HORIZONTAL CONTROL The fundamental network of points whose horizontal positions are accurately known are called horizontal

control. Traversing is most frequently employed method for establishment of horizontal control points for surveys of limited extent or where the desired points lie along a devious route. TRAVERSE A traverse is a series of interconnected lines whose ends have been marked in the field and whose lengths and directions have been determined from observations. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called traverse stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as traverse side and are measured either by direct measurement using a Tape or Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment, or by indirect measurement using tacheometer. At stations where a traverse side changes its direction, relative direction are measured with a transit or theodolite. An open traverse originates from a point whose position may be known or unknown but terminates to a point whose position is not known. In this type of traverse, computational check is not possible to detect error or blunder in distances or directions. To minimize error, repeated observations for measurements need to be taken. In fig. consider a traverse YABC that originates from the point Y which may be unknown (or may be defined), but it terminates to an unknown point C. Thus, traverse YABC is an open traverse. It should generally not be used in civil engineering works unless situation dictates. This type of traverse is also called geometrically and mathematically open traverse.

Fig. Open Traverse When a traverse originates from a known position and also terminates to known position then it is called a closed traverse. If the origin and terminating points are the same then it is called loop traverse. Loop traverse is also called geometrically and mathematically closed traverse. This type of traverse permits an internal check on the accuracy of angular measurements, provides an indication of the consistency of measuring distances as well as angles. This type of traverse is recommended for minor projects. A closed traverse that originates from a known point and terminates to another known point is called a link traverse. This type of traverse henceforth called as geometrically open and mathematically closed traverse and provides computational checks allowing detection of systematic errors in both distance and direction and, therefore, preferred to all other types of traverse.

Fig. Link Traverse Fig. Loop Traverse

Observation of traverse angles or directions The methods used in observing angles or directions of a traverse lines vary and include (1) interior angles, (2) angles to the right, (3) deflection angles, and (4) azimuths. Interior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the inside of a closed polygon figure. Exterior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the outside of a closed polygon figure. Angles to the right are turned from the back line in a clockwise or right hand direction to the ahead line. Angles to the left are turned from the back line in a counter-clockwise or left hand direction to the ahead line. Deflection angles, right or left, are measured from an extension of the preceding course and the ahead line. It must be noted when the deflec-tion is right (R) or left (L). Angles are normally measured with a transit or a theodolite, but a compass may be used for reconnaissance work.

Traverse computations Traverse surveying in the field yields observed angles or directions and length of the traverse sides. Thus, these parameters are used in traverse computations which are performed in a plane rectangular coordinate system. The traverse computations involve calculation of consecutive coordinates of traverse stations, checking in error of closure, determination of the amount of closing error, adjustment of traverse by balancing of consecutive coordinates, calculation of independent coordinates and determination of corrected distances and azimuth of sides. Consecutive coordinates of a station is designated by its departure and latitude from its previous station as origin. Departure of a traverse side is defined as its component perpendicular to the reference meridian and the component of the traverse side along or parallel to the reference meridian is known as latitude. Thus, if l and q are the length and azimuth of a traverse side, then departure and latitude of the side are given by l sin q and l cosine q respectively. The algebraic sign of the departure and latitude of a traverse side depends on its azimuth value thus on the sign of the trigonometric parameters associated with these. Show fig:. Independent Co-ordinates:

The departure and latitude of a station with reference to an origin are known as independent coordinates. The independent coorinate of at least one of the stations with reference to the considered origin is required to be known a priori. Thus, if the independent coordinates of any station, say i, is known to be (Xi, Yi), the independent coordinates of another station say j, (Xj , Yj) can be determined by using the following relations: Xj = Xi + xij ------------ (Equation 29.1) Yj = Yi + yij ------------ (Equation 29.2) Where ( xij, yij) are the departure and latitude of the side ij. Error of Closure A check in the accuracy of traverse observation with length and azimuth considered together can be done by checking the error of closure of the traverse. The error of closure considering both length and azimuth together can be done by using consecutive coordinates of the station points of the traverse. Since, in any closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the departure should be equal to the difference between the X coordinates of the initial and terminating stations of the traverse. Similarly, the algebraic sum of the latitudes should be equal to the difference between the Y coordinates of the initial and terminating stations. Thus, for a n-stations traverse, Xn - X1 = S departures -------------- (Equation 29.3) Yn - Y1 = S latitudes -------------- (Equation 29.4) ( X1 ,Y1 ) and ( Xn , Yn ) are the independent coordinates of the initial and terminating stations of the traverse. In a closed-loop traverse, since the initial and terminating station of the traverse is the same, Eq (29.3) and Eq (29.4) reduces to S departures = 0 -------------- (Equation 29.5) S latitudes = 0 -------------- (Equation 29.6)

The amounts by which Eq 29.3 and Eq 29.4 fail to be satisfied are called the errors in closure in position or simply the closures of a traverse (Figure 29.2). The closing correction in terms of departure and latitude dD and dL are thus can be found as: dD= (Xn - X1) + S departures --------------- Eq (29.7) dL= (Yn - Y1) + S latitudes --------------- Eq (29.8) Thus closing error, e=(dD2+dL2) and the direction of the error q is given by tan = dD/dL --------------- Eq (29.9)

The sign of dD and dL finally defines the value of azimuth of error of closure.

Adjustment of Traverse Traverse adjustment is required to provide a mathematically closed figure by making closure in latitudes as well as closed departures. Methods for adjustment of traverse are classified into two types: approximate methods and rigorous methods. The approximate methods for traverse adjustment are based on the conditions prevailing in the combinations of linear and angular precision in the observations. On these basis, conditions are divided into three types. (1) Precision in angular measurement is higher than in linear measurement; (2) Precision in angular as well as in linear measurements are same; (3) Precision in linear measurement is more than that in angular measurement. The method of least square provides the most rigorous method of traverse adjustment, which allows variation in precision in the observations, minimizes random variations in the observations, provides the best estimates for positions of all traverse stations, and yields statistics relative to the accuracies of adjusted observations and positions. This method does require more of a computational effort than the approximate adjustment. But, the results are well worth effort. However, the method is beyond the scope of discussion of this course and further discussion on adjustment of traverse is based on approximate methods. The approximate methods usually adopted for balancing a traverse are the:Bowditch and transit rules. Co-ordinate Computation The objective of traverse computation is to determine the independent coordinates of traverse stations. This is used to plot the position of stations on drawing sheet. The computations can be performed systematically, by carrying out computations in a tabular form, suggested by Gale. Such table is known as Gale's traverse table

Gales Traverse Table The columns of Gale's table are filled as illustrated below: Column 1 : Enter the names of the stations at which the instrument is set up, say P, Q, R, etc Column 2 : Enter the names of traverse sides in between an instrument station and its forward station such as PQ, QR, RS etc. Column 3 : Enter the observed length of the traverse sides. Column 4 : Enter the angles observed at the stations. These may be included / interior angles or deflection angles. Sum of all the angles are entered in the end of this column. Check if there is any error of closure of the observed angles (The type of checking depends on the on the type of angles observed and the type of traverse).

Column 5 : If there is any error of closure, necessary corrections are to computed and the same is to be presented in this column. Thus, column 5 provides the correction for error of closure (Lesson 28). Column 6 : After making necessary correction to the observed angles, adjusted angles are computed and thus adjusted angles are represented in column 6. Column 7 : From the known azimuth (from previous surveying or determined before the starting of traversing) of a line present in the site and/ or from known angle between the line of known azimuth and that of a traverse side, compute the WCB of the all the traverse sides using the adjusted angles of column 6 (Lesson 28). The WCB of traverse sides are represented in column 7. Column 8 : Compute the consecutive coordinates of the stations in terms of departure and latitude with appropriate algebraic sign from the observed length (Column 3) and the WCB (Column 7) of the sides (Lesson 29). The same are represented in column 8 along proper row and under proper sub-heading. Check the error of closure of the traverse (Lesson 29). If any error is present, adjustment and balancing of traverse is to be done. The algebraic sum of the departures and latitudes are to be represented at the end of the appropriate columns. Column 9 : The error associated with the traverse is to be distributed to all the stations in such a way that there is no error of closure. Thus, corrections are to be computed for different stations. Usually Bowditch's Analytical method (Lesson 29) is usually adopted to find the correction for each individual consecutive coordinates and the same is represented in column 9 under appropriate sub-heading. At the end of the column, sum of the corrections are also represented. It is to be checked that the total correction should be same as the amount of error but opposite in nature Column 10 : The adjusted consecutive coordinates of the stations are computed making due corrections (column 9) to the consecutive coordinates (column 8). The adjusted consecutive coordinates of the stations are thus represented in column 10. Column 11 : From the known coordinates of at least one of the stations the Independent coordinates of all the other stations are computed and the same is represented in column 11.

Omitted Measurements If the length and/or bearing of any side of a closed traverse gets omitted, that can be computed analytically by applying. S departures = (Xn - X1) --------------- Eq (31.1) S latitudes = (Yn - Y1) ------------------- Eq (31.2) where (X1 ,Y1) and (Xn ,Yn) are the independent coordinates of initial and terminating control stations. Thus, in any traverse, maximum two omitted parameters can be computed from two available equations. However, no check on the accuracy of the field work can be done nor can the traverse be balanced as errors, if any, present in the survey work get propagated into the computed values of the omitted quantities. So, computation of omitted measurement, if any, is done for during computation of traverses of lower order. Types of omitted measurements

The number of omitted measurement may be one i.e., the length or bearing of any side of a traverse. The omitted element may be computed by using either of the Eq 31.1 or 31.2. If the number of omitted measurements is two, the unknown elements may be computed using both the Eq 31.1 and Eq 31.2. But, when either both length and azimuth of the same side or lengths of any two sides (adjacent or non-adjacent) are omitted, their computation can be done easily adopting this same method. But, if bearing of two adjacent sides or the length of one side and bearing of adjacent side are omitted then the above method for solution gets complicated. In these cases, trigonometric methods for solution better be applied to compute the omitted measurements conveniently. Example 31-1 provides a method of computation for omitted bearings of two sides and Example 31-2 for omitted the length of one side and bearing of other side. Also, the omitted measurements may occur on sides that are not adjacent. In these cases, the sides of the traverse are shifted in parallel directions (thus departure and latitude of the sides get maintained) in such a way the sides having unknown elements are placed adjacent and then compute the unknown elements as outlined above. In Example 31-2 the length of one side and bearing of non- adjacent side are omitted. Before applying the method of solution for adjacent sides, the original traverse get reoriented and detail may be found in the solution of the example. Plotting survey by co-ordinate method The independent coordinates of horizontal control points are required in the state plane coordinate system for preparation of topographic map. So, data from field surveying are used to calculate and adjusted in the office, correct within specified limits, and made available for direct plotting by the coordinate method. This plotting can be performed with high precision, since all measurements are linear distances measured from orthogonal axes. In order to plot by the coordinate method, a series of grid lines are drawn on the base sheet for the map using a graticule (Figure 32.1). These grid lines are sets of X and Y axes of orthogonal coordinate systems. In the state plane coordinate system (and in most other coordinate systems), the Y grid axis is aligned toward North. These grid lines are spaced at some regular, uniform interval say, 50, 100, 200, 500 or 1000 m suitable for the scale of the map being compiled. When drawing the grid lines, extreme care must be exercised to ensure that the lines are straight and of uniform weight and that the X grid lines are perpendicular to the Y grid lines. Each X and Y grid line is labeled at the edges of the map sheet with its coordinate value. Grid lines should be drawn as quickly as possible on stable-base material under uniform temperature conditions so that all measurements are consistent. The positions of the control points are then plotted by laying off the differences between the coordinates for the point and the coordinates of a pair of intersecting grid lines close to the control point (Figure 32.2). The grid lines are retained on the finished drawing or map or at the very least, the grid tick intersections are left. These grid lines or grid intersection points are invaluable for scaling the coordinates of points on the map. They can also be useful to evaluate dimensional changes in the map-base material and allow more realistic scaling of distances and locations from a given map sheet. The advantages of plotting horizontal control by rectangular coordinates are as follows: (1) adjusted coordinates are used to plot the locations so it is known that the data are correct to within the closure of the control survey network;

(2) each point is plotted independently so that there is no accumulation of error; (3) high precision and uniform accuracy can be maintained on large map sheets and when multiple map sheets are required; and (4) the method is very adaptable to automatic plotting routines and is compatible with modern datastorage procedure.