall
be laterally supported along their tops and sides. Lateral support shall be provided
by panel anchors along the top and sides spaced not more than 400 mm o.c. or by
channel-type restraints. Glass unit masonry panels shall be recessed at least 25
SBC 305 2007 10/2
GLASS UNIT MASONRY
SECTION 10.5
EXPANSION JOINTS
10.5.0 Glass unit masonry panels shall be provided with expansion joints along the top
and sides at all structural supports. Expansion joints shall have sufficient
thickness to accommodate displacements of the supporting structure, but shall not
be less than 10 mm in thickness. Expansion joints shall be entirely free of mortar
or other debris and shall be filled with resilient material. The sills of glass-block
panels shall be coated with approved water-based asphaltic emulsion, or other
elastic waterproofing material, prior to laying the first mortar course.
SECTION 10.6
MORTAR
10.6.0 Mortar for glass unit masonry shall comply with Section 3.7.
SECTION 10.7
REINFORCEMENT
10.7.0 Glass unit masonry panels shall have horizontal joint reinforcement spaced not
more than 400 mm on center, located in the mortar bed joint, and extending the entire
length of the panel but not across expansion joints. Longitudinal wires shall be
lapped a minimum of 150 mm at splices. Joint reinforcement shall be placed in the
bed joint immediately below and above openings in the panel. The reinforcement
shall have not less than two parallel longitudinal wires of size (WD 4), and have
welded cross wires of size (WD 4).
CHAPTER 11
MASONRY FIREPLACES
SECTION 11.1
DEFINITION
SECTION 11.2
FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS
11.2.0 Footings for masonry fire-places and their chimneys shall be constructed of
concrete or solid masonry at least 300 mm thick and shall extend at least 150 mm
beyond the face of the fireplace or foundation wall on all sides. Footings shall be
founded on natural undisturbed earth or engineered fill. Footings shall be at least
300 mm below finished grade.
11.2.1 Ash dump cleanout. Cleanout openings, located within foundation walls below
fireboxes, when provided, shall be equipped with ferrous metal or masonry doors
and frames constructed to remain tightly closed, except when in use. Cleanouts shall
be accessible and located so that ash removal will not create a hazard to combustible
materials.
SECTION 11.3
SEISMIC REINFORCING
11.3.1 Vertical reinforcing. For fireplaces with chimneys up to 1000 mm wide, four Dia
12 mm continuous vertical bars, anchored in the foundation, shall be placed in the
concrete, between wythes of solid masonry or within the cells of hollow unit
masonry and grouted in accordance with Section 3.10. For fireplaces with chimneys
greater than 1000 mm wide, two additional Dia 12 mm vertical bars shall be
provided for each additional 1000 mm in width or fraction thereof.
SECTION 11.4
SEISMIC ANCHORAGE
11.4.0 Masonry and concrete chimneys in Seismic Design Category D shall be anchored
at each floor, ceiling or roof line more than 1800 mm above grade, except where
constructed completely within the exterior walls. Anchorage shall conform to the
following requirements.
SBC 305 2007 11/1
MASONRY FIREPLACES
SECTION 11.5
FIREBOX WALLS
11.5.0 Masonry fireboxes shall be constructed of solid masonry units, hollow masonry
units grouted solid, stone or concrete. When a lining of firebrick at least 50 mm in
thickness or other approved lining is provided, the minimum thickness of back and
sidewalls shall each be 200 mm of solid masonry, including the lining. The width
of joints between firebricks shall not be greater than 6.0 mm. When no lining is
provided, the total minimum thickness of back and sidewalls shall be 250 mm of
solid masonry. Firebrick shall conform to ASTM C 27 or ASTM C 1261 and shall
be laid with medium-duty refractory mortar conforming to ASTM C 199.
11.5.1 Steel fireplace units. Steel fireplace units are permitted to be installed with solid
masonry to form a masonry fireplace provided they are installed according to either
the requirements of their listing or the requirements of this section. Steel fireplace
units incorporating a steel firebox lining shall be constructed with steel not less than
6.0 mm in thickness, and an air-circulating chamber which is ducted to the interior of
the building. The firebox lining shall be encased with solid masonry to provide a
total thickness at the back and sides of not less than 200 mm, of which not less than
100 mm shall be of solid masonry or concrete. Circulating air ducts employed with
steel fireplace units shall be constructed of metal or masonry.
SECTION 11.6
FIREBOX DIMENSIONS
11.6.0 The firebox of a concrete or masonry fireplace shall have a minimum depth of 500
mm. The throat shall not be less than 200 mm above the fireplace opening. The
throat opening shall not be less than 100 mm in depth. The cross-sectional area of the
passageway above the firebox, including the throat, damper and smoke chamber,
shall not be less than the cross-sectional area of the flue.
Exception: Rumsford fireplaces shall be permitted provided that the depth of the
fireplace is at least 300 mm and at least one-third of the width of the fireplace
opening, and the throat is at least 300 mm above the lintel, and at least 1 20 of the
cross-sectional area of the fireplace opening.
TABLE 11.1.1
a
SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR MASONRY FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS
a. This table provides a summary of major requirements for the construction of masonry chimneys and fireplaces. Letter references are to
Figure 11.1.1, which shows examples of typical construction. This table does not cover all requirements, nor does it cover all aspects of the
indicated requirements. For the actual mandatory requirements of the code, see the indicated section of text.
FIGURE 11.1.1
FIREPLACE AND CHIMNEY DETAILS
SECTION 11.7
LINTEL AND THROAT
11.7.1 Damper. Masonry fireplaces shall be equipped with a ferrous metal damper
located at least 200 mm above the top of the fireplace opening. Dampers shall be
installed in the fireplace or at the top of the flue venting the fireplace, and shall be
operable from the room containing the fireplace. Damper controls shall be
permitted to be located in the fireplace.
SECTION 11.8
SMOKE CHAMBER WALLS
11.8.0 Smoke chamber walls shall be constructed of solid masonry units, hollow masonry
units grouted solid, stone or concrete. Corbeling of masonry units shall not leave
unit cores exposed to the inside of the smoke chamber. The inside surface of
corbeled masonry shall be parged smooth. Where no lining is provided, the total
minimum thickness of front, back and sidewalls shall be 200 mm of solid masonry.
When a lining of firebrick at least 50 mm thick, or a lining of vitrified clay at least 16
mm thick, is provided, the total minimum thickness of front, back and sidewalls
shall be 150 mm of solid masonry, including the lining. Firebrick shall conform to
ASTM C 27 or ASTM C 1261 and shall be laid with refractory mortar conforming
to ASTM C 199.
11.8.1 Smoke chamber dimensions. The inside height of the smoke chamber from the
fireplace throat to the beginning of the flue shall not be greater than the inside width
of the fireplace opening. The inside surface of the smoke chamber shall not be
inclined more than 0.76 rad from vertical when prefabricated smoke chamber
linings are used or when the smoke chamber walls are rolled or sloped rather than
corbeled. When the inside surface of the smoke chamber is formed by corbeled
masonry, the walls shall not be corbeled more than 0.5 rad from vertical.
SECTION 11.9
HEARTH AND HEARTH EXTENSION
11.9.0 Masonry fireplace hearths and hearth extensions shall be constructed of concrete or
masonry, supported by noncombustible materials, and reinforced to carry their
own weight and all imposed loads. No combustible material shall remain against
the underside of hearths or hearth extensions after construction.
11.9.1 Hearth thickness. The minimum thickness of fireplace hearths shall be 100 mm.
11.9.2 Hearth extension thickness. The minimum thickness of hearth extensions shall be
50 mm.
Exception: When the bottom of the firebox opening is raised at least 200 mm
above the top of the hearth extension, a hearth extension of not less than 10 mm
brick, concrete, stone, tile or other approved noncombustible material is permitted.
SECTION 11.10
HEARTH EXTENSION DIMENSIONS
11.10.0 Hearth extensions shall extend at least 400 mm in front of, and at least 200 mm
beyond, each side of the fireplace opening Where the fireplace opening is 0.6 m2 or
larger, the hearth extension shall extend at least 500 mm in front of, and at least 300
mm beyond, each side of the fireplace opening.
SECTION 11.11
FIREPLACE CLEARANCE
11.11.0 Any portion of a masonry fireplace located in the interior of a building or within the
exterior wall of a building shall have a clearance to combustibles of not less than 50
mm from the front faces and sides of masonry fireplaces and not less than 100 mm
from the back faces of masonry fireplaces. The airspace shall not be filled,
except to provide fireblocking in accordance with Section 11.13.
Exceptions:
1. Masonry fireplaces listed and labeled for use in contact with
combustibles in accordance with UL 127, and installed in accordance
with the manufacturer’s installation instructions, are permitted to have
combustible material in contact with their exterior surfaces.
2. When masonry fireplaces are constructed as part of masonry or concrete
walls, combustible materials shall not be in contact with the masonry or
concrete walls less than 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest
firebox lining.
3. Exposed combustible trim and the edges of sheathing materials, such as
wood siding, flooring and drywall, are permitted to abut the masonry
fireplace sidewalls and hearth extension, in accordance with
Figure11.11.1, provided such combustible trim or sheathing is a minimum
of 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest firebox lining.
4. Exposed combustible mantels or trim is permitted to be placed directly on
the masonry fireplace front surrounding the fireplace opening provided
such combustible materials shall not be placed within 150 mm of a
fireplace opening. Combustible material within 300 mm of the fireplace
opening shall not project more than 3 mm for each 25 mm distance from
such opening.
SECTION 11.12
MANTEL AND TRIM
11.12.0 Woodwork or other combustible materials shall not be placed within 150 mm of a
fireplace opening. Combustible material within 300 mm of the fireplace opening
shall not project more than 3 mm for each 25 mm distance from such opening.
SECTION 11.13
FIREPLACE FIREBLOCKING
11.13.0 All spaces between fireplaces and floors and ceilings through which fireplaces pass
shall be fireblocked with noncombustible material securely fastened in place. The
fireblocking of spaces between wood joists, beams or headers shall be to a depth of
SBC 305 2007 11/6
MASONRY FIREPLACES
25 mm and shall only be placed on strips of metal or metal lath laid across the
spaces between combustible material and the chimney.
FIGURE 11.11.1
ILLUSTRATION OF EXCEPTION TO FIREPLACE CLEARANCE PROVISION
SECTION 11.14
EXTERIOR AIR
11.14.0 Factory-built or masonry fireplaces covered in this section shall be equipped with an
exterior air supply to ensure proper fuel combustion unless the room is
mechanically ventilated and controlled so that the indoor pressure is neutral or
positive.
11.14.1 Factory-built fireplaces. Exterior combustion air ducts for factory-built fireplaces
shall be listed components of the fireplace, and installed according to the
fireplace manufacturer’s instructions.
11.14.2 Masonry fireplaces. Listed combustion air ducts for masonry fireplaces shall be
installed according to the terms of their listing and manufacturer’s instructions.
11.14.3 Exterior air intake. The exterior air intake shall be capable of providing all
combustion air from the exterior of the dwelling. The exterior air intake shall not be
located within the garage, attic, basement or crawl space of the dwelling nor shall
the air intake be located at an elevation higher than the firebox. The exterior air
intake shall be covered with a corrosion-resistant screen of 6 mm mesh.
11.14.4 Clearance. Unlisted combustion air ducts shall be installed with a minimum 25
mm clearance to combustibles for all parts of the duct within 1500 mm of the
duct outlet.
11.14.5 Passageway. The combustion air passageway shall be a minimum of 4000 mm2 and
not more than 0.04 m2, except that combustion air systems for listed fireplaces or
for fireplaces tested for emissions shall be constructed according to the fireplace
manufacturer’s instructions.
SBC 305 2007 11/7
MASONRY FIREPLACES
11.14.6 Outlet. The exterior air outlet is permitted to be located in the back or sides of the
firebox chamber or within 600 mm of the firebox opening on or near the floor. The
outlet shall be closable and designed to prevent burning material from dropping
into concealed combustible spaces.
CHAPTER 12
MASONRY HEATERS
SECTION 12.1
DEFINITION
SECTION 12.2
INSTALLATION
12.2.1 Masonry heaters shall be listed or installed in accordance with ASTM E 1602.
SECTION 12.3
SEISMIC REINFORCING
12.3.1 Seismic reinforcing shall not be required within the body of a masonry heater
whose height is equal to or less than 2.5 times its body width and where the masonry
chimney serving the heater is not supported by the body of the heater. Where the
masonry chimney shares a common wall with the facing of the masonry heater, the
chimney portion of the structure shall be reinforced in accordance with Section 13.3
and 13.4.
SECTION 12.4
MASONRY HEATER CLEARANCE
12.4.1 Wood or other combustible framing shall not be placed within 100 mm of the
outside surface of a masonry heater, provided the wall thickness of the firebox is
not less than 200 mm and the wall thickness of the heat exchange channels is not
less than 120 mm. A clearance of at least 200 mm shall be provided between the
gas-tight capping slab of the heater and a combustible ceiling. The required space
between the heater and combustible material shall be fully vented to permit the free
flow of air around all heater surfaces.
CHAPTER 13
MASONRY CHIMNEYS
SECTION 13.1
GENERAL
SECTION 13.2
FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS
SECTION 13.3
SEISMIC REINFORCING
SECTION 13.4
SEISMIC ANCHORAGE
13.4.0 Masonry and concrete chimneys and foundations in Seismic Design Category D
shall be anchored at each floor, ceiling or roof line more than 1800 mm above grade,
except where constructed completely within the exterior walls. Anchorage shall
conform to the following requirements.
SECTION 13.5
CORBELING
13.5.0 Masonry chimneys shall not be corbeled more than half of the chimney’s wall
thickness from a wall or foundation, nor shall a chimney be corbeled from a wall
or foundation that is less than 300 mm in thickness unless it projects equally on each
side of the wall, except that on the second story of a two-story dwelling, corbeling
of chimneys on the exterior of the enclosing walls is permitted to equal the wall
thickness. The projection of a single course shall not exceed one-half the unit
height or one-third of the unit bed depth, whichever is less.
SECTION 13.6
CHANGES IN DIMENSION
13.6.0 The chimney wall or chimney flue lining shall not change in size or shape within 150
mm above or below where the chimney passes through floor components, ceiling
components or roof components.
SECTION 13.7
OFFSETS
13.7.0 Where a masonry chimney is constructed with a fireclay flue liner surrounded by
one wythe of masonry, the maximum offset shall be such that the centerline of
the flue above the offset does not extend beyond the center of the chimney wall
below the offset. Where the chimney offset is supported by masonry below the
offset in an approved manner, the maximum offset limitations shall not apply.
Each individual corbeled masonry course of the offset shall not exceed the
projection limitations specified in Section 13.5.
SECTION 13.8
ADDITIONAL LOAD
13.8.0 Chimneys shall not support loads other than their own weight unless they are
designed and constructed to support the additional load. Masonry chimneys are
permitted to be constructed as part of the masonry walls of the building.
SECTION 13.9
TERMINATION
13.9.0 Chimneys shall extend at least 600 mm higher than any portion of the building
within 3000 mm, but shall not be less than 900 mm above the highest point where
SBC 305 2007 13/2
MASONRY CHIMNEYS
13.9.1 Spark arrestors. Where a spark arrestor is installed on a masonry chimney, the
spark arrestor shall meet all of the following requirements:
1. The net free area of the arrestor shall not be less than four times the net free
area of the outlet of the chimney flue it serves.
2. The arrestor screen shall have heat and corrosion resistance equivalent to
19-gage galvanized steel or 24-gage stainless steel.
3. Openings shall not permit the passage of spheres having a diameter greater
than 13 mm nor block the passage of spheres having a diameter less than 11
mm.
4. The spark arrestor shall be accessible for cleaning and the screen or chimney
cap shall be removable to allow for cleaning of the chimney flue.
SECTION 13.10
WALL THICKNESS
13.10.0 Masonry chimney walls shall be constructed of concrete, solid masonry units or
hollow masonry units grouted solid with not less than 100 mm nominal thickness.
SECTION 13.11
FLUE LINING (MATERIAL)
13.11.0 Masonry chimneys shall be lined. The lining material shall be appropriate for the
type of appliance connected, according to the terms of the appliance listing and
the manufacturer’s instructions.
13.11.1 Residential-type appliances (general). Flue lining systems shall comply with one
of the following:
1. Clay flue lining complying with the requirements of ASTM C 315, or
equivalent.
2. Listed chimney lining systems complying with UL 1777.
3. Factory-built chimneys or chimney units listed for installation within
masonry chimneys.
4. Other approved materials that will resist corrosion, erosion, softening or
cracking from flue gases and condensate at temperatures up to 982 ° C.
13.11.1.1 Flue linings for specific appliances. Flue linings other than those covered in
Section 13.11.1 intended for use with specific appliances shall comply with Section
13.11.1.2 through 13.11.1.4, 13.11.2, 13.11.3.
13.11.1.2 Gas appliances. Flue lining systems for gas appliances shall be installed in an
approved method.
13.11.1.3 Pellet fuel-burning appliances. Flue lining and vent systems for use in masonry
chimneys with pellet fuel-burning appliances shall be limited to flue lining systems
complying with Section 13.11.1 and pellet vents listed for installation within
masonry chimneys (see 13.11.1.5 for marking).
13.11.1.4 Oil-fired appliances approved for use with L-vent. Flue lining and vent systems
for use in masonry chimneys with oil-fired appliances approved for use with Type
SBC 305 2007 13/3
MASONRY CHIMNEYS
L vent shall be limited to flue lining systems complying with Section 13.11.1 and
listed chimney liners complying with UL 641 see Section 13.11.1.5 for marking).
13.11.1.5 Notice of usage. When a flue is relined with a material not complying with Section
13.11.1, the chimney shall be plainly and permanently identified by a label attached
to a wall, ceiling or other conspicuous location adjacent to where the connector
enters the chimney. The label shall include the following message or equivalent
language: “This chimney is for use only with (type or category of appliance) that
burns (type of fuel). Do not connect other types of appliances.”
SECTION 13.12
FLUE LINING (INSTALLATION)
13.12.1 Flue liners shall be installed in accordance with ASTM C 1283 and extend from a
point not less than 200 mm below the lowest inlet or, in the case of fireplaces, from
the top of the smoke chamber, to a point above the enclosing walls. The lining shall
be carried up vertically, with a maximum slope no greater than 0.52 rad (30
degrees) from the vertical.
13.12.2 Fireclay flue liners shall be laid in medium-duty refractory mortar conforming to
ASTM C 199, with tight mortar joints left smooth on the inside and installed to
maintain an airspace or insulation not to exceed the thickness of the flue liner
separating the flue liners from the interior face of the chimney masonry walls. Flue
lining shall be supported on all sides. Only enough mortar shall be placed to make the
joint and hold the liners in position.
SECTION 13.13
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
13.13.1 Listed materials. Listed materials used as flue linings shall be installed in
accordance with the terms of their listings and the manufacturer’s instructions.
13.13.2 Space around lining. The space surrounding a chimney lining system or vent
installed within a masonry chimney shall not be used to vent any other appliance.
Exception: This shall not prevent the installation of a separate flue lining in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
SECTION 13.14
MULTIPLE FLUES
13.14.1 When two or more flues are located in the same chimney, masonry wythes shall be
built between adjacent flue linings. The masonry wythes shall be at least 100 mm
thick and bonded into the walls of the chimney.
Exception: When venting only one appliance, two flues are permitted to adjoin
each other in the same chimney with only the flue lining separation between
them. The joints of the adjacent flue linings shall be staggered at least 100 mm.
SECTION 13.15
FLUE AREA (APPLIANCE)
13.15.1 Chimney flues shall not be smaller in area than the area of the connector from the
appliance. Chimney flues connected to more than one appliance shall not be less
than the area of the largest connector plus 50% of the areas of additional chimney
connectors.
Exceptions:
1. Chimney flues serving gas and oil-fired appliances sized in accordance
with NFPA 31.
SECTION 13.16
FLUE AREA (MASONRY FIREPLACE)
13.16.0 Flue sizing for chimneys serving fireplaces shall be in accordance with Section
13.16.1 or 13.16.2.
13.16.1 Minimum area. Round chimney flues shall have a minimum net cross-sectional
area of at least 1 12 of the fireplace opening. Square chimney flues shall have a
minimum net cross-sectional area of at least 1 10 of the fireplace opening.
Rectangular chimney flues with an aspect ratio less than 2 to 1 shall have a
minimum net cross-sectional area of at least 1 10 of the fireplace opening.
Rectangular chimney flues with an aspect ratio of 2 to 1 or more shall have a
minimum net cross-sectional area of at least 1 8 of the fireplace opening.
13.16.2 Determination of minimum area. The minimum net cross-sectional area of the
flue shall be determined in accordance with Figure 13.16.1. A flue size providing at
least the equivalent net cross-sectional area shall be used. Cross-sectional areas of
clay flue linings are as provided in Tables 13.16.1 and 13.16.2 or as provided by
the manufacturer or as measured in the field. The height of the chimney shall be
measured from the firebox floor to the top of the chimney flue.
• The units for the table and the interrelated figures are laid down according to internati
FIGURE 13.16.1
FLUE SIZES FOR MASONRY CHIMNEYS
TABLE 13.16.1
a
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF ROUND FLUE SIZES
FLUE SIZE, INSIDE DIAMETER CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
(mm) (square mm)
150 17670
175 24050
200 31415
250 49090
269 56830
300 70685
375 110445
450 159045
a. Flue sizes are based on ASTM C 315.
TABLE 13.16.2
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR
a
FLUE SIZES
FLUE SIZE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
(mm) (square mm)
110 x 325 21250
190 x 190 23125
210 x 210 29375
190 x 290 36250
210 x 325 46250
190 x 390 51250
290 x 290 56875
210 x 440 63125
325 x 325 76250
290 x 390 77500
325 x 440 103125
390 x 390 105000
390 x 490 133750
440 x 440 141250
490 x 490 168125
500 x 500 178750
a. Flue sizes are based on ASTM C 315.
SECTION 13.17
INLET
13.17.1 Inlets to masonry chimneys shall enter from the side. Inlets shall have a thimble of
fireclay, rigid refractory material or metal that will prevent the connector from
SBC 305 2007 13/7
MASONRY CHIMNEYS
pulling out of the inlet or from extending beyond the wall of the liner.
SECTION 13.18
MASONRY CHIMNEY CLEANOUT OPENINGS
13.18.1 Cleanout openings shall be provided within 150 mm of the base of each flue
within every masonry chimney. The upper edge of the cleanout shall be located at
least 150 mm below the lowest chimney inlet opening. The height of the opening
shall be at least 150 mm. The cleanout shall be provided with a noncombustible
cover.
Exception: Chimney flues serving masonry fireplaces, where cleaning is possible
through the fireplace opening.
SECTION 13.19
CHIMNEY CLEARANCES
13.19.1 Any portion of a masonry chimney located in the interior of the building or within
the exterior wall of the building shall have a minimum airspace clearance to
combustibles of 50 mm. Chimneys minimum airspace clearance of 25 mm. The
airspace shall not be filled, except to provide fireblocking in accordance with
Section 13.20.
Exceptions:
1. Masonry chimneys equipped with a chimney lining system listed and
labeled for use in chimneys in contact with combustibles in accordance
with UL 1777, and installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions, are permitted to have combustible material in contact with
their exterior surfaces.
2. Where masonry chimneys are constructed as part of masonry or concrete
walls, combustible materials shall not be in contact with the masonry or
concrete wall less than 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest flue
lining.
3. Exposed combustible trim and the edges of sheathing materials, such as
wood siding, are permitted to abut the masonry chimney sidewalls, in
accordance with Figure 13.19.1, provided such combustible trim or
sheathing is a minimum of 300 mm from the inside surface of the nearest
flue lining. Combustible material and trim shall not overlap the corners of
the chimney by more than 25 mm.
SECTION 13.20
CHIMNEY FIREBLOCKING
13.20.1 All spaces between chimneys and floors and ceilings through which chimneys pass
shall be fireblocked with noncombustible material securely fastened in place. The
fireblocking of spaces between wood joists, beams or headers shall be to a depth of
25 mm and shall only be placed on strips of metal or metal lath laid across the
spaces between combustible material and the chimney.
FIGURE 13.19.1
ILLUSTRATION OF EXCEPTION TO CHIMNEY CLEARANCE PROVISION
CHAPTER 14
MASONRY VENEER
SECTION 14.1
GENERAL
14.1.1 Scope. This section provides requirements for design and detailing of anchored
masonry veneer and adhered masonry veneer.
14.1.1.1 The provisions of Chapter 1 to Chapter 5, excluding Section 1.3(item 6), 1.4,
3.13, 4.13 and 5.2 shall apply to design of anchored and adhered veneer.
14.1.1.2 Section 4.1.2 and 4.1.9 shall not apply to adhered veneer.
14.1.2 Design of anchored veneer. Anchored veneer shall meet the requirements of
Section 14.1.5 and shall be designed rationally by Section 14.2.1 or detailed by
the prescriptive requirements of Section 14.2.2.
14.1.3 Design of adhered veneer. Adhered veneer shall meet the requirements of Section
14.1.5 and shall be designed rationally by Section 14.3.1 or detailed by the
prescriptive requirements of Section 14.3.2.
14.1.4 Dimension stone. Dimension stone veneer is not covered under this Code. Any such
system shall be considered a Special System and submitted to the Building Official
in accordance with Section 1.3.5.
SECTION 14.2
ANCHORED VENEER
9.00 11.00
14.2.2.3.2 When anchored veneer is supported by floor construction, the floor shall be
designed to limit deflection as required in Section 4.1.5.1.
14.2.2.3.3 Provide noncombustible lintels or supports attached to noncombustible framing
over all openings where the anchored veneer is not self-supporting. The
deflection of such lintels or supports shall conform to the requirements of Section
4.1.5.1.
14.2.2.4 Masonry units - Masonry units shall be at least 70 mm in actual thickness.
14.2.2.5 Anchor requirements
14.2.2.5.1 Corrugated sheet metal anchors
14.2.2.5.1.1 Corrugated sheet metal anchors shall be at least 22 mm wide, have a base metal
thickness of at least 0.8 mm, and shall have corrugations with a wavelength of
7.5 to 12 mm and an amplitude of 1.5 to 2.5 mm.
14.2.2.5.1.2 Corrugated sheet metal anchors shall be placed as follows:
(a) With solid units, embed anchors in the mortar joint and extend into the
veneer a minimum of 38 mm, with at least 16 mm mortar cover to the
outside face.
(b) With hollow units, embed anchors in mortar or grout and extend into the
veneer a minimum of 38 mm, with at least 16 mm mortar or grout cover to
the outside face.
14.2.2.5.2 Sheet metal anchors
14.2.2.5.2.1 Sheet metal anchors shall be at least 23 mm wide, have a base metal thickness of at
least 1.5 mm and shall:
(a) Have corrugations as given in Section14.2.2.5.1.1, or
(b) Be bent, notched, or punched to provide equivalent performance in pull-
out or push-through.
SBC 305 2007 14/2
MASONRY VENEER
14.2.2.5.7 Joint thickness for anchors – Mortar bed joint thickness shall be at least twice the
thickness of the embedded anchor.
14.2.2.6 Masonry veneer anchored to steel backing
14.2.2.6.1 Attach veneer with adjustable anchors.
14.2.2.6.2 Attach each anchor to steel framing with corrosion-resistant screws that have a
minimum nominal shank diameter of 5 mm.
14.2.2.6.3 Cold-formed steel framing shall be corrosion resistant and have a minimum base
metal thickness of 1 mm.
14.2.2.6.4 Maintain a 110 mm maximum distance between the inside face of the veneer and
the steel framing. Maintain a 25 mm minimum air space.
14.2.2.7 Masonry veneer anchored to masonry or concrete backing
14.2.2.7.1 Attach veneer to masonry backing with wire anchors, adjustable anchors, or joint
reinforcement. Attach veneer to concrete backing with adjustable anchors.
14.2.2.7.2 Maintain a 110 mm maximum distance between the inside face of the veneer and
the outside face of the masonry or concrete backing. Maintain a 25 mm minimum
air space.
14.2.2.8 Veneer laid in other than running bond
Anchored veneer laid in other than running bond shall have joint reinforcement
of at least one wire, of size WD 4, spaced at a maximum of 450 mm on center
vertically.
14.2.2.9 Requirements in seismic areas
14.2.2.9.1 Seismic Design Category C
14.2.2.9.1.1 The requirements of this section apply to anchored veneer for buildings in Seismic
Design Category C.
14.2.2.9.1.2 Isolate the sides and top of anchored veneer from the structure so that vertical and
lateral seismic forces resisted by the structure are not imparted to the veneer.
14.2.2.9.2 Seismic Design Category D
14.2.2.9.2.1 The requirements for Seismic Design Category C and the requirements of this
section apply to anchored veneer for buildings in Seismic Design Category D.
14.2.2.9.2.2 Support the weight of anchored veneer for each story independent of other stories.
14.2.2.9.2.3 Reduce the maximum wall area supported by each anchor to 75 % of that required
in Section 14.2.2.5.6.1 and 14.2.2.5.6.2. Maximum horizontal and vertical spacing
are unchanged.
14.2.2.9.2.4 Provide continuous, single-wire joint reinforcement of minimum wire size WD 4
at a maximum spacing of 450 on center vertically.
SECTION 14.3
ADHERED VENEER
14.3.1 Alternative design of adhered masonry veneer. The alternative design of adhered
veneer, which is permitted under Section 1.3.5, shall satisfy the following
conditions:
(a) Loads shall be distributed through the veneer to the backing using
principles of mechanics.
(b) Out-of-plane curvature shall be limited to prevent veneer unit separation
from the backing.
(c) All masonry, other than veneer, shall meet the provisions of Section 1.2,
excluding Section 1.2.5 and 1.2.6.
(d) The veneer is not subject to the flexural tensile stress provisions of Section
7.2.
REFERENCED STANDARDS
These are the standards referenced within SBC 305. The standards are listed herein by the
promulgating agency of the standard, the standard identification, the effective date
and title. The application of the referenced standards shall be as specified in SBC.
1. ACI, 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures and
Commentary and Specification for Masonry Structures and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute (ACI), 38800 Country Club Dr., Farmington Hills, MI 48331, U.S.A.
2. ACI, 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
and Commentary and Specification for Masonry Structures and Commentary,
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 38800 Country Club Dr., Farmington Hills, MI
48331, U.S.A.
3. ANSI, A42.2, Portland Cement and Portland Cement-lime Plastering, Exterior
(STUCCO) and Interior, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street,
Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
4. ANSI, A42.3, Lathing and Furring for Portland Cement-lime Plastering, Exterior
(STUCCO) and interior, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street,
Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
5. ANSI, A108.1A, Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile in the Wet-set Method,
with Portland Cement Mortar, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
6. ANSI, A108.1B, Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile on a Cured Portland
Cement Mortar Setting Bed with Dry-set or Latex Portland Cement Mortar, American
National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036,
U.S.A.
7. ANSI, A108.4, Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile with Organic Adhesives
or Water Cleanable Tile Setting Epoxy Adhesive, American National Standards
Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
8. ANSI, A108.5, Ceramic Tile, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
9. ANSI, A108.6, Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile with Tile with Chemical
Resistant, Water Cleanable Tile Setting and Grouting Epoxy, American National
Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
10. ANSI, A108.7, Ceramic Tile, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
11. ANSI, A108.8, Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile with Chemical Resistant
Furan Mortar and Grout, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street,
Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
12. ANSI, A108.9, Ceramic Tile, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
13. ANSI, A108.10, Specifications for Installation of Grout in Tilework, American
National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036,
U.S.A.
14. ANSI, A118.1, Specifications for Dry-Set Portland Cement Mortar, American National
Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
15. ANSI, A118.2, Specifications for Conductive Dry-Set Portland Cement Mortar,
American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York,
NY 10036, U.S.A.
16. ANSI, A118.3, Specifications for Chemical Resistant, Water Cleanable Tile-Setting
and Grouting Epoxy and Water, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
17. ANSI, A118.4, Specifications for Latex Portland Cement Mortar, American National
Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
18. ANSI, A118.5, Specifications for Chemical Resistant Furan Resin Mortars and Grouts
for Tile Installation, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street,
Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
19. ANSI, A118.6, Specifications for Ceramic Tile Grouts, American National Standards
Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
20. ANSI, A118.8, Specifications for Modified Epoxy Emulsion Mortar Grout, American
National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036,
U.S.A.
21. ANSI, A136.1, Ceramic Tile, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036, U.S.A.
22. ANSI, A137.1, American National Standard Specifications for Ceramic Tile, American
National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY 10036,
U.S.A.
23. ASCE, 7, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Structural Engineering Institute, 1801 Alexander Bell
Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, U.S.A.
24. ASTM, C 27, Standard Classification of Fireclay and High-Alumina Refractory Brick,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
25. ASTM, C 34, Standard Specification for Structural Clay Load Bearing-Wall Tile,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
26. ASTM, A 36, Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel, ASTM International,
100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
27. ASTM, C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
28. ASTM, C 56, Standard Specification for Structural Clay Non-Load-Bearing Tile,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
29. ASTM, C 62, Standard Specification for Building Brick (Solid Masonry Units) Made
from Clay or Shale, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
30. ASTM, C 67, Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural
Clay Tile, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
31. ASTM, C 73, Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick),
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
32. ASTM, A 82, Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
33. ASTM, C 90, Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
34. ASTM, C 91, Standard Specification for Masonry Cement, ASTM International, 100
Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
35. ASTM, E 111, Standard Test Methods for Young's Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and
Chord Modulus, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
36. ASTM, E 119, Standard Specification for Fire Tests of Building Construction and
Materials, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
37. ASTM, A 123, Standard Specification for Apparatus for Determination of Water by
Distillation, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
38. ASTM, C 126, Standard Specification for Ceramic Glazed Structural Clay Facing Tile,
Facing Brick, and Solid Masonry Units, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive,
P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
39. ASTM, C 140, Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry
Units and Related Units, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
40. ASTM, C 150, Standard Specification for Portland Cement, ASTM International, 100
Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
41. ASTM, A 153, Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel
Hardware, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
42. ASTM, A 167, Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-
Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O.
Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
43. ASTM, A 185, Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for
Concrete, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
44. ASTM, C 199, Standard Test Methods for Pier Test for Refractory Mortars, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
45. ASTM, C 207, Standard Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
46. ASTM, C 212, Standard Specification for Structural Clay Facing Tile, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
47. ASTM, C 216, Standard Specification for Facing Brick (Solid Masonry Units) Made
from Clay or Shale, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
48. ASTM, C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar Unit Masonry, ASTM International,
100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
49. ASTM, C 315, Standard Specification for Clay Flue Liners, ASTM International, 100
Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
50. ASTM, E 328, Standard Test Methods for Stress Relaxation Tests for Materials and
Structures, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
51. ASTM, A 366, Standard Specification for Convection Oven Gas or Electric, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
52. ASTM, A 416, Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for
Prestressed Concrete, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
53. ASTM, A 421, Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for
Prestressed Concrete, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
54. ASTM, A 426-99, Test Method for Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Block, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
55. ASTM, C 476, Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM International,
100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
56. ASTM, C 482, Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of Ceramic Tile to Portland
Cement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
57. ASTM, E 488-96, Test Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Masonry
Elements, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
58. ASTM, A 496, Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
59. ASTM, C 503, Standard Specification for Marble Dimension Stone, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
60. ASTM, A 510, Standard Specification for General Requirements for Wire Rods and
Coarse Round Wire, Carbon Steel, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O.
Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
61. ASTM, C 568, Standard Specification for Limestone Dimension Stone, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
62. ASTM, C 595, Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
63. ASTM, A 615, Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
64. ASTM, C 615, Standard Specification for Granite Dimension Stone, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
65. ASTM, A 616, Standard Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement (Withdraw 1999), ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive,
P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
66. ASTM, C 616, Standard Specification for Quartz-Based Dimension Stone, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
67. ASTM, C 629, Standard Specification for Slate Dimension Stone, ASTM International,
100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
68. ASTM, A 641, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel
Wire, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
69. ASTM, C 652, Standard Specification for Hollow Brick (Hollow Masonry Units) Made
from Clay or Shale, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
70. ASTM, A 653, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or
Zinc-Iron, Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process, ASTM International,
100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
71. ASTM, A 706, Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box
C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
72. ASTM, A 706 A, Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box
C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
73. ASTM, A 706 M, Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O.
Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
74. ASTM, A 722, Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars for
Prestressing Concrete, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
75. ASTM, A 767, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
76. ASTM, A 775, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
77. ASTM, C 744, Standard Specification for Prefaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate
Masonry Units, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
78. ASTM, A 884, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire
Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
79. ASTM, C 887, Standard Specification for Packaged, Dry, Combined Materials for
Surface Bonding Mortar, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
80. ASTM, A 899, Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Epoxy-Coated, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
81. ASTM, C 946, Standard Practice for Construction of Dry-Stacked, Surface Bonded
Walls, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
82. ASTM, A 951, Standard Specification for Steel Wire for Masonry Joint Reinforcement,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
83. ASTM, A 996, Standard Specification for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
84. ASTM, C 1019, Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing Grout, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
85. ASTM, C 1088, Standard Specification for Thin Veneer Brick Units Made from Clay
or Shale, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
86. ASTM, C 1261, Standard Specification for Firebox Brick for Residential Fireplaces,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
87. ASTM, C 1283, Standard Practice for Installing Clay Flue Lining, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
88. ASTM, C 1314, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Masonry Prisms,
ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA,
19428-2959, U.S.A.
89. ASTM, C 1329, Standard Specification for Mortar Cement, ASTM International, 100
Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
90. ASTM, E 1602, Standard Specification for Construction of Solid Fuel Burning
Masonry Heaters, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
91. AWS, D 1.4-98, Structural Welding Code – Reinforcing Steel, American Welding
Society, 550 N.W. LeJune Road, Miami, FL. 33126, U.S.A.
92. NFPA, 31, Standard for the Installation of Oil-Burning Equipment, ASTM
International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-
2959, U.S.A.
93. UL, 1777, Chimney Liners, ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, P.O. Box
C700, West Conshohocken, PA, 19428-2959, U.S.A.
INDEX
A
Acceptable/accepted
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Adhered veneer ............................................................................................................. 14.1.2, 14.3
adhesion requirements ...................................................................................................... 14.1.3
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
thickness, maximum ...................................................................................................... 14.3.2.1
Adhesion .................................................................................................................................... 14.3
Adjustable ties .................................................................................................................... 7.1.5.3.2
for grout ........................................................................................................................... 4.3.2.1
Allowable forces, loads, strengths and stresses
anchor bolts ........................................................................................................................ 7.1.1
compression, axial and flexural ............................................................................... 7.2.3, 7.3.3
empirical requirements ........................................................................................................ 10.1
notations ................................................................................................................................ 2.2
prestressed masonry ........................................................................................................... 1.2.3
reinforced masonry ............................................................................................................... 7.3
shear ............................................................................................................ 7.2.5, 7.2.5.2, 7.2.5
steel reinforcement ............................................................................................. 7.3.2, 7.3.2.2.1
tension ................................................................................................................ 7.1.4.2.2, 7.2.4
axial flexural ................................................................................................................... 7.2.3.1
unreinforced masonry .......................................................................................................... 7.2
Allowable stress design method ............................................................................................... 7.1.1
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
pullout ................................................................................................................................... 2.1
Anchor bolt ............................................................................................... 7.1.4, 7.1.4.2.2.1, 8.1.4.4
allowable stress design provisions ..................................................................................... 7.1.1
axial tension strength ......................................................................................................... 7.2.4
embedment length ........................................................................................ 7.1.4.2.1, 8.1.6.1.2
nominal axial tensile strength ......................................................................................... 8.1.6.2
nominal shear strength .................................................................................................... 8.1.6.3
seismic requirements ....................................................................................................... 6.1.2.1
shear strength (ASD) .................................................................................................... 7.1.5.2.2
specifications .................................................................................................................... 3.11.6
strength reduction factor .................................................................................................... 8.1.4
test requirements ............................................................................................................. 7.1.4.1
Anchorage ................................................................................................................................... 1.3
empirical design ......................................................................................................... Chapter 9
seismic ................................................................................................................................ 6.1.2
stirrups ..................................................................................................................... 7.1.10.5.1.5
tendon ............................................................... see Tendon anchorages, Couplers, End blocks
Anchored veneer
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
design ............................................................................................................................... 14.1.2
seismic requirements ................................................................................................... 14.2.2.10
Anchors
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
drawings ............................................................................................................................. 1.3.1
glass unit masonry (panel anchors) .................................................................................. 10.4.3
protection ............................................................................................................... 4.8.4, 3.11.7
tests .................................................................................................................................. 7.1.4.1
SBC 305 2007 Index/1
INDEX
B
Backing
concrete .................................................................................................... 14.2.2.3.1, 14.2.2.7.2
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
deflection .................................................................................................................... 12.2.2.3.2
design requirements ......................................................................................................... 14.1.5
masonry ............................................................................................................. 14.2.2, 14.2.2.6
steel ............................................................................................................................... 14.2.2.6
wood ................................................................................................................................... 4.1.6
Bar, reinforcing .................................................................................................. see Reinforcement
Beams
cantilevered ..................................................................................................................... 7.3.5.5
column intersection ............................................................................................................ 7.1.6
deflection ............................................................................................................... 4.1.5, 8.1.5.2
reinforced ........................................................................................................................ 8.1.5.2
strength design (reinforced) ............................................................................................... 8.3.2
width, notation ...................................................................................................................... 2.2
Bearing
concentrated loads .............................................................................................................. 7.1.9
notation .................................................................................................................................. 2.2
length for reinforced beams ............................................................................................ 7.3.3.4
lintel ............................................................................................................................. 7.3.3.4.1
prestressed masonry ......................................................................................................... 3.11.7
stress ................................................................................................................................ 7.1.7.2
strength reduction factor .................................................................................................... 8.1.4
Bearing walls (Load bearing walls)
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
SBC 305 2007 Index/2
INDEX
Earthquake
loads ......................................................................................................................... 1.5.2, 1.5.3
Eccentricity ............................................................................................................................ 7.1.6.3
Effective compressive width ................................................................................................. 7.3.3.3
Effective height .............................................................................................................. 2.1, 7.1.6.2
Effective prestress ....................................................................................................................... 2.1
Embedded items ................................................................................................................ 4.7, 4.1.3
Embedment length
anchors ............................................................................................................ 7.1.4.1.1, 7.1.4.2
bolts .................................................................................................................... 8.1.4.4, 8.1.6.1
hooks ................................................................................................................ 8.2.3.2, 7.1.10.4
notation .................................................................................................................................. 2.2
reinforcement .......................................................................................... 8.2.3, 7.1.10, 7.1.10.3
Empirical design ........................................................................................................ 2.1, Chapter 9
End bearing splices ........................................................................................................... 7.1.10.6.4
Engineer, definition ..................................................................................................................... 2.1
Euler buckling
equation ........................................................................................................................... 7.2.3.1
notation .................................................................................................................................. 2.2
Expansion
coefficient notation ............................................................................................................... 2.2
joints ............................................................................................. 10.5, 4.1.2.1, 4.1.2.4, 6.1.3.3
moisture ............................................................................................................................ 3.12.4
thermal ............................................................................................................................. 3.12.3
Epoxy coating ........................................................................................................................ 4.8.4.2
H
Head joint
construction ........................................................................................................................ 4.3.2
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
thickness .......................................................................................................................... 4.1.2.4
Headed anchor bolts .............................................................................................. 7.1.4, 7.1.4.2.2.1
allowable stress design ....................................................................................................... 7.1.1
strength design ................................................................................................. Chapter 8, 1.2.2
Header
allowable stress ............................................................................................................ 7.1.4.2.3
composite action ............................................................................................................. 7.1.5.2
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
empirical design ............................................................................................... 1.2.4, Chapter 9
Height
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
notation .................................................................................................................................. 2.2
empirical requirements--
buildings ............................................................................................................................. 9.1.1
fill, unbalanced (empirical requirements) ............................................................. Table 9.5.6.1
foundation walls ................................................................................................................. 9.5.6
height/thickness ratios (empirical requirements) .................................................................. 9.5
parapets (empirical requirements) ...................................................................................... 9.5.5
grout pour .............................................................................................................................. 4.6
veneer ....................................................................................................................... Chapter 14
Horizontal reinforcement, seismic requirements .................................................. 6.1.1.2.1, 6.1.1.5
Hot weather construction ............................................................................................................ 4.4
Masonry
glass .......................................................................................... 3.5, 4.1.2.4, 10.4.1, Chapter 10
prestressed .......................................................................................................... 7.1.2.2, 6.1.1.6
unreinforced .......................................................................................................................... 7.2
plain ....................................................................................................................................... 7.2
veneer ............................................................................................................. 1.2.6, Chapter 14
Masonry bonded hollow walls .................................................................................................... 2.1
Masonry breakout ........................................................................................................................ 2.1
Masonry cement
allowable flexural tension ........................................................................................... Table 7.1
Masonry erection ......................................................................................................................... 4.1
cold weather construction ..................................................................................................... 4.3
grout placement ........................................................................................................ 4.3.2.2, 4.6
hot weather construction ....................................................................................................... 4.4
placing mortar .................................................................................................................... 4.1.2
preparation ......................................................................................................................... 4.3.1
reinforcement installation .................................................................................. 9.7.2.5, 9.7.3.3
Masonry materials ................................................................................................................. 7.1.6.6
Materials
certificates ................................................................................................................... Table 5.1
handling ................................................................................................................................. 5.1
properties ............................................................................................................................. 3.12
protection from cold hot weather ................................................................................... 4.3, 4.4
samples ............................................................................................................................ 9.8.1.1
seismic restrictions ............................................................................................................. 6.1.2
specifications .................................................................................................................. 3.2, 3.7
storage ................................................................................................................................... 5.1
tolerances ........................................................................................................................... 4.1.1
Maximum moment, notation ....................................................................................................... 2.2
Maximum value, definition ......................................................................................................... 2.1
Maximum wind load (pressure)
empirical design ......................................................................................................... Chapter 9
glass unit masonry .................................................................................................... Chapter 10
veneer ....................................................................................................................... Chapter 14
Mean daily temperature
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Mechanical connections and anchorages .......................................................... 7.1.10.6, 7.1.10.6.3
Minimum inside bend diameter for reinforcing bars ............................................................... 4.8.6
Minimum thickness
empirical design ................................................................................................................. 9.5.2
Minimum value
definitions .............................................................................................................................. 2.1
SBC 305 2007 Index/10
INDEX
Protection
corrosion ....................................................................................................... 4.8.4.3, 14.2.2.6.2,
of materials ......................................................................................................................... 7.1.1
steel ................................................................................................................................. 4.8.4.3
weather ............................................................................................................................... 4.1.7
Quality assurance
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Temperature
ambient ..................................................................................................................... 4.3, 4.4.1.1
mean daily ................................................................................................................... 2.1, 4.4.3
Temperature change ................................................................................................................. 1.5.4
Tendon anchorages ...................................................................................................................... 2.1
Tendon couplers, end blocks ....................................................................................................... 2.1
Tension tensile (strength)
allowable ..................................................................................... 7.1.1, 7.1.4.2.3, 7.2.3.2, 7.3.2
notation ........................................................................................................................... 2.2
axial
bolts ........................................................................................................... 7.1.4, 7.1.4.2.2.1
prestressed ....................................................................................................................... 1.2
reinforced ........................................................................................................................ 7.3
unreinforced .................................................................................................................... 7.2
flexural
reinforced ........................................................................................................................ 7.3
unreinforced .................................................................................................................... 7.2
veneer ................................................................................................................. Chapter 14
Test/testing ..................................................................................................................... 5.1.1, 5.3.3
agency ................................................................................................................................ 5.1.1
anchor bolts ........................................................................................................................ 7.1.4
compressive strength ............................................................................................................. 1.3
concrete masonry .................................................................................................................. 3.1
grout ............................................................................................................................ Table 4.6
minimum requirements ................................................................................................ 6.1.1.2.1
prisms ................................................................................................................................. 5.2.2
stone ...................................................................................................................................... 3.3
unit .................................................................................................................................. 5.2.2.1
Thermal expansion ................................................................................................................. 3.12.3
notation .................................................................................................................................. 2.2
Thickness
columns .............................................................................................................................. 7.1.6
empirical requirements ........................................................................................................ 10.1
foundation walls (empirical requirements........................................................................... 9.5.6
glass units ................................................................................................................. Chapter 10
parapets (empirical requirements) ...................................................................................... 9.5.5
veneer units ................................................................................................................... 14.3.2.1
walls (empirical requirements) ................................................................................. 9.2.1, 9.5.2
Tie
adjustable ..................................................................................................................... 7.1.5.3.2
corrosion protection ......................................................................................................... 3.11.7
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
fabrication ..................................................................................................................... 3.11.7.1
hooks .................................................................................................................................. 4.8.5
installation .......................................................................................................................... 4.1.3
lateral ........................................................................................................ 1.5.3, 6.1.3.2, 7.1.6.5
protection ........................................................................................................................... 4.1.7
specifications ......................................................................................................................... 3.7
wall tie ......................................................................................................... 2.1, 9.6.3, 7.1.5.2.4
SBC 305 2007 Index/17
INDEX
U
Unbonded prestressing tendon ........................................................................................ 2.1, 3.11.7
corrosion protection ......................................................................................................... 3.11.7
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Unit strength method ............................................................................................................. 5.2.2.1
Unreinforced masonry ................................................................................................................. 7.2
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
V
Veneer .................................................................................................................. 1.2.6, Chapter 14
definition ............................................................................................................................... 2.1
deflection of supporting members .............................................................................. 14.2.2.3.2
seismic requirements ..................................................................................................... 14.2.2.9
Vertical reinforcement
seismic requirements .................................................................................................... 6.1.1.2.1
Vertical support
anchored masonry veneer ................................................................................................. 14.2.1
glass unit masonry ............................................................................................................ 10.4.3
Vibrations ................................................................................................................................. 1.5.4
Volume changes ....................................................................................................................... 1.5.4
ISBN: 9960-9883-3-3
201 Architectural
301 Structural – Loading and Forces
302 Structural – Testing and Inspection
303 Structural – Soil and Foundations
304 Structural – Concrete Structures
305 Structural – Masonry Structures
501 Mechanical
PREFACE
The Saudi Building Code (SBC) is a set of legal, administrative and technical regulations
and requirements that specify the minimum standards of construction for building in order to
ensure public safety and health. A Royal Decree dated 11th June 2000 order the formation of a
national committee composed of representatives of Saudi universities and governmental and
private sectors. In September 2001, the Council of Ministers approved the general plan of the
National Committee to develop a unified building code for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
To choose a base code for the Saudi Building Code a number of Codes have been
studied. The National Committee has been acquainted with the results of the national researches
and the international codes from the U.S.A., Canada and Australia also the European Code, and
Arab Codes. It has also sought the opinions of specialists in relevant Saudi universities,
governmental and private sectors through holding a questionnaire, a symposium and specialized
workshops, in the light of which, (ICC) has been chosen to be a base code for the Saudi Building
Code.
The International Code Council (ICC) grants permission to the Saudi Building Code
National Committee (SBCNC) to include all or any portion of material from the ICC codes, and
standards in the SBC and ICC is not responsible or liable in any way to SBCNC or to any other
party or entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes to such documents.
Toward expanding the participation of all the specialists in the building and construction
industry in the Kingdom through the governmental and private sectors, the universities and
research centers, the National Committee took its own decisions related to code content by
holding specialized meetings, symposiums and workshops and by the help of experts from inside
and outside of Saudi Arabia.
The technical committees and sub-committees started their work in the beginning of
April 2003 to prepare the general framework of the Saudi Building Code that adapts the base
code with the social and cultural environment, the natural and climatic conditions, types of soil
and properties of materials in the Kingdom. It was approved by the Council of Ministers Decree
No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Then, the technical committees and the sub-committees started
preparing the technical requirements for the code.
The Saudi Building Code Structural Requirements for Steel Structures (SBC 306) were
developed based on ICC code in addition to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and
American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC). ASCE and AISC grants permission to the
SBCNC to include all or portions of ASCE and AISC codes and standards in the SBC, and ASCE
and AISC are not responsible for any modifications or changes that SBCNC has made to
accommodate local conditions.
The development process of SBC 306 followed the methodology approved by the Saudi
Building Code National Committee. Many changes and modifications were made on AISC-
LRFD, 1999, such as merging the Appendices into the main text of the Code and deleting parts or
paragraphs of the Appendices and the Commentaries that are irrelevant to the Saudi Building
Code. Only SI units are used through out the Code.
SBC 306 was reviewed and significantly revised by special technical committee during the period Aug.-
Sept. 2007. The committee members are:
Dr. Ahmed B. Shuraim, (SBC-STC chairman)
Dr. Saleh I. Al-Deghaiter,
Engr . Rais M. Mirza, and
Engr. Rizwan A. Iqbal.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Appendix A: GLOSSARY
Appendix B: SYMBOLS
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
SECTION 1.1
SCOPE
The Saudi Building Code for Steel Structures referred to as SBC 306, provides
minimum requirements for design and construction of Steel Structures. SBC 306
shall govern the design, fabrication, and erection of steel-framed buildings.
• Seismic design of buildings shall comply with the AISC Seismic Provisions
for Structural Steel Buildings, Seismic Provision supplement No. 1 and with
this Code.
• Single angle members shall comply with the AISC specification for Load and
Resistance Factor Design of Single-Angle Members and with this Code.
• Hollow structural sections (HSS) shall comply with the AISC specification
for the Design of Steel Hollow Structural Sections and with this Code.
As used in this code, the term structural steel refers to the steel elements of the
structural steel frame essential to the support of the required loads.
SECTION 1.2
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 1.3
MATERIAL
specified.
Note: Materials with other international designations (e.g. JIS, EN) considered
equivalent to ASTM are also approved for use under this code.
1.3.1.2 Unidentified Steel. Unidentified steel, if surface conditions are acceptable
according to criteria contained in ASTM A6/A6M, is permitted to be used for
unimportant members or details, where the precise physical properties and
weldability of the steel would not affect the strength of the structure.
1.3.1.3 Heavy Shapes. For ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 rolled shapes to be used as
members subject to primary tensile stresses due to tension or flexure, toughness need
not be specified if splices are made by bolting. If such members are spliced using
complete-joint-penetration groove welds, the steel shall be specified in the contract
documents to be supplied with Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact testing in
accordance with ASTM A6/A6M, Supplementary Requirement S5. The impact test
shall meet a minimum average value of 27 J absorbed energy at +21°C and shall
be conducted in accordance with ASTM A673/A673M, with the following
exceptions:
1. The center longitudinal axis of the specimens shall be located as near as practical
to midway between the inner flange surface and the center of the flange
thickness at the intersection with the web mid-thickness.
2. Tests shall be conducted by the producer on material selected from a location
representing the top of each ingot or part of an ingot used to produce the product
represented by these tests.
For plates exceeding 50 mm thick used for built-up cross-sections with bolted
splices and subject to primary tensile stresses due to tension or flexure, material
toughness need not be specified. If such cross-sections are spliced using complete-
joint-penetration welds, the steel shall be specified in the contract documents to be
supplied with Charpy V-notch testing in accordance with ASTM A6/A6M,
Supplementary Requirement S5. The impact test shall be conducted by the
producer in accordance with ASTM A673/A673M, Frequency P, and shall meet a
minimum average value of 27 J absorbed energy at +21°C.
The above supplementary requirements also apply when complete-joint-
penetration welded joints through the thickness of ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5
shapes and built-up cross sections with thickness exceeding 50 mm are used in
connections subjected to primary tensile stress due to tension or flexure of such
members. The requirements need not apply to ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5
shapes and built-up members with thickness exceeding 50 mm to which members
other than ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 shapes and built-up members are
connected by complete-joint- penetration welded joints through the thickness of
the thinner material to the face of the heavy material.
Additional requirements for joints in heavy rolled and built-up members are given
in Sections 10.1.5, 10.2.8 and 13.2.2.
Note: Materials with other international designations (e.g. JIS, EN) considered
equivalent to ASTM are also approved for use under this code.
1.3.2 Steel Castings and Forgings. Cast steel shall conform to one of the following
standard specifications:
Steel Castings, Carbon, for General Application, ASTM A27/A27M, Gr. 450-240
Steel Castings, High Strength, for Structural Purposes, ASTM A148/148M Gr.
SBC 306 2007 1/3
GENERAL PROVISIONS
550-345
Steel forgings shall conform to the following standard specification:
Steel Forgings Carbon and Alloy, for General Industrial Use, ASTM A668/
A668M
Certified test reports shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
standards.
Note: Materials with other international designations (e.g. JIS, EN) considered
equivalent to ASTM are also approved for use under this code.
1.3.3 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts. Steel bolts, washers, and nuts shall conform to one
of the following standard specifications:
Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High-Pressure or High-Temperature
Service, or Both, ASTM A194/A194M
Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 410 MPa Tensile Strength, ASTM A307
Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 830/720 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength,
ASTM A325
High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints [Metric], ASTM A325M Quenched
and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs, ASTM A449
Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts, 1030 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength, ASTM
A490
High-Strength Steel Bolts, Classes 10.9 and 10.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints
[Metric], ASTM A490M
Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts, ASTM A563
Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts [Metric], ASTM A563M
Hardened Steel Washers, ASTM F436
Hardened Steel Washers [Metric], ASTM F436M
Compressible-Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators for Use with Structural
Fasteners, ASTM F959
Compressible-Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators for Use with Structural
Fasteners [Metric], ASTM F959M
“Twist Off” Type Tension Control Structural Bolt/Nut/Washer Assemblies, Steel,
Heat Treated, 830/720 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength, ASTM F1852
ASTM A449 bolts are permitted to be used only in connections requiring bolt
diameters greater than 38 mm and shall not be used in slip-critical connections.
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
the standards.
Note: Materials with other international designations (e.g. JIS, EN) considered
equivalent to ASTM are also approved for use under this code.
1.3.4 Anchor Rods and Threaded Rods. Anchor rods and threaded rod steel shall
conform to one of the following standard specifications:
Carbon Structural Steel, ASTM A36/A36M
Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials for High-Temperature Service,
ASTM A193/A193M
Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts, Studs and Other Externally Threaded
Fasteners, ASTM A354
High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel, ASTM
A572/A572M
High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel with 345 MPa Minimum
Yield Point to 100 mm Thick, ASTM A588/A588M
Anchor Bolts, Steel, 250, 380, 720 MPa - Yield Strength, ASTM F1554
Threads on anchor rods and threaded rods shall conform to the Unified Standard
Series of ASME B18.2.6 and shall have Class 2A tolerances.
Steel bolts conforming to other provisions of Section 1.3.3 are permitted as anchor
rods. A449 material is acceptable for high-strength anchor rods and threaded rods
of any diameter.
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
the standards.
Note: Materials with other international designations (e.g. JIS, EN) considered
equivalent to ASTM are also approved for use under this code.
1.3.5 Filler Metal and Flux for Welding. Filler metals and fluxes shall conform to one
of the following specifications of the American Welding Society:
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS
A5.1
Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding,
AWS A5.5
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding,
AWS A5.17/A5.17M
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc
Welding, AWS A5.18
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding, AWS
A5.20
Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc
Welding, AWS A5.23/A5.23M
Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for
Electroslag Welding, AWS A5.25/A5.25M
Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Electrogas Welding,
AWS A5.26/A5.26M
Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc
Welding, AWS A5.28
Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding, AWS
A5.29
Specification for Welding Shielding Gases, AWS A5.32/A5.32M Manufacturer’s
certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with the standards.
SBC 306 2007 1/5
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Filler metals and fluxes that are suitable for the intended application shall be
selected.
1.3.6 Stud Shear Connectors. Steel stud shear connectors shall conform to the
requirements of Structural Welding Code—Steel, AWS D1.1.
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
the specifications.
SECTION 1.4
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
The nominal loads and factored load combinations shall be as stipulated by SBC
301.
SECTION 1.5
DESIGN BASIS
1.5.3 Design for Strength. The required strength shall be determined for each applicable
load combination as stipulated in Section 1.4.
The design strength of each structural component or assemblage shall equal or
exceed the required strength based on the factored loads. The design strength
φRn for each applicable limit state is calculated as the nominal strength Rn multiplied
by a resistance factor. Nominal strengths Rn and resistance factors are given in
Chapters 4 through 11.
1.5.4 Design for Serviceability and Other Considerations. The overall structure and
the individual members, connections, and connectors shall be checked for
serviceability. Provisions for design for serviceability are given in Chapter 12.
SECTION 1.6
DESIGN DOCUMENTS
The design drawings shall show a complete design with sizes, sections, and relative
locations of all members. Floor levels, column centers and offsets shall be
dimensioned. Drawings shall be drawn to a scale large enough to show the
information clearly.
Design documents shall indicate the type or types of construction as defined in
Section 1.2 and include the required strengths (moments and forces) if necessary
for preparation of shop drawings.
Where joints are to be assembled with high-strength bolts, the design documents
shall indicate the connection type (i.e., snug-tightened, pretensioned, or slip-
critical).
Camber of trusses, beams, and girders, if required, shall be specified in the design
documents.
The requirements for stiffeners and bracing shall be shown in the design
documents.
Welding and inspection symbols used on design and shop drawings shall be the
American Welding Society symbols. Welding symbols for special requirements not
covered by AWS are permitted to be used provided complete explanations thereof
are shown in the design documents.
Weld lengths called for in the design documents and on the shop drawings shall be
the net effective lengths.
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
This chapter contains provisions, which are common to this code as a whole.
SECTION 2.1
GROSS AREA
The gross area Ag of a member at any point is the sum of the products of the
thickness and the gross width of each element measured normal to the axis of the
member. For angles, the gross width is the sum of the widths of the legs less the
thickness.
SECTION 2.2
NET AREA
Critical net area is based on net width and load transfer at a particular chain.
The net area An of a member is the sum of the products of the thickness and the net
width of each element computed as follows:
In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a bolt hole shall be taken as
2 mm greater than the nominal dimension of the hole.
For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or zigzag line, the net
width of the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the
diameters or slot dimensions as provided in Section 10.3.2, of all holes in the chain,
and adding, for each gage space in the chain, the quantity s2/ 4g
Where:
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of any two consecutive holes,
mm.
g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fastener gage lines, mm.
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs shall be the sum of the gages
from the back of the angles less the thickness.
In determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the filler metal shall not be
considered as adding to the net area.
SECTION 2.3
EFFECTIVE AREA OF TENSION MEMBERS
Where:
U = reduction coefficient
= 1 − ( x / l ) ≤ 0.9
x = connection eccentricity, mm
l = length of the connection in the direction of loading, mm
(b) When the tension load is transmitted only by longitudinal welds to other
than a plate member or by longitudinal welds in combination with
transverse welds
Ae = AgU (2.3-2)
Where:
U = 1 − ( x / l ) ≤ 0.9
Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Where:
A = area of directly connected elements, mm2
U = 1.0
Where:
For l ≥ 2w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U = 1.00
For 2w > l ≥ 1.5w . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . U = 0.87
For 1.5w > l ≥ w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U = 0.75
Where:
l = length of weld, mm
w = plate width (distance between welds), mm
The reduction coefficient U is applied to the net area An of bolted members and to
the gross area Ag of welded members. As the length of connection l is increased, the
shear lag effect is diminished. This concept is expressed empirically by the
equation for U.
For any given profile and connected elements x is a fixed geometric property. It is
illustrated as the distance from the connection plane, or face of the member, to the
centroid of the member section resisting the connection force. See Figure 2.3-1.
The length l is dependent upon the number of fasteners or equivalent length of weld
required to develop the given tensile force, and this in turn is dependent upon the
mechanical properties of the member and the capacity of the fasteners or weld used.
The length l is illustrated as the distance, parallel to the line of force, between the
first and last fasteners in a line for bolted connections. The number of bolts in a line,
for the purpose of the determination of l, is determined by the line with the
maximum number of bolts in the connection. For staggered bolts, the out-to-out
dimension is used for l. See Figure 2.3-2. If all lines have only one bolt, it is probably
conservative to use Ae equal to the net area of the connected element. For welded
connections, l is the length of the weld parallel to the line of force. For
combinations of longitudinal and transverse welds (see Figure 2.3-3), l is the
SBC 306 2007 2/2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
length of longitudinal weld because the transverse weld has little or no effect on the
shear lag problem, i.e., it does little to get the load into the unattached portions of
the member.
For bolted or riveted connections the following values of U may be used:
(a) W, M, or S shapes with flange widths not less than two-thirds the depth, and
structural tees cut from these shapes, provided the connection is to the flanges
and has no fewer than three fasteners per line in the direction of stress, U
= 0.90.
(b) W, M, or S shapes not meeting the conditions of subparagraph a, structural
tees cut from these shapes, and all other shapes including built-up cross
sections, provided the connection has no fewer than three fasteners per line in
the direction of stress, U = 0.85.
(c) All members having only two fasteners per line in the direction of stress, U =
0.75.
When a tension load is transmitted by fillet welds to some but not all elements
of a cross section, the weld strength will control.
Larger values of U are permitted to be used when justified by tests or other
rational criteria.
For effective area of connecting elements, see Section 10.5.2.
SECTION 2.4
STABILITY
General stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole and for each of its
elements.
Consideration shall be given to the significant effects of the loads on the deflected
shape of the structure and its individual elements.
SECTION 2.5
LOCAL BUCKLING
2.5.1 Classification of Steel Sections. Steel sections are classified as compact, non-
compact, or slender-element sections. For a section to qualify as compact, its
flanges must be continuously connected to the web or webs and the width-
thickness ratios of its compression elements must not exceed the limiting width-
thickness ratios λ p from Table 2.5-1. If the width-thickness ratio of one or more
compression elements exceeds λ p, but does not exceed λ r, the section is non-
compact. If the width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds λ r from Table 2.5-1,
the section is referred to as a slender-element compression section.
For un-stiffened elements which are supported along only one edge parallel to the
direction of the compression force, the width shall be taken as follows:
(a) For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width b is half the full-flange
width, bf.
(b) For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees, the width b is the full
nominal dimension.
(c) For plates, the width b is the distance from the free edge to the first row of
3 h 3
≤ ≤
4 hc 2
where λ r , h, and hc are as defined in Section 2.5.1.
These substitutions shall be made in Sections 6 and 7 when applied to members with
unequal flanges. If the compression flange is larger than the tension flange, λ r shall
be determined using Equation 2.5-1, 2.5-2, or Table 2.5-1.
For tapered flanges of rolled sections, the thickness is the nominal value halfway
between the free edge and the corresponding face of the web.
when b / t ≥ 0.91 E / Fy :
[
Q s = 0.53 E / F y ( b / t ) 2 ] (2.5-4)
(b) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled beams or columns
or other compression members:
when 0.56 E / Fy < b / t < 1.03 E / Fy :
when b / t ≥ 1.03 E / Fy :
[
Q s = 0.69 E / F y ( b / t ) 2 ] (2.5-6)
(c) For flanges, angles and plates projecting from built-up columns or other
compression members:
when b / t ≥ 1.17 E /( Fy / kc ) :
[
Qs = 0.90 Ekc / Fy (b / t ) 2 ] (2.5-8)
where:
h = depth of web, mm
tw = thickness of web, mm
(b) For other sections:
kc = 0.763
(c) For stems of tees:
when 0.75 E / Fy < d / t < 1.03 E / Fy :
when d / t ≥ 1.03 E / Fy :
[
Qs = 0.69 E / Fy (d / t ) 2 ] (2.5-10)
where:
d= width of un-stiffened compression element as defined in Section 2.5.1,
mm
t = thickness of un-stiffened element, mm
E ⎡ 0.38 E⎤
be = 1.91t ⎢1 − ⎥ (2.5-11)
f ⎣⎢ (b / t) f ⎦⎥
otherwise be = b.
E ⎡ 0.34 E⎤
be = 1.91t ⎢1 − ⎥ (2.5-12)
f ⎣⎢ (b / t) f ⎦⎥
otherwise be = b.
where:
b = actual width of a stiffened compression element, as defined in Section
2.5.1, mm
be = reduced effective width, mm
t = element thickness, mm
f = computed elastic compressive stress in the stiffened elements, based on
the design properties as specified in Section 2.5.3.3, MPa. If un-stiffened
elements are included in the total cross section, f for the stiffened element
must be such that the maximum compressive stress in the un-stiffened
element does not exceed φ cFcr as defined in Section 2.5.3.4 with Q = Qs
and φ c = 0.85, or φ bFy Qs with φ b = 0.90, as applicable.
(c) For axially loaded circular sections with diameter-to-thickness ratio D /t
greater than 0.11E/Fy but less than 0.45E / Fy
0.038E 2
Q = Qa = + (2.5-13)
Fy ( D / t ) 3
where:
D = outside diameter, mm
t = wall thickness, mm
2.5.3.3 Design Properties. Properties of sections shall be determined using the full cross
section, except as follows:
In computing the moment of inertia and elastic section modulus of flexural
members, the effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened elements be, as
determined in Section 2.5.3.2, shall be used in determining effective cross-
sectional properties.
For un-stiffened elements of the cross section, Qs is determined from Section
2.5.3.1. For stiffened elements of the cross section
effective area
Qa = (2.5-14)
actual area
where the effective area is equal to the summation of the effective areas of the cross
section.
2.5.3.4 Design Strength. For axially loaded compression members the gross cross-
sectional area and the radius of gyration r shall be computed on the basis of the
actual cross section. The critical stress Fcr shall be determined as follows:
(a) For λ c Q ≤ 1.5 :
2
Fcr = Q(0.658Qλ c ) Fy (2.5-15)
where
Q = QsQa (2.5-17)
built-up compression
members
Flanges of I-shaped sections in b/t NA 0.56 E / F y
pure compression, plates
projecting from compression
elements; outstanding legs of
pairs of angles in continuous
contact; flanges of channels in
pure compression
Legs of single angle struts; b/t NA 0.45 E / F y
legs of double angle struts
with separators; un-stiffened
elements, i.e., supported along
one edge
Stems of tees d /t NA 0.75 E / F y
SECTION 2.6
BRACING AT SUPPORTS
At points of support for beams, girders and trusses, restraint against rotation about
their longitudinal axis shall be provided.
SECTION 2.7
LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIOS
For members in which the design is based on compression, the slenderness ratio
Kl/r preferably should not exceed 200.
For members in which the design is based on tension, the slenderness ratio l / r
preferably should not exceed 300. The above limitation does not apply to rods in
tension. Members in which the design is dictated by tension loading, but which may
be subject to some compression under other load conditions, need not satisfy the
compression slenderness limit.
SECTION 2.8
SIMPLE SPANS
Beams, girders and trusses designed on the basis of simple spans shall have an
effective length equal to the distance between centers of gravity of the members to
which they deliver their end reactions.
SECTION 2.9
END RESTRAINT
Beams, girders, and trusses designed on the assumptions of full or partial end
restraint, as well as the sections of the members to which they connect, shall have
design strengths, as prescribed in Chapters 4 through 11, equal to or exceeding the
effect of factored forces and moments except that some inelastic but self-limiting
deformation of a part of the connection is permitted.
SECTION 2.10
PROPORTIONS OF BEAMS AND GIRDERS
When rolled or welded shapes, plate girders and cover-plated beams are
proportioned on the basis of flexural strength of the gross section:
(a) If 0.75Fu Afn ≥ 0.9Fy Afg (2.10-1)
no deduction shall be made for bolt or rivet holes in either flange, where
Afg = gross flange area, mm2
Afn = net tension flange area calculated in accordance with the provisions of
Section 2.1 and 2.2, mm2
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength, MPa
(b) If 0.75Fu Afn < 0.9Fy Afg (2.10-2)
the member flexural properties shall be based on an effective tension flange
area Afe
5 Fu
A fe = A fn (2.10-3)
6 Fy
and the maximum flexural strength shall be based on the elastic section modulus.
Other design requirements for proper proportioning of beams and girders are as
follows:
Hybrid girders shall be proportioned by the flexural strength of their gross section,
subject to the applicable provisions in Section 7.1, provided they are not required to
resist an axial force greater than φ b times 0.15Fyf Ag, where Fyf is the specified
minimum yield stress of the flange material and Ag is the gross area. No limit is
placed on the web stresses produced by the applied bending moment for which a
hybrid girder is designed, except as provided in Section 11.3. To qualify as hybrid
girders, the flanges at any given section shall have the same cross-sectional area
and be made of the same grade of steel.
Flanges of welded beams or girders may be varied in thickness or width by splicing
a series of plates or by the use of cover plates.
The total cross-sectional area of cover plates of bolted or riveted girders shall not
exceed 70 percent of the total flange area.
High-strength bolts, rivets, or welds connecting flange to web, or cover plate to
flange, shall be proportioned to resist the total horizontal shear resulting from the
bending forces on the girder. The longitudinal distribution of these bolts, rivets, or
intermittent welds shall be in proportion to the intensity of the shear. However, the
longitudinal spacing shall not exceed the maximum permitted for compression or
tension members in Section 5.4 or 4.2, respectively. Bolts, rivets, or welds
connecting flange to web shall also be proportioned to transmit to the web any loads
applied directly to the flange, unless provision is made to transmit such loads by
direct bearing.
Partial length cover plates shall be extended beyond the theoretical cutoff point
and the extended portion shall be attached to the beam or girder by high-strength
bolts in a slip-critical connection, rivets, or fillet welds. The attachment shall be
adequate, at the applicable design strength given in Sections 10.2.2, 10.3.8 or 11.3
to develop the cover plate’s portion of the flexural design strength in the beam or
girder at the theoretical cutoff point.
For welded cover plates, the welds connecting the cover plate termination to the
beam or girder shall have continuous welds along both edges of the cover plate in
the length a ' , defined below, and shall be adequate, at the applicable design
strength, to develop the cover plate’s portion of the design strength in the beam or
girder at the distance a ' from the end of the cover plate.
(a) When there is a continuous weld equal to or larger than three-fourths of the
plate thickness across the end of the plate
a' = w (2.10-4)
where:
w = width of cover plate, mm
(b) When there is a continuous weld smaller than three-fourths of the plate
thickness across the end of the plate
a ' = 1.5w (2.10-5)
(c) When there is no weld across the end of the plate
a ' = 2w (2.10-6)
CHAPTER 3
FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
This chapter contains general requirements for stability of the structure as a whole.
SECTION 3.1
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
3.1.1 Design by Plastic Analysis. In structures designed on the basis of plastic analysis,
as limited in Section 1.5.1, the required flexural strength Mu shall be determined
from a second-order plastic analysis that satisfies the requirements of Section 3.2.
3.1.2 Design by Elastic Analysis. In structures designed on the basis of elastic analysis,
Mu for beam-columns, connections, and connected members shall be determined
from a second-order elastic analysis or from the following approximate second-
order analysis procedure:
Mu = B1Mnt + B2Mlt (3.1-1)
where
Mnt = required flexural strength in member assuming there is no lateral
translation of the frame, N.mm
Mlt = required flexural strength in member as a result of lateral translation of
the frame only, N.mm
Cm
B1 = ≥1 (3.1-2)
(1 − Pu / Pe1 )
π 2 EI
Pe1 = ,N
(KL) 2
where I is the moment of inertia in the plane of bending and K is the effective
length factor in the plane of bending determined in accordance with Section 3.2.1,
for the braced frame.
Pu = required axial compressive strength for the member under consideration,
N
Cm = a coefficient based on elastic first-order analysis assuming no lateral
translation of the frame whose value shall be taken as follows:
(a) For compression members not subject to transverse loading between their
supports in the plane of bending,
C m = 0.6 − 0.4( M 1 / M 2 ) (3.1-3)
where M 1 / M 2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger moments at the ends of that
portion of the member unbraced in the plane of bending under consideration.
M 1 / M 2 is positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature, negative
when bent in single curvature.
(b) For compression members subjected to transverse loading between their
supports, the value of Cm shall be determined either by rational analysis (see
commentary) or by the use of the following values:
For members whose ends are restrained. . . . . . . Cm = 0.85
For members whose ends are unrestrained. . . . . . Cm = 1.00
1
B2 = (3.1-4)
⎛∆ ⎞
1 − ΣPu ⎜⎜ oh ⎟⎟
⎝ ΣHL ⎠
or
1
B2 = (3.1-5)
⎛ ΣP ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ u ⎟
⎟
⎝ ΣPe 2 ⎠
∑ Pu = required axial strength of all columns in a story, N
∆ oh = lateral inter-story deflection, mm
∑H = sum of all story horizontal forces producing ∆ oh , N
L = story height, mm
π 2 EI
Pe2 = ,N
(KL) 2
where I is the moment of inertia in the plane of bending and K is the effective
length factor in the plane of bending determined in accordance with Section 3.2.2,
for the unbraced frame.
SECTION 3.2
FRAME STABILITY
3.2.1 Braced Frames. In trusses and frames where lateral stability is provided by
diagonal bracing, shear walls, or equivalent means, the effective length factor K for
compression members shall be taken as unity, unless structural analysis shows that
a smaller value may be used.
The vertical bracing system for a braced multistory frame shall be determined by
structural analysis to be adequate to prevent buckling of the structure and to
maintain the lateral stability of the structure, including the overturning effects of
drift under the factored load combinations stipulated in Section 1.4.
The vertical bracing system for a braced multistory frame may be considered to
function together with in-plane shear-resisting exterior and interior walls, floor
slabs, and roof decks, which are properly secured to the structural frames. The
columns, girders, beams, and diagonal members, when used as the vertical bracing
system, may be considered to comprise a vertically cantilevered simply connected
truss in the analyses for frame buckling and lateral stability. Axial deformation of
all members in the vertical bracing system shall be included in the lateral stability
analysis.
3.2.1.1 Design by Plastic Analysis. In braced frames designed on the basis of plastic
analysis, as limited in Section 1.5.1, the axial force in these members caused by
factored gravity plus factored horizontal loads shall not exceed 0.85 φ c times AgFy.
3.2.2 Unbraced Frames. In frames where lateral stability depends upon the bending
stiffness of rigidly connected beams and columns, the effective length factor K of
compression members shall be determined by structural analysis. The destabilizing
effects of gravity loaded columns whose simple connections to the frame do not
provide resistance to lateral loads shall be included in the design of the moment-
SECTION 3.3
STABILITY BRACING
3.3.1 Scope. These requirements address the minimum brace strength and stiffness
necessary to ensure member design strengths based on the unbraced length
between braces with an effective length factor K equal to unity. Bracing is
assumed to be perpendicular to the member(s) to be braced; for inclined or
diagonal bracing, the brace strength (force or moment) and stiffness (force per unit
displacement or moment per unit rotation) must be adjusted for the angle of
inclination. The evaluation of the stiffness furnished by a brace shall include its
member and geometric properties, as well as the effects of connections and
anchoring details.
Two general types of bracing systems are considered, relative and nodal. A
relative brace controls the movement of the brace point with respect to adjacent
braced points. A nodal brace controls the movement at the braced point without
direct interaction with adjacent braced points. The strength and stiffness furnished
by the stability bracing shall not be less than the required limits. A second order
analysis that includes an initial out-of-plumbness of the structure or out-of-
straightness of the member to obtain brace strength and stiffness can be used in
lieu of the requirements of this section.
3.3.2 Frames. In braced frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing,
shear walls, or other equivalent means, the required story or panel bracing shear
force is:
Pbr = 0.004ΣPu (3.3-1)
The required story or panel shear stiffness is:
2ΣPu
β br = (3.3-2)
φL
where
φ = 0.75
Σ Pu = summation of the factored column axial loads in the story or panel
supported by the bracing, N
L = story height or panel spacing, mm
These story stability requirements shall be combined with the lateral forces and drift
requirements from other sources, such as wind or seismic loading.
3.3.3 Columns. An individual column can be braced at intermediate points along its
length by relative or nodal bracing systems. It is assumed that nodal braces are
equally spaced along the column.
3.3.4 Beams. Beam bracing must prevent the relative displacement of the top and
bottom flanges, i.e. twist of the section. Lateral stability of beams shall be provided
by lateral bracing, torsional bracing, or a combination of the two. In members
subjected to double curvature bending, the inflection point shall not be considered
a brace point.
3.3.4.1 Lateral Bracing. Bracing shall be attached near the compression flange, except
for a cantilevered member, where an end brace shall be attached near the top
(tension) flange. Lateral bracing shall be attached to both flanges at the brace point
near the inflection point for beams subjected to double curvature bending along the
length to be braced.
(a) Relative Bracing
The required brace strength is:
Pbr = 0.008M u C d / ho (3.3-7)
The required brace stiffness is:
4M u C d
β br = (3.3-8)
φLb ho
where
φ = 0.75
Mu = required flexural strength, N.mm
ho = distance between flange centroids, mm
SBC 306 2007 3/4
FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
3.3.4.2 Torsional Bracing. Torsional bracing can be nodal or continuous along the beam
length. The bracing can be attached at any cross-sectional location and need not be
attached near the compression flange. The connection between a torsional brace
and the beam must be able to support the required moment given below.
(a) Nodal Bracing
The required bracing moment is:
0.024M u L
M br = (3.3-11)
nC b Lb
The required cross-frame or diaphragm bracing stiffness is:
βT
β Tb = (3.3-12)
⎛ β ⎞
⎜1 − T ⎟
⎜ β ⎟
⎝ sec ⎠
where
2.4 LM u2
βT = (3.3-13)
φnEI y C b2
3.3E ⎛⎜ 1.5ho t w t s bs ⎞⎟
3 3
β sec = + (3.3-14)
ho ⎜⎝ 12 12 ⎟⎠
φ = 0.75
L = span length, mm
n = number of nodal braced points within the span
E = 200,000 MPa
Iy = out-of-plane moment of inertia, mm4
Cb = is a modification factor defined in Chapter 6
tw = beam web thickness, mm
ts = web stiffener thickness, mm
SBC 306 2007 3/5
FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
3.3Et w3
β sec = (3.3-15)
12ho
CHAPTER 4
TENSION MEMBERS
This chapter applies to prismatic members subject to axial tension caused by static
forces acting through the centroidal axis. For members subject to combined axial
tension and flexure, see Section 8.1.1. For threaded rods, see section 10.3. For
block shear rupture strength at end connections of tension members, see Section
10.4.3. For the design tensile strength of connecting elements, see Section 10.5.2.
For members subject to fatigue, see Section 11.3.
SECTION 4.1
DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
The design strength of tension members φt Pn , shall be the lower value obtained
according to the limit states of yielding in the gross section and fracture in the net
section.
(a) For yielding in the gross section:
φ t = 0.90
Pn = F y Ag (4.1-1)
(b) For fracture in the net section:
φ t = 0.75
Pn = Fu Ae (4.1-2)
where
Ae = effective net area, mm2
Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength, MPa
When members without holes are fully connected by welds, the effective net section
used in Equation 4.1-2 shall be defined as Section 2.3. When holes are present in a
member with welded-end connections, or at the welded connection in the case of plug
or slot welds, the net section through the holes shall be used in Equation 4.1-2.
SECTION 4.2
BUILT-UP MEMBERS
SECTION 4.3
PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS AND EYEBARS
4.3.1.2 Detailing Requirements. The pin hole shall be located midway between the edges
of the member in the direction normal to the applied force. When the pin is
expected to provide for relative movement between connected parts while under
full load, the diameter of the pin hole shall not be more than 1 mm greater than the
diameter of the pin.
The width of the plate beyond the pin hole shall not be less than 2beff + d and the
minimum extension, a, beyond the bearing end of the pin hole, parallel to the axis
of the member, shall not be less than 1.33 × beff.
The corners beyond the pin hole are permitted to be cut at 45° to the axis of the
member, provided the net area beyond the pin hole, on a plane perpendicular to the
cut, is not less than that required beyond the pin hole parallel to the axis of the
member.
4.3.2 Eyebars
4.3.2.1 Design Strength. The design strength of eyebars shall be determined in
accordance with 4.1, with Ag taken as the cross-sectional area of the body.
For calculation purposes, the width of the body of the eyebars shall not exceed
eight times its thickness.
For steels having Fy greater than 485 MPa, the hole diameter shall not exceed five
times the plate thickness and the width of the eyebar body shall be reduced
accordingly.
CHAPTER 5
COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS
This chapter applies to compact and non-compact prismatic members subject to
axial compression through the centroidal axis. For members subject to combined
axial compression and flexure, see Section 8.1.2. For members with slender
compression elements, see Section 2.5.3. For tapered members, see Section 6.3.
SECTION 5.1
EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND SLENDERNESS LIMITATIONS
5.1.1 Effective Length. The effective length factor K shall be determined in accordance
with Section 3.2.
5.1.2 Design by Plastic Analysis. Design by plastic analysis, as limited in Section 1.5.1,
is permitted if the column slenderness parameter λ c does not exceed 1.5K.
SECTION 5.2
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR
FLEXURAL BUCKLING
SECTION 5.3
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR
FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
5.3.1 Width-Thickness Ratios of Elements Less than or Equal to λ r. The design strength for
flexural-torsional buckling of double-angle and tee-shaped compression members
whose elements have width-thickness ratios less than λ r from Section 2.5.1 is
φ cPn:
where
φ c = 0.85
Pn = Ag Fcrft (5.3-1)
For double-angle and tee-shaped members whose elements do not meet the
requirements of Section 2.5.1, see 2.5.3 to determine Fcry for use in Equation 5.3-2.
⎡ 0.877 ⎤
Fcr = ⎢ 2 ⎥ F y (5.3-5)
⎢⎣ λ e ⎥⎦
where
λe = F y / Fe (5.3-6)
Q = 1.0 for elements meeting the width-thickness ratios λ r of Section 2.5.1
= QsQa for elements not meeting the width-thickness ratios λ r of Section
2.5.1 and determined in accordance with the provisions of Section 2.5.3
π2 E
Fey = (5.3-13)
( K y l / ry ) 2
⎛ π 2 EC w ⎞ 1
Fez = ⎜ + GJ ⎟ (5.3-14)
⎜ (K l) 2 ⎟ Ar 2
⎝ z ⎠ o
SECTION 5.4
BUILT-UP MEMBERS
5.4.1 Design Strength. The design strength of built-up members composed of two or
more shapes shall be determined in accordance with Section 5.2 and Section 5.3
subject to the following modification. If the buckling mode involves relative
deformations that produce shear forces in the connectors between individual
shapes, Kl/r is replaced by (Kl/r)m determined as follows:
(a) For intermediate connectors that are snug-tight bolted:
2
⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎛⎜ a ⎞
2
⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ (5.4-1)
⎝ r ⎠m ⎝ r ⎠ o ⎝ ri ⎠
(b) For intermediate connectors that are welded or fully tensioned bolted:
2
α2 ⎛ a ⎞
2
⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ + 0.82 (5.4-2)
⎝ r ⎠m ⎝ r ⎠o (1 + α 2 ) ⎜⎝ rib ⎟
⎠
where
⎛ Kl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = column slenderness of built-up member acting as a unit
⎝ r ⎠o
⎛ Kl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = modified column slenderness of built-up member
⎝ r ⎠m
a = distance between connectors, mm
ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual component, mm
rib = radius of gyration of individual component relative to its centroidal
axis parallel to member axis of buckling, mm
α = separation ratio = h / 2rib
h = distance between centroids of individual components perpendicular
to the member axis of buckling, mm
exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E / F y nor 460 mm.
SECTION 5.5
CONNECTIONS FOR PIN-CONNECTED
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
CHAPTER 6
BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
This chapter applies to compact and noncompact prismatic members subject to
flexure and shear. For member subject to combined flexure and axial force, see
Section 8.1. For members subject to fatigue, see Section 11.3. For members with
slender compression elements, see Section 2.5. For web-tapered members, see
Section 6.3. For members with slender web elements (plate girders), see Chapter
7.
SECTION 6.1
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
The nominal flexural strength Mn is the lowest value obtained according to the
limit states of: (a) yielding; (b) lateral-torsional buckling; (c) flange local buckling;
and (d) web local buckling. For laterally braced compact beams with Lb ≤ Lp, only
the limit state of yielding is applicable. For unbraced compact beams and
noncompact tees and double angles, only the limit states of yielding and lateral-
torsional buckling are applicable. The lateral-torsional buckling limit state is not
applicable to members subject to bending about the minor axis, or to square or
circular shapes.
This section applies to homogeneous and hybrid shapes with at least one axis
of symmetry and which are subject to simple bending about one principal axis. For
simple bending, the beam is loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that
passes through the shear center or the beam is restrained against twisting at load
points and supports. Only the limit states of yielding and lateral-torsional buckling
are considered in this section. The lateral-torsional buckling provisions are limited
to doubly symmetric shapes, channels, double angles, and tees. For lateral-
torsional buckling of other singly symmetric shapes and for the limit states of
flange local buckling and web local buckling of noncompact or slender-element
sections, see Section 6.1.2.4 of this Chapter.
6.1.1 Yielding. The flexural design strength of beams, determined by the limit state of
yielding, is φ bMn:
φ b = 0.90
Mn = M p (6.1-1)
where
Mp = plastic moment (=FyZ ≤ 1.5 My for homogeneous sections), N-mm
My = moment corresponding to onset of yielding at the extreme fiber from an
elastic stress distribution (=FyS for homogeneous section and FyfS for
hybrid sections), N-mm
See Section 2.10 for further limitations on Mn where there are holes in the tension
flange.
φ b = 0.90
Mn = nominal flexural strength determined as follows
6.1.2.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes and Channels with Lb ≤ Lr. The nominal flexural
strength is:
⎡ ⎛ Lb − L p ⎞⎤
(
M n = Cb ⎢M p − M p − M r )⎜⎜ L−
⎟⎥ ≤ M p
⎟
(6.1-2)
⎢⎣ ⎝ r L p ⎠⎥⎦
where
Lb = distance between points braced against lateral displacement of the
compression flange, or between points braced to prevent twist of the
cross section, mm
Lp = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, mm
Lr = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, mm
Mr = limiting buckling moment as defined below, N-mm
In the above equation, Cb is a modification factor for non-uniform moment
diagrams where, when both ends of the beam segment are braced:
12.5 M max
Cb = (6.1-3)
2.5 M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, N-mm
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, N-
mm
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the unbraced beam segment,
N-mm
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced beam
segment, N-mm
Cb = is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases. Equations
6.1-4 and 6.1-6 are conservatively based on Cb = 1.0. For cantilevers or
overhangs where the free end is unbraced, Cb = 1.0.
The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.
(a) For I-shaped members including hybrid sections and channels:
E
L p = 1.76 ry (6.1-4)
F yf
where
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
J = torsional constant, mm4
The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment
Mr shall be determined as follows.
(a) For doubly symmetric I-shaped members and channels:
ry X 1
Lr = 1 + 1 + X 2 FL2 (6.1-6)
FL
M r = FL S x (6.1-7)
where
π EGJA
X1 = (6.1-8)
Sx 2
2
Cw ⎛ S x ⎞
X2 = 4 ⎜ ⎟ (6.1-9)
I y ⎝ GJ ⎠
M r = Fyf S x (6.1-11)
where
(a) For doubly symmetric I-shaped members and channels:
2
π ⎛ πE ⎞
M cr = C b EI y GJ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ I y C w
Lb ⎝ Lb ⎠ (6.1-13)
Cb S x X 1 2 X 12 X 2
= 1+
Lb / ry 2( Lb / ry ) 2
6.1.2.3 Tees and Double Angles. For tees and double-angle beams loaded in the plane of
symmetry:
π EI y GJ
M n = M cr = ⎡B + 1 + B 2 ⎤ (6.1-15)
Lb ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
where
Mn ≤ 1.5My for stems in tension
Mn ≤ 1.0My for stems in compression
B = ±2.3(d / Lb ) I y / J (6.1-16)
The plus sign for B applies when the stem is in tension and the minus sign applies
when the stem is in compression. If the tip of the stem is in compression anywhere
along the unbraced length, use the negative value of B.
6.1.2.4 Yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, flange local buckling, and web local
buckling of singly symmetric shapes other than those addressed in Sections
6.1.1 and 6.1.2 of this Chapter and of noncompact or slender-element
sections:
The nominal flexural strength Mn is the lowest value obtained according to the
following limit states determined as follows:
(a) For λ ≤ λ p:
Mn = Mp (6.1-17)
6.1.3 Design by Plastic Analysis. Design by plastic analysis, as limited in Section 1.5.1,
is permitted for a compact section member bent about the major axis when the
laterally unbraced length Lb of the compression flange adjacent to plastic hinge
locations associated with the failure mechanism does not exceed Lpd, determined
as follows.
(a) For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric I-shaped members with the
compression flange equal to or larger than the tension flange (including
hybrid members) loaded in the plane of the web:
⎡ ⎛ M ⎞ ⎤⎛ E ⎞
L pd = ⎢0.12 + 0.076⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎥⎜ ⎟ry (6.1-21)
⎢⎣ ⎝ M 2 ⎠⎥⎦⎜⎝ Fy ⎟
⎠
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the compression flange, MPa
M1 = smaller moment at end of unbraced length of beam, N-mm
M2 = larger moment at end of unbraced length of beam, N-mm
ry = radius of gyration about minor axis, mm
(M1 / M2) = is positive when moments cause reverse curvature and negative
for single curvature
(b) For solid rectangular bars and symmetric box beams:
⎡ ⎛ M ⎞⎤⎛ E ⎞ ⎛
⎟ry ≥ 0.10⎜ E
⎞
L pd = ⎢0.17 + 0.10⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎥⎜ ⎟ry (6.1-22)
⎣⎢ ⎝ M 2 ⎠⎦⎥⎜⎝ Fy ⎟
⎠
⎜ Fy
⎝
⎟
⎠
There is no limit on Lb for members with circular or square cross sections or for
any beam bent about its minor axis.
In the region of the last hinge to form, and in regions not adjacent to a plastic
hinge, the flexural design strength shall be determined in accordance with Section
6.1.2.
SECTION 6.2
DESIGN FOR SHEAR
Vn = 0.6FywAw (6.2-1)
where
k v = 5 + 5 /( a / h 2 )
= 5 when a/h >3 or a/h> [260/(h/t)] 2
a = distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
h = for rolled shapes, the clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner
radius, mm
= for built-up welded sections, the clear distance between flanges, mm
= for built-up bolted or riveted sections, the distance between fastener lines,
mm
6.2.3 Transverse Stiffeners. Transverse stiffeners are not needed where the required
shear, Vu, as determined by structural analysis for the factored loads, is less than or
equal to 0.6 φ vAwFywCv, where φ v=0.90 and the shear coefficient Cv, defined in
Section 7.3, is determined for kv = 5.
Transverse stiffeners used to develop the web design shear strength as provided in
Section 6.2.2 shall have a moment of inertia about an axis in the web center for
stiffener pairs, or about the face in contact with the web plate for single stiffeners,
which shall not be less than atw3j, where
SECTION 6.3
WEB-TAPERED MEMBERS
The design of tapered members meeting the requirements of this section shall be
governed by the provisions of Chapters 4 through 8, except as modified by the
following provisions:
6.3.2 Design Tensile Strength. The design strength of tapered tension members shall be
determined in accordance with Section 4.1.
S QFy
λeff = (6.3-2)
π E
where
S = KL/roy for weak axis buckling and K γ L/rox for strong axis buckling
K = effective length factor for a prismatic member
Kγ = effective length factor for a tapered member as determined by a rational
analysis
rox = strong axis radius of gyration at the smaller end of a tapered member,
mm
roy = weak axis radius of gyration at the smaller end of a tapered member, mm
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, MPa
Q = reduction factor
= 1.0 if all elements meet the limiting width-thickness ratios λ r of
Section 2.5.1
= QsQa, determined in accordance with Section 2.5.3, if any stiffened
and/or unstiffened elements exceed the ratios λ r of Section 2.5.1
E = modulus of elasticity for steel, MPa
The smallest area of the tapered member shall be used for Ag in Equation 5.2-1.
6.3.4 Design Flexural Strength. The design flexural strength of tapered flexural
members for the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling is φ bMn, where φ b = 0.90
and the nominal strength is
M n = (5 / 3) S x' Fbγ (6.3-3)
where
S x' = the section modulus of the critical section of the unbraced beam length
under consideration
⎡ ⎤
2⎢ Fy ⎥ F ≤ 0.60 F
Fbγ = 1.0 − (6.3-4)
3⎢ ⎥ y y
⎢⎣ 6 B F S2γ + Fwr ⎥⎦
5.9 E
Fwγ = (6.3-7)
(hw L / rTo ) 2
where
hs = factor equal 1.0 + 0.230γ Ld o / A f
hw = factor equal to 1.0 + 0.00385γ L / rTo
rTo = radius of gyration of a section at the smaller end, considering only the
compression flange plus one-third of the compression web area, taken
about an axis in the plane of the web, mm
Af = area of the compression flange, mm2
(b) When the largest computed bending stress fb2 occurs at the larger end of two
adjacent segments of approximately equal unbraced lengths and fb1 is the
computed bending stress at the smaller end of the two-segment portion of a
member:
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
B = 1.0 + 0.58⎜⎜1.0 + b1 ⎟⎟ − 0.70γ ⎜⎜1.0 b1 ⎟⎟ ≥ 1.0 (6.3-9)
⎝ f b2 ⎠ ⎝ f b2 ⎠
(c) When the largest computed bending stress fb2 occurs at the smaller end of
two adjacent segments of approximately equal unbraced length and fb1 is the
computed bending stress at the larger end of the two-segment portion of a
member:
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
B = 1.0 + 0.55⎜⎜1.0 + b1 ⎟⎟ + 2.20γ ⎜⎜1.0 b1 ⎟⎟ ≥ 1.0 (6.3-10)
⎝ f b2 ⎠ ⎝ f b2 ⎠
In the foregoing, γ = (dL - do)/do is calculated for the unbraced length that
contains the maximum computed bending stress. M1/M2 is considered as
negative when producing single curvature. In the rare case where M1/M2 is
positive, it is recommended that it be taken as zero. fb1/fb2 is considered as
negative when producing single curvature. If a point of contraflexure occurs
in one of two adjacent unbraced segments, fb1/fb2 is considered as positive.
The ratio fb1/fb2 ≠ 0.
(d) When the computed bending stress at the smaller end of a tapered member
or segment thereof is equal to zero:
1.75
B= (6.3-11)
1.0 + 0.25 γ
where γ = (dL - do)/do is calculated for the unbraced length adjacent to the point of
zero bending stress.
6.3.5 Design Shear Strength. The design shear strength of tapered flexural members
shall be determined in accordance with Section 6.2.
6.3.6 Combined Flexure and Axial Force. For tapered members with a single web
taper subject to compression and bending about the major axis, Equation 8.1-1
applies, with the following modifications. Pn and Pex shall be determined for the
properties of the smaller end, using appropriate effective length factors. Mnx, Mu,
and Mpx shall be determined for the larger end; M nx = (5 / 3) S x′ Fbγ , where S x′ is the
elastic section modulus of the larger end, and Fbγ is the design flexural stress of
tapered members. Cmx is replaced by C m′ determined as follows:
(a) When the member is subjected to end moments which cause single
curvature bending and approximately equal computed moments at the ends:
2
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
C m' = 1.0 + 0.1⎜⎜ u ⎟⎟ + 0.3⎜⎜ u ⎟⎟ (6.3-12)
⎝ φ b Pex ⎠ ⎝ φ b Pex ⎠
(b) When the computed bending moment at the smaller end of the unbraced
length is equal to zero:
2
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
C m' = 1.0 + 0.9⎜⎜ u ⎟⎟ + 0.6 ⎜⎜ u ⎟⎟ (6.3-13)
⎝ φ b Pex ⎠ ⎝ φ b Pex ⎠
When the effective slenderness parameter λ eff ≥ 1.5 and combined stress is
checked incrementally along the length, the actual area and the actual section
modulus at the section under investigation is permitted to be used.
SECTION 6.4
BEAMS AND GIRDERS WITH WEB OPENINGS
The effect of all web openings on the design strength of steel and composite beams
shall be determined. Adequate reinforcement shall be provided when the required
strength exceeds the design strength of the member at the opening.
CHAPTER 7
PLATE GIRDERS
I-shaped plate girders shall be distinguished from I-shaped beams on the basis of
the web slenderness ratio h / tw. When this value is greater than λ r the provisions
of Sections 7.1 and 7.2 shall apply for design flexural strength. For h / tw ≤ λ r, the
provisions of Chapter 6 shall apply for design flexural strength. For girders with
unequal flanges, see Section 2.5.1.
The design shear strength and transverse stiffener design shall be based on either
Section 6.2 (without tension-field action) or Section 7.3 (with tension-field action).
For girders with unequal flanges, see Section 2.5.1.
SECTION 7.1
LIMITATIONS
Doubly and singly symmetric single-web non-hybrid and hybrid plate girders
loaded in the plane of the web shall be proportioned according to the provisions of
this section or Section 6.2, provided that the following limits are satisfied:
a
(a) For ≤ 1.5
h
h E
≤ 11.7 (7.1-1)
tw Fyf
a
(b) For > 1.5 :
h
⎛h ⎞
⎜ ≤ 0.48 E ⎟ (7.1-2)
⎜ tw
⎝
( )
Fyf Fyf + 114 ⎟⎠
where
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
h = clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius for rolled
shapes; and for built-up sections, the distance between adjacent lines of
fasteners or the clear distance between flanges when welds are used, mm
tw = web thickness, mm
Fyf = specified minimum yield stress of a flange, MPa
SECTION 7.2
DESIGN FLEXURAL STRENGTH
The design flexural strength for plate girders with slender webs shall be φ bMn,
where φ b =0.90 and Mn is the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
tension-flange yield and compression-flange buckling. For girders with unequal
flanges, see Section 2.5.1 for the determination of λ r for the limit state of web
local buckling.
(a) For tension-flange yield:
Mn = SxtReFyt (7.2-1)
(b) For compression-flange buckling:
SBC 306 2007 7/1
PLATE GIRDERS
Mn = SxcRPGReFcr (7.2-2)
where
ar ⎛ hc ⎞
RPG = 1 − ⎜ − 5.70 E ⎟ ≤ 1.0 (7.2-3)
1,200 + 300ar ⎜t Fcr ⎟⎠
⎝ w
E
λr = 4.44 (7.2-9)
Fyf
E
λ p = 0.38 (7.2-12)
Fyf
E
λr = 1.35 (7.2-13)
Fyf / k c
SECTION 7.3
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH
The design shear strength with tension field action shall be φ nVn, kN,
where
φ v = 0.90 and Vn is determined as follows:
kv E h k E
(a) For 1.10 ≤ ≤ 1.37 v :
Fyw t w Fyw
1.10 kv E / Fyw
Cv = (7.3-5)
h / tw
h k E
(b) For > 1.37 v :
tw Fyw
1.51k v E
Cv = (7.3-6)
(h / t w ) 2 Fyw
SECTION 7.4
TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS
Transverse stiffeners are not required in plate girders where h / t w ≤ 2.45 E / Fyw , or
where the required shear Vu, as determined by structural analysis for the factored
loads, is less than or equal to 0.60φ v Fyw Aw C v where Cv is determined for kv = 5 and
φ v = 0.90 . Stiffeners may be required in certain portions of a plate girder to
develop the required shear or to satisfy the limitations given in Section 7.1.
Transverse stiffeners shall satisfy the requirements of Section 6.2.3.
When designing for tension field action, the stiffener area Ast shall not be less than
Fyw ⎡ Vu ⎤
⎢0.15D ht w (1 − Cv ) − 18tw2 ⎥ ≥ 0 (7.4-1)
Fyst ⎣ φVn ⎦
where
Fyst = specified yield stress of the stiffener material, MPa
D = 1 for stiffeners in pairs
= 1.8 for single angle stiffeners
= 2.4 for single plate stiffeners
Cv and Vn = are defined in Section 7.3, and Vu is the required shear at the
location of the stiffener.
SECTION 7.5
FLEXURE-SHEAR INTERACTION
CHAPTER 8
MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION
This chapter applies to prismatic members subject to axial force and flexure about
one or both axes of symmetry, with or without torsion, and torsion only. For web-
tapered members, see Section 6.3.
SECTION 8.1
SYMMETRIC MEMBERS SUBJECT TO
BENDING AND AXIAL FORCE
8.1.1 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Tension. The
interaction of flexure and tension in symmetric shapes shall be limited by
Equations 8.1-1a and 8.1-1b.
Pu
(a) For ≥ 0.2
φPn
Pu 8 ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
+ ⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1.0 (8.1-1a)
⎜
φPn 9 ⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠
Pu
(b) For < 0.2
φPn
Pu ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
+⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1.0 (8.1-1b)
⎜
2φPn ⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠
where
Pu = required tensile strength, N
Pn = nominal tensile strength determined in accordance with Section 4.1, (N)
Mu = required flexural strength determined in accordance with Section 3.1, (N-mm)
Mn = nominal flexural strength determined in accordance with Section 6.1, (N-mm)
x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
φ = φt = resistance factor for tension (see Section 4.1)
φb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
A more detailed analysis of the interaction of flexure and tension is permitted in lieu
of Equations 8.1-1a and 8.1-1b.
8.1.2 Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Compression. The
interaction of flexure and compression in symmetric shapes shall be limited by
Equations 8.1-1a and 8.1-1b
where
Pu = required compressive strength, N
Pn = nominal compressive strength determined in accordance with Section 5.2, N
φ = φ c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85 (see Section 5.2)
φb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
SECTION 8.2
UNSYMMETRIC MEMBERS AND MEMBERS UNDER TORSION AND
COMBINED TORSION, FLEXURE, SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL FORCE
The design strength, φ Fn, of the member shall equal or exceed the required strength
expressed in terms of the normal stress fun or the shear stress fuv, determined by elastic
analysis for the factored loads:
φ = 0.90
Fn = Fy
(b) For the limit state of yielding under shear stress:
fuv ≤ 0.6 φ Fn (8.2-2)
φ = 0.90
Fn = Fy
(c) For the limit state of buckling:
fun or fuv ≤ φ cFn, as applicable (8.2-3)
φ c = 0.85
Fn = Fcr
SECTION 8.3
ALTERNATIVE INTERACTION EQUATIONS FOR
MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED STRESS
This section provides alternative interaction equations for braced frames with I-
shaped members with bf / d ≤ 1.0 and box-shaped members.
For I-shaped members with bf / d ≤ 1.0 and box-shaped members, the use of the
following interaction equations in lieu of Equations 8.1-1a and 8.1-1b is permitted
for braced frames only. Both Equations 8.3-1 and 8.3-2 shall be satisfied.
ζ ζ
⎛ M ux ⎞ ⎛ M uy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ≤ 1 .0 (8.3-1)
⎜ φb M ′px ⎟ ⎜ φb M ′py ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
η η
⎛ Cmx M ux ⎞ ⎛C M ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ my uy ⎟ ≤ 1 .0 (8.3-2)
⎜ φ M′ ⎟ ⎜ φb M ny
′ ⎟
⎝ b nx ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The terms in Equations 8.3-1 and 8.3-2 are determined as follows:
(a) For I-shaped members:
For b f / d < 0.5 :
SBC 306 2007 8/2
MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION
ζ = 1.0
For 0.5 ≤ b f / d ≤ 1.0 :
Pu / Py
ζ = 1.6 −
[
2 ln( Pu / Py ) ] (8.3-3)
where
bf = flange width, (mm)
d = member depth, (mm)
Cm = coefficient applied to the bending term in the interaction equation for
prismatic members and dependent on column curvature caused by
applied moments, see Section 3.1.
[
M ′px = 1.2M px 1 − ( Pu / Py ) ≤ M px ]
(8.3-5)
[
M ′py = 1.2M py 1− ( Pu / Py ) 2 ≤ M py ] (8.3-6)
⎛ P ⎞⎛ P ⎞
′ = M nx ⎜⎜1 − u ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 − u ⎟⎟
M nx (8.3-7)
⎝ φc Pn ⎠ ⎝ Pex ⎠
⎛ P ⎞⎛ P ⎞
′ = M ny ⎜⎜1 − u ⎟⎟ ⎜1 − u ⎟
M ny (8.3-8)
⎝ φc Pn ⎠ ⎜⎝ Pey ⎟⎠
Pu / Py
ζ = 1.7 − (8.3-9)
ln( Pu / Py )
b
Pu / Py ⎛P ⎞
η = 1.7 − − aλ x ⎜ u ⎟ > 1.1 (8.3-10)
ln( Pu / Py ) ⎜ Py ⎟
⎝ ⎠
[
M ′px = 1.2 M px 1 − Pu / Py ≤ M px] (8.3-11a)
[
M ′py = 1.2 M py 1 − Pu / Py ≤ M py] (8.3-11b)
⎛ P ⎞⎛ P 1.25 ⎞
′ = M nx ⎜⎜1 − u ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 − u
M nx ⎟ (8.3-12)
⎝ φc Pn ⎠ ⎝ Pex ( B / H )1 / 3 ⎟⎠
⎛ P ⎞⎛ P 1.25 ⎞⎟
′ = M ny ⎜⎜1 − u ⎟⎟ ⎜1 − u
M ny (8.3-13)
⎜
φc Pn ⎠ ⎝ Pey ( B / H )1 / 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
where
Pn = nominal compressive strength determined in accordance with
Section 5.2, N
Pu = required axial strength, N
Py = compressive yield strength AgFy, N
φ b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
φ c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85
Pe = Euler buckling strength AgFy / λ2c , where λc is the column
slenderness parameter defined by Equation 5.2-4, N
Mu = required flexural strength, N-mm
Mn = nominal flexural strength, determined in accordance with Section
6.1, N-mm
Mp = plastic moment ≤ 1.5Fy S, N-mm
λx = column slenderness parameter with respect to the strong axis
B = outside width of box section parallel to major principal axis x, mm
H = outside depth of box section perpendicular to major principal axis x,
mm
CHAPTER 9
COMPOSITE MEMBERS
This chapter applies to composite columns composed of rolled or built-up
structural steel shapes, pipe or HSS, and structural concrete acting together and to
steel beams supporting a reinforced concrete slab so interconnected that the beams
and the slab act together to resist bending. Simple and continuous composite
beams with shear connectors and concrete-encased beams, constructed with or
without temporary shores, are included.
SECTION 9.1
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS
Plastic Analysis. When plastic analysis is used, as limited in Section 1.5.1, the
strength of flexural composite members shall be determined from plastic stress
distributions.
Plastic Stress Distribution for Positive Moment. If the slab in the positive moment
region is connected to the steel beam with shear connectors, a concrete stress of
0.85 f c' is permitted to be assumed uniformly distributed throughout the effective
compression zone, where f c' is the specified compressive strength of the concrete.
Concrete tensile strength shall be neglected. A uniformly distributed steel stress of
Fy shall be assumed throughout the tension zone and throughout the compression
zone in the structural steel section. The net tensile force in the steel section shall be
equal to the compressive force in the concrete slab.
Plastic Stress Distribution for Negative Moment. If the slab in the negative
moment region is connected to the steel beam with shear connectors, a tensile
stress of Fyr shall be assumed in all adequately developed longitudinal reinforcing
bars within the effective width of the concrete slab. Concrete tensile strength shall
be neglected. A uniformly distributed steel stress of Fy shall be assumed
throughout the tension zone and throughout the compression zone in the structural
steel section. The net compressive force in the steel section shall be equal to the
total tensile force in the reinforcing steel.
strain in the web may exceed the yield strain; the stress shall be taken as Fyw at
such locations.
Partially Composite Beam. The shear strength of shear connectors governs the
flexural strength of the partially composite beam. Elastic computations such as
those for deflections, fatigue, and vibrations shall include the effect of slip.
Composite Column. A steel column fabricated from rolled or built-up steel shapes
and encased in structural concrete or fabricated from steel pipe or HSS and filled
with structural concrete.
Filled Composite Column. Structural steel HSS or pipes that are filled with
structural concrete.
SECTION 9.2
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
9.2.1 Limitations. To qualify as a composite column, the following limitations shall be
met:
(1) The cross-sectional area of the steel shape, pipe, or HSS shall comprise at
least four percent of the total composite cross section.
(2) Concrete encasement of a steel core shall be reinforced with longitudinal
load-carrying bars, longitudinal bars to restrain concrete, and lateral ties.
Longitudinal load-carrying bars shall be continuous at framed levels;
longitudinal restraining bars may be interrupted at framed levels. The
spacing of ties shall be not greater than two-thirds of the least dimension of
the composite cross section. The cross-sectional area of the transverse and
longitudinal reinforcement shall be at least 180 mm2 per m of bar spacing.
The encasement shall provide at least 38 mm of clear cover outside of both
transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
(3) Concrete shall have a specified compressive strength f c' of not less than 21
MPa nor more than 55 MPa for normal weight concrete and not less than 28
MPa for light weight concrete.
(4) The specified minimum yield stress of structural steel and reinforcing bars
used in calculating the strength of a composite column shall not exceed 415
MPa.
(5) The minimum wall thickness of structural steel pipe or HSS filled with
concrete shall be equal to b F y / 3E for each face of width b in rectangular
sections and D F y / 8E for circular sections of outside diameter D.
9.2.2 Design Strength. The design strength of axially loaded composite columns is
φ cPn,
where
φ c = 0.85
Pn = nominal axial compressive strength determined from Equations 5.2-1
through 5.2-4 with the following modifications:
(1) Ag is replaced by As, the gross area of steel shape, pipe, or HSS, mm2
(2) r is replaced by rm, the radius of gyration of the steel shape, pipe, or
HSS except that for steel shapes it shall not be less than 0.3 times the
overall thickness of the composite cross section in the plane of
buckling, mm
(3) Fy is replaced by Fmy, the modified yield stress from Equation 9.2-1
Fmy = F y + c1 F yr ( Ar / As ) + c 2 f c′ ( Ac / As ) (9.2-1)
9.2.3 Columns with Multiple Steel Shapes. If the composite cross section includes two
or more steel shapes, the shapes shall be interconnected with lacing, tie plates, or
batten plates to prevent buckling of individual shapes before hardening of
concrete.
9.2.4 Load Transfer. Loads applied to axially loaded encased composite columns shall
be transferred between the steel and concrete in accordance with the following
requirements:
(a) When the external force is applied directly to the steel section, shear
connectors shall be provided to transfer the force Vu' as follows:
Vu′ = Vu (1 − As F y / Pn ) (9.2-3)
where
Vu = force introduced to column, N
As = area of steel section, mm2
Fy = yield strength of the steel section, MPa
Pn = nominal compressive strength of the composite column without
consideration of slenderness effects, N
(b) When the external force is applied directly to the concrete encasement,
shear connectors shall be provided to transfer the force Vu' as follows:
Vu′ = Vu ( As F y / Pn ) (9.2-4)
Shear connectors transferring the force Vu' shall be distributed along the length of
the member. The maximum connector spacing shall be 405 mm and connectors
shall be placed on at least two faces of the steel shape in a configuration
symmetrical about the steel shape axes.
Where the supporting concrete area in direct bearing is wider than the loaded area
on one or more sides and otherwise restrained laterally on the remaining sides, the
maximum design strength shall be:
φ B 1.7 f c′ AB (9.2-5)
where
φ B = 0.65
AB = loaded area, mm2
SECTION 9.3
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
9.3.1 Effective Width. The effective width of the concrete slab is the sum of the
effective widths for each side of the beam centerline, each of which shall not
exceed:
(1) one-eighth of the beam span, center-to-center of supports;
(2) one-half the distance to the centerline of the adjacent beam; or
(3) the distance to the edge of the slab.
9.3.2 Design Strength of Beams with Shear Connectors. The positive design flexural
strength φ bMn shall be determined as follows:
(a) For h / t w ≤ 3.76 E / F yf :
φ b = 0.85; Mn shall be determined from the plastic stress distribution on the
composite section.
(b) For h / t w > 3.76 E / F yf :
φ b =0.90; Mn shall be determined from the superposition of elastic stresses,
considering the effects of shoring.
The negative design flexural strength φ bMn shall be determined for the steel
section alone, in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 6.
Alternatively, the negative design flexural strength φ bMn shall be computed with
φ b = 0.85 and Mn determined from the plastic stress distribution on the composite
section, provided that:
(1) Steel beam is an adequately braced compact section, as defined in Section
2.5.
(2) Shear connectors connect the slab to the steel beam in the negative moment
region.
(3) Slab reinforcement parallel to the steel beam, within the effective width of
the slab, is properly developed.
9.3.4 Strength During Construction. When temporary shores are not used during
construction, the steel section alone shall have adequate strength to support all
loads applied prior to the concrete attaining 75 percent of its specified strength f c' .
The design flexural strength of the steel section shall be determined in accordance
with the requirements of Section 6.1.
9.3.5.2 Deck Ribs Oriented Perpendicular to Steel Beam. Concrete below the top of the
steel deck shall be neglected in determining section properties and in calculating
Ac for deck ribs oriented perpendicular to the steel beams.
The spacing of stud shear connectors along the length of a supporting beam shall
not exceed 915 mm.
The nominal strength of a stud shear connector shall be the value stipulated in
Section 9.5 multiplied by the following reduction factor:
0.85
( wr / hr )[( H s / hr ) − 1.0] ≤ 1.0 (9.3-1)
Nr
where
hr = nominal rib height, mm
Hs = length of stud connector after welding, mm, not to exceed the value
hr + 75 mm in computations, although actual length may be greater
Nr = number of stud connectors in one rib at a beam intersection, not to exceed
three in computations, although more than three studs may be installed
wr = average width of concrete rib or haunch (as defined in Section 9.3.5.1),
mm
Where there is only a single stud placed in a rib oriented perpendicular to the steel
beam, the reduction factor of Equation 9.3-1 shall not exceed 0.75.
To resist uplift, steel deck shall be anchored to all supporting members at a spacing
not to exceed 460 mm. Such anchorage shall be provided by stud connectors, a
combination of stud connectors and arc spot (puddle) welds, or other devices
specified by the designer.
9.3.5.3 Deck Ribs Oriented Parallel to Steel Beam. Concrete below the top of the steel
deck may be included in determining section properties and shall be included in
calculating Ac in Section 9.5.
Steel deck ribs over supporting beams may be split longitudinally and separated to
form a concrete haunch.
When the nominal depth of steel deck is 38 mm or greater, the average width wr of
the supported haunch or rib shall be not less than 50 mm for the first stud in the
transverse row plus four stud diameters for each additional stud.
The nominal strength of a stud shear connector shall be the value stipulated in
Section 9.5, except that when wr / hr is less than 1.5, the value from Section 9.5
shall be multiplied by the following reduction factor:
0.6( wr / hr )[( H s / hr ) − 1.0] ≤ 1.0 (9.3-2)
where hr and Hs are as defined in Section 9.3.5.2 and wr is the average width of
concrete rib or haunch as defined in Section 9.3.5.1.
9.3.6 Design Shear Strength. The design shear strength of composite beams shall be
determined by the shear strength of the steel web, in accordance with Section 6.2.
SECTION 9.4
COMBINED COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE
SECTION 9.5
SHEAR CONNECTORS
This section applies to the design of stud and channel shear connectors. For
connectors of other types, see Section 9.6.
9.5.1 Materials. Shear connectors shall be headed steel studs not less than four stud
diameters in length after installation, or hot rolled steel channels. The stud
connectors shall conform to the requirements of Section 1.3.6. The channel
connectors shall conform to the requirements of Section 1.3. Shear connectors
shall be embedded in concrete slabs made with ASTM C33 aggregate or with
rotary kiln produced aggregates conforming to ASTM C330, with concrete unit
weight not less than 1440 kg/m3.
9.5.2 Horizontal Shear Force. The entire horizontal shear at the interface between the
steel beam and the concrete slab shall be assumed to be transferred by shear
connectors, except for concrete-encased beams as defined in Section 9.1. For
composite action with concrete subject to flexural compression, the total horizontal
shear force between the point of maximum positive moment and the point of zero
moment shall be taken as the smallest of the following: (a) 0.85 f c' Ac ;(b) AsFy; and
(c) Σ Qn;
where
Ac = area of concrete slab within effective width, mm2
As = area of steel cross section, mm2
Σ Qn = sum of nominal strengths of shear connectors between the point of
maximum positive moment and the point of zero moment, N
For hybrid beams, the yield force shall be computed separately for each
component of the cross section; AsFy of the entire cross section is the sum of the
component yield forces.
In continuous composite beams where longitudinal reinforcing steel in the
negative moment regions is considered to act compositely with the steel beam, the
total horizontal shear force between the point of maximum negative moment and
SBC 306 2007 9/7
COMPOSITE MEMBERS
the point of zero moment shall be taken as the smaller of ArFyr and Σ Qn;
where
Ar = area of adequately developed longitudinal reinforcing steel within the
effective width of the concrete slab, mm2
Fyr = minimum specified yield stress of the reinforcing steel, MPa
9.5.3 Strength of Stud Shear Connectors. The nominal strength of one stud shear
connector embedded in a solid concrete slab is
9.5.4 Strength of Channel Shear Connectors. The nominal strength of one channel
shear connector embedded in a solid concrete slab is
Q n = 0.3(t f + 0.5t w ) Lc f c′ E c (9.5-2)
where
tf = flange thickness of channel shear connector, mm
tw = web thickness of channel shear connector, mm
Lc = length of channel shear connector, mm
9.5.6 Shear Connector Placement and Spacing. Shear connectors required on each
side of the point of maximum bending moment, positive or negative, shall be
distributed uniformly between that point and the adjacent points of zero moment,
unless otherwise specified. However, the number of shear connectors placed
between any concentrated load and the nearest point of zero moment shall be
sufficient to develop the maximum moment required at the concentrated load
point.
Shear connectors shall have at least 25 mm of lateral concrete cover, except for
connectors installed in the ribs of formed steel decks. The diameter of studs shall
not be greater than 2.5 times the thickness of the flange to which they are welded,
unless located over the web. The minimum center-to-center spacing of stud
connectors shall be six diameters along the longitudinal axis of the supporting
composite beam and four diameters transverse to the longitudinal axis of the
supporting composite beam, except that within the ribs of formed steel decks
oriented perpendicular to the steel beam the minimum center-to-center spacing
SBC 306 2007 9/8
COMPOSITE MEMBERS
SECTION 9.6
SPECIAL CASES
When composite construction does not conform to the requirements of Section 9.1
through Section 9.5, the strength of shear connectors and details of construction
shall be established by a suitable test program.
CHAPTER 10
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
This chapter applies to connecting elements, connectors, and the affected elements
of the connected members subject to static loads. For connections subject to fatigue,
see Section 11.3.
SECTION 10.1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
10.1.3 Moment Connections. End connections of restrained beams, girders, and trusses
shall be designed for the combined effect of forces resulting from moment and
shear induced by the rigidity of the connections.
10.1.4 Compression Members with Bearing Joints. When columns bear on bearing
plates or are finished to bear at splices, there shall be sufficient connectors to hold
all parts securely in place.
When compression members other than columns are finished to bear, the splice
material and its connectors shall be arranged to hold all parts in line and shall be
proportioned for 50 % of the required strength of the member.
All compression joints shall be proportioned to resist any tension developed by the
factored load combinations stipulated in Section 1.4.
10.1.5 Splices in Heavy Sections. This paragraph applies to ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and
5 and equivalent rolled shapes, or shapes built-up by welding plates more than 50
mm thick together to form the cross section, and where the cross section is to be
spliced and subject to primary tensile stresses due to tension or flexure. When the
individual elements of the cross section are spliced prior to being joined to form the
cross section in accordance with AWS D1.1, Article 5.21.6, the applicable
provisions of AWS D1.1 apply in lieu of the requirements of this section. When
tensile forces in these sections are to be transmitted through splices by complete-
joint-penetration groove welds, material notch-toughness requirements as given in
Section 1.3.1.3, weld access hole details as given in Section 10.1.6, welding preheat
requirements as given in Section 10.2.8, and thermal-cut surface preparation and
inspection requirements as given in Section 12.2.2 apply.
At tension splices in ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and equivalent shapes and
built-up members of material more than 50 mm thick, weld tabs and backing shall
be removed and the surfaces ground smooth.
When splicing ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and equivalent rolled shapes and
their equivalents or shapes built-up by welding plates more than 50 mm thick to
form a cross section, and where the section is to be used as a primary compression
member, all weld access holes required to facilitate groove welding operations shall
satisfy the provisions of Section 10.1.6.
10.1.6 Beam Copes and Weld Access Holes. All weld access holes required to facilitate
welding operations shall have a length from the toe of the weld preparation not
less than 1.5 times the thickness of the material in which the hole is made. The
height of the access hole shall be adequate for deposition of sound weld metal in
the adjacent plates and provide clearance for weld tabs for the weld in the material
in which the hole is made, but not less than the thickness of the material. In hot-
rolled shapes and built-up shapes, all beam copes and weld access holes shall be
shaped free of notches and sharp re-entrant corners, except that when fillet web-to-
flange welds are used in built-up shapes, access holes are permitted to terminate
perpendicular to the flange.
For ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and equivalent shapes and built-up shapes of
material more than 50 mm thick, the thermally cut surfaces of beam copes and
weld access holes shall be ground to bright metal and inspected by either magnetic
particle or dye penetrant methods prior to deposition of splice welds. If the curved
transition portion of weld access holes and beam copes are formed by predrilled or
sawed holes, that portion of the access hole or cope need not be ground. Weld access
holes and beam copes in other shapes need not be ground nor inspected by dye
penetrant or magnetic particle methods.
10.1.8 Placement of Welds and Bolts. Groups of welds or bolts at the ends of any
member which transmit axial force into that member shall be sized so that the center
of gravity of the group coincides with the center of gravity of the member, unless
provision is made for the eccentricity. The foregoing provision is not applicable to
end connections of statically-loaded single angle, double angle, and similar
members.
10.1.9 Bolts in Combination with Welds. In new work, A307 bolts or high-strength
bolts proportioned as bearing-type connections shall not be considered as sharing
the load in combination with welds. Welds, if used, shall be proportioned for the
entire force in the connection. In slip-critical connections, high-strength bolts are
permitted to be considered as sharing the load with the welds. These calculations
shall be made at factored loads.
In making welded alterations to structures, existing rivets and high-strength bolts
tightened to the requirements for slip-critical connections are permitted to be
utilized for carrying loads present at the time of alteration and the welding need
only provide the additional design strength required.
SBC 306 2007 10/2
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
10.1.10 High-Strength Bolts in Combination with Rivets. In both new work and
alterations, in connections designed as slip-critical connections in accordance with
the provisions of Section 10.3, high-strength bolts are permitted to be considered
as sharing the load with rivets.
SECTION 10.2
WELDS
All provisions of AWS D1.1, apply under this code, except the provisions applicable
to Tubular Structures, which are outside the scope of SBC 306, and except that the
provisions of the listed SBC 306 Sections in lieu of the cited AWS Code provisions
as follows:
Section 10.1.5 and 10.1.6 in lieu of AWS D1.1 Section 5.17.
Section 10.2.2 in lieu of AWS D1.1 Section 2.4.1.1.
Table 10.2-5 in lieu of AWS D1.1 Table 2.3
Table 11.3-1 in lieu of AWS D1.1 Section 2.27.1
Section 11.3 in lieu of AWS Section 2, Part C
Section 13.2.2 in lieu of AWS Sections 5.15.1.2, 5.15.4.3 and 5.15.4.4
The length and disposition of welds, including end returns shall be indicated on the
design and shop drawings.
TABLE 10.2-1
Effective Throat Thickness of
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
TABLE 10.2-2
Effective Throat Thickness of Flare Groove Welds
Type of Weld Radius (R) of Bar or Effective Throat
Bend Thickness
Flare bevel groove All 5/ 16R
Flare V-groove All 1/2R
[a] Use 3/ 8 R for Gas Metal Arc Welding (except short circuiting transfer proc e ss)
when R ≥ 25 mm
TABLE 10.2-3
Minimum Effective Throat Thickness of
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
Material Thickness of Thicker Minimum Effective Throat
Part Joined (mm) Thickness [a], (mm)
To 6 inclusive 3
Over 6 to 13 5
Over 13 to 19 6
Over 19 to 38 8
Over 38 to 57 10
Over 57 to 150 13
Over 150 16
[a] See Table 10.2-1
TABLE 10.2-4
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
Material Thickness of Minimum Size of
Thicker Part Joined, mm Fillet Weld[a] mm
To 6 inclusive 3
Over 6 to 13 5
Over 13 to 19 6
Over 19 8
[a] Leg dimension of fillet welds. Single pass welds must be used.
[b] See Section 10.2.2b for maximum size of fillet welds.
10.2.2.2 Limitations
The minimum size of fillet welds shall be not less than the size required to
transmit calculated forces nor the size as shown in Table 10.2-4 which is based upon
experiences and provides some margin for uncalculated stress encountered during
fabrication, handling, transportation, and erection. These provisions do not apply
to fillet weld reinforcements of partial- or complete-joint-penetration welds.
The maximum size of fillet welds of connected parts shall be:
(a) Along edges of material less than 6 mm thick, not greater than the thickness
of the material.
(b) Along edges of material 6 mm or more in thickness, not greater than the
thickness of the material minus 2 mm, unless the weld is especially
designated on the drawings to be built out to obtain full-throat thickness. In
the as-welded condition, the distance between the edge of the base metal and
the toe of the weld is permitted to be less than 2 mm provided the weld size is
clearly verifiable.
SBC 306 2007 10/5
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
For flange-web welds and similar connections, the actual weld size need not be
larger than that required to develop the web capacity, and the requirements of Table
10.2-4 need not apply.
The minimum effective length of fillet welds designed on the basis of strength
shall be not less than four times the nominal size, or else the size of the weld shall
be considered not to exceed ¼ of its effective length. If longitudinal fillet welds are
used alone in end connections of flat-bar tension members, the length of each fillet
weld shall be not less than the perpendicular distance between them. For the effect
of longitudinal fillet weld length in end connections upon the effective area of the
connected member, see Section 2.3.
For end-loaded fillet welds with a length up to 100 times the leg dimension, it is
permitted to take the effective length equal to the actual length. When the length of
the end-loaded fillet weld exceeds 100 times the weld size, the effective length shall
be determined by multiplying the actual length by the reduction factor, β ,
where
β = 1.2 – 0.002(L/w) ≤ 1.0 (10.2-1)
L = actual length of end-loaded weld, mm
w = weld leg size, mm
When the length of the weld exceeds 300 times the leg size, the value of β shall be
taken as 0.60.
Intermittent fillet welds may be used to transfer calculated stress across a joint or
faying surfaces when the strength required is less than that developed by a
continuous fillet weld of the smallest permitted size, and to join components of
built-up members. The effective length of any segment of intermittent fillet welding
shall be not less than four times the weld size, with a minimum of 38 mm.
In lap joints, the minimum amount of lap shall be five times the thickness of the
thinner part joined, but not less than 25 mm. Lap joints joining plates or bars
subjected to axial stress that utilize transverse fillet welds only shall be fillet
welded along the end of both lapped parts, except where the deflection of the lapped
parts is sufficiently restrained to prevent opening of the joint under maximum
loading.
Fillet weld terminations are permitted to extend to the ends or sides of parts or
be stopped short or boxed except as limited by the following:
(1) For lap joints in which one part extends beyond an edge subject to
calculated tensile stress, fillet welds shall terminate not less than the size of
the weld from that edge.
(2) For connections and structural elements with cyclic forces, normal to
outstanding legs, of frequency and magnitude that would tend to cause a
progressive fatigue failure initiating from a point of maximum stress at the
end of the weld, fillet welds shall be returned around the corner for a
distance not less than the smaller of two times the weld size or the width of
the part.
(3) For connections whose design requires flexibility of the outstanding legs, if
end returns are used, their length shall not exceed four times the nominal size
of the weld.
(4) Fillet welds joining transverse stiffeners to plate girder webs shall end not
less than four times nor more than six times the thickness of the web from the
web toe of the web-to-flange welds, except where the ends of stiffeners are
welded to the flange.
SBC 306 2007 10/6
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
10.2.3.2 Limitations. Plug or slot welds are permitted to be used to transmit shear in lap
joints or to prevent buckling of lapped parts and to join component parts of built-up
members.
The diameter of the holes for a plug weld shall not be less than the thickness of the
part containing it plus 8 mm, rounded to the next larger even mm, nor greater than
the minimum diameter plus 3 mm or 2.25 times the thickness of the weld. The
minimum center-to-center spacing of plug welds shall be four times the diameter
of the hole.
The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the thickness of the weld.
The width of the slot shall be not less than the thickness of the part containing it plus
8 mm rounded to the next larger even mm, nor shall it be larger than 2.25 times the
thickness of the weld. The ends of the slot shall be semicircular or shall have the
corners rounded to a radius of not less than the thickness of the part containing it,
except those ends which extend to the edge of the part.
The minimum spacing of lines of slot welds in a direction transverse to their length
shall be four times the width of the slot. The minimum center-to-center spacing in a
longitudinal direction on any line shall be two times the length of the slot.
The thickness of plug or slot welds in material 16 mm or less in thickness shall be
equal to the thickness of the material. In material over 16 mm thick, the thickness of
the weld shall be at least one-half the thickness of the material but not less than 16
mm.
10.2.4 Design Strength. The design strength of welds shall be the lower value of (a)
φ FBM ABM and ( b ) φ Fw Aw, when applicable. The values of φ , FBM , and Fw and
limitations thereon are given in Table 10.2-5,
where
F BM = nominal strength of the base material, MPa
Fw = nominal strength of the weld electrode, MPa
A BM = cross-sectional area of the base material, mm2
Aw = effective cross-sectional area of the weld, mm2
φ = resistance factor
Alternatively, in lieu of the constant design strength for fillet welds given in Table
10.2-5, fillet welds loaded in-plane are permitted to be designed in accordance with
the following procedure.
(a) For a linear weld group loaded in-plane through the center of gravity, the
design strength is φ Fw Aw,
SBC 306 2007 10/7
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
where
Fw = 0.60 FEXX (1.0 +0.50 sin1.5 θ ) (10.2-2)
φ = 0.75
FE X X = electrode classification number, i.e., minimum specified strength,
MPa
θ = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis,
degrees
Aw = effective area of weld throat, mm2.
(b) For weld elements within a weld group that are loaded in-plane and analyzed
using an instantaneous center of rotation method, the components of the
design strength are φ Fwx Aw and φ Fwy Aw
Where:
Fwx = Σ Fwix
Fwy = Σ Fwiy
Fwi = 0.60 FEXX (1.0 +0.50 sin1.5 θ ) f ( p)
f (p ) = [ p ( 1. 9 - 0 . 9 p )] 0 .3
φ = 0.75
where
Fwi = nominal stress in any ith weld element, MPa
Fwix = x component of stress Fwi
Fwiy = y component of stress Fwi
p = ∆ i / ∆ m, ratio of element i deformation to its deformation at
maximum stress
∆m = 0.209 ( θ +2)-0 .32 w, deformation of weld element at maximum stress,
mm
∆i = deformation of weld elements at intermediate stress levels, linearly
proportioned to the critical deformation based on distance from the
instantaneous center of rotation, ri, mm.
= ri ∆ u / rcrit
∆u = 1.087 ( θ + 6) -0 . 6 5 w ≤ 0.17w, deformation of weld element at ultimate
stress (fracture), usually in element furthest from instantaneous
center of rotation, mm
w = leg size of the fillet weld, mm
rcrit = distance from instantaneous center of rotation to weld element with
minimum ∆ u /ri ratio, mm
10.2.5 Combination of Welds. If two or more of the general types of welds (groove,
fillet, plug, slot) are combined in a single joint, the design strength of each shall be
separately computed with reference to the axis of the group in order to determine
the design strength of the combination.
TABLE 10.2-5
Design Strength of Welds
Nominal
Types of Weld and Resistance Strength Filler Metal
Material
Stress [a] Factor ~ FBM or Requirements [b, c]
Fw
Complete-Joint-Penetration Groove Weld
Tension normal to Base 0.90 Fy Matching filler metal shall be
Effective area used. For CVN requirements
see footnote [d].
Compression normal Base 0.90 Fy Filler metal with a strength
to effective area level equal to or less than
Tension or compres- matching filler metal is per-
sion parallel to axis mitted to be used.
of weld
Shear on effective Base 0.90 0.60Fy
Area Weld 0.80 0.60FE X X
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Weld
Compression nor- Base 0.90 Fy Filler metal with a strength
mal to effective area level equal to or less than
Tension or compres- matching filler metal is permit-
sion parallel to axis of ted to be used.
weld [e]
Shear parallel to Base [f] [f]
axis of weld Weld 0.75 0.60FE X X
Tension normal to Base 0.90 Fy
Effective area Weld 0.80 0.60FE X X
Fillet Welds
Shear on effective Base [f] [f] Filler metal with a strength
Area Weld 0.75 0.60FE X X level equal to or less than
[g]
Tension or compres- Base 0.90 Fy matching filler metal is permit-
sion parallel to axis ted to be used.
of weld [e]
Plug or Slot Welds
Shear parallel to Base [f] [f] Filler metal with a strength
faying surfaces (on Weld 0.75 0.60FE X X level equal to or less than
Effective area) matching filler metal is permit-
ted to be used.
[a] For definition of effective area, see Section 10.2.
[b] For matching filler metal, see Table 3.1, AWS D1.1.
[c] Filler metal one strength level stronger than matching filler metal is permitted.
[d] For T and corner joints with the backing bar left in place during service, filler metal with
a classification requiring a minimum Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness of 27
J @ 4°C shall be used. If filler metal without the required toughness is used and
the backing bar is left in place, the joint shall be sized using the resistance factor and
nominal strength for a partial-joint-penetration weld.
[e] Fillet welds and partial-joint-penetration groove welds joining component elements of built-
up members, such as flange-to-web connections, are not required to be designed with
Regard to the tensile or compressive stress in these elements parallel to the axis of the welds.
[f] The design of connected material is governed by Sections 10.4 and 10.5.
[g] For alternative design strength, see below.
10.2.6 Weld Metal Requirements. The choice of electrode for use with complete-joint-
penetration groove welds subject to tension normal to the effective area shall
comply with the requirements for matching weld metals given in AWS D1.1.
Weld metal with a specified Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness of 27 J at 4°C shall
be used in the following joints:
(a) Complete-joint-penetration groove welded T and corner joints with steel
backing left in place, subject to tension normal to the effective area, unless the
joints are designed as noted in Table 10.2-5 (see footnote d).
SBC 306 2007 10/9
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
10.2.7 Mixed Weld Metal. When notch-toughness is specified, the process consumables
for all weld metal, tack welds, root pass, and subsequent passes deposited in a joint
shall be compatible to assure notch-tough composite weld metal.
10.2.8 Preheat for Heavy Shapes. For ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and equivalent
shapes and welded built-up members made of plates more than 50 mm thick, a
preheat equal to or greater than 350°F (175°C) shall be used when making groove-
weld splices.
SECTION 10.3
BOLTS AND THREADED PARTS
10.3.1 High-Strength Bolts. Use of high-strength bolts shall conform to the provisions of
the Load and Resistance Factor Design specification for Structural Joints
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, as approved by the Research Council on
Structural Connections, except as otherwise provided in this code.
If required to be tightened to more than 50 percent of their specified minimum ten-
sile strength, A449 bolts in tension and bearing-type shear connections shall have an
ASTM F436 hardened washer installed under the bolt head, and the nuts shall meet
the requirements of ASTM A563. When assembled, all joint surfaces, including
those adjacent to the washers, shall be free of scale, except tight mill scale. All
A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts shall be tightened to a bolt tension not
less than that given in Table 10.3-1, except as noted below. Tightening shall be done
by any of the following methods: turn-of-nut method, a direct tension indicator,
calibrated wrench, or alternative design bolt.
TABLE 10.3-1
Minimum Bolt Pretension, kN*
Bolt Size, mm A325M Bolts A490M Bolts
M16 91 114
Bolts need only be tightened to the snug-tight condition when in: (a) bearing-type
connections where slip is permitted, or (b) tension or combined shear and tension
SBC 306 2007 10/10
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
applications, for ASTM A325 or A325M bolts only, where loosening or fatigue due
to vibration or load fluctuations are not design considerations. The snug-tight con-
dition is defined as the tightness attained by either a few impacts of an impact
wrench or the full effort of a worker with an ordinary spud wrench that brings the
connected plies into firm contact. The nominal strength value given in Table 10.3-2
and Table 10.3-5 shall be used for bolts tightened to the snug-tight condition. Bolts
tightened only to the snug-tight condition shall be clearly identified on the design
and erection drawings.
When A490 or A490M bolts over 25 mm in diameter are used in slotted or oversize
holes in external plies, a single hardened washer conforming to ASTM F436,
except with 8 mm minimum thickness, shall be used in lieu of the standard washer.
In slip-critical connections in which the direction of loading is toward an edge of a
connected part, adequate design bearing strength shall be provided based upon the
applicable requirements of Section 10.3.10.
TABLE 10.3-2
Design Strength of Fasteners
Tensile Strength Shear Strength in
Bearing-type Connections
Nominal Nominal
Description of Fasteners Resistance Strength, Resistance Strength,
Factor φ MPa Factor φ MPa
A307 bolts 310 [a] 165 [b,e]
A325 or A325M bolts, when 620 [d] 330 [e]
threads are not excluded from
shear planes
A325 or A325M bolts, when 620 [d] 414 [e]
threads are excluded from shear
planes
A490 or A490M bolts, when 780 [d] 414 [e]
threads are not excluded from
shear planes
A490 or A490M bolts, when 0.75 0.75
threads are excluded from shear
planes 780 [d] 520 [e]
Threaded parts meeting the 0.75Fu [a,c] 0.40Fu
requirements of Section A3, when
threads are not excluded from
shear planes
Threaded parts meeting the 0.75Fu [a,c] 0.50Fu [a,c]
requirements of Section A3, when
threads are excluded from shear
planes
A502, Gr. 1, hot-driven Rivets 310 [a] 172 [e]
A502, Gr. 2 & 3, hot-driven Rivets 414 [a] 228 [e]
[a] Static loading only.
[b] Threads permitted in shear planes.
[c] The nominal tensile strength of the threaded portion of an upset rod, based upon the cross-
sectional area at its major thread diameter, AD shall be larger than the nominal body area of
the rod before upsetting times Fy.
[d] For A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts subject to tensile fatigue loading, see Section
11.3.
[e] When bearing-type connections used to splice tension members have a fastener pattern whose
length, measured parallel to the line of force, exceeds 1270 mm, tabulated values shall be
reduced by 20 percent.
10.3.2 Size and Use of Holes. The maximum sizes of holes for rivets and bolts are given in
Table 10.3-3, except that larger holes, required for tolerance on location of anchor rods
in concrete foundations, are allowed in column base details.
Standard holes shall be provided in member-to-member connections, unless over-sized,
short-slotted, or long-slotted holes in bolted connections are approved by the designer.
Finger shims up to 6 mm are permitted in slip-critical connections designed on the basis
of standard holes without reducing the nominal shear strength of the fastener to that
specified for slotted holes.
Oversized holes are allowed in any or all plies of slip-critical connections, but they
shall not be used in bearing-type connections. Hardened washers shall be installed over
oversized holes in an outer ply.
TABLE 10.3-3
Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm
Hole Dimensions
Bolt Standard Oversize Short-slot Long-slot
Diameter (Dia.) (Dia.) (Width x Length) (Width x Length)
M16 18 20 18 × 22 18 × 40
M20 22 24 22 × 26 22 × 50
M22 24 28 24 × 30 24 × 55
M24 27 [a] 30 27 × 32 27 × 60
M27 30 35 30 × 37 30 × 67
M30 33 38 33 × 40 33 × 75
≥ M36 d+ 3 d+ 8 (d + 3) × (d + 10) (d + 3) × 2.5d
[a] clearance provided allows the use of a 25 mm, bolt, if desirable.
10.3.3 Minimum Spacing. The distance between centers of standard, oversized, or slotted
holes, shall not be less than 2.67 times the nominal diameter of the fastener; a
distance of 3d is preferred. Refer to Section 10.3.10 for bearing strength
requirements.
SBC 306 2007 10/12
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
10.3.4 Minimum Edge Distance. The distance from the center of a standard hole to an
edge of a connected part shall not be less than either the applicable value from Table
10.3-4, or as required in Section 10.3.10. The distance from the center of an
oversized or slotted hole to an edge of a connected part shall be not less than that
required for a standard hole to an edge of a connected part plus the applicable
increment C2 from Table 10.3-6. Refer to Section 10.3.10 for bearing strength
requirements.
TABLE 10.3-4
Minimum Edge Distance, [a] mm , From
Center of Standard Hole [b] to Edge of Connected Part
TABLE 10.3-5A
Nominal Tension Stress (Ft), MPa
Fasteners in Bearing-type Connections
Description of Threads Included in Threads Excluded
Fasteners the Shear Plane from the Shear Plane
10.3.5 Maximum Spacing and Edge Distance. The maximum distance from the center of
any bolt or rivet to the nearest edge of parts in contact shall be 12 times the thickness
of the connected part under consideration, but shall not exceed 150 mm. The
longitudinal spacing of connectors between elements in continuous contact
consisting of a plate and a shape or two plates shall be as follows:
(a) or painted members or unpainted members not subject to corrosion, the
spacing shall not exceed 24 times the thickness of the thinner plate or 305 mm.
TABLE 10.3-5
Nominal Tension Stress (Ft), MPa
Fasteners in Bearing-type Connections
Description of Threads Included in Threads Excluded from
Fasteners the Shear Plane the Shear Plane
10.3.6 Design Tension or Shear Strength. The design tension or shear strength of a
high-strength bolt or threaded part is
φ Fn Ab,
where
φ = resistance factor tabulated in Table 10.3-2
Fn = nominal tensile strength Ft, or shear strength, Fv, tabulated in Table 10.3-2,
MPa
Ab = nominal unthreaded body area of bolt or threaded part (for upset rods, see
Footnote c, Table 10.3-2), mm 2
The applied load shall be the sum of the factored loads and any tension resulting
from prying action produced by deformation of the connected parts.
10.3.8 High-Strength Bolts in Slip-Critical Connections. The design for shear of high-
strength bolts in slip-critical connections shall be in accordance with Section 10.3.8
SBC 306 2007 10/14
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
and checked for shear in accordance with Sections 10.3.6 and 10.3.7 and bearing in
accordance with Sections 10.3.1 and 10.3.10.
10.3.8.1 Slip-Critical Connections Designed at Factored Loads. The design slip
resistance per bolt, φ rstr , shall equal or exceed the required force per bolt due to
factored loads,
rstr = 1.13 µµTbNs (10.3-1)
where:
Tb = minimum fastener tension given in Table 10.3-1, kN
Ns = number of slip planes
µ = mean slip coefficient for Class A, B, or C surfaces, as applicable, or as
established by tests
(a) For Class A surfaces (unpainted clean mill scale steel surfaces or surfaces
with Class A coatings on blast-cleaned steel),
µ = 0.33
(b) For Class B surfaces (unpainted blast-cleaned steel surfaces or surfaces with
Class B coatings on blast-cleaned steel),
µ = 0.50
(c) For Class C surfaces (hot-dip galvanized and roughened surfaces),
µ = 0.35
φ = resistance factor
(a) For standard holes, φ = 1.0
(b) For oversized and short-slotted holes, φ = 0.85
(c) For long-slotted holes transverse to the direction of load, φ = 0.70
(d) For long-slotted holes parallel to the direction of load, φ = 0.60
TABLE 10.3-6
Values of Edge Distance Increment C2, mm
Slotted Holes
Nominal Oversized Long Axis Perpendicular to Long Axis
Diameter of Holes Edge Parallel to
Fastener (mm) Short Slots Long Slots [a] Edge
< 22 2 3
24 3 3 0.75d 0
≥ 27 3 5
[a] When length of slot is less than maximum allowable (see Table 10.3-5), C2 are permitted
to be reduced by one-half the difference between the maximum and actual slot lengths.
10.3.9 Combined Tension and Shear in Slip-Critical Connections. The design of slip-
critical connections subject to tensile forces shall be in accordance with either
Sections 10.3.9.1 and 10.3.8,1 or Sections 10.3.9.2 and 10.3.8.2.
10.3.9.1 Slip-Critical Connections Designed at Factored Loads. When a slip-critical
connection is subjected to an applied tension T u that reduces the net clamping force,
SBC 306 2007 10/15
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS, AND FASTENERS
the slip resistance φ r str according to Section 10.3.8.1, shall be multiplied by the
following factor:
1 – { Tu / (1.13 T b N b)}
where
Tb = minimum bolt pre-tension from Table 10.3-1, kN
Nb = number of bolts carrying factored-load tension T u
10.3.10 Bearing Strength at Bolt Holes. Bearing strength shall be checked for both
bearing-type and slip-critical connections. The use of oversized holes and short-
and long-slotted holes parallel to the line of force is restricted to slip-critical
connections per Section 10.3.2. The design bearing strength at bolt holes is φ R n ,
where
φ = 0.75
and R n is determined as follows:
(a) For a bolt in a connection with standard, oversized, and short-slotted holes
in-dependent of the direction of loading, or a long-slotted hole with the slot
parallel to the direction of the bearing force:
when deformation at the bolt hole at service load is a design consideration:
when deformation at the bolt hole at service load is not a design consideration:
10.3.11 Long Grips. A307 bolts providing design strength, and for which the grip exceeds
five diameters, shall have their number increased one percent for each additional 2
mm in the grip.
SECTION 10.4
DESIGN RUPTURE STRENGTH
10.4.1 Shear Rupture Strength. The design strength for the limit state of rupture along a
shear failure path in the affected elements of connected members shall be taken as
φ Rn where
φ = 0.75
Rn = Fu Anv
Anv = net area subject to shear, mm2
10.4.2 Tension Rupture Strength. The design strength for the limit state of rupture along
a tension path in the affected elements of connected members shall be taken as φ Rn
where
φ = 0.75
Rn = Fu Ant
Ant = net area subject to tension, mm2
10.4.3 Block Shear Rupture Strength. Block shear is a limit state in which the resistance
is determined by the sum of the shear strength on a failure path(s) and the tensile
strength on a perpendicular segment. It shall be checked at beam end connections
where the top flange is coped and in similar situations, such as tension members and
gusset plates. When ultimate rupture strength on the net section is used to
determine the resistance on one segment, yielding on the gross section shall be used
on the perpendicular segment. The block shear rupture design strength, φ Rn, shall
be determined as follows:
(a) When Fu Ant ≥ 0.6Fu Anv:
φ Rn = φ [0.6Fy Agv + Fu Ant] ≤ φ [0.6Fy Anv + Fu Ant] (10.4-1)
SECTION 10.5
CONNECTING ELEMENTS
This section applies to the design of connecting elements, such as plates, gussets,
angles, brackets, and the panel zones of beam-to-column connections.
10.5.1 Eccentric Connections. Intersecting axially stressed members shall have their
gravity axis intersect at one point, if practicable; if not, provision shall be made for
bending and shearing stresses due to the eccentricity. Also see Section 10.1.8.
10.5.2 Design Strength of Connecting Elements in Tension. The design strength, φRn ,
of welded, bolted, and riveted connecting elements statically loaded in tension (e.g.,
splice and gusset plates) shall be the lower value obtained according to limit states
of yielding, rupture of the connecting element, and block shear rupture.
(a) For tension yielding of the connecting element: φ = 0.90
Rn = AgFy (10.5-1)
(b) For tension rupture of the connecting element: φ = 0.75
R n = AnFu (10.5-2)
where An is the net area, not to exceed 0.85Ag.
(c) For block shear rupture of connecting elements, see Section 10.4.3.
10.5.3 Other Connecting Elements. For all other connecting elements, the design
strength, φ Rn, shall be determined for the applicable limit state to ensure that the
design strength is equal to or greater than the required strength, where Rn is the
nominal strength appropriate to the geometry and type of loading on the connecting
element. For shear yielding of the connecting element:
φ = 0.90
Rn = 0.60 AgFy (10.5-3)
If the connecting element is in compression an appropriate limit state analysis shall
be made.
SECTION 10.6
FILLERS
SECTION 10.7
SPLICES
Groove-welded splices in plate girders and beams shall develop the full strength of
the smaller spliced section. Other types of splices in cross sections of plate girders
and beams shall develop the strength required by the forces at the point of the splice.
SECTION 10.8
BEARING STRENGTH
The strength of surfaces in bearing is φ Rn where
φ = 0.75
Rn is defined below for the various types of bearing
(a) For milled surfaces, pins in reamed, drilled, or bored holes, and ends of fitted
bearing stiffeners,
Rn = 1.8Fy Apb (10.8-1)
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, MPa
Apb = projected bearing area, mm2
(b) For expansion rollers and rockers,
If d ≤ 635 mm,
Rn = 1.2 (Fy –90)ld / 20 (10.8-2)
If d > 635 mm,
Rn = 6.0(Fy –90)l d / 20 (10.8-3)
where
d = diameter, mm
l = length of bearing, mm
SECTION 10.9
COLUMN BASES AND BEARING ON CONCRETE
Proper provision shall be made to transfer the column loads and moments to the
footings and foundations.
In the absence of code regulations, design bearing loads on concrete may be taken as
φ cPp
(a) On the full area of a concrete support
Pp = 0.85 f c′A1 (10.9-1)
(b) On less than the full area of a concrete support
Pp = 0.85 f c′A1 ( A2 / A1 ) (10.9-2)
where
φ c = 0.60
A1 = area of steel concentrically bearing on a concrete support, mm2
A2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometri-
cally similar to and concentric with the loaded area, mm2
( A2 / A1 ) ≤ 2
SECTION 10.10
ANCHOR RODS AND EMBEDMENTS
Steel anchor rods and embedments shall be proportioned to develop the factored
load combinations stipulated in Section 1.4. If the load factors and combinations
stipulated in Section 1.4 are used to design concrete structural elements, the
provisions of SBC-304 shall be used with appropriate φ factors as given in SBC-
304.
CHAPTER 11
CONCENTRATED FORCES, PONDING, AND FATIGUE
This chapter covers member strength design considerations pertaining to
concentrated forces, ponding, and fatigue.
SECTION 11.1
FLANGES AND WEBS WITH CONCENTRATED FORCES
11.1.1 Design Basis. Sections 11.1.2 through 11.1.7 apply to single and double
concentrated forces as indicated in each Section. A single concentrated force is
tensile or compressive. Double concentrated forces, one tensile and one
compressive, form a couple on the same side of the loaded member.
Transverse stiffeners are required at locations of concentrated tensile forces in
accordance with Section 11.1.2 for the limit state of flange local bending, and at
unframed ends of beams and girders in accordance with Section 11.1.8. Transverse
stiffeners or doubler plates are required at locations of concentrated forces in
accordance with Sections 11.1.3 through 11.1.6 for the limit states of web local
yielding, crippling, sidesway buckling, and compression buckling. Doubler plates
or diagonal stiffeners are required in accordance with Section 11.1.7 for the limit
state of web panel-zone shear.
Transverse stiffeners and diagonal stiffeners required by Sections 11.1.2 through
11.1.8 shall also meet the requirements of Section 11.1.9. Doubler plates required
by Sections 11.1.3 through 11.1.6 shall also meet the requirements of Section
11.1.10.
11.1.2 Flange Local Bending. This Section applies to both tensile single-concentrated
forces and the tensile component of double-concentrated forces.
A pair of transverse stiffeners extending at least one-half the depth of the web shall
be provided adjacent to a concentrated tensile force centrally applied across the
flange when the required strength of the flange exceeds φ Rn,
where
φ = 0.90
Rn = 6.25 t 2f Fyf (11.1-1)
Fyf = specified minimum yield stress of the flange, MPa
tf = thickness of the loaded flange, mm
If the length of loading across the member flange is less than 0.15b, where b is the
member flange width, Equation 11.1-1 need not be checked.
When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at a distance from the member
end that is less than 10tf, Rn shall be reduced by 50 percent.
When transverse stiffeners are required, they shall be welded to the loaded flange to
develop the welded portion of the stiffener. The weld connecting transverse stiffeners
to the web shall be sized to transmit the unbalanced force in the stiffener to the web.
Also, see Section 11.1.9.
11.1.3 Web Local Yielding. This Section applies to single-concentrated forces and both
components of double-concentrated forces.
Either a pair of transverse stiffeners or a doubler plate, extending at least one-half
the depth of the web, shall be provided adjacent to a concentrated tensile or
compressive force when the required strength of the web at the toe of the fillet
exceeds φ Rn,
where
φ = 1.0
and Rn is determined as follows:
(a) When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at a distance from the
member end that is greater than the depth of the member d,
(b) When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at a distance from the
member end that is less than or equal to the depth of the member d,
⎡ 1.5
⎤ EF t
⎛ N ⎞⎛ t ⎞
Rn = 0.80t ⎢1 + 3⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ w ⎟ ⎥
2 yw f
⎟ (11.1-4)
⎢ ⎥
w
⎝ d ⎠⎝ t f ⎠ tw
⎣ ⎦
11.1.5 Web Sidesway Buckling. This Section applies only to compressive single-
concentrated forces applied to members where relative lateral movement between
the loaded compression flange and the tension flange is not restrained at the point
of application of the concentrated force.
The design strength of the web is φ Rn,
where
φ = 0.85
and Rn is determined as follows:
C r t w3 t f ⎡
3⎤
⎛ ⎞
Rn = ⎢1 + 0.4⎜ h / t w ⎟ ⎥ (11.1-6)
h2 ⎢ ⎜ l /bf ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
for (h / tw) / (l / bf) > 2.3, the limit state of sidesway web buckling does not
apply. When the required strength of the web exceeds φ Rn, local lateral
bracing shall be provided at the tension flange or either a pair of transverse
stiffeners or a doubler plate, extending at least one-half the depth of the web,
shall be provided adjacent to the concentrated compressive force.
When transverse stiffeners are required, they shall either bear on or be welded to
the loaded flange to develop the full-applied force. The weld connecting
transverse stiffeners to the web shall be sized to transmit the force in the
stiffener to the web. Also, see Section 11.1.9.
Alternatively, when doubler plates are required, they shall be sized to develop
the full-applied force. Also, see Section 11.1.10.
(b) If the compression flange is not restrained against rotation:
For (h / tw) / (l / bf) ≤ 1.7,
C r t w3 t f ⎡ ⎛ h / t w
3⎤
⎞
Rn = ⎢0.4⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (11.1-7)
h 2 ⎢ ⎜⎝ l / b f ⎟
⎠
⎥
⎣ ⎦
for (h / tw) / (l / bf) > 1.7, the limit state of sidesway web buckling does not
apply. When the required strength of the web exceeds φ Rn local lateral
bracing shall be provided at both flanges at the point of application of the
concentrated forces.
In Equations 11.1-6 and 11.1-7, the following definitions apply:
l = largest laterally unbraced length along either flange at the point of load,
mm
bf = flange width, mm
tf = flange thickness, mm
tw = web thickness, mm
h = clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius for
rolled shapes; distance between adjacent lines of fasteners or the clear
distance between flanges when welds are used for built-up shapes, mm
Cr = 6.62x106 MPa when Mu < My at the location of the force
= 3.31 x 106 MPa when Mu ≥ My at the location of the force
11.1.6 Web Compression Buckling. This Section applies to a pair of compressive single-
concentrated forces or the compressive components in a pair of double-
concentrated forces, applied at both flanges of a member at the same location.
Either a single transverse stiffener, or pair of transverse stiffeners, or a doubler
plate, extending the full depth of the web, shall be provided adjacent to
concentrated compressive forces at both flanges when the required strength of the
web exceed φ Rn,
where
φ = 0.90
and
24t w3 EF yw
Rn = (11.1-8)
h
11.1.7 Web Panel-Zone Shear. Either doubler plates or diagonal stiffeners shall be
provided within the boundaries of the rigid connection of members whose webs lie
in a common plane when the required strength exceeds φ Rv,
where
φ = 0.90
and Rv is determined as follows:
(a) When the effect of panel-zone deformation on frame stability is not considered in
the analysis,
For Pu ≤ 0.4Py
Rv = 0.60Fydctw (11.1-9)
11.1.8 Unframed Ends of Beams and Girders. At unframed ends of beams and girders
not otherwise restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axes, a pair of
transverse stiffeners, extending the full depth of the web, shall be provided. Also,
see Section 11.1.9.
Full depth transverse stiffeners for compressive forces applied to a beam or plate
girder flange shall be designed as axially compressed members (columns) in
accordance with the requirements of Section 5.2 with an effective length of 0.75h, a
cross section composed of two stiffeners and a strip of the web having a width of
25tw at interior stiffeners and 12tw at the ends of members.
The weld connecting bearing stiffeners to the web shall be sized to transmit the
excess web shear force to the stiffener. For fitted bearing stiffeners, see Section 10.8.
SECTION 11.2
PONDING
with sufficient slope toward points of free drainage or adequate individual drains to
prevent the accumulation of rainwater.
The roof system shall be considered stable and no further investigation is needed if:
Cp + 0.9Cs ≤ 0.25 (11.2-1)
4
Id ≥ 3 940 S (11.2-2)
where
504 L s L4p
Cp =
Ip
504 SL4s
Cs =
Is
Lp = column spacing in direction of girder (length of primary members), m
LS = column spacing perpendicular to direction of girder (length of secondary
members), m
S = spacing of secondary members, m
4
Ip = moment of inertia of primary members, mm
4
IS = moment of inertia of secondary members, mm
Id = moment of inertia of the steel deck supported on secondary members, mm4
per m
For trusses and steel joists, the moment of inertia Is shall be decreased 15 percent
when used in the above equation. A steel deck shall be considered a secondary
member when it is directly supported by the primary members.
SECTION 11.3
DESIGN FOR CYCLIC LOADING (FATIGUE)
0.167
⎛ C f × 11 × 10 4 ⎞
FSR =⎜ ⎟ ≥ FTH (11.3-2)
⎜ N ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(c) For tension-loaded plate elements connected at their end by cruciform, T- or
corner details with complete-joint-penetration groove welds or partial-joint-
penetration groove welds, fillet welds, or combinations of the preceding,
transverse to the direction of stress, the design stress range on the cross
section of the tension-loaded plate element at the toe of the weld shall be
determined as follows:
Based upon crack initiation from the toe of the weld on the tension loaded plate
element the design stress range, FSR, shall be determined by Equation 11.3-1,
for Category C which is equal to
0.333
⎛ 14.4 × 1011 ⎞
FSR = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≥ 68.9
⎝ N ⎠
Based upon crack initiation from the root of the weld the design stress range,
FSR, on the tension loaded plate element using transverse partial-joint-
penetration groove welds, with or without reinforcing or contouring fillet
welds, the design stress range on the cross section at the toe of the weld
shall be determined by Equation 11.3-3, Category C′ as follows:
0.333
⎛ 14.4 × 1011 ⎞
FSR = 1.72RPJP ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (11.3-3)
⎝ N ⎠
where
RPJP = reduction factor for reinforced or non-reinforced transverse
partial-joint-penetration (PJP) joints. Use Category C if RPJP =
1.0.
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎞
⎜ 0.65 − 0.59⎜ 2a ⎟ + 0.72⎜ w ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ tp ⎟ ⎜tp ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎟
= ⎜ ≤ 1.0
⎜ 0.167
tp ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2a = the length of the non-welded root face in the direction of the
thickness of the tension-loaded plate, mm
w = the leg size of the reinforcing or contouring fillet, if any,
in the direction of the thickness of the tension-loaded plate,
mm
tp = thickness of tension loaded plate, mm
Based upon crack initiation from the roots of a pair of transverse fillet welds on
opposite sides of the tension loaded plate element the design stress range, FSR,
on the cross section at the toe of the welds shall be determined by Equation
11.3-4, Category C as follows:
0.333
⎛ 14.4 × 1011 ⎞
FSR = 1.72RFIL ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (11.3-4)
⎝ N ⎠
where
RFIL = reduction factor for joints using a pair of transverse fillet welds only.
Use Category C if RFIL = 1.0.
⎛ 0.06 + 0.72( w / t p ) ⎞
RFIL = ⎜⎜ 0.167
⎟ ≤ 1.0
⎟
⎝ t p ⎠
11.3.4 Bolts and Threaded Parts. The range of stress at service loads shall not exceed
the stress range computed as follows.
(a) For mechanically fastened connections loaded in shear, the maximum range of
stress in the connected material at service loads shall not exceed the design
stress range computed using Equation 11.3-1 where Cf and FTH are taken from
Section 2 of Table 11.3-1.
(b) For high-strength bolts, common bolts, and threaded anchor rods with cut,
ground or rolled threads, the maximum range of tensile stress on the net tensile
area from applied axial load and moment plus load due to prying action shall
not exceed the design stress range computed using Equation 11.3-1.
The factor Cf shall be taken as 3.9x108 (as for category E′). The threshold
stress, FTH shall be taken as 48 MPa (as for category D). The net tensile area
is given by Equation 11.3-5.
π
At = (db – 0.9382P)2 (11.3-5)
4
where
P = pitch, mm per thread
db = the nominal diameter (body or shank diameter),mm
For joints in which the material within the grip is not limited to steel or joints which
are not tensioned to the requirements of Table 10.3-1, all axial load and moment
applied to the joint plus effects of prying action (if any) shall be assumed to be carried
exclusively by the bolts or rods.
For joints in which the material within the grip is limited to steel and which are
tensioned to the requirements of Table 10.3-1, an analysis of the relative stiffness
of the connected parts and bolts shall be permitted to be used to determine the tensile
stress range in the pretensioned bolts due to the total service live load and moment
plus effects of prying action. Alternatively, the stress range in the bolts shall be
assumed to be equal to the stress on the net tensile area due to 20 percent of the
absolute value of the service load axial load and moment from dead, live and other
loads.
11.3.5 Special Fabrication and Erection Requirements. Longitudinal backing bars are
permitted to remain in place, and if used, shall be continuous. If splicing is
necessary for long joints, the bar shall be joined with complete penetration butt joints
and the reinforcement ground prior to assembly in the joint.
In transverse joints subject to tension, backing bars, if used, shall be removed and
the joint back gouged and welded.
In transverse complete-joint-penetration T- and corner joints, a reinforcing fillet
weld, not less than 6 mm in size shall be added at re-entrant corners.
The surface roughness of flame cut edges subject to significant cyclic tensile stress
SBC 306 2007 11/10
CONCENTRATED FORCES, PONDING, AND FATIGUE
ranges shall not exceed 25 µ m, where ASME B46.1 is the reference standard.
Re-entrant corners at cuts, copes and weld access holes shall form a radius of not
less than 10 mm by pre-drilling or sub-punching and reaming a hole, or by thermal
cutting to form the radius of the cut. If the radius portion is formed by thermal
cutting, the cut surface shall be ground to a bright metal surface.
For transverse butt joints in regions of high tensile stress, run-off tabs shall be used
to provide for cascading the weld termination outside the finished joint. End dams
shall not be used. Run-off tabs shall be removed and the end of the weld finished
flush with the edge of the member.
See Section 10.2.2.2 Fillet Weld Terminations for requirements for end returns
on certain fillet welds subject to cyclic service loading.
Table 11.3-1
Fatigue Design Parameters
Threshold
Stress Constant Potential Crack
FTH
Description Category Cf Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 1 – PLAIN MATERIAL AWAY FROM ANY WELDING
1.1 Base metal, except non-coated A 250 x 108 165 Away from all
weathering steel, with rolled or cleaned welds or structural
surface. Flame-cut edges with surface connections
roughness value of ( 25µm ) or less, but
without re-entrant corners.
1.2 Non-coated weathering steel base B 120 x 108 110 Away from all
metal with rolled or cleaned surface. welds or structural
Flame-cut edges with surface roughness connections
value of 1000 µin ( 25µm ) or less, but
without re-entrant corners.
1.3 Member with drilled or reamed holes. B 120 x 108 110 At any external
Member with re-entrant corners at copes, edge or at hole
cuts, block-outs or other geometrical perimeter
discontinuities made to requirements of
Section 11.3.5, except weld access holes.
1.4 Rolled cross sections with weld C 44 x 108 69 At re-entrant
access holes made to requirements of corner of weld
Sections 10.1.6 and 11.3.5. Members access hole or at
with drilled or reamed holes containing any small hole
bolts for attachment of light bracing (may contain bolt
where there is a small longitudinal for minor
component of brace force. connections)
SECTION 2 – CONNECTED MATERIAL IN MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS
2.1 Gross area of base metal in lap joints B 120 x 108 110 Through gross
connected by high-strength bolts in joints section near hole
satisfying all requirements for slip-
critical connections.
2.2 Base metal at net section of high- B 120 x 108 110 In net section
strength bolted joints, designed on the originating at side
basis of bearing resistance, but fabricated of hole
and installed to all requirements for slip-
critical connections.
2.3 Base metal at the net section of other D 22 x 108 48 In net section
mechanically fastened joints except eye originating at side
bars and pin plates. of hole
2.4 Base metal at net section of eyebar E 11 x 108 31 In net section
head or pin plate. originating at side
of hole
SBC 306 2007 11/11
CONCENTRATED FORCES, PONDING, AND FATIGUE
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Threshold
Stress Constant Potential Crack
Description FTH
Category Cf Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 3 – WELDED JOINTS JOINING COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
3.1 Base metal and weld metal in members B 120 x 108 110 From surface or
without attachments built-up of plates or internal
shapes connected by continuous discontinuities in
longitudinal complete-joint-penetration weld away from end
groove welds, back gouged and welded of weld
from second side, or by continuous fillet
welds.
3.2 Base metal and weld metal in members B´ 61 x 108 83 From surface or
without attachments built-up of plates or internal
shapes, connected by continuous discontinuities in
longitudinal complete penetration groove weld, including weld
welds with backing bars not removed, or attaching backing
by continuous partial-joint-penetration bars
groove welds.
3.3 Base metal and weld metal termination D 22 x 108 48 From the weld
of longitudinal welds at weld access holes termination into the
in connected built-up members. web or flange
3.4 Base metal at ends of longitudinal E 11 x 108 31 In connected
intermittent fillet weld segments. material at start and
stop locations of any
weld deposit
3.5 Base metal at ends of partial length In flange at toe of
welded coverplates narrower than the end weld or in flange
flange having square or tapered ends, with at termination of
or without welds across the ends of longitudinal weld or
coverplates wider than the flange with in edge of flange
welds across the ends. with wide
Flange thickness ≤ 20 mm E 11 x 108 31 coverplates
t ≤ 13 mm E 11 x 108 31
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Threshold
Stress Constant Potential Crack
FTH
Description Category Cf Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS
5.1 Base metal and weld metal in or B 120 x 10a 110 From internal
adjacent to complete joint penetration discontinuities in
groove welded splices in rolled or welded filler metal or along
cross sections with welds ground the fusion boundary
essentially parallel to the direction of
stress.
5.2 Base metal and weld metal in or From internal
adjacent to complete joint penetration discontinuities in
groove welded splices with welds ground filler metal or along
essentially parallel to the direction of stress the fusion boundary
at transitions in thickness or width made on or at start of
a slope no greater than 8 to 20%. transition when
Fy ≥ 620 MPa
Fy < 620 MPa B 120 x 108 110
8
Fy ≥ 620 MPa B' 61 x 10 83
5.3 Base metal with Fy equal to or greater B 120 x 10a 110 From internal
than 90 ksi (620 MPa) and weld metal in or discontinuities in
adjacent to complete joint penetration filler metal or
groove welded splices with welds ground discontinuities along
essentially parallel to the direction of stress the fusion boundary
at transitions in width made on a radius of
not less than 2 ft. (600 mm) with the point
of tangency at the end of the groove weld.
5.4 Base metal and weld metal in or C 44 x 108 69 From surface
adjacent to the toe of complete joint discontinuity at toe
penetration T or corner joints or splices, of weld extending
with or without transitions in thickness into base metal or
having slopes no greater than 8 to 20%, along fusion
when weld reinforcement is not removed. boundary
5.5 Base metal and weld metal at Initiating from
transverse end connections of tension- geometrical
loaded plate elements using partial joint discontinuity at toe
penetration butt or T or corner joints, with of weld extending
reinforcing or contouring fillets, FSR shall into base metal or,
be the smaller of the toe crack or root crack initiating at weld
stress range. root subject to
tension extending up
Crack initiating from weld toe: C 44 x 108 69 and then out through
Crack initiating from weld root: C´ (Equation None weld
11.3-3) provided
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Stress Constant Threshold Potential Crack
Description Category Cf FTH Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 5 – WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS
5.6 Base metal and filler metal at Initiating from
transverse end connections of tension- geometrical
loaded plate elements using a pair of fillet discontinuity at toe
welds on opposite sides of the plate. FSR of weld extending
shall be the smaller of the toe crack or root into base metal or,
crack stress range. initiating at weld
root subject to
Crack initiating from weld toe: C 44 x 108 69 tension extending
Crack initiating from weld root: C '' (Equation None provided up and then out
11.3-4) through weld
5.7 Base metal of tension loaded plate C 44 x 108 69 From geometrical
elements and on girders and rolled beam discontinuity at toe
webs or flanges at toe of transverse fillet of fillet extending
welds adjacent to welded transverse into base metal
stiffeners.
C 44 x 108 69
600 mm > R ≥ 150 mm
D 22 x 108 48
150 mm > R ≥ 50 mm
50 mm > R E 11 x 108 31
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Stress Constant Threshold Potential Crack
Description Category Cf FTH Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 6 – BASE METAL AT WELDED TRANSVERSE MEMBER CONNECTIONS
6.2 Base metal at details of equal thickness
attached by complete joint penetration
groove welds subject to transverse loading
with or without longitudinal loading when
the detail embodies a transition radius R
with the weld termination ground smooth.
When weld reinforcement is removed:
R ≥ 600 mm B 120 x 108 110 Near points of
8 tangency of radius
C 44 x 10 69
or in the weld or at
600 mm > R ≥ 150 mm
fusion boundary or
D 22 x 108 48 member or
attachment
150 mm > R ≥ 50 mm
50 mm > R E 11 x 108 31
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Stress Constant Threshold Potential Crack
Description Category Cf FTH Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 6 – BASE METAL AT WELDED TRANSVERSE MEMBER CONNECTIONS
6.4 Base metal subject to longitudinal In weld termination
stress at transverse stress, attached by fillet or from the toe of
or partial penetration groove welds parallel the weld extending
to direction of stress when the detail into member
embodies a transition radius R, with weld
termination ground smooth.
R > 50 mm D 22 x 108 48
R ≤ 50 mm E 11 x 108 31
50 mm ≤ a ≤ 12b D 22 x 108 48
or 100 mm
R > 50 mm D 22 x 108 48
R ≤ 50 mm E 11 x 108 31
1
“Attachment” as used herein, is defined as any steel detail welded to a member which, by its mere presence
and independent of its loading, causes a discontinuity in the stress flow in the member and thus reduces the
fatigue resistance.
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
Stress Constant Threshold Potential Crack
Description Category Cf FTH Initiation Point
MPa
SECTION 8 – MISCELLANEOUS
8.1 Base metal at stud-type shear C 44 x 10a 69 At toe of weld in
connectors attached by fillet or electric base metal
stud welding
8.5 Not fully-tightened high-strength bolts, E' 3.9 x 108 48 At the root of the
common bolts, threaded anchor rods and threads extending
hanger rods with cut, ground or rolled into the tensile
threads. Stress range on tensile stress area stress area
due to live load plus prying action when
applicable.
Table 11.3-1(Cont’d)
Fatigue Design Parameters
CHAPTER 12
SERVICEABILITY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
This chapter is intended to provide design guidance for serviceability
considerations.
Serviceability is a state in which the function of a building, its appearance,
maintainability, durability, and comfort of its occupants are preserved under
normal usage.
Limiting values of structural behavior to ensure serviceability (e.g., maximum
deflections, accelerations, etc.) shall be chosen with due regard to the intended
function of the structure. Where necessary, serviceability shall be checked using
realistic loads for the appropriate serviceability limit state.
It is difficult to specify limiting values of structural performance based on
serviceability considerations because these depend to a great extent on the type of
structure, its intended use, and subjective physiological reaction. For example,
acceptable structural motion in a hospital clearly would be much less than in an
ordinary industrial building. It should be noted that humans perceive levels of
structural motion that are far less than motions that would cause any structural
damage. Serviceability limits must be determined through careful consideration
by the designer and client.
SECTION 12.1
CAMBER
If any special camber requirements are necessary to bring a loaded member into
proper relation with the work of other trades, as for the attachment of runs of sash,
the requirements shall be set forth in the design documents. If camber involves the
erection of any member under a preload, this shall be noted in the design
documents.
Beams and trusses detailed without specified camber shall be fabricated so that
after erection any camber due to rolling or shop assembly shall be upward.
SECTION 12.2
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
Adequate provision shall be made for expansion and contraction appropriate to the
service conditions of the structure.
SECTION 12.3
DEFLECTIONS, VIBRATION, AND DRIFT
12.3.2 Floor Vibration. Vibration shall be considered in designing beams and girders
supporting large areas free of partitions or other sources of damping where
excessive vibration due to pedestrian traffic or other sources within the building is
not acceptable.
12.3.3 Drift. Lateral deflection or drift of structures due to code-specified wind or seismic
SBC 306 2007 12/1
SERVICEABILITY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
loads shall not cause collision with adjacent structures nor exceed the limiting
values of such drifts which may be specified or appropriate.
SECTION 12.4
CONNECTION SLIP
For the design of slip-critical connections see Sections 10.3.8 and 10.3.9.
SECTION 12.5
CORROSION
CHAPTER 13
FABRICATION, ERECTION, AND QUALITY CONTROL
This chapter provides requirements for shop drawings, fabrication, shop painting,
erection, and quality control.
SECTION 13.1
SHOP DRAWINGS
Shop drawings giving complete information necessary for the fabrication of the
component parts of the structure, including the location, type, and size of all welds,
bolts, and rivets, shall be prepared in advance of the actual fabrication. These
drawings shall clearly distinguish between shop and field welds and bolts and
shall clearly identify pre-tensioned and slip-critical high-strength bolted
connections. Shop drawings shall be made in conformity with good practice and
with due regard to speed and economy in fabrication and erection.
SECTION 13.2
FABRICATION
13.2.2 Thermal Cutting. Thermally cut edges shall meet the requirements of AWS
5.15.1.2, 5.15.4.3 and 5.15.4.4 with the exception that thermally cut free edges
which will be subject to calculated static tensile stress shall be free of round
bottom gouges greater than 5 mm deep and sharp V-shaped notches. Gouges greater
than 5 mm deep and notches shall be removed by grinding or repaired by welding.
Re-entrant corners, except re-entrant corners of beam copes and weld access holes,
shall meet the requirements of AWS 5.16. If another specified contour is required it
must be shown on the contract documents.
Beam copes and weld access holes shall meet the geometrical requirements of
Section 10.1.6. For beam copes and weld access holes in ASTM A6/A6M Group 4
and 5 shapes and welded built-up shapes with material thickness greater than 50
mm, a preheat temperature of not less than 66°C shall be applied prior to thermal
cutting.
13.2.5 Bolted Construction. All parts of bolted members shall be pinned or bolted and
rigidly held together during assembly. Use of a drift pin in bolt holes during
SBC 306 2007 13/1
FABRICATION, ERECTION, AND QUALITY CONTROL
assembly shall not distort the metal or enlarge the holes. Poor matching of holes
shall be cause for rejection.
If the thickness of the material is not greater than the nominal diameter of the bolt
plus 3 mm, the holes are permitted to be punched. If the thickness of the material
is greater than the nominal diameter of the bolt plus 3 mm, the holes shall be either
drilled or sub-punched and reamed. The die for all sub-punched holes, and the
drill for all sub-drilled holes, shall be at least 2 mm smaller than the nominal
diameter of the bolt. Holes in ASTM A514/A514M steel plates over 13 mm thick
shall be drilled.
Fully-inserted finger shims, with a total thickness of not more than 6 mm within a
joint, are permitted in joints without changing the design strength (based upon hole
type) for the design of connections. The orientation of such shims is independent of
the direction of application of the load.
The use of high-strength bolts shall conform to the requirements of the RCSC Load
and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325
or A490 Bolts.
13.2.6 Compression Joints. Compression joints which depend on contact bearing as part
of the splice strength shall have the bearing surfaces of individual fabricated pieces
prepared by milling, sawing, or other suitable means except where the surface is
mill finished faces of plates or sections which are free from surface unevenness
and mill scales.
13.2.8 Finish of Column Bases. Column bases and base plates shall be finished in
accordance with the following requirements:
(1) Steel bearing plates 50 mm or less in thickness are permitted without milling,
provided a satisfactory contact bearing is obtained. Steel bearing plates over
50 mm but not over 100 mm in thickness are permitted to be straightened by
pressing or, if presses are not available, by milling for all bearing surfaces
(except as noted in subparagraphs 2 and 3 of this section), to obtain a
satisfactory contact bearing. Steel bearing plates over 100 mm in thickness
shall be milled for all bearing surfaces (except as noted in subparagraphs 2
and 3 of this section).
(2) Bottom surfaces of bearing plates and column bases which are grouted to
ensure full bearing contact on foundations need not be milled.
(3) Top surfaces of bearing plates need not be milled when complete-
joint-penetration groove welds are provided between the column and the
bearing plate.
SECTION 13.3
SHOP PAINTING
13.3.2 Inaccessible Surfaces. Except for contact surfaces, surfaces inaccessible after
shop assembly shall be cleaned and painted prior to assembly, if required by the
design documents.
13.3.5 Surfaces Adjacent to Field Welds. Unless otherwise specified in the design
documents, surfaces within 50 mm of any field weld location shall be free of
materials that would prevent proper welding or produce objectionable fumes during
welding.
SECTION 13.4
ERECTION
13.4.1 Alignment of Column Bases. Column bases shall be set level and to correct
elevation with full bearing on concrete or masonry.
13.4.2 Bracing. The frame of steel skeleton buildings shall be carried up true and plumb
within the limits defined in the AISC Code of Standard Practice. Temporary
bracing shall be provided, in accordance with the requirements of the Code of
Standard Practice, wherever necessary to support all loads to which the structure
may be subjected, including equipment and the operation of same. Such bracing
shall be left in place as long as required for safety.
13.4.3 Alignment. No permanent bolting or welding shall be performed until the adjacent
affected portions of the structure have been properly aligned.
13.4.4 Fit of Column Compression Joints and Base Plates. Lack of contact bearing not
exceeding a gap of 2 mm, regardless of the type of splice used (partial-joint-
penetration groove welded, or bolted), is permitted. If the gap exceeds 2 mm, but is
less than 6 mm, and if an engineering investigation shows that sufficient contact
area does not exist, the gap shall be packed out with non-tapered steel shims.
Shims need not be other than mild steel, regardless of the grade of the main
material.
13.4.5 Field Welding. Shop paint on surfaces adjacent to joints to be field welded shall be
wire brushed if necessary to assure weld quality.
Field welding of attachments to installed embedments in contact with concrete
shall be done in such a manner as to avoid excessive thermal expansion of the
embedment which could result in spalling or cracking of the concrete or excessive
stress in the embedment anchors.
13.4.6 Field Painting. Responsibility for touch-up painting, cleaning, and field painting
SBC 306 2007 13/3
FABRICATION, ERECTION, AND QUALITY CONTROL
shall be allocated in accordance with accepted local practices, and this allocation
shall be set forth explicitly in the contract documents.
13.4.7 Field Connections. As erection progresses, the structure shall be securely bolted or
welded to support all dead, wind, and erection loads.
SECTION 13.5
QUALITY CONTROL
The fabricator shall provide quality control procedures to the extent that the fabricator
deems necessary to assure that all work is performed in accordance with this SBC
306. In addition to the fabricator’s quality control procedures, material and
workmanship at all times may be subject to inspection by qualified inspectors
representing the purchaser. If such inspection by representatives of the purchaser
will be required, it shall be so stated in the contract documents.
CHAPTER 14
EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
This chapter applies to the evaluation of the strength and stiffness under static
vertical (gravity) loads of existing structures by structural analysis, by load tests,
or by a combination of structural analysis and load tests when specified by the
Engineer of Record or in the contract documents. For such evaluation, the steel
grades are not limited to those listed in Section 1.3.1. This chapter does not
address load testing for the effects of seismic loads or moving loads (vibrations).
SECTION 14.1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
SECTION 14.2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
14.2.1 Determination of Required Tests. The Engineer of Record shall determine the
specific tests that are required from Section 14.2.2 through 14.2.6 and specify the
locations where they are required. Where available, the use of applicable project
records shall be permitted to reduce or eliminate the need for testing.
14.2.4 Base Metal Notch Toughness. Where welded tension splices in heavy shapes and
plates as defined in Section 1.3.1.3 are critical to the performance of the structure,
the Charpy V-notch toughness shall be determined in accordance with the
SBC 306 2007 14/1
EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
provisions of Section 1.3.1.3. If the notch toughness so determined does not meet
the provisions of Section 1.3.1.3, the Engineer of Record shall determine if
remedial actions are required.
14.2.6 Bolts and Rivets. Representative samples of bolts shall be inspected to determine
markings and classifications. Where bolts cannot be properly identified visually,
representative samples shall be removed and tested to determine tensile strength in
accordance with ASTM F606 and the bolt classified accordingly. Alternatively,
the assumption that the bolts are A307 shall be permitted. Rivets shall be assumed
to be A502, Grade 1, unless a higher grade is established through documentation
or testing.
SECTION 14.3
EVALUATION BY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
14.3.1 Dimensional Data. All dimensions used in the evaluation, such as spans, column
heights, member spacings, bracing locations, cross section dimensions,
thicknesses, and connection details, shall be determined from a field survey.
Alternatively, when available, it shall be permitted to determine such dimensions
from applicable project design or shop drawings with field verification of critical
values.
14.3.2 Strength Evaluation. Forces (load effects) in members and connections shall be
determined by structural analysis applicable to the type of structure evaluated. The
load effects shall be determined for the loads and factored load combinations
stipulated in Section 1.4.
14.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation. Where required, the deformations at service loads shall
be calculated and reported.
SECTION 14.4
EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTS
14.4.1 Determination of Live Load Rating by Testing. To determine the live load
rating of an existing floor or roof structure by testing, test load shall be applied
incrementally in accordance with the Engineer of Record's plan. The structure
shall be visually inspected for signs of distress or imminent failure at each load
level. Appropriate measures shall be taken if these or any other unusual conditions
are encountered.
The tested design strength of the structure shall be taken as the maximum applied
test load plus the in-situ dead load. The live load rating of a floor structure shall be
determined by setting the tested design strength equal to 1.2D + 1.6L, where D is
the nominal dead load and L is the nominal live load rating for the structure. The
nominal live load rating of the floor structure shall not exceed that which can be
calculated using applicable provisions of SBC 306. For roof structures, Lr, or R as
defined in the Symbols, shall be substituted for L. More severe load combinations
shall be used where required by applicable building codes.
Periodic unloading shall be considered once the service load level is attained and
after the onset of inelastic structural behavior is identified to document the amount
of permanent set and the magnitude of the inelastic deformations. Deformations of
the structure, such as member deflections, shall be monitored at critical locations
during the test, referenced to the initial position before loading. It shall be
demonstrated, while maintaining maximum test load for one hour, that the
deformation of the structure does not increase by more than 10 percent above that
at the beginning of the holding period. It is permissible to repeat the sequence if
necessary to demonstrate compliance.
Deformations of the structure shall also be recorded 24 hours after the test loading
is removed to determine the amount of permanent set. Because the amount of
acceptable permanent deformation depends on the specific structure, no limit is
specified for permanent deformation at maximum loading. Where it is not feasible
to load test the entire structure, a segment or zone of not less than one complete
bay, representative of the most critical conditions, shall be selected.
14.4.2 Serviceability Evaluation. When load tests are prescribed, the structure shall be
loaded incrementally to the service load level. Deformations shall be monitored for
a period of one hour. The structure shall then be unloaded and the deformation
recorded.
SECTION 14.5
EVALUATION REPORT
After the evaluation of an existing structure has been completed, the Engineer of
Record shall prepare a report documenting the evaluation. The report shall indicate
whether the evaluation was performed by structural analysis, by load testing or by
a combination of structural analysis and load testing. Furthermore, when testing is
performed, the report shall include the loads and load combination used and the
load-deformation and time-deformation relationships observed. All relevant
information obtained from design drawing, mill test reports, and auxiliary material
testing shall also be reported. Finally, the report shall indicate whether the design
strength of the structure, including all members and connections, is adequate to
withstand the load effects.
APPENDIX A:
GLOSSARY
Alignment chart for columns. A nomograph for determining the effective length factor K for
some types of columns
Amplification factor. A multiplier of the value of moment or deflection in the unbraced length
of an axially loaded member to reflect the secondary values generated by the eccentricity of
the applied axial load within the member
Aspect ratio. In any rectangular configuration, the ratio of the lengths of the sides
Batten plate. A plate element used to join two parallel components of a built-up column,
girder, or strut rigidly connected to the parallel components and designed to transmit shear
between them
Beam. A structural member whose primary function is to carry loads transverse to its lon-
gitudinal axis
Beam-column. A structural member whose primary function is to carry loads both transverse
and parallel to its longitudinal axis
Bent. A plane framework of beam or truss members which support loads and the columns
which support these members
Biaxial bending. Simultaneous bending of a member about two perpendicular axes
Bifurcation. The phenomenon whereby a perfectly straight member under compression may
either assume a deflected position or may remain undeflected, or a beam under flexure may
either deflect and twist out of plane or remain in its in-plane deflected position
Braced frame. A frame in which the resistance to lateral load or frame instability is primarily
provided by a diagonal, a K brace, or other auxiliary system of bracing
Brittle fracture. Abrupt cleavage with little or no prior ductile deformation
Buckling load. The load at which a perfectly straight member under compression assumes a
deflected position
Built-up member. A member made of structural metal elements that are welded, bolted, or
riveted together
Charpy V-notch impact test. A standard dynamic test in which a notched specimen is struck
and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine. The measured test
values may be the energy absorbed, the percentage shear fracture, the lateral expansion
opposite the notch, or a combination thereof
Cladding. The exterior covering of the structural components of a building
Cold-formed members. Structural members formed from steel without the application of heat
Column. A structural member whose primary function is to carry loads parallel to its lon-
gitudinal axis
Column curve. A curve expressing the relationship between axial column strength and
slenderness ratio
Fracture toughness. Measure of the ability to absorb energy without fracture. Generally
determined by impact loading of specimens containing a notch having a prescribed
geometry
Frame buckling. A condition under which bifurcation may occur in a frame
Frame instability. A condition under which a frame deforms with increasing lateral deflection
under a system of increasing applied monotonic loads until a maximum value of the load
called the stability limit is reached, after which the frame will continue to deflect without
further increase in load
Fully composite beam. A composite beam with sufficient shear connectors to develop the full
flexural strength of the composite section
High-cycle fatigue. Failure resulting from more than 20,000 applications of cyclic stress
HSS. Hollow structural sections that are prismatic square, rectangular or round products of a
pipe or tubing mill and meet the geometric tolerance, tensile strength and chemical
composition requirements of a standard specification
Hybrid beam. A fabricated steel beam composed of flanges with a greater yield strength than
that of the web. Whenever the maximum flange stress is less than or equal to the web yield
stress the girder is considered homogeneous
Hysteresis loop. A plot of force versus displacement of a structure or member subjected to
reversed, repeated load into the inelastic range, in which the path followed during release
and removal of load is different from the path for the addition of load over the same range
of displacement
Inclusions. Nonmetallic material entrapped in otherwise sound metal
Incomplete fusion. Lack of union by melting of filler and base metal over entire prescribed area
Inelastic action. Material deformation that does not disappear on removal of the force that
produced it
Instability. A condition reached in the loading of an element or structure in which continued
deformation results in a decrease of load-resisting capacity
Joint. Area where two or more ends, surfaces, or edges are attached. Categorized by type of
fastener or weld used and method of force transfer
K bracing. A system of struts used in a braced frame in which the pattern of the struts
resembles the letter K, either normal or on its side
Lamellar tearing. Separation in highly restrained base metal caused by through-thickness
strains induced by shrinkage of adjacent filler metal
Lateral bracing member. A member utilized individually or as a component of a lateral
bracing system to prevent buckling of members or elements and/or to resist lateral loads
Lateral (or lateral-torsional) buckling. Buckling of a member involving lateral deflection and
twist
Leaning column. Gravity-loaded column where connections to the frame (simple connections)
do not provide resistance to lateral loads
Limit state. A condition in which a structure or component becomes unfit for service and is
judged either to be no longer useful for its intended function (serviceability limit state) or
SBC 306 2007 Glossary/4
Glossary
Supported frame. A frame which depends upon adjacent braced or unbraced frames for
resistance to lateral load or frame instability. (This transfer of load is frequently provided by
the floor or roof system through diaphragm action or by horizontal cross bracing in the roof)
Tangent modulus. At any given stress level, the slope of the stress-strain curve of a material in
the inelastic range as determined by the compression test of a small specimen under
controlled conditions
Temporary structure. A general term for anything that is built or constructed (usually to carry
construction loads) that will eventually be removed before or after completion of
construction and does not become part of the permanent structural system
Tensile strength. The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining
Tension field action. The behavior of a plate girder panel under shear force in which diagonal
tensile stresses develop in the web and compressive forces develop in the transverse
stiffeners in a manner analogous to a Pratt truss
Toe of the fillet. Termination point of fillet weld or of rolled section fillet
Torque-tension relationship. Term applied to the wrench torque required to produce specified
pre-tension in high-strength bolts
Turn-of-nut method. Procedure whereby the specified pre-tension in high-strength bolts is
controlled by rotation of the wrench a predetermined amount after the nut has been tightened
to a snug fit
Unbraced frame. A frame in which the resistance to lateral load is provided by the bending
resistance of frame members and their connections
Unbraced length. The distance between braced points of a member, measured between the
centers of gravity of the bracing members
Undercut. A notch resulting from the melting and removal of base metal at the edge of a weld
Universal-mill plate. A plate in which the longitudinal edges have been formed by a rolling
process during manufacture.
Often abbreviated as UM plate
Upper bound load. A load computed on the basis of an assumed mechanism which will always
be at best equal to or greater than the true ultimate load
Vertical bracing system. A system of shear walls, braced frames, or both, extending through
one or more floors of a building
Von Mises yield criterion. A theory which states that inelastic action at any point in a body
under any combination of stresses begins only when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume absorbed at the point is equal to the strain energy of distortion absorbed per unit
volume at any point in a simple tensile bar stressed to the elastic limit under a state of
uniaxial stress. It is often called the maximum strain-energy-of-distortion theory.
Accordingly, shear yield occurs at 0.58 times the yield strength
Warping torsion. That portion of the total resistance to torsion that is provided by resistance to
warping of the cross section
Weak axis. The minor principal axis of a cross section
Weathering steel. A type of high-strength, low-alloy steel which can be used in normal
SBC 306 2007 Glossary/9
Glossary
environments (not marine) and outdoor exposures without protective paint covering. This
steel develops tight adherent rust at a decreasing rate with respect to time
Web buckling. The buckling of a web plate
Web crippling. The local failure of a web plate in the immediate vicinity of a concentrated load
or reaction
Working load. Also called service load. The actual load assumed to be acting on the structure
Yield moment. In a member subjected to bending, the moment at which an outer fiber first
attains the yield stress
Yield plateau. The portion of the stress-strain curve for uniaxial tension or compression in
which the stress remains essentially constant during a period of substantially increased strain
Yield point. The first stress in a material at which an increase in strain occurs without an
increase in stress
Yield strength. The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the
proportionality of stress to strain. Deviation expressed in terms of strain
Yield stress. Yield point, yield strength, or yield stress level as defined
Yield-stress level. The average stress during yielding in the plastic range, the stress determined
in a tension test when the strain reaches 0.005 mm per mm.
APPENDIX B:
SYMBOLS
The section number in the right hand column refers to the section where the symbol is first
used.
INDEX
Beams
bearing .......... 4.3.1.1, 4.3.1.2, 5.4.2, 6.2.3, 9.2.4, 10.1.4, 10.3.1, 10.3.4, 10.3.10, Section 10.8,
11.1.3, Table 11.3.1, 13.2.6, 13.4.1
plate .................... 1.3.1.1, Section 2.3, Table 2.5.1, Section 2.10, Section 4.2, 4.3.2.2, 5.3.2,
Chapter 6, Chapter 7, 10.1.5, 10.2.2.2, 10.6, 11.1.9, 11.3.3
stiffener ......................................................... 3.3.4.2, 6.2.3, Chapter 7, 11.1.3, 11.1.5, 11.1.9
bending
coefficient ............................. Section 2.3, 2.5.3.1, 6.1.2.4, Section 7.3, Section 8.3, 10.3.8.1
block shear ........................................................................................... Chapter 4, 10.4.3, 10.5.2
bracing ... Section 1.6, Section 2.6, 3.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.3.4.1, 6.2.3, 10.1.11, 11.1.5, Table 11.3.1,
13.4.2, 14.3.1
buckling ....................... 2.5.1, 3.2.1, 5.2.1, Section 6.1, 6.1.2.4, 6.3.4, 9.2.3, 10.2.2.2, 11.1.5
camber ................................................................................. Section 1.6, Section 12.1, 13.2.1
compact section ........................................................................................ 1.5.1, 6.1.2.5, 9.3.2
composite ........................................ 1.5.1, Section 6.4, Chapter 9, 9.2.3, 9.3.6, 9.5.2, 10.2.7
continuous .......... Section 1.2, 1.5.1, Table 2.5.1, Section 2.10, 3.3.4.2, 3.3.4.2, Section 4.2,
5.4.2, Chapter 9, 9.5.2, 10.2.2.2, 10.3.5, Table 11.3.1
coped ............................................................................................................................. 10.4.3
deflection .............................................................................................. 3.1.2, 10.2.2.2, 12.3.3
lateral bracing ......................................................................................... 3.3.4.1, 6.2.3, 11.1.5
plastic hinge .................................................................................................................. 6.1.2.5
torsion ........................................................................................ 6.2.3, Chapter 8, Section 8.2
web
doubler .............................................................................................. 11.1.1, 11.1.3, 11.1.10
local yielding .................................................................................................. 11.1.1, 11.1.3
shear strength ............ Section 6.2, 6.2.3, 6.3.5, Section 7.1, Section 9.1, 9.3.6, Table J3.2,
10.3.2, 10.4.3
stiffeners .................................................... 3.3.4.2, 6.2.3, Chapter 7, 11.1.3, 11.1.5, 11.1.9
Bolted connections
bearing-type
in shear ................................................................................................................... Table J3.2
bolt hole
size ........................... 10.2.1.2, 10.2.2.1, Table 10.2.4, 10.2.2.2, 10.3.2, Section 10.6, 11.3.3,
11.3.5, Section 13.1
spacing ................... Section 2.2, 2.10, 3.3.3, 3.3.4.1, Section 4.2, 5.4.2, 9.2.1, 9.2.4, 9.3.5.2,
9.5.6, 10.2.3.2, 10.3.4, 10.3.5, Section 11.2
eccentrically loaded
instantaneous center ................................................................................................... 10.2.6
effective net area......................................................................................................... Section 4.1
prying action ............................................................. 10.3.6, 10.3.7, Table 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.5
SBC 306 2007 INDEX /1
INDEX
slip-critical
in shear ................................................................................................................... Table J3.2
Buckling
elastic ....... 1.5.1, 2.5.3.2, 3.1.2, 5.3.2, 6.1.1, 6.3.6, Section 8.2, Section 9.1, 9.3.3, Section 11.3
inelastic .............................................................. Section 1.2, Table 2.5.1, 6.1.2.4, 10.1.2, 14.4.1
lateral-torsional ...................................................... Section 6.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.2.4, 6.3.4, Section 7.2
sidesway web ...................................................................................................................... 11.1.5
D
SBC 306 2007 INDEX /2
INDEX
Deflection
beams ............. Section 1.2, 1.5.1, Section 1.6, 2.5.3.1, Table 2.5.1, Section 2.8-10, 3.2.1, 3.3.4,
......... Chapter 6, 6.1.2.3, 6.1.2.5, Section 6.2, Section 6.4, Chapter 7, Chapter 9, 9.3.2,
............................................... 9.3.3, 9.5.2, 10.1.2, 10.1.11, 11.1.8, Section 12.1, 12.3.2
composite beams .................................................................. Section 6.4, Chapter 9, 9.3.6, 9.5.2
Double plate ............................................................................................. 11.1.1, 11.1.3, 11.1.6-10
Effective length ....... Section 1.6, Section 2.8, 3.1.2, Section 5.1, 6.3.3, 10.2.1.1, 10.2.2.2, 11.1.9
Eyebars ...................................................................................... Section 4.3, 4.3.2, 4.3.2.1, 4.3.2.2
Factor
effective length ..... Section 1.6, Section 2.8, 3.1.2, Section 5.1, 6.3.3, 10.2.1.1, 10.2.2.2, 11.1.9
flexural strength .............. 2.5.3.1, Section 2.10, 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.3.4.1, Section 6.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.2.1,
....... 6.1.2.4, 6.3.4, Chapter 7, Section 7.2, Section 7.5, Section 8.3, Chapter 9, 9.3.3-4
hybrid girder ......................................................................................... Section 2.10, Section 7.2
load ........... Section 1.1, Section 1.2, Section 1.4, 1.5.1-3, Section 2.2, Section 2.3, Section 2.4,
..... Section 2.7, 3.1.2, 3.2.1, 4.3.1.2, 4.3.2.2, Section 6.1, 6.2.3, Section 9.1, 9.2.1, 9.2.4,
....... 9.3.4, Section 9.4, 9.5.6, Chapter 10, 10.1.4, 10.1.7, 10.1.9, 10.1.10, 10.3.1, 10.3.6,
.... 10.3.8.1, 10.3.9.1, Section 10.6, Section 10.10, 11.1.9, Section 12.3, 11.3.1-2, 11.3.4,
........ 13.2.5, Chapter 14, Section 14.1, 14.3.2, Section 14.4, 14.4.1, 14.4.2, Section 14.5
resistance ....... Section 1.1, 1.3.1.1, 1.5.1-3, 3.2.2, 5.3.2, 8.1.1, 8.1.2, Section 9.4, Table 10.2.5,
.................................... 10.3.1, 10.3.6, 10.3.8.1, 10.3.9.1, 10.3.10, 10.4.3, 11.3.1, 13.2.5, 13.5.4
safety......................................................................................................................... 1.5.2, 13.4.2
shape ..................... 1.3.1.1, 1.3.1.3, Section 2.4, Section 4.2, 5.4.2, 6.1.2.1, 9.2.1, 9.2.4, 10.1.6,
................................................................................................................... 10.3.5, 14.2.4
stiffness reduction ....................................................................................................... 3.1.2, 3.2.2
Fatigue
loading condition ...................................................................................................... Section 11.3
stress category .............................................................................................. Table 11.3.1, 11.3.3
stress range ................................................... 11.3.1, Table 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4, 11.3.5
Nominal strength ........................................ 1.5.3, 6.3.4, Section 7.3, 9.3.5.2, 9.3.5.3, 9.5.3, 10.2.4
Resistance factor ................. Section 1.1, 1.5.3, 8.1.1, 9.4, Table 10.2.5, 10.3.1, 10.3.6, 10.3.8.1,
.......................................................................................................... 13.2.5, 13.5.4
Section
compact ...................................................................... 1.5.1, Chapter 5, Chapter 6, 6.1.2.5, 9.3.2
noncompact ..................................................................................................... Chapter 6, 6.1.2.4
slender .................................................................................. 2.5.1, 2.5.3, Chapter 5, Section 7.2
SBC 306 2007 INDEX /5
INDEX
Tension members
design strength ....... 1.5.3, 2.5.3.1, 4.3.1.1, 4.3.2.1, 5.2.1, 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 6.1.1, 6.3.2, 9.2.4, 9.3.2,
........ 10.1.7, 10.2.6, 10.4.1, 10.5.2, 10.5.3, 13.2.5, Section 14.1, 14.3.2, 14.4.1
effective net area
bolted members ......................................................................................... Section 2.3, 13.2.5
welded members .................................................................................................... Section 2.3
eyebars ................................................................................... Section 4.3, 4.3.2, 4.3.2.1, 4.3.2.2
failure
fracture .............................................................................................. Table 2.5.1, Section 4.1
yield ....... 1.3.1.1, 1.3.4, 1.5.1, Table 2.5.1, Section 2.10, Section 4.1, 5.2.1, 6.1.2.1, 6.1.2.5,
........... 6.3.3, Section 7.1, Section 7.2, Section 8.3, Section 9.1, 9.2.2., Section 10.8, 11.1.2,
........................................................................................................................... 11.1.7, 14.2.2
fatigue
loading condition ................................................................................................. Section 11.3
stress category ......................................................................................... 11.3.3, Table 11.3.1
stress range .............................................. 11.3.1, Table 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4, 11.3.5
gussets......................................................................................................... 10.1.1, 10.4.3, 10.5.2
pin-connected ............................................................................... Section 4.3, 4.3.1, Section 5.5
threaded rods ......................................................................................... 1.3.4, Chapter 4, 11.3.2
Torsion
shear center ............................................................................................ 5.3.1, 5.3.2, Section 6.1
warping ................................................................................................................... 5.3.2, 6.1.2.1
warping constant ..................................................................................................... 5.3.2, 6.1.2.1
Threaded rods ............................................................................................ 1.3.4, Chapter 4, 11.3.2
Welded connections
eccentrically loaded
instantaneous center ...................................................................................................... 10.2.6
fillet weld
balanced design .......................................................................................................................
design strength ... 1.5.3, 2.5.3.1, 4.3.1.1, 4.3.2.1, 5.2.1, 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 6.1.1, 6.3.2, 9.2.4, 9.3.2,
10.1.7, 10.2.6, 10.4.1, 10.5.2, 10.5.3, 13.2.5, Section 14.1, 14.3.2, 14.4.1
effective area ................................................ Section 2.3, 10.2.1.1, 10.2.2.1, 10.2.2.2, 10.2.6
groove welds
design strength ... 1.5.3, 2.5.3.1, 4.3.1.1, 4.3.2.1, 5.2.1, 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 6.1.1, 6.3.2, 9.2.4, 9.3.2,
10.1.7, 10.2.6, 10.4.1, 10.5.2, 10.5.3, 13.2.5, Section 14.1, 14.3.2, 14.4.1
effective area ................................................ Section 2.3, 10.2.1.1, 10.2.2.1, 10.2.2.2, 10.2.6
ISBN: 9960-9883-2-5
PREFACE
As a follow-up to the Saudi Building Code, SBCNC offers a companion document, the
Saudi Building Code Steel Structural Requirements Commentary (SBC 306C). The basic
appeal of the Commentary is thus: it provides in a small package thorough coverage of many
issues likely to be dealt with when using the Saudi Building Code Steel Structural
Requirements (SBC 306) and then supplements that coverage with technical background.
Reference lists, information sources and bibliographies are also included.
Throughout all of this, strenuous effort has been made to keep the vast quantity of
material accessible and its method of presentation useful. With a comprehensive yet concise
summary of each section, the Commentary provides a convenient reference for regulations
applicable to the construction of buildings and structures. In the chapters that follow,
discussions focus on the full meaning and implications of the Steel Structural Requirements
(SBC 306) text. Guidelines suggest the most effective method of application, and the
consequences of not adhering to the SBC 306 text. Illustrations are provided to aid
understanding; they do not necessarily illustrate the only methods of achieving code
compliance.
The format of the Commentary includes the section, table and figure which is
applicable to the same section in the SBC 306. The numbers of the section, table and figure in
the commentary begins with the letter C. The Commentary reflects the most up-to-date text of
the 2007 Saudi Building Code Steel Structural Requirements (SBC 306). American Institute
of Steel Construction (AISC) grants permission to the SBCNC to include all or portions of
AISC codes and standards in the SBC, and AISC is not responsible or liable in any way to
SBCNC or to any other party or entity for any modifications or changes that SBCNC makes
to such documents.
Readers should note that the Commentary (SBC 306C) is to be used in conjunction
with the Saudi Building Code Steel Structural Requirements (SBC 306) and not as a substitute
for the code. The Commentary is advisory only; the code official alone possesses the
authority and responsibility for interpreting the code.
Comments and recommendations are encouraged, for through your input, it can
improve future editions.
SBC 306C was reviewed and significantly revised by special technical committee during the period Aug.-
Sept. 2007. The committee members are:
Dr. Ahmed B. Shuraim, (SBC-STC chairman)
Dr. Saleh I. Al-Deghaiter,
Engr . Rais M. Mirza, and
Engr. Rizwan A. Iqbal.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
SECTION C1.1
SCOPE
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is an improved approach to the design
of structural steel for buildings. It involves explicit consideration of limit states,
multiple load factors, and resistance factors, and implicit probabilistic
determination of reliability. The designation LRFD reflects the concept of
factoring both loads and resistance. This type of factoring differs from the
allowable stress design (ASD) Code requirements, where only the resistance is
divided by a factor of safety (to obtain allowable stress) and from the plastic
design portion of that Code requirements, where only the loads are multiplied by
a common load factor. The LRFD method was devised to offer the designer greater
flexibility, more rationality, and possible overall economy.
SECTION C1.2
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
The SBC 306 emphasizes the combined importance of stiffness, strength and
ductility in connection design.
An important aspect of the nominal strength of a connection, Mn, is its relationship
to the strength of the connected beam Mp,beam. A connection is full strength if
Mn > Mp,beam otherwise the connection is partial strength.
A partial strength PR connection must be designed with sufficient ductility to
permit the connection components to deform and to avoid any brittle failure
modes. It is also useful to define a lower limit for the strength, below which the
connection can be treated as simple. Connections that transmit less than 0.2Mp,beam
at a rotation of 0.02 radians can be considered to have no flexural strength for
design. It should be recognized, however, that the aggregate strength of many weak
partial strength connections (e.g. those with a capacity less than 0.2Mp,beam) can be
significant when compared to that of a few strong connections.
Connection ductility. Connection ductility is a key parameter when the
deformations are concentrated in the connection elements, as is the typical case in
partial strength PR connections. The ductility required will depend on the flexibility
of the connections and the particular application. For example, the ductility
requirement for a braced frame in a non-seismic area will generally be less than for
an unbraced frame in a high seismic area.
The available ductility, θ u, should be compared with the required rotational
ductility under the full factored loads, as determined by an analysis that takes into
account the nonlinear behavior of the connection. In the absence of accurate
analyses of the required rotation capacity, the connection ductility may be
considered adequate when the available ductility is greater than 0.03 radians. This
rotation is equal to the minimum beam-to-column connection ductility as specified
in the seismic provisions for special moment frames (AISC, 1997 and 1999).
Many types of partial strength PR connections, such as top and seat-angle details,
meet this criterion.
SECTION C1.3
MATERIALS
C1.3.1.1 ASTM Designations. The grades of structural steel approved for use under the
LRFD Code requirements, covered by ASTM standard code requirements, extend
to a yield stress of 690 MPa. Some of these ASTM standards specify a minimum
yield point, while others specify a minimum yield strength. The term “yield stress”
is used in the Code requirements as a generic term to denote either the yield point
or the yield strength.
Properties in the direction of rolling are of principal interest in the design of steel
structures. Hence, yield stress as determined by the standard tensile test is the
principal mechanical property recognized in the selection of the steels approved for
use under the Code requirements. It must be recognized that other mechanical and
physical properties of rolled steel, such as anisotropy, ductility, notch
toughness, formability, corrosion resistance, etc., may also be important to the
satisfactory performance of a structure.
C1.3.3 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts. The ASTM standard for A307 bolts covers two
grades of fasteners. Either grade may be used under the LRFD Code requirements;
however, it should be noted that Gr. B is intended for pipe flange bolting and Gr. A
is the grade long in use for structural applications.
C1.3.4 Anchor Rods and Threaded Rods. Since there is a limit on the maximum
available length of A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts, the attempted use
of these bolts for anchor rods with design lengths longer than the maximum
available lengths has presented problems in the past. The inclusion of A449 and
A354 materials in this Code requirements allows the use of higher strength
material for bolts longer than A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts. The
designer should be aware that pretensioning of anchor rods is not recommended due
to relaxation and the potential for stress corrosion after pretensioning.
The designer should specify the appropriate thread and SAE fit for threaded rods
used as load-carrying members.
C1.3.5 Filler Metal and Flux for Welding. The filler metal code requirements issued by
the American Welding Society (AWS) are general code requirements which
include filler metals suitable for building construction, as well as consumables
that would not be suitable for building construction. For example, some electrodes
covered by the code requirements are specifically limited to single pass
applications, while others are restricted to sheet metal applications. Many of the
filler metals listed are “low hydrogen,” that is, they deposit filler metal with low
levels of diffusible hydrogen. Other materials are not. Filler metals listed under the
various AWS A5 code requirements may or may not have required impact
toughness, depending on the specific electrode classification. Section 10.2.6 has
identified certain welded joints where notch toughness of filler metal is needed in
building construction. However, on structures subject to dynamic loading, filler
metals may be required to deliver notch-tough weld deposits in other joints. Filler
metals may be classified in either the as-welded or post weld heat-treated
(stress-relieved) condition. Since most structural applications will not involve
stress relief, it is important to utilize filler materials that are classified in conditions
similar to those experienced by the actual structure.
When specifying filler metal and/or flux by AWS designation, the applicable
standard code requirements should be carefully reviewed to assure a complete
understanding of the designation reference. This is necessary because the AWS
designation systems are not consistent. For example, in the case of electrodes for
shielded metal arc welding (AWS A5.1), the first two or three digits indicate the
nominal tensile strength classification, in ksi, of the filler metal and the final two
digits indicate the type of coating. For metric designations, the first two digits
times 10 indicate the nominal tensile strength classification in MPa. In the case of
mild steel electrodes for submerged arc welding (AWS A5.17), the first one or two
digits times 10 indicate the nominal tensile strength classification for both U.S.
Customary and metric units, while the final digit or digits times 10 indicate the
testing temperature in degrees Celsius, for filler metal impact tests. In the case of
low-alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes (AWS A5.5), certain portions of the
designation indicate a requirement for stress relief, while others indicate no stress
relief requirement.
Engineers do not, in general, specify the exact filler metal to be employed on a
particular structure. Rather, the decision as to which welding process and which
filler metal is to be utilized, is usually left with the fabricator or erector. To ensure
that the proper filler metals are used, codes restrict the usage of certain filler
materials, or impose qualification testing to prove the suitability of the specific
electrode.
SECTION C1.4
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load factors and load combinations are developed based on the recommended
minimum loads given in SBC-301.
The load factors and load combinations recognize that when several loads act in
combination with the dead load (e.g., dead plus live plus wind), only one of these
takes on its maximum lifetime value, while the other load is at its “arbitrary
point-in-time value” (i.e., at a value which can be expected to be on the structure at
any time). For example, under dead, live, and wind loads the following
combinations are appropriate:
γ DD + γ LL (C1.4-1)
γ D D + γ L a La + γ W W (C1.4-2)
γ D D + γ L L + γ W Wa
a
(C1.4-3)
1 .2 D + 1 .6 L (C1.4-4)
The load factor 0.5 assigned to L in the second formula reflects the statistical
properties of La, but to avoid having to calculate yet another load, it is reduced so it
can be combined with the maximum lifetime wind load.
SECTION C1.5
DESIGN BASIS
C1.5.1 Required Strength at Factored Loads. LRFD permits the use of both elastic and
plastic structural analyses. LRFD provisions result in essentially the same
methodology for, and end product of, plastic design except that the LRFD
provisions tend to be slightly more liberal, reflecting added experience and the
results of further research.
In some circumstances, as in the proportioning of the bracing members that carry
no calculated forces (see Section 3.3) and of connection components (see Item
10.1.7), the required strength is explicitly stated in the Code requirements.
C1.5.2 Limit States. A limit state is a condition which represents the limit of structural
usefulness. Limit states may be dictated by functional requirements, such as
maximum deflections or drift; they may be conceptual, such as plastic hinge or
mechanism formation; or they may represent the actual collapse of the whole or
part of the structure, such as fracture or instability. Design criteria ensure that a
limit state is violated only with an acceptably small probability by selecting the
combination of load and resistance factors and nominal load and resistance values
which will never be exceeded under the design assumptions.
Two kinds of limit states apply for structures: limit states of strength which define
safety against extreme loads during the intended life of the structure, and limit
states of serviceability which define functional requirements. The LRFD Code
requirements, like other structural codes, focuses on the limit states of strength
because of overriding considerations of public safety for the life, limb, and property
of human beings. This does not mean that limit states of serviceability are not
important to the designer, who must equally ensure functional performance and
SBC 306 C 2007 1/5
COMMENTARY GENERAL PROVISIONS
C1.5.3 Design for Strength. The general format of the LRFD Code requirements is given
by the formula:
Σγ i Q i ≤ φ Rn ( C1.5-1)
where
Σ = summation
i = type of load, i.e., dead load, live load, wind, etc.
Qi = nominal load effect
γi = load factor corresponding to Qi
Σγ i Q i = required strength
Rn = nominal strength
φ = resistance factor corresponding to Rn
φ Rn = design strength
The left side of Equation ( C1.5-1) represents the required resistance computed by
structural analysis based upon assumed loads, and the right side of Equation
( C1.5-1) represents a limiting structural capacity provided by the selected members.
In LRFD, the designer compares the effect of factored loads to the strength actually
provided. The term design strength refers to the resistance or strength φ Rn that must
be provided by the selected member. The load factors γ and the resistance factors
reflect the fact that loads, load effects (the computed forces and moments in the
structural elements), and the resistances can be determined only to imperfect
degrees of accuracy. The resistance factor φ is equal to or less than 1.0 because there
is always a chance for the actual resistance to be less than the nominal value Rn
computed by the equations given in Chapters 4 through 11. Similarly, the load
factors γ reflect the fact that the actual load effects may deviate from the nominal
values of Qi computed from the specified nominal loads. These factors account for
unavoidable inaccuracies in the theory, variations in the material properties and
dimensions, and uncertainties in the determination of loads. They provide a margin
of reliability to account for unexpected loads. They do not account for gross error
or negligence. The LRFD Code requirements is based on (1) probabilistic models
of loads and resistance, (2) a calibration of the LRFD criteria to the ASD Code
requirements for selected members, and (3) the evaluation of the resulting criteria
by judgment and past experience aided by comparative design office studies of
representative structures.
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
SECTION C2.5
LOCAL BUCKLING
For the purposes of these Code requirements, steel sections are divided into
compact sections, non-compact sections, and sections with slender compression
elements. Compact sections are capable of developing a fully plastic stress
distribution and they possess a rotational capacity of approximately 3 before the
onset of local buckling (Yura, Galambos, and Ravindra, 1978). Non-compact
sections can develop the yield stress in compression elements before local
buckling occurs, but will not resist inelastic local buckling at the strain levels
required for a fully plastic stress distribution. Slender compression elements
buckle elastically before the yield stress is achieved.
The dividing line between compact and non-compact sections is the limiting
width-thickness ratio λ p . For a section to be compact, all of its compression
elements must have width-thickness ratios equal to or smaller than the limiting
λp .
TABLE C2.5-1
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements
Width- Limiting Width-thickness Ratios λ p
Description of Thickness
Element Ratio Non-seismic Seismic
Flanges of I-shaped
sections (including b/t 0.38 E / Fy 0.31 E / Fy
hybrid sections) and
channels in flexure [a]
For Pu / φb Py ≤ 0.125
Webs in combined ⎛ 2.75Pu ⎞ ⎛ 1.54 Pu ⎞
E ⎜1 − ⎟ E ⎜1 − ⎟
flexural and axial h / tw 3.76 3.05
Fy ⎜ ⎟
φb Py ⎠ Fy ⎜ φb Py ⎟
compression ⎝ ⎝ ⎠
For Pu / φb Py > 0.125
E ⎛ ⎞
1.12 ⎜ 2.33 − Pu ⎟ ≥ 1.49 E
Fy ⎜ φb Py ⎟ Fy
⎝ ⎠
[a] For hybrid beams use Fyf in place of Fy
A greater inelastic rotation capacity than provided by the limiting values λ p given in
Table C2.5-1 may be required for some structures in areas of high seismicity. It has
been suggested that in order to develop a ductility of from 3 to 5 in a structural
member, ductility factors for elements would have to lie in the range of 5 to 15.
Thus, in this case it is prudent to provide for an inelastic rotation of 7 to 9 times the
elastic rotation (Chopra and Newmark, 1980). In order to provide for this rotation
capacity, the limits λ p for local flange and web buckling would be as shown in
Table C2.5-1 (Galambos, 1976).
More information on seismic design is contained in the AISC Seismic Provisions
for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC, 1997) and the Seismic Provisions for
Structural Steel Buildings Supplement No. 1 (AISC, 1999).
SBC 306 C 2007 2/1
COMMENTARY DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The kc factor accounts for the interaction of flange and web local buckling
demonstrated in experiments conducted by Johnson (1985). The maximum limit of
2
0.763 corresponds to Fcr = 0.69E / λ which was used as the local buckling
strength in earlier editions of both the ASD and LRFD Code requirements. An
h/tw= 27.5 is required to reach kc = 0.763. Fully fixed restraint for an un-stiffened
compression element corresponds to kc = 1.3 while zero restraint gives kc = 0.42.
Because of web-flange interactions it is possible to get kc < 0.42 from the new kc
formula. If h / tw > 5.70 E / Fy use h / tw = 5.70 E / Fy in the kc equation, which
corresponds to the 0.35 limit.
Illustrations of some of the requirements of Table 2.5-1 of SBC 306 are shown in
Figure C2.5-1.
SECTION C2.7
LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIOS
Chapters 4 and 5 provide reliable criteria for resistance of axially loaded members
based on theory and confirmed by tests for all significant parameters including
slenderness. The advisory upper limits on slenderness contained in Section 2.7 are
based on professional judgment and practical considerations of economics, ease of
handling, and care required to minimize inadvertent damage during fabrication,
transport, and erection. Out-of-straightness within reasonable tolerances does not
affect the strength of tension members, and the effect of out-of-straightness within
specified tolerances on the strength of compression members is accounted for in
formulas for resistance. Applied tension tends to reduce, whereas compression
tends to amplify, out-of-straightness. Therefore, more liberal criteria are suggested
for tension members, including those subject to small compressive forces resulting
from transient loads such as earthquake and wind. For members with slenderness
ratios greater than 200, these compressive forces correspond to φ cFcr less than 18
MPa.
CHAPTER 3
FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
SECTION C3.1
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
For frames under combined gravity and lateral loads, drift ∆ (horizontal
deflection caused by applied loads) occurs at the start of loading. In un-braced
frames, additional secondary bending moments, known as the P ∆ moments, may
be developed in the columns and beams of the lateral load-resisting systems in
each story. P is the total gravity load above the story and ∆ is the story drift. As
the applied load increases, the P ∆ moments also increase. Therefore, the P ∆
effect must often be accounted for in frame design. Similarly, in braced frames,
increases in axial forces occur in the members of the bracing systems; however,
such effects are usually less significant. The designer should consider these effects
for all types of frames and determine if they are significant. Since P ∆ effects can
cause frame drifts to be larger than those calculated by ignoring them, they should
also be included in the service load drift analysis when they are significant.
In un-braced frames designed by plastic analysis, the limit of 0.75 φ cPy on column
axial loads has been retained to help ensure stability.
The designer may use second-order elastic analysis to compute the maximum
factored forces and moments in a member. These represent the required strength.
Alternatively, for structures designed on the basis of elastic analysis, the designer
may use first order analysis and the amplification factors B1 and B2.
In the general case, a member may have first order moments not associated with
sidesway which are multiplied by B1, and first order moments produced by forces
causing sidesway which are multiplied by B2.
The factor B2 applies only to moments caused by forces producing sidesway and
is calculated for an entire story. In building frames designed to limit ∆ oh / L to a
predetermined value, the factor B2 may be found in advance of designing
individual members.
Drift limits may also be set for design of various categories of buildings so that
the effect of secondary bending can be insignificant. It is conservative to use the
B2 factor with the sum of the sway and the no-sway moments, i.e., with Mlt + Mnt.
The two kinds of first order moment Mnt and Mlt may both occur in sidesway
frames from gravity loads. Mnt is defined as a moment developed in a member
with frame sidesway prevented. If a significant restraining force is necessary to
prevent sidesway of an unsymmetrical structure (or an un-symmetrically loaded
symmetrical structure), the moments induced by releasing the restraining force
will be Mlt moments, to be multiplied by B2. In most reasonably symmetric
frames, this effect will be small. If such a moment B2Mlt is added algebraically to
the B1Mnt moment developed with sidesway prevented, a fairly accurate value of
Mu will result. End moments produced in sidesway frames by lateral loads from
wind or earthquake will always be Mlt moments to be multiplied by B2.
When first order end moments in members subjected to axial compression are
magnified by B1 and B2 factors, equilibrium requires that they be balanced by
moments in connected members. Connections shall also be designed to resist the
magnified end moments.
For beam columns with transverse loadings, the second-order moment can be
approximated by using the following equation
TABLE C3.1-1
Amplification Factors for ψ and Cm
SECTION C3.2
FRAME STABILITY
The stability of structures must be considered from the standpoint of the structure
as a whole, including not only the compression members, but also the beams,
bracing system, and connections (Galambos, 1998). The stability of individual
elements must also be provided.
The effective length concept is one method of estimating the interaction effects of
the total frame on a compression element being considered. This concept uses K
factors to equate the strength of a framed compression element of length L to an
equivalent pin-ended member of length KL subject to axial load only. Other
rational methods are available for evaluating the stability of frames subject to
gravity and side loading and individual compression members subject to axial
load and moments.
The ratio K, effective column length to actual unbraced length, may be greater or
less than 1.0, depending upon if the column is part of an unbraced frame or braced
frame. The theoretical K values for six idealized conditions in which joint rotation
and translation are either fully realized or nonexistent are tabulated in Table C3.2-
1.
Also shown are suggested design values recommended by the Structural Stability
Research Council (SSRC) for use when these conditions are approximated in actual
design. In general, these suggested values are slightly higher than their theoretical
equivalents, since joint fixity is seldom fully realized.
TABLE C3.2-1
K values for Columns
While in some cases masonry walls provide enough lateral support for building
frames to control lateral deflection, light curtain wall construction and wide
column spacing can create a situation where only the bending stiffness of the
frame provides this support. In this case the effective length factor K for an
unbraced length of column L is dependent upon the bending stiffness provided by
the other in-plane members entering the joint at each end of the unbraced
segment. If the combined stiffness provided by the beams is sufficiently small,
relative to that of the unbraced column segments, KL could exceed two or more
story heights.
Translation of the joints in the plane of a truss is inhibited and, due to end restraint,
the effective length of compression members might be assumed to be less than the
distance between panel points. However, it is usual practice to take K as equal to
1.0. If all members of the truss reached their ultimate load capacity
simultaneously, the restraints at the ends of the compression members would be
greatly reduced.
Once a trial selection of framing members has been made, the use of the alignment
chart in Figures C3.2-1a and b affords a fairly rapid method for determining
adequate K values. However, it should be noted that this alignment chart is based
upon assumptions of idealized conditions which seldom exist in real structures
(ASCE Task Committee on Effective Length, 1997).
The alignment chart for sidesway uninhibited shown in Figure C3.2-1b is based on the
following equation:
G A G B (π / K ) 2 − 36 (π / K )
− =0 (C3.2-1)
6(G A + G B ) tan(π / K )
with G defined as
Σ( EI / L) c
G = (C3.2-2)
Σ( EI / L) g
The expression for G given in the footnote of the alignment chart has assumed
that E of the beams and columns are the same. However, the alignment chart is
valid for different materials if Equation C3.2-2 is used. An equation for the
sidesway-inhibited chart can be found in ASCE Task Committee on Effective
Length (1997).
The theoretical K-factors that are less than 1.0 (Cases (a) and (b) in Table C3.2-1
and the sidesway inhibited alignment chart in Figure C3.2-1a, are based on the
assumption that there is no relative lateral movement of the ends of the column.
When bracing is proportioned by the requirements of Section 3.3, K equal to 1.0
should be used, not values less than 1.0, because a small relative movement of the
brace points is anticipated.
Notes for Figure C3.2-1a and b: The subscripts A and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the
column section being considered. G is defined as
Σ( I c / Lc )
G=
Σ( I g / L g )
in which Σ indicates a summation of all members rigidly connected to that joint and lying on the
plane in which buckling of the column is being considered. Ic is the moment of inertia and Lc the
unsupported length of a column section, and Ig is the moment of inertia and Lg the unsupported
length of a girder or other restraining member. Ic and Ig are taken about axes perpendicular to the
plane of buckling being considered.
For column ends supported by but not rigidly connected to a footing or foundation, G is
theoretically infinity, but, unless actually designed as a true friction-free pin, may be taken as “10”
for practical designs. If the column end is rigidly attached to a properly designed footing, G may be
taken as zero.
SECTION C3.3
STABILITY BRACING
C3.3.1 Scope. The design requirements consider two general types of bracing systems,
relative and nodal, as shown in Figure C3.3-1 A relative column brace system
(such as diagonal bracing or shear walls) is attached to two locations along the
length of the column that defines the un-braced length. The relative brace system
shown consists of the diagonal and the strut that controls the movement at one end
of the un-braced length, A, with respect to the other end of the un-braced length,
B. The diagonal and the strut both contribute to the strength and stiffness of the
relative brace system. However, when the strut is a floor beam, its stiffness is
large compared to the diagonal so the diagonal controls the strength and stiffness
of the relative brace. A nodal brace controls the movement only at the particular
brace point, without direct interaction with adjacent braced points. Therefore, to
define an un-braced length, there must be additional adjacent brace points as
shown in Figure C3.3-1. The two nodal column braces at C and D that are
attached to the rigid abutment define the un-braced length for which K = 1.0 can
be used. For beams, a cross frame between two adjacent beams at mid-span is a
SBC 306 C 2007 3/6
COMMENTARY FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
nodal brace because it prevents twist of the beams only at the particular cross
frame location. The un-braced length is half the span length. The twist at the ends
of the two beams is prevented by the beam-to-column connections at the end
supports. Similarly, a nodal lateral brace attached at mid-span to the top flange of
the beams and a rigid support assumes that there is no lateral movement at the
column locations.
The brace requirements will enable a member to potentially reach a maximum
load based on the un-braced length between the brace points and K = 1.0.
Winter (1958 and 1960) developed the concept of dual criterion for bracing
design, strength and stiffness. The brace force is a function of the initial column
out-of-straightness, ∆ o, and the brace stiffness, β . For a relative brace system, the
relationship between column load, brace stiffness and sway displacement is
shown in Figure C3.3-2. If β = β i, the critical brace stiffness for a perfectly
plumb member, then P = Pe only if the sway deflection gets very large.
Unfortunately, such large displacements produce large brace forces. For practical
design, ∆ must be kept small at the factored load level.
The brace stiffness requirements, β br, for frames, columns, and beams were
chosen as twice the critical stiffness. The φ = 0.75 specified for all brace stiffness
requirements is consistent with the implied resistance factor for elastic Euler
column buckling, i.e. 0.877 × φ c = 0.75 . For the relative brace system shown in
Figure C3.3-2, β br = 2 β i gives Pbr = 0.4% Pe for ∆ o = 0.002L. If the brace
stiffness provided, β act, is different from the requirement, then the brace force or
brace moment can be multiplied by the following factor:
1
β br (C3.3-1)
2−
β act
Brace connections, if they are flexible or can slip, should be considered in the
evaluation of the bracing stiffness as follows:
1 1 1
= + (C3.3-2)
β act β conn β brace
given to the accumulation of the brace forces along the length of the brace that
results in a different displacement at each beam or column location. In general,
brace forces can be minimized by increasing the number of braced bays and using
stiff braces.
C3.3.3 Columns. For nodal column bracing, the critical stiffness is a function of the
number of intermediate braces (Winter, 1958 and 1960). For one intermediate
brace, β i = 2P/Lb, and for many braces β i = 4P/Lb. The relationship between the
critical stiffness and the number of braces, n, can be approximated (Yura, 1995) as
β i = NiP/Lb, where Ni = 4 – 2/n. The most severe case (many braces) was adopted
for the brace stiffness requirement β br = 2 × 4 P / Lb . The brace stiffness, Equation
C3.3-6, can be reduced by the ratio, Ni/4, to account for the actual number of
braces.
The unbraced length, Lb, in Equations C3.3-4 and C3.3-6 is assumed to be equal
to the length Lq that enables the column to reach Pu. When the actual bracing
spacing is less than Lq, the calculated required stiffness may become quite
conservative since the stiffness equations are inversely proportional to Lb. In such
cases, Lq can be substituted for Lb.
Winter’s rigid model would derive a brace force of 0.8 percent Pu which accounts
only for lateral displacement force effects. To account for the additional force due
to member curvature, this theoretical force has been increased to one percent Pu.
C3.3.4 Beams. Beam bracing must prevent twist of the section, not lateral displacement.
Both lateral bracing (for example, joists attached to the compression flange of a
simply supported beam) and torsional bracing (for example, a cross frame or
diaphragm between adjacent girders) can effectively control twist. Lateral bracing
systems that are attached near the beam centroid are ineffective. For beams with
double curvature, the inflection point cannot be considered a brace point because
twist occurs at that point (Galambos, 1998). A lateral brace on one flange near the
inflection point also is ineffective. In double curvature cases, the lateral brace near
the inflection point must be attached to both flanges to prevent twist, or torsional
bracing must be used. The beam brace requirements are based on the
recommendations by Yura (1993).
C3.3.4.1 Lateral Bracing. For lateral bracing, the following stiffness requirement was
derived following Winter’s approach:
β br = 2 N i (C b Pf ) C t C d / φLb (C3.3-3)
where
Ni = 1.0 for relative bracing
= (4-2/n) for discrete bracing
n = number of intermediate braces
Pf = beam compressive flange force
= π 2EIyc/Lb2
Iyc = out-of-plane moment of inertia of the compression flange
Cb = moment modifier from Chapter 6
SBC 306 C 2007 3/9
COMMENTARY FRAMES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
Ct = accounts for top flange loading (use Ct = 1.0 for centroidal loading)
= 1 + (1.2/n)
Cd = double curvature factor (compression in both flanges)
= 1 + (MS/ML)2
MS = smallest moment causing compression in each flange
ML = largest moment causing compression in each flange
The Cd factor varies between 1.0 and 2.0 and is applied only to the brace closest to
the inflection point. The term (2NiCt) can be conservatively approximated as 10
for any number of nodal forces and 4 for relative bracing and (CbPf) can be
approximated by M u / h which simplifies Equation C3.3-3 to the stiffness
requirements given by Equations 3.3-8 and 3.3-10. Equation C3.3-3 can be used
in lieu of Equations 3.3-8 and 3.3-10.
The brace strength requirement for relative bracing is
Pbr = 0.004M u C t C d / ho (C3.3-4a)
C b2 EI y β T
M u ≤ M cr = (C bu M o ) +
2
(C3.3-5)
2C tt
The term (CbuMo) is the buckling strength of the beam without torsional bracing.
Ctt = 1.2 when there is top flange loading and Ctt = 1.0 for centroidal loading. β T
= nβ T / L is the continuous torsional brace stiffness per unit length or its equivalent
when n nodal braces, each with a stiffness β T, are used along the span L and the 2
accounts for initial out-of-straightness. Neglecting the un-braced beam buckling
term gives a conservative estimate of the torsional brace stiffness requirement
(Equation 3.3-13). A more accurate estimate of the brace requirements can be
obtained by replacing Mu with (Mu – CbuMo) in Equations 3.3-11 and 3.3-13. The
β sec term in Equations 3.3-12, 3.3-14 and 3.3-15 accounts for cross-section
distortion. A web stiffener at the brace point reduces cross-sectional distortion and
improves the effectiveness of a torsional brace. When a cross frame is attached
near both flanges or a diaphragm is approximately the same depth as the girder,
then web distortion will be insignificant so β sec equals infinity. The required
bracing stiffness, β Tb, given by Equation 3.3-12 was obtained by solving the
following expression that represents the brace system stiffness including
distortion effects:
1 1 1
= + (C3.3-6)
βT β Tb β sec
CHAPTER 4
TENSION MEMBERS
SECTION C4.1
DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
Due to strain hardening, a ductile steel bar loaded in axial tension can resist, without
fracture, a force greater than the product of its gross area and its coupon yield stress.
However, excessive elongation of a tension member due to uncontrolled yielding of its
gross area not only marks the limit of its usefulness, but can precipitate failure of the
structural system of which it is a part. On the other hand, depending upon the
reduction of area and other mechanical properties of the steel, the member can fail by
fracture of the net area at a load smaller than required to yield the gross area. Hence,
general yielding of the gross area and fracture of the net area both constitute failure
limit states.
The length of the member in the net area is negligible relative to the total length of the
member. As a result, the strain hardening condition is quickly reached and yielding of
the net area at fastener holes does not constitute a limit state of practical significance.
SECTION C4.2
BUILT-UP MEMBERS
The slenderness ratio L / r of tension members other than rods, HSS, or straps
should preferably not exceed the limiting value of 300. This slenderness limit
recommended for tension members is not essential to the structural integrity of
such members; it merely assures a degree of stiffness such that undesirable lateral
movement (“slapping” or vibration) will be unlikely.
SECTION C4.3
PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS AND EYEBARS
CHAPTER 5
COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS
SECTION C5.1
EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND SLENDERNESS LIMITATIONS
C5.1.1 Effective Length. The Commentary on Section 3.2 regarding frame stability and
effective length factors applies here. Further analytic methods, formulas, charts,
and references for the determination of effective length are provided in Chapter 15
of the SSRC Guide (Galambos, 1998).
SECTION C5.2
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR
FLEXURAL BUCKLING
Equations 5.2-2 and 5.2-3 are based on a reasonable conversion of research data
into design equations and are essentially the same curve as column-strength curve
2P of the Structural Stability Research Council which is based on an initial out-of-
straightness curve of l / 1500 (Bjorhovde, 1972 and 1988; Galambos, 1998; Tide,
1985).
Equations 5.2-2 and 5.2-3 can be restated in terms of the more familiar
slenderness ratio Kl / r. First, Equation 5.2-2 is expressed in exponential form as:
Kl E
For ≤ 4.71
r Fy
⎧⎪ ⎡ F y ⎛ Kl ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪
Fcr = ⎨exp ⎢− 0.0424 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ Fy (C5.2-2)
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ E ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭
Kl E
For > 4.71
r Fy
0.877π 2 E
Fcr = 2
(C5.2-3)
⎛ Kl ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
SECTION C5.3
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR
FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
little from the weak axis planar buckling load. Such buckling loads may, however,
control the capacity of symmetric columns made from relatively thin plate
elements and un-symmetric columns. The AISC Design Guide, Torsional
Analysis of Structural Steel Members (Seaburg and Carter, 1997) provides an
overview of the fundamentals and basic theory of torsional loading for structural
steel members. Design examples are also included.
Tees that conform to the limits in Table C5.3-1 need not be checked for flexural-
torsional buckling.
A simpler and more accurate design strength for the special case of tees and
double-angles is based on Galambos (1991) wherein the y-axis of symmetry
flexural-buckling strength component is determined directly from the column
formulas.
The separate AISC Specification for Load and Resistance Factor Design of
Single-Angle Members contains detailed provisions not only for the limit state of
compression, but also for tension, shear, flexure, and combined forces.
The equations in 5.3-2 for determining the flexural-torsional elastic buckling
loads of columns are derived in texts on structural stability. Since these equations
for flexural-torsional buckling apply only to elastic buckling, they must be
modified for inelastic buckling when Fcr > 0.5Fy. This is accomplished through
the use of the equivalent slenderness factor λ e = F y / Fe .
TABLE C5.3-1
Limiting Proportions for Tees
Ratio of Full Ratio of Flange
Flange Width to Thickness to Web
Shape Profile Depth or Stem Thickness
Built-up tees ≥ 0.50 ≥ 1.25
Rolled tees ≥ 0.50 ≥ 1.10
SECTION C5.4
BUILT-UP MEMBERS
Requirements for detailing and design of built-up members, which cannot be
stated in terms of calculated stress, are based upon judgment and experience.
The longitudinal spacing of connectors connecting components of built-up
compression members must be such that the slenderness ratio l / r of individual
shapes does not exceed three-fourths of the slenderness ratio of the entire
member. Additional requirements are imposed for built-up members consisting of
angles. However, these minimum requirements do not necessarily ensure that the
effective slenderness ratio of the built-up member is equal to that for the built-up
member acting as a single unit. Section 5.4 gives formulas for modified
slenderness ratios that are based on research and take into account the effect of
shear deformation in the connectors. Equation 5.4-1 for snug tight intermediate
connectors is empirically based on test results (Zandonini, 1985). Equation 5.4-2
is derived from theory and verified by test data. In both cases the end connection
must be welded or slip-critical bolted (Aslani and Goel, 1991). The connectors
SBC 306 C 2007 5/2
COMMENTARY COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS
must be designed to resist the shear forces which develop in the buckled member.
The shear stresses are highest where the slope of the buckled shape is maximum
(Bleich, 1952).
Maximum fastener spacing less than that required for strength may be needed to
ensure a close fit over the entire faying surface of components in continuous
contact. Specific requirements are given for weathering steel members exposed to
atmospheric corrosion (Brockenbrough, 1983).
The provisions governing the proportioning of perforated cover plates are based
upon extensive experimental research (Stang and Jaffe, 1948).
CHAPTER 6
BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
SECTION C6.1
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
C6.1.1 Yielding. The bending strength of a laterally braced compact section is the plastic
moment Mp. If the shape has a large shape factor (ratio of plastic moment to the
moment corresponding to the onset of yielding at the extreme fiber), significant
inelastic deformation may occur at service load if the section is permitted to reach
Mp at factored load. The limit of 1.5My at factored load will control the amount of
inelastic deformation for sections with shape factors greater than 1.5. This
provision is not intended to limit the plastic moment of a hybrid section with a
web yield stress lower than the flange yield stress. Yielding in the web does not
result in significant inelastic deformations. In hybrid sections, My =Fyf S.
Lateral-torsional buckling cannot occur if the moment of inertia about the bending
axis is equal to or less than the moment of inertia out of plane. Thus, for shapes
bent about the minor axis and shapes with Ix = Iy, such as square or circular
shapes, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling is not applicable and yielding
controls if the section is compact.
Three limit states must be investigated to determine the moment capacity of
flexural members: lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), local buckling of the
compression flange (FLB), and local buckling of the web (WLB). These limit
states depend, respectively, on the beam slenderness ratio Lb/ry, the width-
thickness ratio b/t of the compression flange and the width-thickness ratio h/tw of
the web. For convenience, all three measures of slenderness are denoted by
( λ ).Variations in Mn with Lb are shown in Figure C6.1-1. Values of λ p for FLB
and WLB produce a compact section with a rotation capacity of about three (after
reaching Mp) before the onset of local buckling, and therefore meet the
requirements for plastic analysis of load effects (Commentary Section 2.5). On the
other hand, values of λ p for LTB do not allow plastic analysis because they do
not provide rotation capacity beyond that needed to develop Mp. Instead Lb ≤ Lpd
(Section 6.1.3) must be satisfied. Analyses to include restraint effects of adjoining
elements are discussed in Galambos (1998). Analysis of the lateral stability of
members with shapes not covered in this Chapter must be performed according to
the available literature (Galambos, 1998).
See the Commentary for Section 2.5 for the discussion of the equation regarding
the bending capacity of circular sections.
C6.1.2.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes and Channels with Lb ≤ Lr. The basic relationship
between nominal moment Mn and unbraced length Lb is shown in Figure C6.1-1
for a compact section with Cb = 1.0. There are four principal zones defined on the
basic curve by Lpd, Lp, and Lr. Equation 6.1-4 defines the maximum un-braced
length Lp to reach Mp with uniform moment. Elastic lateral-torsional buckling will
occur when the unbraced length is greater than Lr given by Equation 6.1-6.
Equation 6.1-2 defines the inelastic lateral-torsional buckling as a straight line
between the defined limits Lp and Lr. Buckling strength in the elastic region Lb >
Lr is given by Equation 6.1-13 for I-shaped members.
has been used since 1961 to adjust the flexural-torsional buckling equation for
variations in the moment diagram within the unbraced length. This equation is
applicable only to moment diagrams that are straight lines between braced points.
Another equation
1
Cb = ≤ 2 .5 (C6.1-2)
M
0 .6 − 0 .4 1
M2
fits the average value theoretical solutions when the beams are bent in reverse
curvature and also provides a reasonable fit to the theory. If the maximum
moment within the unbraced segment is equal to or larger than the end moment,
Cb = 1.0 is used.
The equations above can be easily misinterpreted and misapplied to moment
diagrams that are not straight within the unbraced segment. Kirby and Nethercot
(1979) presented an equation which applies to various shapes of moment
diagrams within the unbraced segment. Their equation has been adjusted slightly
to the following
12.5M max
Cb = (C6.1-3)
2.5M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
6.1-2
6.1-14
Figure. C6.1-1. Nominal moment as a function of unbraced length and moment gradient.
This equation gives more accurate solutions for fixed-end beams, and the adjusted
equation reduces exactly to Equation C6.1-2 for a straight line moment diagram in
single curvature. The Cb equation used in the SBC 306 is shown in Figure C6.1-2
for straight line moment diagrams. Other moment diagrams along with exact
theoretical solutions in the SSRC Guide (Galambos, 1998) show good comparison
with the new equation. The absolute values of the three interior quarter-point
moments plus the maximum moment, regardless of its location are used in the
equation. The maximum moment in the unbraced segment is always used for
comparison with the resistance. The length between braces, not the distance to
inflection points and Cb are used in the resistance equation.
It is still satisfactory to use the former Cb factor, Equation C6.1-1, for straight line
moment diagrams within the unbraced length.
The elastic strength of hybrid beams is identical to homogeneous beams. The
strength advantage of hybrid sections becomes evident only in the inelastic and
plastic slenderness ranges.
C6.1.2.2 Doubly Symmetric Shapes and Channels with Lb > Lr. The equation given in
the SBC 306 assumes that the loading is applied along the beam centroidal axis. If
the load is placed on the top flange and the flange is not braced, there is a tipping
effect that reduces the critical moment; conversely, if the load is suspended from
the bottom flange and is not braced, there is a stabilizing effect which increases
the critical moment (Galambos, 1998). For unbraced top flange loading, the
reduced critical moment may be conservatively approximated by setting the
warping buckling factor X2 to zero.
An effective length factor of unity is implied in these critical moment equations to
represent a worst case pinned-pinned unbraced segment. Including consideration
of any end restraint of the adjacent segments on the critical segment can increase
its buckling capacity. The effects of beam continuity on lateral-torsional buckling
have been studied and a simple and conservative design method, based on the
analogy of end-restrained nonsway columns with an effective length factor less
than one, has been proposed (Galambos, 1998).
SBC 306 C 2007 6/3
COMMENTARY BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
C6.1.2.3 Tees and Double-Angles. The lateral-torsional buckling strength (LTB) of singly
symmetric tee beams is given by a fairly complex formula (Galambos, 1998).
Equation 6.1-15 is a simplified formulation based on Kitipornchai and Trahair
(1980). See also Ellifritt, Wine, Sputo, and Samuel (1992).
The Cb used for I-shaped beams is unconservative for tee beams with the stem in
compression. For such cases Cb =1.0 is appropriate. When beams are bent in
reverse curvature, the portion with the stem in compression may control the LTB
resistance even though the moments may be small relative to other portions of the
unbraced length with Cb ≈ 1.0. This is because the LTB strength of a tee with the
stem in compression may be only about one-fourth of the capacity for the stem in
tension. Since the buckling strength is sensitive to the moment diagram, Cb has
been conservatively taken as 1.0. In cases where the stem is in tension, connection
details should be designed to minimize any end restraining moments which might
cause the stem to be in compression.
C6.1.2.4 Design by Plastic Analysis. Equation 6.1-17 sets a limit on unbraced length
adjacent to a plastic hinge for plastic analysis. There is a substantial increase in
unbraced length for positive moment ratios (reverse curvature) because the
yielding is confined to zones close to the brace points (Yura et al., 1978).
Equation 6.1-18 is an equation in similar form for solid rectangular bars and
symmetric box beams. Equations 6.1-17 and 6.1-18 assume that the moment
diagram within the unbraced length next to plastic hinge locations is reasonably
linear. For nonlinear diagrams between braces, judgment should be used in
choosing a representative ratio.
Equations 6.1-17 and 6.1-18 were developed to provide rotation capacities of at
least 3.0, which are sufficient for most applications (Yura et al., 1978). When
inelastic rotations of 7 to 9 are deemed appropriate in areas of high seismicity, as
discussed in Commentary Section 2.5, Equation 6.1-17 would become:
⎛ E ⎞
L pd = 0.086⎜ ⎟ry (C6.1-4)
⎜F ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
SECTION C6.2
DESIGN FOR SHEAR
For webs with h / t w ≤ 1.10 Ekv / Fyw , the nominal shear strength Vn is based on
shear yielding of the web, Equation 6.2-1. This h/tw limit was determined by
setting the critical stress causing shear buckling Fcr equal to the yield stress of the
web Fyw in Equation 35 of Cooper, Galambos, and Ravindra (1978) and
Timoshenko and Gere (1961). When, h / t w > 1.10 Ekv / Fyw , the web shear
strength is based on buckling. Basler (1961) suggested taking the proportional
SBC 306 C 2007 6/4
COMMENTARY BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
The nominal shear strength, given by Equation 6.2-3, was obtained by multiplying
Fcr by the web area and using E = 200000 MPa and v = 0.3. A straight line
transition, Equation6.2-2 is used between the limits
1.10 Ek v / F yw and 1.37 Ek v / F yw
When designing plate girders, thicker unstiffened webs will frequently be less
costly than lighter stiffened web designs because of the additional fabrication. If a
stiffened girder design has economic advantages, the tension field method in
Chapter 7 will require fewer stiffeners.
The equations in this section were established assuming monotonically increasing
loads. If a flexural member is subjected to load reversals causing cyclic yielding
over large portions of a web, such as may occur during a major earthquake,
special design considerations may apply (Popov, 1980).
SECTION C6.3
WEB-TAPERED MEMBERS
C6.3.1 General Requirements. The design of wide-flange columns with a single web
taper and constant flanges follows the same procedure as for uniform columns
according to Section 5.2, except the column slenderness parameter λ c for major
axis buckling is determined for a slenderness ratio K γ L / rox , and for minor axis
buckling for KL/roy, where K γ is an effective length factor for tapered members, K
is the effective length factor for prismatic members, and rox and roy are the radii of
gyration about the x and the y axes, respectively, taken at the smaller end of the
tapered member.
For stepped columns or columns with other than a single web taper, the elastic
critical stress is determined by analysis or from data in reference texts or research
reports (Chapters 11 and 13 in Timoshenko and Gere (1961), Bleich (1952), and
Kitipornchai and Trahair (1980)), and then the same procedure of using λ eff is
utilized in calculating the factored resistance.
This same approach is recommended for open section built-up columns (columns
with perforated cover plates, lacing, and battens) where the elastic critical
buckling stress determination must include a reduction for the effect of shear.
Methods for calculating the elastic buckling strength of such columns are given in
Chapter 12 of the SSRC Guide (Galambos, 1998) and in Timoshenko and Gere
(1961) and Bleich (1952).
C6.3.4 Design Flexural Strength. The development of the design bending stress for
tapered beams follows closely with that for prismatic beams. The basic concept is
to replace a tapered beam by an equivalent prismatic beam with a different length,
but with a cross section identical to that of the smaller end of the tapered beam
(Lee et al., 1972). This has led to the modified length factors hs and hw in
Equations 6.3-6 and 6.3-7.
Equations 6.3-6 and 6-3-7 are based on total resistance to lateral buckling, using
both St. Venant and warping resistance. The factor B modifies the basic Fbγ to
members which are continuous past lateral supports. Categories a, b, and c of
Section 6.3.4 usually apply; however, it is to be noted that they apply only when
SBC 306 C 2007 6/6
COMMENTARY BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
the axial force is small and adjacent unbraced segments are approximately equal
in length. For a single member, or segments which do not fall into category a, b, c,
or d, the recommended value of B is unity. The value of B should also be taken as
unity when computing the value of Fbγ to obtain Mn to be used in Equations 8.1-1
and 3.1-1, since the effect of moment gradient is provided for by the factor Cm.
The background material is given in WRC Bulletin No. 192 (Morrell and Lee,
1974).
SECTION C6.4
BEAMS AND GIRDERS WITH WEB OPENINGS
CHAPTER 7
PLATE GIRDERS
SECTION C7.2
DESIGN FLEXURAL STRENGTH
CHAPTER 8
MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION
SECTION C8.1
SYMMETRIC MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING
AND AXIAL FORCE
second equation). Therefore, the requirement that the nominal compressive strength
Pn be based on the effective length KL in the general equation is continued in
the LRFD Specification as it has been in the AISC ASD Specification since 1961. It
is not intended that these provisions be applicable to limit nonlinear secondary
flexure that might be encountered in large amplitude earthquake stability design
(ATC, 1978).
The defined term Mu is the maximum moment in a member. In the calculation of this
moment, inclusion of beneficial second order effects of tension is optional. But
SBC 306 C 2007 8/1
COMMENTARY MEMEBERS UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION
SECTION C8.2
UNSYMMETRIC MEMBERS AND MEMBERS UNDER
TORSION AND COMBINED TORSION, FLEXURE,
SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL FORCE
This section deals with types of cross sections and loadings not covered in Section
8.1, especially where torsion is a consideration. For such cases it is recommended to
perform an elastic analysis based on the theoretical numerical methods available
from the literature for the determination of the maximum normal and shear stresses,
or for the elastic buckling stresses. In the buckling calculations an equivalent
slenderness parameter is determined for use in Equation 5.2-2 or 5.2-3, as follows:
λe = Fy / Fe
where Fe is the elastic buckling stress determined from a stability analysis. This
procedure is similar to that of Section 5.3.
For the analysis of members with open sections under torsion refer to AISC (1997).
CHAPTER 9
COMPOSITE MEMBERS
SECTION C9.1
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS
Force Determination. Loads applied to an un-shored beam before the concrete has
hardened are resisted by the steel section alone, and only loads applied after the
concrete has hardened are considered as resisted by the composite section. It is
usually assumed for design purposes that concrete has hardened when it attains 75
percent of its design strength. In beams properly shored during construction, all
loads may be assumed as resisted by the composite cross section. Loads applied to
a continuous composite beam with shear connectors throughout its length, after
the slab is cracked in the negative moment region, are resisted in that region by
the steel section and by properly anchored longitudinal slab reinforcement.
For purposes of plastic analysis all loads are considered resisted by the composite
cross section, since a fully plastic strength is reached only after considerable yielding
at the locations of plastic hinges.
where
Ipos = effective moment of inertia for positive moment, mm4
Ineg = negative moment of inertia for negative moment, mm4
The effective moment of inertia shall be based on the cracked transformed section
considering degree of composite actions. For continuous beams subjected to
gravity loads only, the value of a may be taken as 0.6 and the value of b may be
taken as 0.4. For the case of composite beams in moment resisting frames, the
value of a and b may be taken as 0.5.
Plastic Analysis. For composite beams with shear connectors, plastic analysis
may be used only when the steel section in the positive moment region has a
compact web, i.e., h / t w ≤ 3.76 E / Fyf , and when the steel section in the negative
moment region is compact, as required for steel beams alone. No compactness
limitations are placed on encased beams, but plastic analysis is permitted only if
the direct contribution of concrete to the strength of sections is neglected; the
concrete is relied upon only to prevent buckling.
Plastic Stress Distribution for Positive Moment. Plastic stress distributions are
described in Commentary Section C9.3, and a discussion of the composite
participation of slab reinforcement is presented.
Plastic Stress Distribution for Negative Moment. Plastic stress distributions are
described in Commentary Section C9.3.
Fully Composite Beam. Either the tensile yield strength of the steel section or the
compressive stress of the concrete slab governs the maximum flexural strength of
a fully composite beam subjected to a positive moment. The tensile yield strength
of the longitudinal reinforcing bars in the slab governs the maximum flexural
strength of a fully composite beam subjected to a negative moment. When shear
connectors are provided in sufficient numbers to fully develop this maximum
flexural strength, any slip that occurs prior to yielding is minor and has negligible
influence both on stresses and stiffness.
SECTION C9.2
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
C9.2.1 Limitations.
(1) The lower limit of four percent on the cross-sectional area of structural steel
differentiates between composite and reinforced concrete columns. If the
area is less than four percent, a column with a structural steel core should be
designed as a reinforced concrete column.
(2) The specified minimum quantity of transverse and longitudinal
reinforcement in the encasement should be adequate to prevent severe
spalling of the surface concrete during fires.
(3) Very little of the supporting test data involved concrete strengths in excess
of 41 MPa, even though the cylinder strength for one group of four columns
was 66 MPa. Normal weight concrete is believed to have been used in all
SBC 306 C 2007 9/2
COMMENTARY COMPOSITE MEMBERS
tests. Thus, the upper limit of concrete strength is specified as 55 MPa for
normal weight concrete. A lower limit of 21 MPa is specified for normal
weight concrete and 28 MPa for lightweight concrete to encourage the use
of good quality, yet readily available, grades of structural concrete.
(4) In addition to the work of Bridge and Roderick (1978), SSRC Task Group
20 (1979), and Galambos and Chapuis (1980), recent work by Kenny,
Bruce, and Bjorhovde (1994) has shown that due to concrete confinement
effects, the previous limitation of 380 MPa for the maximum steel yield
stress is highly restrictive. Further, the most commonly used reinforcing
steel grade has a yield stress of 415 MPa. The increase is therefore a rational
recognition of material properties and structural behavior.
The 415 MPa limitations for the yield stress is very conservative for tubular
composite columns, where the concrete confinement provided by the tube
walls is very significant. Kenny et al. have proposed raising the value of Fy
for such columns to whatever the yield stress is for the steel grade used, but
not higher than 550 MPa.
(5) The specified minimum wall thicknesses are identical to those in the SBC-
304. The purpose of this provision is to prevent buckling of the steel pipe or
HSS before yielding.
SECTION C9.3
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
C9.3.2 Design Strength of Beams with Shear Connectors. This section applies to
simple and continuous composite beams with shear connectors, constructed with
or without temporary shores.
Positive Flexural Design Strength. Flexural strength of a composite beam in the
positive moment region may be limited by the plastic strength of the steel section,
the concrete slab, or shear connectors. In addition, web buckling may limit
flexural strength if the web is slender and a significantly large portion of the web
is in compression.
According to Table 2.5-1, local web buckling does not reduce the plastic strength
of a bare steel beam if the beam depth-to-web thickness ratio is not larger than
3.76 E / F y . In the absence of web buckling research on composite beams, the
same ratio is conservatively applied to composite beams. Furthermore, for more
slender webs, the SBC 306 conservatively adopts first yield as the flexural
strength limit. In this case, stresses on the steel section from permanent loads
applied to unshored beams before the concrete has hardened must be
superimposed on stresses on the composite section from loads applied to the
beams after hardening of concrete. In this superposition, all permanent loads
should be multiplied by the dead load factor and all live loads should be
multiplied by the live load factor. For shored beams, all loads may be assumed as
resisted by the composite section.
When first yield is the flexural strength limit, the elastic transformed section is
used to calculate stresses on the composite section. The modular ratio n = E / E c
used to determine the transformed section depends on the specified unit weight
and strength of concrete.
where
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
Ac = area of concrete slab within effective width, mm2
As = area of steel cross section, mm2
Asw = area of steel web, mm2
Asf = area of steel flange, mm2
Fy = minimum specified yield stress of steel, MPa
Fyw = minimum specified yield stress of web steel, MPa
Fyf = minimum specified yield stress of flange steel, MPa
ΣQn = sum of nominal strengths of shear connectors between the point of
maximum positive moment and point of zero moment to either side, N
M n = C (d1 + d 2 ) + Py (d 3 − d 2 ) (C9.3-5)
where
Py = tensile strength of the steel section; for a non-hybrid steel section, Py =
AsFy, N.
d1 = distance from the centroid of the compression force C in concrete to the
top of the steel section, mm.
d2 = distance from the centroid of the compression force in the steel section to
the top of the steel section, mm. For the case of no compression in the steel
section d2 = 0.
d3 = distance from Py to the top of the steel section, mm.
T = Ar Fyr (C9.3-6)
T = ΣQn (C9.3-7)
Figure. C9.3-1. Plastic stress distribution for positive moment in composite beams.
where
Ar = area of properly developed slab reinforcement parallel to the steel beam
and within the effective width of the slab, mm2
Fyr = specified yield stress of the slab reinforcement, MPa
ΣQn = sum of the nominal strengths of shear connectors between the point of
maximum negative moment and point of zero moment to either side, N
A third theoretical limit on T is the product of the area and yield stress of the steel
section. However, this limit is redundant in view of practical limitations on slab
reinforcement.
The nominal plastic moment resistance of a composite section in negative bending
is given by the following equation:
M n = T (d 1 + d 2 ) + Pyc (d 3 − d 2 ) (C9.3-8)
where
Pyc = the compressive strength of the steel section; for a non-hybrid section, Pyc
= AsFy, N
d1 = distance from the centroid of the longitudinal slab reinforcement to the top
of the steel section, mm
d2 = distance from the centroid of the tension force in the steel section to the
top of the steel section, mm
d3 = distance from Pyc to the top of the steel section, mm
Transverse Reinforcement for the Slab. Where experience has shown that
longitudinal cracking detrimental to serviceability is likely to occur, the slab
should be reinforced in the direction transverse to the supporting steel section. It is
recommended that the area of such reinforcement should be at least 0.002 times
the concrete area in the longitudinal direction of the beam and should be
uniformly distributed.
C9.3.4 Strength During Construction. When temporary shores are not used during
construction, the steel beam alone must resist all loads applied before the concrete
has hardened enough to provide composite action. un-shored beam deflection
caused by wet concrete tends to increase slab thickness and dead load. For longer
spans this may lead to instability analogous to roof ponding. An excessive
increase of slab thickness may be avoided by beam camber.
When forms are not attached to the top flange, lateral bracing of the steel beam
during construction may not be continuous and the un-braced length may control
flexural strength, as defined in Section 6.1.
The SBC 306 does not include special requirements for a margin against yield
during construction. According to Section 6.1, maximum factored moment during
construction is 0.90FyZ where FyZ is the plastic
moment 0.90 F y Z ≈ 0.90 × 1.1F y S . This is equivalent to approximately the yield
moment, FyS. Hence, required flexural strength during construction prevents
moment in excess of the yield moment.
Load factors for construction loads should be determined for individual projects
according to local conditions, using the factors stipulated in SBC 301 as a guide.
As a minimum it is suggested that 1.2 be the factor for the loading from steel
framing plus concrete plus formed steel deck, and a factor of 1.6 be used for the
live load of workmen plus equipment which should not be taken as less than 950
N/m2 (un-factored).
C9.3.5 Formed Steel Deck. Figure C9.3-3 is a graphic presentation of the terminology
used in Section 9.3.5.
When studs are used on beams with formed steel deck, they may be welded
directly through the deck or through pre-punched or cut-in-place holes in the
deck. The usual procedure is to install studs by welding directly through the deck;
however, when the deck thickness is greater than 16 gage (1.5 mm) for single
thickness, or 18 (1.2 mm) gage for each sheet of double thickness, or when the
total thickness of galvanized coating is greater than 0.38 kg/m2, special
precautions and procedures recommended by the stud manufacturer should be
followed.
As shown in Figure C9.3-4, modern steel deck profiles with stiffeners (reinforcing
rib) located along the centerline of the rib require that studs be placed off-center in
the rib. Depending on the location of the stud relative to the direction of the shear
transfer, for studs in the “weak position”, the resulting reduction in edge distance
between the stud and rib wall can lead to premature failure accompanied by
punching of the stud through the steel deck. Therefore, in addition to applying the
required cap of 0.75 on the reduction factor (Equation 9.3-1) for single studs in a
rib, it is recommended to avoid situations where all studs may be located in the
“weak position” by either alternating stud placement between the “weak” and
“strong” positions or coordinating placement of studs to ensure they are all
installed in the strong position.
Based on the Lehigh test data (Grant et al., 1977), the maximum spacing of steel
deck anchorage to resist uplift was increased from 405 mm to 460 mm in order to
accommodate current production profiles.
When metal deck includes units for carrying electrical wiring, crossover headers
are commonly installed over the cellular deck perpendicular to the ribs. They
create trenches which completely or partially replace sections of the concrete slab
above the deck. These trenches, running parallel to or transverse to a composite
beam, may reduce the effectiveness of the concrete flange. Without special
provisions to replace the concrete displaced by the trench, the trench should be
considered as a complete structural discontinuity in the concrete flange.
When trenches are parallel to the composite beam, the effective flange width
should be determined from the known position of the trench.
Trenches oriented transverse to composite beams should, if possible, be located in
areas of low bending moment and the full required number of studs should be
placed between the trench and the point of maximum positive moment. Where the
trench cannot be located in an area of low moment, the beam should be designed
as non-composite.
SECTION C9.4
COMBINED COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE
SECTION C9.5
SHEAR CONNECTORS
C9.5.2 Horizontal Shear Force. Composite beams in which the longitudinal spacing of
shear connectors was varied according to the intensity of the static shear, and
duplicate beams in which the connectors were uniformly spaced, exhibited the
same ultimate strength and the same amount of deflection at normal working
loads. Only a slight deformation in the concrete and the more heavily stressed
connectors is needed to redistribute the horizontal shear to other less heavily
stressed connectors. The important consideration is that the total number of
connectors be sufficient to develop the shear Vh on either side of the point of
maximum moment. The provisions of the SBC 306 are based upon this concept of
composite action.
In computing the design flexural strength at points of maximum negative bending,
reinforcement parallel to the steel beam within the effective width of the slab may
be included, provided such reinforcement is properly anchored beyond the region
of negative moment. However, enough shear connectors are required to transfer
the ultimate tensile force in the reinforcement, from the slab to the steel beam.
C9.5.3 Strength of Stud Shear Connectors. The SBC 306 does not specify a resistance
factor for shear connector strength. The resistance factor for the flexural strength
of a composite beam accounts for all sources of variability, including those
associated with the shear connectors.
C9.5.6 Shear Connector Placement and Spacing. Uniform spacing of shear connectors
is permitted except in the presence of heavy concentrated loads.
Studs not located directly over the web of a beam tend to tear out of a thin flange
before attaining full shear-resisting capacity. To guard against this contingency,
the size of a stud not located over the beam web is limited to 2½ times the flange
thickness (Goble, 1968).
The minimum spacing of connectors along the length of the beam, in both flat
soffit concrete slabs and in formed steel deck with ribs parallel to the beam, is six
SBC 306 C 2007 9/10
COMMENTARY COMPOSITE MEMBERS
diameters; this spacing reflects development of shear planes in the concrete slab
(Ollgaard et al., 1971). Since most test data are based on the minimum transverse
spacing of four diameters, this transverse spacing was set as the minimum
permitted. If the steel beam flange is narrow, this spacing requirement may be
achieved by staggering the studs with a minimum transverse spacing of three
diameters between the staggered rows of studs. The reduction in connector
capacity in the ribs of formed steel decks is provided by the factor
0.85 / N r , which accounts for the reduced capacity of multiple connectors,
including the effect of spacing. When deck ribs are parallel to the beam and the
design requires more studs than can be placed in the rib, the deck may be split so
that adequate spacing is available for stud installation. Figure C9.5-1 shows
possible connector arrangements.
SECTION C9.6
SPECIAL CASES
Tests are required for construction that falls outside the limits given in the
Specification. Different types of shear connectors may require different spacing
and other detailing than stud and channel connectors.
CHAPTER 10
CONNECTIONS, JOINTS AND FASTENERS
SECTION C10.1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
C10.1.5 Splices in Heavy Sections. Solidified but still-hot filler metal contracts
significantly as it cools to ambient temperature. Shrinkage of large welds between
elements which are not free to move to accommodate the shrinkage causes strains
in the material adjacent to the weld that can exceed the yield point strain. In thick
material the weld shrinkage is restrained in the thickness direction, as well as in the
width and length directions, causing triaxial stresses to develop that may inhibit
the ability of ductile steel to deform in a ductile manner. Under these conditions,
the possibility of brittle fracture increases.
When splicing ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and equivalent rolled sections or
heavy welded built-up members, the potentially harmful weld shrinkage strains
can be avoided by using bolted splices or fillet-welded lap splices or splices that
combine a welded and bolted detail (see Figure C10.1-1). Details and techniques
that perform well for materials of modest thickness usually must be changed or
supplemented by more demanding requirements when welding thick material.
Also, the provisions of the Structural Welding Code, AWS D1.1, are minimum
requirements that apply to most structural welding situations; however, when
designing and fabricating welded splices of ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 and
equivalent shapes and similar built-up cross sections, special consideration must
be given to all aspects of the welded splice detail.
• Notch-toughness requirements should be specified for tension members.
See Commentary Section C1.3.
• Generously sized weld access holes, Figure C10.1-2, are required to provide
increased relief from concentrated weld shrinkage strains, to avoid close
juncture of welds in orthogonal directions, and to provide adequate clearance
for the exercise of high quality workmanship in hole preparation, welding,
and ease of inspection.
• Preheating for thermal cutting is required to minimize the formation of a
hard surface layer.
• Grinding to bright metal and inspection using magnetic particle or dye-
penetrant methods is required to remove the hard surface layer and to assure
smooth transitions free of notches or cracks.
In addition to tension splices of truss chord members and tension flanges of flexural
members, other joints fabricated of heavy sections subject to tension should be
given special consideration during design and fabrication.
Figure. C10.1-1 Alternative splices that minimize weld restraint tensile stresses.
Notes:
1. For ASTM A6 Group 4 and 5 and equivalent shapes and welded built-up shapes with plate thickness more
than 50 mm, preheat to 65° C prior to thermal cutting, grind and inspect thermally cut edges of access hole
using magnetic particle or dye penetration methods prior to making web and flange splice groove welds.
C10.1.8 Placement of Welds and Bolts. The fatigue life of eccentrically loaded welded
angles has been shown to be very short (Kloppel and Seeger, 1964). Notches at
the roots of fillet welds are harmful when alternating tensile stresses are normal to
the axis of the weld, as could occur due to bending when axial cyclic loading is
applied to angles with end welds not balanced about the neutral axis. Accordingly,
balanced welds are indicated when such members are subjected to cyclic loading
(see Figure C10.1-3).
C10.1.9 Bolts in Combination with Welds. The sharing of load between welds and A307
bolts or high-strength bolts in a bearing-type connection is not recommended. For
similar reasons, A307 bolts and rivets should not be assumed to share loads in a
single group of fasteners.
For high-strength bolts in slip-critical connections to share the load with welds it is
advisable to fully tension the bolts before the weld is made. If the weld is placed
first, angular distortion from the heat of the weld might prevent the faying action
required for development of the slip-critical force. When the bolts are fully
tensioned before the weld is made, the slip-critical bolts and the weld may be
assumed to share the load on a common shear plane (Kulak, Fisher, and Struik,
1987). The heat of welding near bolts will not alter the mechanical properties of the
bolts.
In making alterations to existing structures, it is assumed that whatever slip is likely
to occur in high-strength bolted bearing-type connections or riveted connections
will have already taken place. Hence, in such cases the use of welding to resist all
stresses, other than those produced by existing dead load present at the time of mak-
ing the alteration, is permitted.
It should be noted that combinations of fasteners as defined herein does not refer to
connections such as shear plates for beam-to-column connections which are
welded to the column and bolted to the beam flange or web (Kulak et al., 1987) and
other comparable connections.
C10.1.10 High-Strength Bolts in Combination with Rivets. When high-strength bolts are
used in combination with rivets, the ductility of the rivets permits the direct
addition of the strengths of both fastener types.
SECTION C10.2
WELDS
C10.2.1 Groove Welds. The engineer preparing contract design drawings cannot specify
the depth of groove without knowing the welding process and the position of
welding. Accordingly, only the effective throat for partial-joint-penetration groove
welds should be specified on design drawings, allowing the fabricator to produce
this effective throat with his own choice of welding process and position. The
weld reinforcement is not used in determining the effective throat thickness of a
groove weld (see Table 10.2-1).
in Figure C10.2-3. Fillet welded lap joints under tension tend to open and apply a
tearing action at the root of the weld as shown in Figure C10.2-4(b), unless
restrained by a force F as shown in Figure C10.2-4(a).
End returns are not essential for developing the capacity of fillet welded
connections and have a negligible effect on their strength. Their use has been
encouraged to insure that the weld size is maintained over the length of the weld, to
enhance the fatigue resistance of cyclically loaded flexible end connections, and to
increase the plastic deformation capability of such connections.
The weld capacity database on which the SBC 306 was developed had no end
returns. This includes the study by Higgins and Preece (1968), seat angle tests by
Lyse and Schreiner (1935), the seat and top angle tests by Lyse and Gibson (1937),
beam webs welded directly to column or girder by fillet welds by Johnston and
Deits (1942), and the eccentrically loaded welded connections reported by Butler,
Pal, and Kulak (1972). Hence, the current design-resistance values and joint-
capacity models do not require end returns when the required weld size is
provided. Johnston and Green (1940) noted that movement consistent with the
design assumption of no end restraint (i.e., joint flexibility) was enhanced without
end returns. They also verified that greater plastic deformation of the connection
was achieved when end returns existed, although the strength was not significantly
different.
When longitudinal fillet welds parallel to the stress are used to transmit the load to
the end of an axially loaded member, the welds are termed “end loaded”. Typical
examples of such welds would include, but are not necessarily limited to,
longitudinally welded lap joints at the end of axially loaded members, welds
attaching bearing stiffeners, and similar cases. Typical examples of longitudinally
loaded fillet welds which are not considered end loaded include, but are not
limited to, welds that connect plates or shapes to form built-up cross sections in
which the shear force is applied to each increment of length of weld stress
depending upon the distribution of shear load along the length of the member,
welds attaching beam web connection angles and shear plates because the flow of
shear force from the beam or girder web to the weld is essentially uniform
throughout the weld length, that is, the weld is not end-loaded despite the fact that
it is loaded parallel to the weld axis. Neither does the reduction factor apply to
welds attaching stiffeners to webs because the stiffeners and welds are not subject
to calculated axial stress but merely serve to keep the web flat.
The distribution of stress along the length of end loaded fillet welds is far from
uniform and is dependent upon complex relationships between the stiffness of the
longitudinal fillet weld relative to the stiffness of the connected materials. Beyond
some length, it is non-conservative to assume that the average stress over the total
length of the weld may be taken as equal to the full design strength. Experience has
shown that when the length of the weld is equal to approximately 100 times the
weld size or less, it is reasonable to assume the effective length is equal to the actual
length. For weld lengths greater than 100 times the weld size, the effective length
should be taken less than the actual length. The reduction coefficient, R, provided in
Section 10.2.2.2 is the equivalent of Eurocode 3, which is a simplified
approximation to exponential formulas developed by finite element studies and tests
preformed in Europe over many years. The criterion is based upon combined
consideration of nominal strength for fillet welds with leg size less than 6 mm and
upon a judgment based serviceability limit of slightly less than 1 mm displace-
ment at the end of the weld for welds with leg size 6 mm and larger. Mathe-
matically, the application of the β factor implies that the minimum strength of an
end-loaded weld is achieved when the length is approximately 300 times the leg
size. Because it is illogical to conclude that the total strength of a weld longer than
300 times the weld size would be less than a shorter weld, the length reduction
coefficient is taken as 0.6 when the weld length is greater than 300 times the leg
size.
(c) For connections such as framing angles and simple end plates which are
assumed in design of the structure to be flexible connections, the top and
bottom edges of the outstanding legs must be left un-welded over a
substantial portion of their length in order to assure flexibility of the
connection. Research tests (Johnston and Green, 1940) have shown that the
static strength of the connection is the same with or without end returns;
therefore the use of returns is optional, but if used, their length must be
restricted to not more than four times the weld size, see Figure C10.2-8.
(d) Experience has shown that when ends of intermediate transverse stiffeners
on the webs of plate girders are not welded to the flanges (the usual
practice), small torsional distortions of the flange which occur near shipping
bearing points in the normal course of shipping by rail or truck may cause
SBC 306 C 2007 10/8
COMMENTARY CONNECTIONS, JOINTS AND FASTENERS
high out-of-plane bending stresses (yield point) and fatigue cracking at the
toe of the web-to-flange welds. This has been observed even with closely
fitted stiffeners. The intensity of these out-of-plane stresses may be
effectively limited and cracking prevented if “breathing room” is provided
by terminating web-to-flange welds. The un-welded distance should not
exceed six times the web thickness to assure that column buckling of the web
within the un-welded length does not occur.
(e) For fillet welds which occur on opposite sides of a common plane, it is not
possible to deposit a weld continuously around the corner from one side to
the other without causing a gouge in the corner of the parts joined; therefore
the welds must be interrupted at the corner. See Figure C10.2-9.
Figure. C10.2-9 Details for fillet welds which occur on opposite sides of a common
plane.
C10.2.4 Design Strength. The strength of welds is governed by the strength of either the
base material or the deposited weld metal. Table 10.2-5 contains the resistance
factors and nominal weld strengths, as well as a number of limitations.
It should be noted that in Table 10.2-5 the nominal strength of fillet welds is
determined from the effective throat area, whereas the strength of the connected
parts is governed by their respective thicknesses. Figure C10.2-10 illustrates the
shear planes for fillet welds and base material:
Figure. C10.2-10 Shear planes for fillet welds loaded in longitudinal shear
(a) Plane 1-1, in which the resistance is governed by the shear strength for
material A.
(b) Plane 2-2, in which the resistance is governed by the shear strength of the
weld metal.
(c) Plane 3-3, in which the resistance is governed by the shear strength of the
material B.
The resistance of the welded joint is the lowest of the resistance calculated in each
plane of shear transfer. Note that planes 1-1 and 3-3 are positioned away from the
fusion areas between the weld and the base material. Tests have demonstrated that
the stress on this fusion area is not critical in determining the shear strength of fillet
welds (Preece, 1968).
The shear planes for plug and partial-joint-penetration groove welds are shown in
Figure C10.2-12 for the weld and base metal. Generally the base metal will govern
the shear strength.
When weld groups are loaded in shear by an external load that does not act through
the center of gravity of the group, the load is eccentric and will tend to cause a
relative rotation and translation between the parts connected by the weld. The
point about which rotation tends to take place is called the instantaneous center of
rotation. Its location is dependent upon the load eccentricity, geometry of the weld
group, and deformation of the weld at different angles of the resultant elemental
force relative to the weld axis.
The individual resistance force of each unit weld element can be assumed to act on
a line perpendicular to a ray passing through the instantaneous center and that
element’s location (see Figure C10.2-11).
C10.2.5 Combination of Welds. This method of adding weld strengths does not apply to a
welded joint using a partial-joint-penetration single bevel groove weld with a
superimposed fillet weld. In this case, the effective throat of the combined joint
must be determined and the design strength based upon this throat area.
C10.2.6 Weld Metal Requirements. Applied and residual stresses and geometrical
discontinuities from back-up bars with associated notch effects contribute to
sensitivity to fracture. Some weld metals in combination with certain procedures
result in welds with low notch toughness. The Specification requires a minimum
specified toughness for weld metals in those joints that are subject to more
significant applied stresses and toughness demands.
The level of toughness required was selected as one level more conservative than
the base metal requirement for Group 4 and 5 and equivalent shapes. Research
C10.2.7 Mixed Weld Metal. Problems can occur when incompatible weld metals are used
in combination and notch-tough composite weld metal is required. For instance,
tack welds deposited using a self-shielded process with aluminum deoxidizers in the
electrodes and subsequently covered by SAW weld passes can result in composite
weld metal with low notch-toughness, despite the fact that each process by itself
could provide notch-tough weld metal.
SECTION C10.3
BOLTS AND THREADED PARTS
C10.3.2 Size and Use of Holes. To provide some latitude for adjustment in plumbing up a
frame during erection, three types of enlarged holes are permitted, subject to the
approval of the designer. The nominal maximum sizes of these holes are given in
Table 10.3-3. The use of these enlarged holes is restricted to connections
assembled with bolts and is subject to the provisions of Sections 10.3.3 and
10.3.4.
C10.3.3 Minimum Spacing. The maxi mu m factored strength Rn at a bolt or rivet hole in
bearing requires that the distance between the centerline of the first fastener and
the edge of a plate toward which the force is directed should not be less than 1 d
where d is the fastener diameter (Kulak et al., 1987). By similar reasoning the
distance measured in the line of force, from the centerline of any fastener to the
nearest edge of an adjacent hole, should not be less than 3d, to ensure maximum
design strength in bearing. Plotting of numerous test results indicates that the
critical bearing strength is directly proportional to the above defined distances up
to a maximum value of 3d, above which no additional bearing strength is
achieved (Kulak et al., 1987). Table 10.3-6 lists the increments that must be added
to adjust the spacing upward to compensate for an increase in hole dimension
parallel to the line of force. Section 10.3.10 gives the bearing strength criteria as a
function of spacing.
C10.3.4 Minimum Edge Distance. Critical bearing stress is a function of the material
tensile strength, the spacing of fasteners, and the distance from the edge of the part
to the center line of the nearest fastener. Tests have shown (Kulak et al., 1987) that
a linear relationship exists between the ratio of critical bearing stress to tensile
strength (of the connected material) and the ratio of fastener spacing (in the line of
force) to fastener diameter. The following equation affords a good lower bound to
published test data for single-fastener connections with standard holes, and is
conservative for adequately spaced multi-fastener connections:
Fpcr / Fu = le / d (C10.3-1)
where
Fpcr = critical bearing stress, MPa
Fu = tensile strength of the connected material, MPa
le = distance, along a line of transmitted force, from the center of a fastener
to the nearest edge of an adjacent fastener or to the free edge of a
connected part (in the direction of stress), mm
d = diameter of fastener, mm
C10.3.5 Maximum Spacing and Edge Distance. Limiting the edge distance to not more
than 12 times the thickness of an outside connected part, but not more than 150
mm, is intended to provide for the exclusion of moisture in the event of paint
failure, thus preventing corrosion between the parts which might accumulate and
force these parts to separate. More restrictive limitations are required for connected
parts of unpainted weathering steel exposed to atmospheric corrosion.
Rn = 0 .75 Ab Fu (C10.3-2)
This tensile strength given by Equation C10.3-2 is independent of whether the bolt
was initially installed pretensioned or snug-tightened.
In connections consisting of only a few fasteners, the effects of strain on the shear in
bearing fasteners is negligible (Kulak et al., 1987 and Fisher et al., 1978). In longer
joints, the differential strain produces an uneven distribution between fasteners
(those near the end taking a disproportionate part of the total load), so that the
maximum strength per fastener is reduced. The ASD-based Specifications permits
connections up to 1270 mm in length without a reduction in maximum shear stress.
With this in mind the resistance factor φ for shear in bearing-type connections
has been selected to accommodate the same range of connections.
The values of nominal shear strength in Table 10.3-2 were obtained from the
equation
R n / mA b = 0.50 F u (C10.3-3)
R n / mA b = 0.40 F u (C10.3-4)
when threads are not excluded from the shear plane, where m is the number of shear
planes (Kulak et al., 1987). While developed for bolted connections, the equations
were also conservatively applied to threaded parts and rivets. The value given for
A307 bolts was obtained from Equation C10.3-4 but is specified for all cases
regardless of the position of threads. For A325 or A325M bolts, no distinction is
made between small and large diameters, even though the minimum tensile strength
F u is lower for bolts with diameters in excess of one inch. It was felt that such a
refinement of design was not justified, particularly in view of the low resistance
factor φ , the increasing ratio of tensile area to gross area, and other compensating
factors.
C10.3.7 Combined Tension and Shear in Bearing-Type Connections. Tests have shown
that the strength of bearing fasteners subject to combined shear and tension
SBC 306 C 2007 10/13
COMMENTARY CONNECTIONS, JOINTS AND FASTENERS
by a serviceability requirement.
In connections with long slots that are parallel to the direction of the applied load,
slip of the connection prior to attainment of the factored load might be large enough
to alter the usual assumption of analysis that the un-deformed structure can be used
to obtain the internal forces. The SBC 306 allows the designer two alternatives in
this case. If the connection is designed so that it will not slip under the effects of
service loads, then the effect of the factored loads acting on the deformed structure
(deformed by the maximum amount of slip in the long slots at all locations) must be
included in the structural analysis. Alternatively, the connection can be designed so
that it will not slip at loads up to the factored load level.
Joints subjected to full reverse cyclical loading are clearly slip-critical joints since
slip would permit back and forth movement of the joint and early fatigue. However,
for joints subjected to pulsating load that does not involve reversal of direction,
proper fatigue design could be provided either as a slip-critical joint on the basis of
stress on the gross section, or as a non-slip-critical joint on the basis of stress on the
net section. Because fatigue results from repeated application of the service load
rather than the overload load, design should be based upon service-load criteria.
For high-strength bolts in combination with welds in statically loaded conditions
and considering new work only, the nominal strength may be taken as the sum of
the slip resistances provided by the bolts and the shear resistance of the welds.
Section 10.1.9 requires that the slip resistance be determined at factored load
levels. If one type of connector is already loaded when the second type of
connector is introduced, the nominal strength cannot by obtained by adding the two
resistances. The Guide (Kulak et al., 1987) should be consulted in these cases.
Slip of slip-critical connections is likely to occur at approximately 1.4 to 1.5 times
the service loads. For standard holes, oversized holes, and short-slotted holes the
connection is designed at factored loads (Section 10.3.8.1). The nominal loads and
φ factors have been adjusted accordingly. The number of connectors will be
essentially the same for the two procedures because they have been calibrated to
give similar results. Slight differences will occur because of variation in the ratio
of live load to dead load.
In connections containing long slots that are parallel to the direction of the applied
load, slip of the connection prior to attainment of the factored load might be large
SBC 306 C 2007 10/15
COMMENTARY CONNECTIONS, JOINTS AND FASTENERS
enough to alter the usual assumption of analysis that the un-deformed structure
can be used to obtain the internal forces. To guard against this occurring, the design
slip resistance is further reduced by setting φ to 0.60 in conjunction with factored
loads.
While the possibility of a slip-critical connection slipping into bearing under
anticipated service conditions is small, such connections must comply with the
provisions of Section 10.3.10 in order to prevent connection failure at the
maximum load condition.
C10.3.10 Bearing Strength at Bolt Holes. Provisions for bearing strength of pins differ
from those for bearing strength of bolts; refer to Section 10.8.
Bearing values are provided as a measure of the strength of the material upon which
a bolt bears, not as a protection to the fastener, which needs no such protection.
Accordingly, the same bearing value applies to all joints assembled by bolts,
regardless of fastener shear strength or the presence or absence of threads in the
bearing area.
Material bearing strength may be limited either by bearing deformation of the hole
or by block shear rupture of the material upon which the bolt bears. Recent testing
by Kim and Yura (1996) and Lewis and Zwerneman (1996) has confirmed the
bearing strength provisions for the former case wherein the nominal bearing
strength Rn is equal to CdtFu and C is 2.4, 3.0, or 2.0 depending upon hole type
and/or acceptability of hole ovalization at ultimate load as indicated in LRFD
Specification Section 10.3.10. However, this same research indicated the need for
more accurate bearing strength provisions when block-shear-rupture-type failure
would control. Appropriate equations for bearing strength as a function of clear
distance Lc are therefore provided and this formulation is consistent with that
adopted by RCSC in the Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts (RCSC, 1994).
Additionally, to simplify and generalize such bearing strength calculations, the
current provisions have been based upon a clear-distance formulation. Previous
provisions utilized edge distances and bolt spacings measured to hole centerlines
with adjustment factors to account for varying hole type and orientation, as well as
minimum edge distance requirements.
C10.3.11 Long Grips. Provisions requiring a decrease in calculated stress for A307 bolts
having long grips (by arbitrarily increasing the required number in proportion to
the grip length) are not required for high-strength bolts. Tests (Bendigo, Hansen,
and Rumpf, 1963) have demonstrated that the ultimate shearing strength of high-
strength bolts having a grip of eight or nine diameters is no less than that of
similar bolts with much shorter grips.
SECTION C10.4
DESIGN RUPTURE STRENGTH
Tests (Birkemoe and Gilmor, 1978) on coped beams indicated that a tearing failure
mode (rupture) can occur along the perimeter of the bolt holes as shown in Figure
C10.4-1. This block shear mode combines tensile strength on one plane and shear
SBC 306 C 2007 10/16
COMMENTARY CONNECTIONS, JOINTS AND FASTENERS
strength on a perpendicular plane. The failure path is defined by the center lines of
the bolt holes. The block shear failure mode is not limited to the coped ends of
beams. Other examples are shown in Figure C10.4-1 and C10.4-2.
The block shear failure mode should also be checked around the periphery of
welded connections. Welded connection block shear is determined using φ = 0.75 in
conjunction with the area of both the fracture and yielding planes (Yura, 1988).
The LRFD Specification has adopted a conservative model to predict block shear
strength. Test results suggest that it is reasonable to add the yield strength on one
plane to the rupture strength of the perpendicular plane (Ricles and Yura, 1983,
and Hardash and Bjorhovde, 1985). Therefore, two possible block shear strengths
can be calculated; rupture strength Fu on the net tensile section along with shear
yielding 0.6 Fy on the gross section on the shear plane(s), or rupture 0.6 Fu on the
net shear area(s) combined with yielding Fy on the gross tensile area. This is the
basis of Equations 10.4-1 and 10.4-2.
These equations are consistent with the philosophy in Chapter 4 for tension
members, where gross area is used for the limit state of yielding and net area is used
for rupture. The controlling equation is the one that produces the larger rupture
force.
This can be explained by the two extreme examples given in Figure C10.4-2. In
Case (a), the total force is resisted primarily by shear, so shear rupture, not shear
yielding, should control the block shear tearing mode; therefore, use Equation 10.4-
2. For Case (b), block shear cannot occur until the tension area ruptures as given by
Equation 10.4-1. If Equation 10.4-2 (shear rupture on the small area and yielding on
the large tension area) is checked for Case (b), a smaller P o will result. In fact, as
the shear area gets smaller and approaches zero, the use of Equation 10.4-2 for
Case (b) would give a block shear strength based totally on yielding of the gross
tensile area. Block shear is a rupture or tearing phenomenon not a yielding limit
state. Therefore, the proper equation to use is the one with the larger rupture term.
SECTION C10.5
CONNECTING ELEMENTS
C10.5.2 Design Strength of Connecting Elements in Tension. Tests have shown that
yield will occur on the gross section area before the tensile capacity of the net
section is reached, if the ratio A n / A g < 0.85 (Kulak et al., 1987). Since the length of
connecting elements is small compared to the member length, inelastic
deformation of the gross section is limited. Hence, the effective net area A n of the
connecting element is limited to 0.85Ag in recognition of the limited inelastic
deformation and to provide a reserve capacity.
SECTION C10.6
FILLERS
The practice of securing fillers by means of additional fasteners, so that they are, in
effect, an integral part of a shear-connected component, is not required where a
connection is designed to be a slip-critical connection using high-strength bolts. In
such connections, the resistance to slip between filler and either connected part is
comparable to that which would exist between the connected parts if no fill were
present.
Filler plates may be used in lap joints of welded connections that splice parts of
different thickness, or where there may be an offset in the joint.
SECTION C10.8
BEARING STRENGTH
The SBC 306 provisions for bearing on milled surfaces, Section 10.8, follow the
same philosophy of ASD-based Specifications. In general, the design is governed by
a deformation limit state at service loads resulting in stresses nominally at 9/10 of
yield. Adequate safety is provided by post-yield strength as deformation increases.
Tests on pin connections (Johnston, 1939) and on rockers (Wilson, 1934) have
confirmed this behavior.
As used throughout the SBC 306, the terms “milled surface,” “milled,” and
“milling” are intended to include surfaces which have been accurately sawed or
finished to a true plane by any suitable means.
SECTION C10.9
COLUMN BASES AND BEARING ON CONCRETE
The equations for resistance of concrete in bearing are the same as SBC-304 except
that this specification equations use φ = 0.60 while SBC-304 uses φ = 0.70, since
SBC-304 specifies larger load factors than the ASCE load factors stipulated by this
code requirement.
CHAPTER 11
CONCENTRATED FORCES, PONDING AND FATIGUE
SECTION C11.1
FLANGES AND WEBS WITH CONCENTRATED FORCES
C11.1.1 Design Basis. The SBC 306 separates flange and web strength requirements into
distinct categories representing different limit state criteria, i.e., flange local
bending (Section 11.1.2), web local yielding (Section 11.1.3), web crippling
(Section 11.1.4), web sidesway buckling (Section 11.1.5), web compression
buckling (Section 11.1.6), and web panel-zone shear (Section 11.1.7).
These criteria are applied to two distinct types of concentrated forces which act on
member flanges. Single concentrated forces may be tensile, such as those delivered
by tension hangers, or compressive, such as those delivered by bearing plates at
beam interior positions, reactions at beam ends, and other bearing connections.
Double concentrated forces, one tensile and one compressive, form a couple on the
same side of the loaded member, such as that delivered to column flanges through
welded and bolted moment connections. See Carter (1999) for guidelines on
column stiffener design.
C11.1.2 Flange Local Bending. Where a tensile force is applied through a plate welded
across a flange, that flange must be sufficiently rigid to prevent deformation of the
flange and the corresponding high-stress concentration in the weld in line with the
web.
The effective column flange length for local flange bending is 12tf (Graham, et al.,
1959). Thus, it is assumed that yield lines form in the flange at 6tf in each direction
from the point of the applied concentrated force. To develop the fixed edge
consistent with the assumptions of this model, an additional 4tf and therefore a
total of 10tf, is required for the full flange-bending strength given by Equation 11.1-
1. In the absence of applicable research, a 50 percent reduction has been
introduced for cases wherein the applied concentrated force is less than 10tf from the
member end.
This criterion given by Equation 11.1-1 was originally developed for moment
connections, but it also applies to single concentrated forces such as tension
hangers consisting of a plate welded to the bottom flange of a beam and
transverse to the beam web.
C11.1.3 Web Local Yielding. The web strength criteria have been established to limit the
stress in the web of a member into which a force is being transmitted. It should
matter little whether the member receiving the force is a beam or a column;
however, Galambos (1976) and AISC (1978), references upon which the SBC 306
is based, did make such a distinction. For beams, a 2:1 stress gradient through the
flange was used, whereas the gradient through column flanges was 2½:1. In
Section 11.1.3, the 2½:1 gradient is used for both cases.
This criterion applies to both bearing and moment connections.
C11.1.4 Web Crippling. The expression for resistance to web crippling at a concentrated
force is a departure from earlier specifications (IABSE, 1968; Bergfelt, 1971;
Hoglund, 1971; and Elgaaly, 1983). Equations 11.1-4 and 11.1-5 are based on
research by Roberts (1981). The increase in Equation 11.1-5b for N / d > 0.2 was
developed after additional testing (Elgaaly and Salkar, 1991) to better represent
the effect of longer bearing lengths at ends of members. All tests were conducted
on bare steel beams without the expected beneficial contributions of any connection
or floor attachments. Thus, the resulting criteria are considered conservative for
such applications.
These equations were developed for bearing connections, but are also generally
applicable to moment connections. However, for the rolled shapes listed in Part 1 of
the LRFD Manual with Fy not greater than 345 MPa, the web crippling criterion
will never control the design in a moment connection except for a W12x50
(W310x74) or W10x33 (W250x49.1) column.
The web crippling phenomenon has been observed to occur in the web adjacent to
the loaded flange. For this reason, a half-depth stiffener (or stiffeners) or a half-
depth doubler plate is expected to eliminate this limit state.
C11.1.5 Web Sidesway Buckling. The web sidesway buckling criterion was developed
after observing several unexpected failures in tested beams (Summers and Yura,
1982). In those tests the compression flanges were braced at the concentrated load,
the web was squeezed into compression, and the tension flange buckled (see
Figure C11.1-1).
Web sidesway buckling will not occur in the following cases. For flanges restrained
against rotation:
h / tw
> 2 .3 (C11.1-1)
l /bf
Web sidesway buckling can also be prevented by the proper design of lateral
bracing or stiffeners at the load point. It is suggested that local bracing at both
flanges be designed for one percent of the concentrated force applied at that point.
Stiffeners must extend from the load point through at least one-half the beam or
girder depth. In addition, the pair of stiffeners should be designed to carry the full
load. If flange rotation is permitted at the loaded flange, neither stiffeners nor
doubler plates will be effective.
In the 1st Edition LRFD Manual, the web sidesway buckling equations were based
on the assumption that h / tf = 40, a convenient assumption which is generally true
for economy beams. This assumption has been removed so that the equations will
be applicable to all sections.
This criterion was developed only for bearing connections and does not apply to
moment connections.
C11.1.6 Web Compression Buckling. When compressive forces are applied to both flanges
of a member at the same location, as by moment connections at both flanges of a
column, the member web must have its slenderness ratio limited to avoid the
possibility of buckling. This is done in the SBC 306 with Equation 11.1-8. This
equation is applicable to a pair of moment connections, and to other pairs of
compressive forces applied at both flanges of a member, for which N / d is small
(<1). When N / d is not small, the member web should be designed as a compression
member in accordance with Chapter 5.
Equation 11.1-8 has also traditionally been applied when there is a moment
connection to only one flange of the column and compressive force is applied to
only one flange. Its use in this case is conservative.
C11.1.7 Web Panel-Zone Shear. The column web shear stresses may be high within the
boundaries of the rigid connection of two or more members whose webs lie in a
common plane. Such webs should be reinforced when the calculated factored
force Σ Fu along plane A-A in Figure C11.1-3 exceeds the column web design
strength φ Rv, where
M u1 M u 2
Σ Fu = + - Vu (C11.1-3)
d m1 d m2
and
Mu1 = Mu1L + Mu1G = the sum of the moments due to the factored lateral load
Mu1L and the moments due to factored gravity load Mu1G
on the windward side of the connection, N-mm
Mu2 = Mu2L + Mu2G = the difference between the moments due to the factored
lateral load Mu2L and the moments due to factored gravity
load Mu2G on the windward side of the connection, N-mm
dm1, dm2 = distance between flange forces in a moment connection,
mm
SECTION C11.3
DESIGN FOR CYCLIC LOADING (FATIGUE)
CHAPTER 12
SERVICEABILITY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
To satisfy the general design requirement for serviceability, the overall structure
and the individual members, connections, and connectors shall be checked for
serviceability.
Serviceability criteria are formulated to prevent disruptions of the functional use
and damage to the structure during its normal everyday use. While malfunctions
may not result in the collapse of a structure or in loss of life or injury, they can
seriously impair the usefulness of the structure and lead to costly repairs. Neglect of
serviceability may result in unacceptably flexible structures.
There are essentially three types of structural behavior which may impair
serviceability:
(1) Excessive local damage (local yielding, buckling, slip, or cracking) that may
require excessive maintenance or lead to corrosion.
(2) Excessive deflection or rotation that may affect the appearance, function, or
drainage of the structure, or may cause damage to nonstructural components
and their attachments.
(3) Excessive vibrations induced by wind or transient live loads which affect the
comfort of occupants of the structure or the operation of mechanical
equipment.
In allowable stress design, the Specification accounts for possible local damage
with factors of safety included in the allowable stresses, while deflection and
vibration are controlled, directly or indirectly, by limiting deflections and span-
depth ratios. In the past, these rules have led to satisfactory performance of
structures, with perhaps the exception of large open floor areas without partitions.
In SBC 306 the serviceability checks should consider the appropriate loads, the
response of the structure, and the reaction of the occupants to the structural
response.
Examples of loads that may require consideration of serviceability include
permanent live loads, wind, and earthquake; effects of human activities such as
walking, dancing, etc.; temperature fluctuations; and vibrations induced by traffic
near the building or by the operation of mechanical equipment within the building.
Serviceability checks are concerned with adequate performance under the
appropriate load conditions. Elastic behavior can usually be assumed. However,
some structural elements may have to be examined with respect to their long-term
behavior under load.
It is difficult to specify limiting values of structural performance based on
serviceability considerations because these depend to a great extent on the type of
structure, its intended use, and subjective physiological reaction. For example,
acceptable structural motion in a hospital clearly would be much less than in an
ordinary industrial building. It should be noted that humans perceive levels of
structural motion that are far less than motions that would cause any structural
damage. Serviceability limits must be determined through careful consideration
by the designer and client.
SECTION C12.1
CAMBER
SECTION C12.2
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
SECTION C12.3
DEFLECTIONS, VIBRATION, AND DRIFT
C12.3.2 Floor Vibration. The increasing use of high-strength materials and efficient
structural schemes leads to longer spans and more flexible floor systems. Even
though the use of a deflection limit related to span length generally precluded
vibration problems in the past, some floor systems may require explicit
consideration of the dynamic, as well as the static, characteristics of the floor
system.
The dynamic response of structures or structural assemblies may be difficult to
analyze because of difficulties in defining the actual mass, stiffness, and damping
characteristics. Moreover, different load sources cause varying responses. For
example, a steel beam-concrete slab floor system may respond to live
SBC 306 C 2007 12/2
COMMENTARY SERVICEABILITY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
C12.3.3 Drift. The SBC 306 does not provide specific limiting values for lateral drift. If a
drift analysis is desired, the stiffening effect of non-load-supporting elements such
as partitions and in filled walls may be included in the analysis of drift. Some
irrecoverable inelastic deformations may occur at given load levels in certain types
of construction. The effect of such deformations may be negligible or serious,
depending on the function of the structure, and should be considered by the
designer on a case by case basis.
The deformation limits should apply to structural assemblies as a whole.
Reasonable tolerance should also be provided for creep. Where load cycling
occurs, consideration should be given to the possibility of increases in residual
deformation that may lead to incremental failure.
SECTION C12.5
CORROSION
CHAPTER 13
FABRICATION, ERECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL
SECTION C13.2
FABRICATION
C13.2.1 Cambering, Curving, and Straightening. The use of heat for straightening
or cambering members is permitted for ASTM A514/A514M and ASTM
A852/A852M steel, as it is for other steels. However, the maximum temperature
permitted is 593°C compared to 649°C for other steels.
Cambering of flexural members, when required by the contract documents, may be
accomplished in various ways. In the case of trusses and girders, the desired
curvature can be built in during assembly of the component parts. Within limits,
rolled beams can be cold-cambered at the producing mills.
Local application of heat has come into common use as a means of straightening or
cambering beams and girders. The method depends upon an ultimate shortening of
the heat-affected zones. A number of such zones, on the side of the member that
would be subject to compression during cold-cambering or “gagging,” are heated
enough to be “upset” by the restraint provided by surrounding unheated areas.
Shortening takes place upon cooling.
While the final curvature or camber can be controlled by these methods, it must be
realized that some deviation, due to workmanship error and permanent change due
to handling, is inevitable.
C13.2.2 Thermal Cutting. Preferably thermal cutting shall be done by machine. The
requirement for a positive preheat of 66°C minimum when thermal cutting beam
copes and weld access holes in ASTM A6/A6M Group 4 and 5 shapes, and in built-
up shapes made of material more than 50 mm thick, tends to minimize the hard
surface layer and the initiation of cracks.
C13.2.5 Bolted Construction. In the past, it has been required to tighten all ASTM A325
or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts in both slip-critical and bearing-type
connections to a specified tension. The requirement was changed in 1985 to
permit most bearing-type connections to be tightened to a snug-tight condition.
In a snug-tight bearing connection, the bolts cannot be subjected to tension loads,
slip can be permitted and loosening or fatigues due to vibration or load
fluctuations are not design considerations.
It is suggested that snug-tight bearing-type connections be used in applications
where A307 bolts would be permitted.
This section provides rules for the use of oversized and slotted holes paralleling the
provisions which have been in the RCSC Specification (RCSC, 1994) since 1972,
extended to include A307 bolts which are outside the scope of the high-strength
bolt specifications.
SECTION C13.3
SHOP PAINTING
C13.3.5 Surfaces Adjacent to Field Welds. The SBC 306 allows for welding through
surface materials, including appropriate shop coatings that do not adversely affect
weld quality nor create objectionable fumes.
SECTION C13.4
ERECTION
C13.4.4 Fit of Column Compression Joints and Base Plates. Tests on spliced full-size
columns with joints that had been intentionally milled out-of-square, relative to
either strong or weak axis, demonstrated that the load-carrying capacity was the
same as that for a similar unspliced column. In the tests, gaps of 2 mm were not
shimmed; gaps of 6 mm were shimmed with non-tapered mild steel shims.
Minimum size partial-joint-penetration welds were used in all tests. No tests were
performed on specimens with gaps greater than 6 mm.
C13.4.5 Field Welding. The purpose of wire brushing shop paint on surfaces adjacent to
joints to be field welded is to reduce the possibility of porosity and cracking and
also to reduce any environmental hazard. Although there are limited tests which
indicate that painted surfaces result in sound welds without wire brushing, other
studies have resulted in excessive porosity and/or cracking when welding coated
surfaces. Wire brushing to reduce the paint film thickness minimizes rejectable
welds. Grinding or other procedures beyond wire brushing is not necessary.
CHAPTER 14
EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
SECTION C14.1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
The load combinations referred to in this chapter reflect gravity loading because it
is the most prevalent condition encountered. If other loading conditions are a
consideration, such as lateral loads, the appropriate load combination from SBC
301 or from the applicable building code should be used. The Engineer of Record
for a project is generally established by the owner.
SECTION C14.2
MATERIALS PROPERTIES
C14.2.1 Determination of Required Tests. The extent of tests required depends on the
nature of the project, the criticality of the structural system or member evaluated,
and the availability of records pertinent to the project. Thus, the Engineer of
Record is required to determine the specific tests required and the locations from
which specimens are to be obtained.
C14.2.2 Tensile Properties. Samples required for tensile tests should be removed from
regions of reduced stress, such as at flange tips at beam ends and external plate
edges, to minimize the effects of the reduced area. The number of tests required
will depend on whether they are conducted to merely confirm the strength of a
known material or to establish the strength of some other steel. Guidance on the
appropriate minimum number of tests is available (FEMA, 1997).
It should be recognized that the yield stress determined by standard ASTM
methods and reported by mills and testing laboratories is somewhat greater than
the static yield stress because of dynamic effects of testing. Also, the test
specimen location may have an effect. These effects have already been accounted
for in the nominal strength equations in the Specification. However, when
strength evaluation is done by load testing, this effect should be accounted for in
test planning because yielding will tend to occur earlier than otherwise
anticipated. The static yield stress, Fys, can be estimated from that determined by
routine application of ASTM methods, Fy, by the following equation (Galambos,
1978 and 1998):
Fys = R( Fy − 27) (C14.2-1)
where
Fys = static yield stress (MPa)
Fy = reported yield stress (MPa)
R = 0.95 for tests taken from web specimens
R = 1.00 for tests taken from flange specimens
The R factor in Equation C14.2-1 accounts for the effect of the coupon location on
the reported yield stress.
C14.2.4 Base Metal Notch Toughness. The Engineer of Record shall specify the
location of samples. Samples shall be cored, flame cut, or saw cut. The Engineer
SBC 306 C 2007 14/1
COMMENTARY EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
of Record will determine if remedial actions are required, such as the possible use
of bolted splice plates.
C14.2.5 Weld Metal. Because connections typically have a greater reliability index than
structural members, strength testing of weld metal is not usually necessary.
However, field investigations have sometimes indicated that complete-joint-
penetration welds, such as at beam-to-column connections, were not made
properly. The specified provisions in Section 14.2.4 provide a means for judging
the quality of such a weld. Where feasible, any samples removed should be
obtained from compression splices rather than tension splices, because the effects
of repairs to restore the sampled area are less critical.
C14.2.6 Bolts and Rivets. Because connections typically have a greater reliability index
than structural members, removal and strength testing of fasteners is not usually
necessary. However, strength testing of bolts is required where they cannot be
properly identified otherwise. Because removal and testing of rivets is difficult,
assuming the lowest rivet strength grade simplifies the investigation.
SECTION C14.3
EVALUATION BY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
SECTION C14.4
EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTS
C14.4.1 Determination of Live Road Rating by Testing. Generally, structures that can
be designed according to the provisions of this Specification need no confirmation
of calculated results by test. However, special situations may arise when it is
desirable to confirm by tests the results of calculations. Minimal test procedures
are provided to determine the live load rating of a structure. However, in no case
is the live load rating determined by test to exceed that which can be calculated
using the provisions of the Code. This is not intended to preclude testing to
evaluate special conditions or configurations that are not adequately covered by
this Code.
It is essential that the Engineer of Record take all necessary precautions to ensure
that the structure does not fail catastrophically during testing. A careful
assessment of structural conditions before testing is a fundamental requirement.
This includes accurate measurement and characterization of the size and strength
of members, connections, and details. Shoring and scaffolding should be used as
required in the proximity of the test area to mitigate against unexpected
circumstances. Deformations must be carefully monitored and structural
conditions must be continually evaluated. In some cases it may be desirable to
monitor strains as well.
The Engineer of Record must use judgment to determine when deflections are
becoming excessive and terminate the tests at a safe level even if the desired
loading has not been achieved. Incremental loading is specified so that
deformations can be accurately monitored and the performance of the structure
carefully observed. Load increments should be small enough initially so that the
onset of significant yielding can be determined. The increment can be reduced as
the level of inelastic behavior increases, and the behavior at this level carefully
evaluated to determine when to safely terminate the test. Periodic unloading after
the onset of inelastic behavior will help the Engineer of Record determine when to
terminate the test to avoid excessive permanent deformation or catastrophic
failure.
It must be recognized that the margin of safety at the maximum load level used in
the test may be very small, depending on such factors as the original design, the
purpose of the tests, and the condition of the structure. Thus, it is imperative that
all appropriate safety measures be adopted. It is recommended that the maximum
live load used for load tests be selected conservatively. It should be noted that
experience in testing more than one bay of a structure is limited.
Criteria limiting increases in deformations for a period of one hour have been
given to ensure that the structure is stable at the loads evaluated.
SECTION C14.5
EVALUATION REPORT
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