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World Politics in The 21st Century
World Politics in The 21st Century
so you arent always stuck in the book Has a design that is sleek, friendly, and easy to use. Think BMW, but in paper form. OK, bad analogy. Really though, it looks nice. And thats only the beginning. To help get the material across and make it easier for you, each chapter includes Test Prep Questions, a Marginal Glossary that gives you definitions right when you need them, Key Terms at the beginning of chapters, Marginal Icons that link you to web content, and a Learning Objectives Review so you know whats going to be covered. Oh yeah, and the website is very cool. Its got the stuff mentioned above plus video interviews and documentaries from CNN, photo essays, and additional articles. See people like Maria Stephan from the International Center for Nonviolent Conflict. Get a better handle on concepts like mutually assured destruction by watching a CNN video. If youre like me and learn better from visual information, youll love this website . . . . !!!
W. Raymond Duncan
State University of New York, Brockport
Barbara Jancar-Webster
State University of New York, Brockport
Bob Switky
Sonoma State University
Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Senior Sponsoring Editor: Traci Mueller Marketing Manager: Edwin Hill Discipline Product Manager: Lynn Baldridge Senior Development Editor: Jeffrey Greene Senior Project Editor: Nancy Blodget Senior Media Producer: Lisa Ciccolo Content Manager: Janet Edmonds Art and Design Manager: Jill Haber Cover Design Director: Tony Saizon Senior Photo Editor: Jennifer Meyer Dare Senior Composition Buyer: Chuck Dutton New Title Project Manager: James Lonergan Editorial Assistant: Evangeline Bermas Marketing Assistant: Samantha Abrams Editorial Assistant: Jill Clark Cover Image Credits Protesters: Peter Turnley / CORBIS Sumo wrestler: Creasource / CORBIS Student Choice logo: Trevor Hunt / iStockphoto
Copyright 2009 by Houghton Mifin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Houghton Mifflin Company unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copyright law. Address inquiries to College Permissions, Houghton Mifin Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764. Printed in the U.S.A. Library of Congress control number: 2007940571 Instructors exam copy: ISBN 13: 978-0-547-05634-0 ISBN 10: 0-547-05634-6 For orders, use student text ISBNs: ISBN 13: 978-0-547-05634-0 ISBN 10: 0-547-05634-6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 WEB 12 11 10 09 08
Brief Contents
Part 1 Foundation of World Politics
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 The Importance of World Politics 2 Approaches to World Politics 30 Analyzing World Politics 62
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Contents
Preface xiii
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Join the Debate: Looking Out for Number One 59 Learning Objectives Review 61 Resources on the Web 61
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Information Technology 18 The New Global and Transnational Issues 20 The Increasing Inability of the State to Solve Problems 21 The Rise of Ethnic Nationalism and Religious Fundamentalism 22 New Citizen Activism 25
Join the Debate: Should There Be One World Government? 27 Learning Objectives Review 29 Resources on the Web 29
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The International System as a Whole 71 The Regional Level of Analysis 77 The State Level of Analysis 78 The Substate Level of Analysis 80 The Individual Level of Analysis 84
Join the Debate: The New Global Civil Society Is Great! 92 Learning Objectives Review 94 Resources on the Web 95
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Join the Debate: The Big Debate About China: Will It Be the Worlds Next Superpower? 126 Learning Objectives Review 128 Resources on the Web 129
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Join the Debate: The United States Should Leave the United Nations 196 Learning Objectives Review 198 Resources on the Web 199
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International Systemlevel, State-level, and Individual-level Factors 141 Beliefs Shape Foreign-policy Decisions: Ideology, Religion, and Nationalism 143 Some Perspectives on Foreign-policy Decision Making 144
Join the Debate: Globalization Demands a New Foreignpolicy Approach for the Sovereign State 156 Learning Objectives Review 158 Resources on the Web 159
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What Corporate Actors Operate in the International Arena, c and How Powerful Are They? 211
Exploring the International Business Scene 211 The Economic Clout of Corporate Actors 214
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Join the Debate: Should the International Community Allow Minke Whaling? 226 Learning Objectives Review 228 Resources on the Web 229
Seeking to Legitimize Power 283 Promoting State Political Unity and Economic Development 284 Promoting Self-determination Movements 285 Legitimizing a Leaders Preferred Policy Direction 285 A Summary of Nationalism 286
Join the Debate: Should America Try to Transplant Its Civic Nationalism Abroad? 287 Learning Objectives Review 288 Resources on the Web 289
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What Are the Weapons of War, and Can They Be c Controlled? 300
Weapons of Mass Destruction 301 Conventional Weapons Versus Unconventional Weapons 303 Controlling the Weapons of War 306
Join the Debate: Does Geography Matter in a Globalized World? 259 Learning Objectives Review 261 Resources on the Web 261
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Reducing Motivations for Violence: Deterrence 319 Nuclear Deterrence among States 319 International Law and Organizations 321 The Future Applicability of International Law 324
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Join the Debate: Is the World Safer with More Nuclear States? 325 Learning Objectives Review 326 Resources on the Web 327
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The Policy of Free Trade 373 An Analysis of Protectionism 377 Trading Blocs 382 Protectionist Trends 382 Managing the Global Trading System 384 The World Trade Organization 384
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A Brief History of Currency 389 Unifying a Region: Europes Single Currency 390 Managing the International Monetary System 392
Join the Debate: What Is the Impact of Multinational Corporations? 397 Learning Objectives Review 398 Resources on the Web 399
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A History of Low Political, Economic, and Social Status 342 The Rise of the Womens Movement 343 Womens Rights Today 344 Womens Rights as Human Rights 345
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How Has the International Community Responded to c Human Rights Violations? 355
International Response to Improving the Status of Women Around the World 355 The UN and Human Rights Intervention 360
Three Main Theoretical Approaches 412 Theory and Practice of Cooperation among Developing Countries 417
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Join the Debate: Womens Rights Are Not Human Rights 365 Learning Objectives Review 366 Resources on the Web 367
The Colonial Legacy 420 Economic and Human Health Factors 421 Government Factors 422 Violence within and between Developing Countries 423 The Role of Globalization and Relations with Developed States 426 The Role of Non-Western Political Thought 427 The Role of Ethnic and Religious Nationalism 428
What Is the Relationship between Development and c Democracy? 429 Join the Debate: Can Outside Aid Help Africa? 432 Learning Objectives Review 433 Resources on the Web 433
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Join the Debate: The Best Strategy for Solving Global Environmental Problems 469 Learning Objectives Review 472 Resources on the Web 473
Preface
c The Student Choice Edition:
A Team Approach: Built by Professors and Students, for Professors and Students
Over the past two years Houghton Mifflin has conducted research and focus groups with a diverse cross-section of professors and students from across the country. The purpose of this endeavor has been to create the rst textbook that truly reects what professors and students want and need in an educational product. The result of this effort is World Politics in the 21st Century, Student Choice Edition. Everything in this textbookfrom its structure and organization to its learning system, design, packaging and marketinghas been orchestrated to meet the teaching and studying requirements of todays instructors and students. We believe you will nd this breakthrough textbook model provides a unique path for your students to advance their understanding of the complexities of twenty-rst century world politics.
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World Politics in the 21st Century, Student Choice Edition provides exactly what students want and need pedagogically in an educational product. While other textbooks on the market include some of these features, this Student Choice Edition is the rst international relations textbook to incorporate fully all of these cornerstones, as well as to introduce innovative new learning methods and study processes that completely meet the wishes of todays students. It does this by: z Being concise and to the point z Presenting more content in bulleted or more succinct formats z Highlighting and boldfacing key concepts and information z Organizing content in smaller, easier-to-manage chunks z Providing a system for immediate reinforcement and assessment throughout the chapter z Creating a design that is open, user friendly, and interesting for todays students z Developing an integrated Web component that focuses on quizzing and assessment of key concepts z Creating a product that is easier for students to read and study z Providing students with a product they feel is valuable When we asked students to compare a chapter from this new learning model to chapters from traditional competing textbooks, students overwhelmingly rated this new product model as far superior.
Preface
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as power, foreign policy, intergovernmental actors, nongovernmental actors, political geography, and nationalism. Part Three looks at signicant issues in 21st century world politicsglobal violence, wars, weapons and terrorism, human rights, women and global justice, the international political economy and developed countries, the political economy of development, and the global environment. Chapters move from the more basic concepts and principlessuch as how to think about and analyze world politics in terms of the state, power, and foreign policytoward a discussion of the multiple dimensions of todays world politics arena. Each chapter contains learning objectives to make clear the important points to keep in mind, mini quizzes to make certain key elements are grasped, a debate to sharpen understanding of major issues and a case study at the end of the chapter to give deeper meaning and relevance to the chapters discussion. World politics today poses a real challenge to our understanding, yet this textbook offers keys that will open the doors for us. The main theme of this book is that we can make sense of world politics by nding patterns in world events. The principal pattern is centralization versus decentralization. Centralizing tendencies of international relations are found in the twin processes of globalization and global interdependenceand in international organizations. Decentralization tendencies show up in forces such as nationalism, religious fundamentalism, terrorism, and divisive ideologies. Spreading globalization and inter dependence have made state boundaries less relevant to commerce and nance and have undermined old concepts of state sovereignty. Intergovernmental organ izations (IGOs) that tie states together now span the globe, while a host of new non-governmental organizations (NGOs) unite people across state boundaries and work tirelessly to solve age-old problems, such as race, religion, economic degradation, and territory disputes that threaten to tear the world apart. Decentralizing forces, on the other hand, are mirrored in numerous driving forces examined in this text. They include ethnic national groups that seek to fragment states into even smaller land areasa legitimate endeavor from the perspective of the individual groups in search of control of their lives. The Palestinian drive for statehood inside Israelwith all its explosive violence in that part of the worldis a case in point. Iraq, meanwhile, illustrates the volatile and divisive inuence of religion as Sunnis battle Shiites, while the Kurds would like independence from both these groups. Nuclear and conventional weapons proliferation, not least of which is the spread of ballistic missile technology as well as chemical and biological weapons, fall into the category of decentralizing forces. North Korea and Iran hence become natural points of concern by much of the world community when it comes to nuclear weapons.
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Online Instructors Manual. Written by the authors and based on their extensive classroom experience, each chapter contains a wealth of active and collaborative learning techniques, Internet projects, home assignments, and case study teaching techniques. HMTesting Instructor CD. This CD-ROM contains electronic Test Bank items. Through a partnership with the Brownstone Research Group, HMTestingpowered by Diplomaprovides instructors with all the tools they need to create, write/edit, customize, and deliver multiple types of tests. Instructors can import questions directly from the Test Bank, create their own questions, or edit existing questions, all within Diplomas powerful electronic platform. Instructor Website. This website offers valuable resources for course preparation and presentation, including downloadable Instructors Manual les and classroom response system (clicker) slides. A news feed provided by the Associated Press provides a steady stream of current events for classroom discussion. Visit the Instructor Website at college.hmco.com/pic/duncanWP. BetweenNations.org. This website is an online learning tool designed specically to engage students in the international political process through a variety of media, including original videos, short-form documentaries, writing excerpts, and additional resources. Students are asked to answer a series of questions in the online Notebook, which records their answers and allows you to keep a record of the assignment. Correlated to the Table of Contents in the text, the site offers instructors two to ve quality homework assignments per chapter and content that engages students and invigorates class discussions. In addition, to keep your students current with world affairs there are news feeds from BBC World News and top stories from the United Nations News Centre.
FOR STUDEnTS
BetweenNations.org. Each copy of this book includes passkey access to the valuable resources of BetweenNations.org, a dynamic and user-friendly website providing an array of multimedia content and web-based assignments for students. With a narrative approach featuring real people in real-world political environments, the sites video clips and interactive resources bring concepts to life and directly complement the textbook chapters. Students complete assignments on the website and submit their work to instructors with the click of a button. Students will also have access to ashcards to check their comprehension of key terms, practice tests, audio concept study tools for download, and the news feeds from BBC World News and the United Nations.
We are very grateful to all the students across the country who participated in one form or another in helping us to create and build the rst educational product
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pedagogically designed specically for them and their learning and educational goals. Working with these students was an honor, as well as a lot of fun, for all of us at Houghton Mifin. We sincerely appreciate their honesty, candor, creativeness, and interest in helping us to develop a better learning experience. We also appreciate their willingness to meet with us for lengthy periods of time and to allow us to videotape them and use some of their excellent quotes. We wish them much success as they complete their college education, begin their careers, and go about their daily lives.
STUDEnT PARTiCipAnTS
Acosta, Pricilla, University of Texas at Brownsville Adamec, Christopher J., Indiana University, Bloomington Aiken, Katie, Miami University Albert, Chris, California State University, Sacramento Allen, Laura, Carroll College Araujo, Javier H., University of Texas at Brownsville Arreola, Jose, University of Texas at Brownsville Back, Hillary, James Madison University Baker, Elaine, Iowa Lakes Community College Barrett, ONeil, Borough of Manhattan Community College Barron, Joe, Providence College Beal, Laura, Miami University Belle, JaLisha Elaine, Adrian College, MI Beverly, Carolyn, Southwest Tennessee Community College Bis, Ryan, Boston University Boyd, Shawn, Southwest Tennessee Community College Brantley, Gerius, Florida Atlantic University Brewster, Angie, Boston College Brez, Cyleigh, Miami University Bruss, Joy, Carroll College Buchholz, Mike, James Madison University Butters, Amy, Carroll College Calvo, Veronica, Keiser College Campbell, Jessy, James Madison University Chester, Elaine, Columbus Technical College Chimento, Kristin, Miami University Coker, Nadine, Columbus Technical College Collins, Shayla, Southwest Tennessee Community College Connolly, Catie, Anna Marie College Cooper, Angelique, DePaul University Cooper, Jolinda, Beaufort County Community College Counihan, Mallory, James Madison University Day, Brian, Georgia State University Delaney-Winn, Adam, Tufts University Denton, Justin, California State University, Sacramento DiSerio, Stephanie, Miami University Diz, Rita, Lehman College
Dolcemascolo, Christine, California State University, Sacramento Dolehide, Maggie, Miami University Dripps, Matthew, Miami University Duran, Gabriel, Florida International University Ebron, Clara, Beaufort County Community College Espinoza, Giovanni, Hunter College Fahrenbach, Tanya, Benedictine University Fargo, Sarah Louise, Indiana University, Bloomington Faridi, Muneeza, Georgia State University Fischer, Christina, University of Illinois at Chicago Fisher, Emily Katherine, Indiana University, Bloomington Fleming, Linda, Columbus Technical College Frazier, Sharita, Georgia State University Gabri, Holli, Adrian College, MI Gagnon, Danielle, Boston University Gamez, Iris, University of Texas at Brownsville Garza, Brenda, University of Texas at Brownsville Gillispie, Renata, Southwest Tennessee Community College Glater, Paulina, DePaul University Gonzalez, Donna, Florida International University Goulet, Michelle, Carroll College Greenbaum, Barry, Cooper Union Grifs, Jill, Carroll College Hall, Rachel, Miami University Harris, Emma, Miami University Hawkins, Roy, Southwest Tennessee Community College Hightower, Kendra, Southwest Tennessee Community College Hill, Erika, University of Florida Hoff, Joe, University of WisconsinLaCrosse Hooser, Ginny, Western Illinois University Huang, Jin, Georgia State University Janko, Matt, University of MassachusettsAmherst Johnson, Peggy, Iowa Lakes Community College Johnson, Stella, Columbus Technical College Keltner, Travis, Boston College Khan, Javed, University of Central Florida Knowles, Mary, University of Central Florida
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Konigsberg, Matthew, Baruch University Kozeibayeva, Leila, Indiana University, Bloomington Krouse, Molly, James Madison University Kuhnlenz, Fritz, Boston University Lambalot, Lindsey, Northeastern University Lanier, Mary, Southwest Tennessee Community College Largent, Thomas, Adrian College, MI Lawrence, Lucy, Beaufort County Community College Lee, Cheng, University of WisconsinLaCrosse Lippi, Steven, Boston College Long, Crystal, Iowa Lakes Community College Lopez, Henry, Florida International University Ly, Bryant, Georgia State University Lynch, Jessie, Miami University Mancia, Mario, Georgia State University Marcous, Michael, University of Central Florida Marith, Sarah, Boston University Marshall, Nichole, Columbus Technical College Mavros, Nichelina, Fordham University McLean, Chad, California State University, Sacramento McNamara, Meghan, California State University, Sacramento Medina, Jose A., University of Texas at Brownsville Michalos, Marika, City College of New York Miller, Evan, Parsons School of Design Monzon, Fernando, Miami Dade College Moore, Donald, Beaufort County Community College Nitka, Matt, University of WisconsinLaCrosse Noormohammad, Rehan, Northeastern Illinois University Ofnger, Caitlin, Amherst College Ortiz, Laura, University of Texas at Brownsville Paredes, Idalia, University of Texas at Brownsville Paruin, John, Adrian College, MI Queen, Durrell, University of New York Randall, William, Southwest Tennessee Community College Rayski, Adrienne, Baruch University Rederstorf, Melonie, Adrian College, MI
Ringel, Kevin, Northwestern University Rodriguez, Juan F., University of Texas at Brownsville Rodriguez, Uadira, University of Texas at Brownsville Rosenwinkel, Wendy, Iowa Lakes Community College Royster, Megan, Indiana University, Bloomington Savery, Alison, Tufts University Schaffner, Laura, Miami University Schiller, Raquel, University of Central Florida Schlutal, Aubrey, James Madison University Silgvero, Jesus Javier, University of Texas at Brownsville Silva, Miriam, University of Texas at Brownsville Simkovi, Jordan, Northwestern University Smith, Christine, James Madison University Smith, Everrett, Southwest Tennessee Community College Smith, Karl, Western Illinois University Smith, Letesha, Southwest Tennessee Community College Staley, Ahmad, Columbus Technical College Stenzler, Michael, University of Central Florida Stondal, Adam, Adrian College, MI Teekah, Karissa, Lehman College Thermitus, Patrick, Bentley College Thurmon, Lorie, Beaufort County Community College Toft, Gregory, Baruch University Tolles, Rebecca, Miami University Tran, Vivi, University of Central Florida Trzyzewski, Sam, Boston University Uribe, Vanessa, Florida International University Vayda, Kristin, Miami University Werner, Michael, Baruch University Wesley, Adrian, Southwest Tennessee Community College White, Robert, DePaul University Williams, Jen, Carroll College Williams, LaTonya, Southwest Tennessee Community College Wong, Helen, Hunter College Yusuf, Aliyah, Lehman College Zittericsch, Steve, Iowa Lakes Community College 525 Students in MKTG 431: Principles of Marketing, San Francisco State University
We are equally grateful to all the professors across the country who participated in the development and creation of this new textbook through content reviews, advisory boards, and/or focus group work regarding the new pedagogical learning system. As always, professors provided us with invaluable information, ideas, and suggestions that consistently helped to strengthen our nal product. We owe them great thanks and wish them much success in and out of their classrooms.
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PROFESSOR PARTICIPANTS
Blakely, Malika, Georgia State University Boeckelman, Keith, Western Illinois University Brown, Paula E., Northern Illinois University Eliason, Robert, James Madison University Fine, Terri Susan, University of Central Florida Fisher, Bruce, Elmhurst College Fox, Mark, Indiana University South Bend Hensley, Kermelle, Columbus Technical College Hladik, Paula, Waubonsie Community College McConnel, Lisa, Oklahoma State University Nalder, Kimberly Love, California State University, Sacramento Peterson, Suzanne, Arizona State University Schultz, Debbie, Carroll College Silver, Gerald, Purdue UniversityCalumet Thannert, Nancy, Robert Morris College Thomas, Ron, Oakton Community College Thompson, Kenneth, DePaul University Weeks, Benjamin, St. Xavier University
c Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the following reviewers and consultants who provided feedback for this and previous versions of this book: Linda S. Adams, Baylor University E. Perry Ballard, Brescia University Amanda Bigelow, Illinois Valley Community College Patricia Bixel, Maine Maritime Academy Merike Bloeld, Grand Valley State University J. Barron Boyd, LeMoyne College Sophie Clavier, San Francisco State University Jane Cramer, University of Oregon Michael Deaver, Sierra College Mark Denham, University of Toledo Jeff Dense, Eastern Oregon University Rado Dimitrov, University of Minnesota Manochehr Dorraj, Texas Christian University David V. Edwards, The University of Texas at Austin Larry Elowitz, Georgia State College and University Rick Foster, Idaho State University Erich Frankland, Casper College Andrea Grove, Westminster College Nancy Haanstad, Weber State University Steven Jones, University of Charleston Kelcchi Kalu, University of Northern Colorado Roger E. Kanet, University of Miami Patricia Keilbach, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
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George Kent, University of Hawaii Deepa Khosla, Willamette University Bertin K. Kouadio, Florida International University Lawrence LeBlanc, Marquette University Christopher Leskiw, Cumberland College Guoli Liu, College of Charleston Domenic Maffei, Caldwell College Vince Mazzeo, Everest College Zach Messitte, St. Marys College of Maryland Matthew Morehouse, University of Nebraska at Kearne Joel C. Moses, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Michael Nojeim, Prairie View A&M University Richard A. Nolan, University of Florida Christopher Prososki, University of Nebraska at Kearney Jeffrey Ross, Yale Gordon College Joseph R. Rudolph, Towson University Christopher Scholl, Wheeling Jesuit University Thomas Schrand, Philadelphia University Charles Sewall, Jr., Robert Morris College Shawn Shieh, Marist College Adam Silverman, University of Florida Robert E. Sterken, Jr., University of Texas at Tyler Paul E. Sum, University of North Dakota David Van Heemst, Olivet Nazarene University Peter M. Volpe, Meredith College Carol Woodn, Palm Beach Atlantic College Raymond F. Wylie, Lehigh University A special note of appreciation goes to Dr. Nikolai V. Semin of Moscow State University for his invaluable help in PowerPoint design and presentation, and in his ability to reformat for Microsoft Word virtually any text we put in front of him. Our deep thanks as well to the many students who assisted in Web research, proofreading, collating, and doing the countless things that a book this size demands. Our thanks go to Ty Haussler, James Schledewits, Eric Okanovc, Paul Ferland, Kara Gable, Alison Schweicher, Mary Buggie-Hunt, Marian Gentzel, and Carrie Labell. We would also like to thank Marcelle Stickles, Secretary, Department of Political Science and International Studies, SUNYCollege at Brockport. Any errors that remain of course are our own. Last but not least, we must thank our ever-patient spouses without whose constant support and encouragement we could not have brought this book to a successful completion. W. Raymond Duncan Barbara Jancar-Webster Bob Switky
Learning Objectives
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Understand how world politics affects your life and how studying international affairs will help you develop analytical skills to better see patterns in the complexity of current events.
Dene world politics and be able to understand current political events through the competing forces of centralization and decentralization.
Chapter Outline
Politics as the Authoritative Allocation of Values An Overview of World Politics Current Political Trends
Identify the ve most signicant forces shaping the world today and understand how these forces have centralizing or decentralizing effects on world politics.
Globalization The process by which economic, social, and political institutions become worldwide in terms of activity, inuence, and application.
At the end of World War II, intercontinental plane service was a rarity, and a ight from New York City to Shannon, Ireland, took over nineteen hours with stopovers. Today, you can y nonstop from Seattle to Tokyo, a far greater distance, in thirteen hours. The increase in airplane speed and the universality of air travel has made the planet smaller and brought previously inaccessible places within the reach of virtually every traveler. It also made possible the horrors of the World Trade Center catastrophe of September 11, 2001, and facilitated the lightning spread of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic around the world in 2003.
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Key Terms
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globalization p. 3 authority p. 4 treaty p. 4 sovereign p. 4 decentralization p. 5 centralization p. 5 politics p. 5 intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) p. 6 non-state actors (NSAs) p. 6 resource p. 7 struggle for power p. 8 balance of power p. 9 collective security p. 10 terrorism p. 10 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) p. 10 comparative government p. 15 Cold War p. 16 religious extremism p. 16 transnational p. 20 global commons p. 21 non-state actor (NSA) p. 25 nongovernmental organization (NGO) p. 25
Authority The right or power to enforce rules or give orders. In the modern world, who has this authority is usually decided by elections. Treaty A contract in writing between two or more political authorities, such as states, formally signed by representatives of those states, and most commonly ratied by the legislature of the signatory states. Sovereign No higher authority can control the states decision. The state has a monopoly on the use of force.
The high-tech revolution of the 1970s and 1980s brought the personal computer, the Internet, the cell phone, and hand-held personal digital assistants, which are now commonplace throughout the world. The days of media companies or government-owned organizations that gathered, monitored, and controlled information ow have given way to news that is transmitted over TV and the Web as it happens. In the last thirty years, there has been a similar revolution in biotechnology. Modern advances promise cures for many of humanitys ailments and at the same time raise the threat of biological warfare. Global interconnectedness shapes our experiences. Rapid technological change makes the world a global village, where what one group of people does in one part of the planet can be immediately acted upon in another part. The collapse of the World Trade Center towers was lmed as it happened and instantaneously transmitted around the globe in real time. On a more positive note, the high-tech revolution has brought great economic benets. A college students purchase of a T-shirt with a particular design at a Wal-Mart in Des Moines, Iowa, or a Grande Surface in Lyons, France, triggers a computerprogrammed merchandise accounting-and-ordering system that crosses continents with the speed of light and generates new orders from China that are shipped out the next day. For the college student in the West, this high-tech ordering system enables him or her to buy goods at the lowest possible price. For the Chinese factory owner, the system ensures a constant demand for the product, and for the worker, steady wages. The absence of an overarching world authority is a third characteristic of the modern international system. Rapid change is taking place in a world where there is no overarching authority that can use force to restrain the violent or bring the offenders to justice. We live in a world whose outlines were set by the Treaty of Westphalia, a seventeenth-century treaty signed by the states of Europe that were eager to work out ways to stop the violence that had been tearing their continent apart for thirty years (see chapter 3). The treatys program for peace was based on the twin notions of state sovereignty and noninterference in the affairs of other states. Three and a half centuries later, the principal world actors remain the sovereign states, or independent countries, like China, Japan, Russia, France, and the United States. When we call a state sovereign, we mean no higher authority can control its decisions: the state has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. Almost all of the worlds states are members of the world organization of states, the United Nations (UN), but UN decisions are not binding on its members because the UNs institutions have no coercive means to compel compliance. Sovereignty thus presents states with opportunities for conict or cooperation. In particular, sovereignty engenders political forces within states that promote cooperation with other states, as well as forces that emphasize the states individuality, uniqueness, and national interest. World politics today is
Decentralization The spreading or distribution of functions and power from a central authority to regional and local authorities. In world politics, decentralization infers the strengthening of the functions and powers of the various entities that make up the international system, including states and non-state actors. Centralization The concentration of political or administrative power in a central authority with diminished power at lower or local levels of government. In world politics centralization infers the concentration of political power in some kind of central institution with the states giving up some of their powers of self-rule. Politics The theory and practice of government at all levels of organization. The total complex of relations between humans in society.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 bc) wrote, Man by nature is a political animal.1 Politics comes from the Greek word for the principal form of state organization in ancient Greece, the city-state, or polis. Aristotle took for granted that a primary feature of a political community is authority to make decisions for the well-being of the community. This authority or power may be exercised in a legal or dictatorial manner, and it may be located in one person (a king or dictator), a few people (oligarchy), or many people (representative government or mob rule). The nineteenth-century thinkers Karl Marx and Max Weber emphasized the importance of power deployed within a given territory as central to the concept of a political association.
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Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) Organizations composed of representatives appointed by state governments that have agreed to become members of the organizations.
Non-state actors (NSAs) Members of groups of individuals with shared economic, social, religious, or environmental interests.
Allocating Resources
Resources constitute the nal component of Lasswells denition, the what, or the values of Eastons denition. These resources may be conveniently divided into three types: political resources, economic resources, and social and cultural resources. a. Political resources refer to a countrys power, prestige, and status, backed by military power. We call these scarce resources because of the internationally perceived hierarchical arrangement of world order. As we show in chapter 3, we tend to perceive the international system as a four-tiered structure with the developed industrial states at the top and the poorest and failed states at the bottom. Developed countries can leverage their status and prestige to gain their objectives even if they lack military power. Poor and failed states can only use their weakness as bargaining chips. One state, the United States, is a superpower. Other industrialized states, like Japan, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, are world powers. All these states have in common stable political systems. Although elections may be hotly contested, the transition of power from one leader to the next is peaceful. States with stable political systems are less likely to collapse or fail than states with weak political institutions. States like Russia and China are harder to categorize because they are in the midst of enormous political as well as economic transformation. However, Russias nuclear weapons and Chinas large military gives these countries more power and greater status than very poor countries, like Chad, or failed states, almost non-states, like Somalia. b. Economic resources include a states nancial resources, such as wealth, annual national income, supply of capital, and investment opportunities; industrial and agricultural production; and natural resources (oil, coal, soil, water, and
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Struggle for power The struggle to compete for and reach dominance in an organization, a state, a region of the world, or the whole world.
mineral resources). Like political resources, these are also scarce resources not equally distributed around the globe. For example, most of the worlds capital is located in the hands of the top 1 percent of the worlds population, living primarily in the United States, Japan, and Western Europe. The United States attracts foreign investment, especially from Asia, because of its huge nancial resources and relatively free nancial markets, which make it easy to invest. Asia, by contrast, has become the global industrial powerhouse, producing the majority of consumer goods for the rest of the world. By far, the most significant scarce economic resources are energy resources. So important is oil to the developed worlds economies that many of us tend to explain world politics simply in terms of the struggle for control of the worlds oil supplies. We look at this issue in chapter 7. Water is another scarce resource whose availability is grossly under appreciated. The world may eventually learn to do without oil, but human beings can never do without water. From California to Mexico, to Australia, China, and the Middle East, the Earths water supply is increasingly failing to meet the needs of the Earths large population. The twenty-rst century is likely to see water wars (see chapter 14). c. Social and cultural resources may not seem directly related to the global struggle for power , but they most certainly play a huge role. Like all other resources, these are scarce and unequally distributed around the globe. They include health, education, a clean environment, and a population that agrees on the major values of its government so that ethnic or religious diversity adds to the power of the state rather than undermines it. Once again, the United States, Japan, and Western Europe lead the world in these resources. They have the most educated populations, the healthiest people, and relative harmony between diverse ethnic and racial groups within national borders. A sick population has little strength to engage in economics or politics. For example, the AIDS epidemic in Africa is so severe that it is wiping out the middle generation of Africans, the very individuals who should be actively engaged in the economic and political life of their countries. Despite its political instability, Russia remains a powerful state, able to project itself on the world stage because it has a highly educated population with high-tech skills that are valuable all over the globe. What keeps Russia in a secondary power position is the declining health of its citizens. AIDS is becoming widespread throughout the country, and, as in Africa, threatening to wipe out much of that educated population. We see, then, that who gets what, when, and how in world politics depends, in large measure, on which states can demonstrate sufcient power to determine or dominate decisions on the distribution of the worlds scarce resources. It should come as no surprise that the wealthiest states with a strong military, high educational and health levels, and relative ethnic harmony should be the states in the best position to make their decisions prevail.
In world politics, as we have said, there is no authoritative institutionno world governmentthat is recognized as such by its member states and that has the power to make decisions about the distribution of the worlds scarce resources.
Balance of power The distribution of power among two or more nations where the pattern of military and economic dominance among them is balanced such that no single nation has dominance over the others.
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Collective security The maintenance of peace and prevention of war through the united action of nations.
z Collective Security: At the Peace Conference at Versailles, outside Paris, France, the nations of Europe once again came together to talk about the organization of a postwar world. Europe was in a shambles, its economy in ruins. France had spent all the wealth accumulated in the previous century and lost 20 percent of its population. Because the Americans had had the decisive power to stop the Germans, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a former political science professor and president of Princeton University, presented to the Conference his view of an international organization where collective security would replace the old alliance system and the nations of the world would resolve their conicts peacefully in a global assembly. The Conference delegates agreed somewhat reluctantly to form a League of Nations. However, despite Wilsons efforts, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty. With the most powerful world player absent, the League had a short life. In 1933, Hitler became chancellor in Germany. Just two decades after signing the Versailles peace treaty, Europe was at war again. The vision of an international institution that could deal with conict remained alive through the horrors of World War II and the Holocaust. In 1945, a new world organization came into being, the United Nations. This organization is still in existence. On balance, it has achieved a great deal and done much to alleviate world poverty and conquer disease. However, it has proved unable to stop conict. We discuss the UN and its current role in world politics in chapter 6.
Terrorism Politically motivated violence, usually perpetrated against civilians. Terrorists and terrorist groups normally want to change by force or by threat of force a political context that they oppose. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) A military alliance, initially formed in 1949 between Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and the United States. The alliance created a system of collective defense whereby the member states agreed to mutual defence in response to an attack by an external party. At its beginning the attack was expected to come from Soviet Russia. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952 and West Germany in 1955. France withdrew from the alliance in 1959 to pursue an independent defence. After 9/11 NATO expanded its area of activity to include taking charge of the mission in Afghanistan.
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_____ 1. IGOs (intergovernmental organizations) are the principal actors in international politics. _____ 2. NSAs (non-state actors) have only recently become major players in the international system, yet are among the most signicant. _____ 3. The idealist approach to power attempts to obtain as much power as possible by focusing on elevating a states status and prestige. _____ 4. Social and cultural resources are signicant factors in whether a state will have power in the international system. _____ 5. A state using the balance of power approach to international politics will attempt to balance its political and economic resources as much as possible.
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_____ 6. Which of the following makes the Treaty of Westphalia a landmark treaty for international affairs? a. Allowed for recognition of new states and for peaceful interactions between states b. Ended a war that had gone on longer than most other wars during that period of history c. Bypassed traditional diplomatic practices in favor of the use of force d. Allowed states to band together to form collective security alliances _____ 7. Which of the following is not an example of centralizing tendencies in international politics? a. The League of Nations b. The United Nations c. The European Union d. Non-state-actor inuence in the international system
Among the many reasons that might be given for studying world politics, we offer three: The study of world politics will help relate the worlds future to the rest of your life. World politics will help you see the connections between international issues and the politics of individual states. And studying world politics will help you nd patterns in the complexity of current events.
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country of destination. One of the most common reasons for studying world politics is in preparation for a career in the foreign service or the United States Department of State.
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What role should the United States play in world affairs? How can we ensure that we wont run out of energy? How can we ensure that the planet will continue to be hospitable to human
life?
How can we reduce the huge gap between the rich and the poor nations? What can be done about terrorism?
To help address these and related questions, each chapter contains a Join the Debate box that you can use to argue the theoretical points made in the chapter, or a box that invites active participation. If you work on these questions, when you have nished the book, you will be able to work out your own answers to questions of importance to you. In summary, the study of world politics helps you make sense of your world. It gives you a set of tools with which to assess the world situation, whatever the crisis or driving forces at work may be. World politics provides methods of analysis to help you understand the diverse positions of the worlds leaders and peoples, and it proposes frameworks for evaluating the media sound bites that ood the daily news. Last, studying world politics shows you how the world out there is closely tied to your world at home and how the interaction between the two affects your life.
Comparative government The comparison of interactions of state actors within state borders.
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_____ 1. Religion and ethnicity act as centralizing forces leading to increased peace and stability in international politics. _____ 2. The bankruptcy of corporations in America has the potential to lead to the increase in unemployment and reduced consumption throughout the rest of the world. _____ 3. Comparative governmentthe study of political processes internal to governments around the worldcan be clearly separated from the study of international affairs, which focuses on politics between states.
Multiple Choice
_____ 4. Which of the following is not a proposal from the UN Commission on Global Governance? a. A system of global taxation for individuals and companies that burn fuels emitting carbon dioxide
b. A standing UN army to intervene in states that abuse human rights c. A system that allows individuals to sue states that engage in economic policies that counter free trade practices d. UN authority over global commons such as the oceans _____ 5. Intermestic issues deal with: a. The intersection between politics of developed countries and developing countries b. Internal political processes inuenced by domestic lobbying groups c. Issues that have both a domestic and international component d. International economic situations that affect the UNs ability to provide funding for its internal operations
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In this book, we discuss ve forces that are important in shaping our world at present. These are not the only forces, but to our mind, they are the most signicant. They are: z information technology z new global and transnational issues z increasing inability of states to solve their problems individually z rise of ethnic nationalism and religious fundamentalism z new citizen activism Whether these forces will push the world closer together or farther apart it is too soon to tell. But it is safe to say that at present, each of them can be either centripetal or centrifugal. They can work toward greater cooperation or toward more global fragmentation. Let us look at each of these forces in turn. High-tech Meets Low-tech
Information Technology
Since 1980, the industrialized nations have shifted to what are termed postindustrial technologies. These technologies make distances shorter and increase the speed of communication. They range from currency-exchange transactions via the computer to the transfer of ideas and pictures via satellite, fax, E-mail, and the Internet. Our lives have been transformed by the information revolution. How have these technologies affected international relations? Here are a few examples.
High-tech cell phone mixes with low-tech begging bowl as this Hindu sadhu or holy man in Allahabad, India, connects with the faithful by phone. His begging bowl recalls his poverty and his dependency on others, just as all living things are connected in the divine web of being.
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instant global connections. Equally important, it can unite individuals in one chat room for discussion on a subject of mutual interest. So we must wait and see before we make a nal judgment on information technology.
In the twenty-rst century, events in one part of the world can reverberate on the global level. They differ from the old issues in that they are transnational, freely crossing state borders.
One example, in the new global economy, is the transnational corporation. This is a corporation that can use communications technology to run a global business without having a national home. It can invest and locate anywhere on the planet, beneting the people who live in that location with jobs, but it is ready and willing to pull capital out and move elsewhere if the business climate in that country shifts to its disadvantage. When global capital pulled out of Indonesia in 1997, the Indonesian people were quickly reduced to poverty. In some regions and countries, such as Russia, corporations are reluctant to invest global capital. Other countries seem to attract capital. We talk more about transnational capital transactions in chapters 10 and 11. A main feature of our world today is the large gap between the worlds rich and the worlds poor, both within countries and transnationally. This problem highlights one of the paradoxes of the tension between centralization and decen tralization. Global capital responds to the global market. In so doing, it acts at odds with attempts by the international community to put weak or failed states back on their feet. Hamid Karzai, the president of Afghanistan, has made frequent appeals to the McWorld Is Here international community to invest in his country, At the end of the twentieth century, large corporations produced with few responses from global capital sources. and marketed literally around the world. McDonalds was the first The global economy allows corporations of the to market fast food successfully by selling a standardized hamburger major industrialized countries to take advantage of and French fries in California. The company expanded operations low costs and cheap labor in the developing counthroughout the United States and prides itself in maintaining the tries in order to manufacture products to market same quality of food service around the world today. This photo was around the world. On the plus side, people all over shot in Ortokoy, Istanbul, Turkey. the globe benet from the quantity and quality of goods produced by global corporations. On the downside, the economies of mass production can drive out local companies and local products causing large-scale unemployment whenever a local industry shuts down.
Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation is another transnational and interdependent problem. Early environmentalists such as the English poets William Blake,5 and William Wordsworth6 deplored Englands satanic mills and stagnant waters. In the New World, John James Audubon painted and Henry Thoreau7 decried the disappearing ora and fauna of the rapidly expanding American frontier.
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Global commons Areas of the Earths biosphere that are shared by all the worlds population, such as oceans and the atmosphere.
International Terrorism
Finally, terrorism recognizes no state borders and has no single source. In recent years, the face of terrorism has changed. Terrorists are now networked all over the globe, and their attacks have become more deadly. They come from a diverse set of countriesIran, Iraq, Pakistan, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Peru, and Central America. Fifteen of the nineteen hijackers who commandeered the four planes on 9/11 were Saudi citizens. Identifying terrorists and preventing attacks are transnational tasks that necessitate timely coordination of both large amounts of information from all parts of the world and action among countries. Can you identify other transborder problems? Do not overlook international drug trafcking, the global child and sex trade, and the large migrations of refugees who seek to escape the consequences of global problems. These, as well as the issues that we have identied, have acquired a life of their own, demanding international agencies to assure maximum benets and minimum hardships to all the worlds people. The new issues thus operate as a powerful force pushing the world toward cooperation and international community building.
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A negative aspect of globalization has been the setting up by transnational corporations of manufacturing plants in countries, like Mexico, where wages are low. The practice takes jobs away from workers in the United States, while offering the low-wage earners between $1.00 and $3.00 a day. The pay for the workers in the developing countries is often the difference between want and subsistence, but it puts workers in the affluent, higher paid, industrialized countries out of work.
exchange of sensitive information, the standardization of laws relating to these issues, and the coordination of national police forces. We have seen the difculties faced by states trying to solve transnational problems on their own. Even a nation as powerful and wealthy as the United States cannot stop terrorism or drug trafcking by unilateral action. In the case of the environment, it is clear that no one country can undertake the cleanup of the worlds oceans or air by itself. Some reduction of domestic levels of carbon or sulfur dioxide emissions into the air can be achieved through the passage and enforcement of national emission standards. But these reductions are generally limited to local areas. The achievement of worldwide reduction of emissions requires a global agreement on the nature of the problem and its solution, with stipulations on which country is to do what to contribute to the solution.
If states are limited in what they can do to solve the new transnational problems, they are also limited in their ability to solve problems that were once viewed as purely domestic single-handedly. This is an entirely new situation requiring rethinking of what noninterference in the affairs of other states mean. Problems such as a fair wage for workers, the right price for wheat, and standards for industry and consumer goods are now enmeshed in the politics of globalization. The U.S. Congress could raise the minimum wage to $10 an hour, but many U.S. industries would quickly move to Mexico, the Caribbean, or Southeast Asia, where the cost of labor averages a dollar a day. The result would be rising unemployment in the United States and a further increase in the gap between rich and poor, as more unskilled workers are thrown out of the U.S. work force. In addition, the $10 hourly labor cost would increase the cost of products made in the United States to a level where they could not compete with cheaper products on the world market. The United States could try to push China and India into adopting a higher wage scale, but clearly, both countries would see this as interference in their domestic affairs. Globalization has been one of the strongest forces in reorienting state problem solving in the direction of international organizations (centralization). On the other hand, the perceived erosion of the states control of the domestic agenda has contributed to an increase in decentralizing tendencies within state borders.
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Source of Dissension
Low-level conflict between Mexican government and the Native Americans of Chiapas for greater autonomy of the Chiapas region Conflict in Northern Ireland between Roman Catholics and Protestants Basque separatist movement wants either independence or more autonomy Continuous dissension between Flemish- or Dutch-speaking Protestant North and Frenchspeaking Catholic South Chechnya seeking independence Conflict between majority Christian Georgians and minority Muslim Abkhazi demanding independence Conflict between majority Muslim Azeris and minority Christian Armenians who want the Armenian-controlled part of Azerbaijan ceded to Armenia Delineation of a Palestinian state Conflict between minority Sunni Iraqis, ethnic Kurds, and majority Shiite Iraqis Conflict between Muslims, supported by Pakistan, and Hindus, supported by India, for control of the territory of Kashmir Fifty-year-old conflict between Chinese government and Tibetans over Tibetan desire for independence Ongoing conflict between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils Two conflicts: 1) A civil war between the black Christian south and Arab Muslim north that has been going on for decades 2) In Darfur, in western Sudan, raids and mass murders of black Muslims by Arab Muslims
Ethnic rivalry between Hutus and Tutsis Civil war between largely Christian south and Muslim north
Union has a multiethnic population. In many of them, the larger ethnic minorities would prefer their own independent country, or at least a large share of self-rule. Since 1991, civil wars have raged in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan, as has a war for independence in Chechnya a region of Russia. (To understand the differences among state, the nation, and ethnic groups, review Figure 1.1.)
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z A geographic territory with internationally recognized boundaries z An internationally recognized and identiable population that lives within those boundaries z An internationally recognized authority structure or government
Nation
z A group of people linked together in some manner, such as by a common territory (Estonians, Czechs, Norwegians), although not necessarily by a common territory (Arabs, Tamils, Kazaks) z Common culture that may or may not be based on religion z Common language z Common history or understanding of the past z General desire for independence
Ethnic Group
z A group of people linked together similarly to those of a nation, EXCEPT: No expressed desire for independence Most important unifying or identifying factor is language z Religion is often a unifying factor.
whether to follow a more traditionally nationalist path to self-government represented by President Abbas and his party, al Fatah, or to take the more extreme religious nationalist route of Hamas (the majority in the legislature) and become a Muslim state. In Kashmir, Indian Hindu soldiers have faced Pakistani Muslim soldiers since 1948 in a bloody drama of hostility, over which country (and religion) is to prevail. In Sri Lanka, the Tamils, a minority ethnic group, want independence from the Sinhalese ethnic majority. The French-speaking Catholic Canadian province of Quebec has held several referendums on whether it should become independent of Canada. The driving force behind the rise of religious fundamentalism has been the rise of militant Islam. While militant Islam is composed of many diverse terrorist groups, its primary leader is Osama bin Laden. Scholars differ as to the objectives of militant Islam, but it is generally conceded that its goal is to end the domination of the world by the Western, highly industrialized countries that militant Islamic groups consider decadent and corrupt, and to replace the existing world order with a Muslim universal caliphate rooted in the Muslim holy book, the Koran, and Islamic law known as the Sharia. To achieve these goals, terrorists groups have
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winner exemplies the individual and non-state-actor dimensions of citizen activism. The 2006 prize went to Bangladeshi native, Muhammad Yunus for his founding of the Grameen Bank, the rst bank to give microcredit to poor people. As noted earlier, NGOs are organizations of citizens with a common agenda or set of demands they would like a government to implement. NGOs are discussed in more depth in chapter 2 and chapter 7. Some NGOs go back to the nineteenth century, but most got started in the 1970s or later. NGOs may be organized at the grass-roots level, or at the state and international levels. Grass-roots groups commonly organize around a local issue. National NGOs organize to pressure national governments to adopt certain policies or legislation, while the newest of the NGOs, international NGOs, aim to inuence international organizations, such as the UN. NGOs are as diverse as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (national), Friends of the Earth (international), the Adirondack Mountain Club (local), Sister Cities International (international), and al Qaeda, an international terrorist organization. Pressure exerted by global NGOs became so strong that in the late 1980s the UN agreed to give legal standing to NGOs that registered with them. Legal standing means that the registered NGOs are represented in an ofcial capacity at world conferences and in deliberations about UN activities. Such a practice would have been unthinkable one hundred years ago. As you can see, the new citizen activism can reinforce the centralizing tendencies at work today through the formation of like-minded NGOs that can inuence policy at the local, national, and international levels. It can also strengthen the fragmentation of world politics through the proliferation of groups with specic agendas. International terrorism is not the product of one large terrorist organization but rather a collection of smaller groups that are loosely associated and tend to act on their own volition for their own goals.
_____ 1. Forces such as information technology either act as centralizing or decentralizing forces in world politics, but not both. _____ 2. Transnational corporations operate in multiple countries but do not possess a national home. _____ 3. While the origins of transnational problems may lie across multiple countries, oftentimes it is possible for just one powerful country (such as the United States) to solve the problem. _____ 4. Ethnic or national movements leading to internal dissent is a problem faced by many different countries, including countries in the developed world such as Great Britain and Spain. _____ 5. With the changing world landscape after the attacks in the United States on 9/11, the world has seen a signicant decrease in citizen-based efforts to take power into their own hands.
_____ 6. The global commons are: a. A variety of afliated IGOs dealing with transnational economic issues b. A subdivision of the UN that focuses on bridging the gap between divergent viewpoints throughout the world c. Issues, such as human rights, that generally act as centralizing forces in world politics d. Areas of the planet shared by all the worlds population _____ 7. A geographic territory with internationally recognized boundaries is one element of a: a. state c. race b. nation d. ethnic group
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Case Study
The Report of the 9/11 Commission of the U.S. Senate and New Forces Shaping the Planet
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z The International Court of Justice should have mandatory jurisdiction over all member-states of the UN. How else is the world to ght criminal abuses of authority by heads of state, national armies, and international terrorists?
NGOs. That would put al Qaeda on the same parliamentary standing in the NGO assembly as the United States is in the current UN General Assembly. You will discover as you debate that the issue of global governance is more complex than it seems at rst and that it demands some heavy thinking.
QUESTIoNS
1. How could a world government more efciently and more equitably handle such global issues as regional conflict, poverty, and environmental degradation? 2. How readily do you think any state would be persuaded to give up voluntarily the right to control its own political, economic, and social affairs? 3. How do you understand the term global governance? Do you see the centralization of the worlds economic and political activities as a positive or negative step? Why?
SELECT READINGS
United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (Oxford University Press, 1995). Peter Singer, One World: The Ethnics of Globalization (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002). Victoria Wise and Dloyd Hedrick, Global One: The New World Government (New York: Morris, 1999). A novel written by a housewife about an astronaut who runs afoul of the Organization of Nations and faces persecution by the Prince.
SELECTED WEBSITES
www.sovereignty.net/p/gov This site provides the total text of Our Global Neighborhood, plus material supporting the con side of the global governance debate. www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global The Centre for the Study of Global Governance at the London School of Economics provides information, links, and evaluations of materials published on global governance. http://globalization.about.com/od/globalgovernance/ This site provides a bibliography of articles and reports on the institutions and practice of global governance.
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We dened world politics as the global allocation of the planets scarce political, economic, social, and cultural resources. 1 2 Because there is no world government, this allocation takes place through the struggle for power and dominance by international actors, including states, inter national intergovernmental organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and individuals. Over the past centuries, various institutions have been created by European governments to promote peace, including: the birth of the modern state system, the balance of power, and collective security.
4 6 signicant 7 8 shaping 9 10world Identify the5ve most forces the today and understand how these forces have centralizing or decentralizing effects on world politics.
3 4 how world 5 6 7 your 8 life and 9 how 10 Understand politics affects studying international affairs will help you develop analytical skills to better see patterns in the complexity of current events.
The study of world politics is important to you. It is not just a subject for diplomats and experts. As a voter, a
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Learning Objectives
1
Identify and understand the key theories that result from realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm.
Understand and be able to summarize the key assumptions of political realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm.
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Chapter Outline
What are the subjective approaches to world politics? Understand how such approaches differ from realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm.
n chapter 1, we said that world politics was the struggle for power among the worlds sovereign states in the absence of a world government to enforce the rules of the game. We further said that this struggle over the worlds scarce resources was the continuation of a historic phenomenon that has been going on since the human race began. This struggle takes place within the framework of movement toward centralization countered by movements toward decentralization. However, the struggle at the beginning of the twenty-rst century differs from those in the past due to new forces that are shaping the planet. These include the high-technology revolution; the globalization of political, economic, and social issues; the inability of one state to solve even
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Key Terms
CHAPTER 2
paradigm p. 32 political realism p. 33 idealism p. 33 ecological paradigm p. 33 realpolitik p. 35 zero-sum game p. 35 mutually assured destruction (MAD) p. 36 regime p. 38 ecosystem p. 38 sustainable development p. 38 tsunami p. 39 anthropogenic p. 40 carrying capacity p. 40 balance-of-power theory p. 42 hegemon p. 43 neorealism p. 44 security dilemma p. 44 offensive realism p. 44 Marxism p. 45 imperialism p. 46 dependency theories p. 47 liberalism p. 48 democratic peace theory p. 48 collective security p. 49 neoliberalism p. 49 deep ecology p. 52 symbiosis p. 52 ecofeminism p. 52 ecojustice p. 53 constructivism p. 56
domestic problems without taking a global perspective; the rise of ethnic nationalism and religious extremism; and the new citizen activism. How do you make sense of all that is happening in the world today? What does all the news in the media add up to? Do the rapid changes taking place provide any idea where the world is heading? What are your predictions based on Figure 2.1? Here is where theory can help. Chapter 1 supplied numerous bits of information. The only way to make the information intelligible is by organizing it in a systematic way. All such systems are rooted in the assumptions you make about human behavior in relation to the world around you. A group of those assumptions is called a paradigm . Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn has dened a paradigm as an entire constellation of beliefs, values and techniques ... shared by the members of a given community.1 In the case of international relations, members of the given community would be scholars in the political science discipline. A paradigm is thus the intellectual framework from within which we derive theories about the natural and social world. As shown in Table 2.1, theories, in turn, provide the lens through which we are able to describe events, explain them, and, less accurately, make predictions about them. Theories also help us make policy recommendations; this is a very important way in which theory and reality are linked.
FIGURE 2.1 The Difculty of Prediction
Theories Help Us To
Paradigm The framework of assumptions from within which we derive theories about the natural and the social world.
The year was 1984 and a political prophet was asked to predict what would happen in the world in twenty years time. He looked into his tea leaves and prophesied in twenty years that communism would have collapsed, that China would be a member of the World Trade Organization, that the biggest threat to the United States would be from militant Muslims then being supported by the United States, that apartheid would have ended in South Africa, and that Germany would be reunited into one state. People at that time would have thought the prophet was a lunatic. In fact, in 1984 no one predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union. You be the prophet. What do you think the international system will look like in 2024? Which states will be the major powers? What will be the major alliances and trading blocs?2
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Assumptions
Human beings are imperfect. The international world is a jungle characterized by an anarchic struggle for survival and power. War is inevitable. The only thing that stops power is power.
Idealism
Utopianism: The world is getting better. Human beings are basically good and perfectible. Caring and compassion are innate. Everyone has equal value and human dignity. We can cooperate to build a better world. We must restructure flawed institutions to create good ones.
Ecological Paradigm
The human world is a subset of the global ecosystem. Resources on Earth are finite. Humans cannot exceed an ecosystems carrying capacity or that system will collapse. Sustainable development is the answer to a planet at risk.
In this chapter, we present three of the major paradigms with their accompanying theories. In the rst section, we present each of the paradigms, and in the second, the theories that derive from them. In the last section, we look at theories that are critical of the assumptions behind the major paradigms and are starting to play a larger role in analyses of world politics. n
Political realism A philosophical position that assumes that human beings are imperfect and possess an innate desire for power. The international system is composed of states and other entities whose primary interest is to survive and thrive in an anarchic jungle whose competing actors are constrained by no higher authority. The fundamental purpose of the state is to use its power to further its interests while containing the power of other states that might prevent this from happening. Idealism A philosophical position that argues that human beings are basically good. War can be prevented when the proper international institutions are created. States can cooperate to solve problems and improve the existing world order, given the right institutions. Ecological paradigm The approach to international relations that assumes that the world of humans cannot be studied apart from its natural environmental context and that sees the human world as a subset of the global ecosystem. Central to this paradigm is the view that planet Earth, with its surrounding atmosphere, represents a nite ecosystem.
In this section, we discuss three paradigms that underlie theory building in world politics today and help us understand the international world: political realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm. In many ways, the three paradigms differ dramatically from each other. You must read and decide which worldview best suits your outlook on life. Keep in mind as well that each can offer useful insights into how the world works.
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Political Realism
For more information see The View From: The Indian Realist Thinker Kautilya www.BetweenNations.org
Political realism is the dominant paradigm in international relations. The paradigm is based on the twin assumptions that human beings are imperfect and that they have an innate desire for power. Realists thus like to theorize about the uses of power, the consequences of power, and the containment of power. Central to this view is the belief that we live in a world of anarchy, where only their offensive and defensive capabilities keep states from each others throats. Security is thus the big issue in realist analysis.
The realist approach to international affairs traces its origins to the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who wrote what was probably the rst systematic analysis of war, titled The Peloponnesian Wars. The work recounts the story of the thirtyyear war between the Greek city-state of Athens and its great rival, Sparta (431404 bc). In a celebrated passage, Thucydides has the Athenian Assembly debate the fate of a rebel colony, Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. The angry response of the Athenian army to the revolt was to order the whole colony put to death. The Athenian citizens protested that order, and they called for another meeting of the Assembly. Using arguments based on political realism, the ruler of Athens, Cleon, urged that the punishment be carried out and the colonists executed. He claimed that the rebels had known what they were doing and had planned the whole thing. Here are three of Cleons arguments: z One only forgives actions that are not deliberate. (That is, we should not feel pity for the rebels.) z A sense of decency is only felt toward those who will be our friends in the future. (That is, give these people what they deserve.) z It is a general rule of human nature that people despise those who treat them well, and look up to those who make no concessions. (That is, punishment is the best medicine.)3 These arguments and others like them have been used to justify the use of force throughout history. The realist path runs through the Indian philosopher Kautilya (3rd Century bc) to Niccol Machiavelli (14691527) and his famous book, The Prince. Written to gain favor with the Medici rulers of Florence, Italy, the author describes an ideal ruler very similar to the cruel and cunning prince of the Papal States, Cesare Borgia. The Medicis rejected the book, and it outraged the Florentine public. Since that time, Machiavelli has had a bad reputation. Machiavelli wrote of the realities of state power through an analysis of the means by which individuals have tried to seize and keep power in the highly volatile and fragmented environment that was Renaissance Italy. Perhaps his best-known statement is It is better for a prince to be feared than loved, but a wise ruler will take care not to be hated. His central idea was that power was so changeable, a single mistake could topple a ruler. To stay in power, the ideal prince must enforce his will through a combination of strong character, ruthlessness, a love of risk taking, and an ability to calculate the consequences of his actions. Machiavelli was the rst major Western thinker to uncouple politics from ethics. To him, politics was solely about getting and keeping power. A century later, Thomas Hobbes (15881679), an adviser to another prince Charles II of Englandset forth his realist approach in his treatise on government,
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Morgenthau www.BetweenNations.org
Audio Concept Zero-Sum Game www.BetweenNations.org Zero-sum game The concept that in politics, the winner takes all; if one side gains, the other must lose.
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Mutually assured destruction (MAD) In the context of the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, both sides were deterred from attacking each other because they believed the destruction of both countries was be assured if one initiated a nuclear attack.
the building of a nuclear arsenal on each side that guaranteed the other would not attack. This situation was known as mutually assured destruction (MAD). In summary, political realism: z Starts from the premise that human beings as well as the world in which they live are imperfect. z The games of states take place in an arena dominated by the struggle for power. z Realists tend to support a strong military and to put national security ahead of international cooperation. z In aligning themselves with national sovereignty and independence, realists are skeptical of a centralized world order, preferring a more decentralized and exible relationship among states.
Idealism
Idealism is the second major approach to international relations. Idealists differ from realists in that they ask what the world could or ought to be and how to get there. In contrast to realists, they believe that human beings are basically good. Therefore, institutions must be developed that will enable them to be the best they can be. The two great transforming ideologies of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Marxism and liberalism, stem from the idealist view of the world. Many scholars would not place Marxism in the idealist camp. Karl Marx was an idealist, however, in the sense that he was a utopian and believed the world would become more just and more equitable by means of fundamental changes in the way human society is organized. In addition, the subjective approaches discussed at the end of the chapter also derive from Marxism. In January 1918 ten months before the end of World War I, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson in a speech to the U.S. Congress presented fourteen points that announced a new approach to international relations. These ideas came to be known as liberalism. The central tenet was that war could be prevented. It was not inevitable if the proper international institutions were created. Rather than the balance of power keeping nations from war, nations would join a League of Nations dedicated to collective security: An attack against one is an attack against all. The League would operate on the principles of international law, provide a forum for discussion to prevent war, and threaten the potential aggressor by collective military action. World War II demonstrated that neither international law nor the League of Nations was capable of preventing war. Still, idealists were not disheartened. Human beings may be imperfect, but they are perfectible. The League was a badly conceived institution, they argued. It was open only to democratic nationsand, unfortunately, the largest democratic nation, the United States, did not join. After the war, idealists, both Marxists and liberals rallied around the formation of a new international organization, the United Nations (UN; see chapter 6). This time, membership was open to any duly recognized state. The United States and the Soviet Union were among its founding members, and the United States took the lead in designing the organization. Although some may argue the point, other international institutions and agreements formed after World War II, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT), owe their existence most analysts believe to the analogous liberal
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The World Health Organization has done a superlative job in cooperation with national health organizations such as the U.S. Center for Disease Control, monitoring contagious diseases around the globe. Early warning from the IGO alerts governments to a possible epidemic. The national responses to the warning help contain some of the deadliest diseases, such as SARS, saving millions of lives. WHOs most significant success has probably been the eradication of smallpox.
conviction that cooperation can be achieved in the economic sphere and is a rational alternative to bankrupting nations and starting trade wars.
For more information see Why It Matters to You: Are You A Liberal or a Realist? www.BetweenNations.org
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Regime The process or procedure that is born of a treaty that the signatories agree to follow. The treaty usually sets up a goal to be reached, a process by which to reach the goal, a timeline, and a permanent organizational framework to monitor progress.
is termed an international regime.* The existence of international regimes challenges the realist assumption that only the struggle for power can characterize international relations. Each state may be out for itself. But the existence of regimes is an indication that cooperation between states without coercion from a global authority is not only possible but also an effective way to resolve or promote international concerns. The idealist paradigm builds on the notion that altruism is a fundamental characteristic of human behavior. It just needs the right kind of social and government structure, to be released. States can and should cooperate among themselves with the aim of constructing a more just and cooperative world order. Violence can be prevented by binding states together through international treaties and addressing the causes of violence through the combined efforts of the world community.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development In the interests of its own survival, the human race must not undertake any economic development that leaves a larger footprint on the environment than the ecosystem can successfully accommodate without breaking down.
A vital concept for the ecological paradigm approach is sustainable development (see Figure 2.2). Sustainable development means that in the interests of its own survival, the human species must not leave a larger footprint on the environment than the ecosystem can successfully accommodate without breaking down. If we overgraze our elds, erode our farmlands, cut down our forests, and use up and pollute our water, our species will disappear, like the dinosaurs. In the context of the theme of this book, the ecological paradigm posits that many decentralized regional or national acts of environmental degradation ultimately add up to global pollution. In other words, the domestic policies of individual countries, such as rapid deforestation, the promotion of farming on marginal soils, the spread of the urban metropolis, and the concentration of the worlds populations in cities combine to, produce intermestic environmental issues that can only be solved on a global scale.
*Political scientist Oran Young was the rst to look at regime formation resulting from environmental treaties and to ask how we can determine whether or not a regime will successfully complete or follow the process demanded of it by its treaty.
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The Three Pillars of Sustainability 1. Economic security = the control that individuals have over their own economic lives and the degree to which they are capable of shielding themselves from external economic shocks 2. Ecological integrity = living in harmony with natural systems: clean air, water, and land use that meets human needs and maintains the essential elements of the ecosystem 3. Democracy = citizen participation in community decision making. The three pillars are created and supported by the ve forms of capital.
In 1988, the former president of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, was the rst world leader to put sustainable development at the top of the global political agenda. His placing of planetary survival on the international agenda encouraged politicians and scientists in other countries to address the issue.
Tsunami An ocean wave produced by a submarine earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption. These waves may reach enormous size and travel across entire oceans.
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Research is showing that dams may frequently do more harm than good. On the positive side, they generate electricity from falling water, one of the cleanest ways to generate power. On the negative side, they store water in huge reservoirs, completely changing a rivers ecology. Environmentalists all over the world have been protesting the construction of huge hydroelectric projects like this one in China.
Anthropogenic Caused by humans or originating from human actions. Carrying capacity Carrying capacity is usually dened as the maximum population of a given species that can be supported indenitely in a dened habitat without permanently impairing the productivity of that habitat.
sustainable development programs and prevails on the nations of the world to agree to them. Hurricanes, earthquakes, oods, typhoons, and ice storms are natural phenomena. They become human tragedy when the anthropogenic, or human-created, impact exceeds the carrying capacity of the at-risk ecosystem, causing the ecosystem to collapse.7 Sometimes we can predict the collapse. Sometimes it comes as a surprise. We talk more about the surprise factor in the environmental paradigm in chapter 14. In summary, the environmental paradigm believes: z That world politics is essentially environmental politics. z Individual states need to recognize that their domestic and foreign policies have signicant environmental repercussions for the global community. z On their part, centralizing world-order institutions, like the organizations afliated with the UN, must be able and willing to assist states in ensuring not only their environmental security but also the security of the world as a whole. The proliferation of natural disasters in the twentieth century resulting from human activities suggests that the ecological paradigm may well take center stage in the international politics of the twenty-rst century.
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_____ 1. The dominant theories of world politics allowed scholars to predict the fall of the Soviet Union. _____ 2. Proponents of realism believe that the international system is characterized by anarchy. _____ 3. Idealism argues that international institutions should be developed in order to allow human beings to be the best they can be. _____ 4. Marxists and idealists basically believe the same things when it comes to explaining international politics. _____ 5. Because of increased environmental concerns in the past decade, the ecological paradigm has become the dominant approach to international politics in recent years.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following does theory help us do? a. Describe things b. Explain things e. Make predictions d. Make policy recommendations e. All of the above
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 2.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 7. A zero-sum game refers to which of the following situations? a. When both countries in a nuclear arms race are devastated completely through nuclear war b. When anything gained by one country must come at the expense of another country c. When the absolute gain made by two countries through economic trade zeroes out d. When the relative gain by one actor is reduced to zero through excessive military spending e. None of the above _____ 8. A central idea in the ecological paradigm is that: a. The environment should take precedence over all other living things as life cannot survive without a hospitable environment. b. Global warming is the single most threatening environmental problem faced by humanity. c. The planet Earth and its surrounding atmosphere are nite and possess limited resources. d. The environment must be studied apart from the humans that occupy it to truly understand the environments impact on world politics.
How do these basic paradigms about the human condition inuence the theories one adopts to explain the international world? Throughout this book, we explain a variety of global events and issues based on one or a combination of theories derived from these paradigms. Take another look at Figure 2.1 to get a better understanding of what political theories have been developed from the three paradigms. Now let us take each of the paradigms in turn to explore the theories each has spawned. Keep in mind that the chapter looks only at the dominant paradigms and theories in world politics, with realism and idealism rivals for rst place.
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Political Realism
Realisms central concerns are war, peace, and security. War may be inevitable, but we can limit the desire of enemies to wage war by appropriate military preparedness and by diplomatic maneuvers to redirect that countrys interest. We use diplomacy as long as it promotes our state interest but are ready for war if diplomacy fails. In the words of the nineteenth-century Prussian general Karl von Clausewitz, War is nothing but the continuation of politics by other means.8 In every international interaction, the gains of one state come as a loss to another. To give you a sense of realism as a tool to understand world politics, we present three modern theories that derive from the realist perspective. Many others also come from realism, some of which were mentioned earlier. The theories presented here are balance-of-power theory, hegemonic stability theory, and neorealism or structural realism.
Balance-of-Power Theory
Balance-of-power theory Posits that peace and security are best preserved by a state of equilibrium between the major players in a potential war.
According to the realist balance-of-power theory, war is avoided by a condition of equilibrium between the main players in the potential war. Just as we can nd out a babys weight by placing him or her on one side of a scale and adding increments of pounds or kilos to the other side of the balance until the two sides of the scale are in equilibrium, so we can measure global or regional equilibrium by weighing the power attributes of one state or set of states against the power attributes of a second state or set of states. Power attributes of states include: z Military and economic potential z Nature of a states leadership z Extent of international involvement If the power attributes of one side outweigh those of the other, the balance goes out of equilibrium and war ensues. Balance-of-power theory dominated diplomatic and international military and economic relations throughout the nineteenth century. Using this theory, Admiral Alfred Mahan of the United States and English geopolitician, Sir Halford MacKinder argued late in the nineteenth century that power was determined by strategic and geopolitical factors. Geopolitics is now a subdiscipline of international relations that we discuss in chapter 8. The theory was also used to justify the formation of the two alliances that dominated Europe prior to World War I: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. According to the theory, World War I was caused by a breakdown in the rough equality or balance between the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy, and the Triple Entente between France, Great Britain, and Russia, as shown in Figure 2.3. A number of scholars, including Paul Kennedy, George Modelski, Immanuel Wallerstein, and Chase Dunn have questioned whether in the rise and fall of world systems, the United States today is historically in decline as a world power and how that decline might affect the international balance of power. Balance-ofpower theory is also a good tool to use in investigating regional conict, such as Iraqs invasion of Iran, or the difculties in nding a solution to the century-old conict between Jews and Arabs in the Middle East.
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Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
World War I 19141918 18791918 The Dual Alliance: Germany/Austro-Hungary 18811887 Three Emperors League: Germany, Austro-Hungary, Russia 18811895 Austro-Serbian Alliance: Austria, Serbia 18821915 Triple Alliance: Germany, Austro-Hungary, Russia 18831916 Austro-German Romanian Alliance Central Powers Atlantic Powers 19021913 Russo-Bulgarian Military Convention: Russia, Bulgaria 19041918 Entente Cordiale: France, Great Britain 19071917 Anglo-Russian Entente: Great Britain, Russia 19071917 Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, Russia
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Neorealism
Neorealism An approach to international relations, developed by Kenneth N. Waltz, that argues that while humans may be selsh by nature and driven by a lust for power, power is not the true end. States really pursue power in order to survive. The goal is national survival.
Security dilemma Because the international system is characterized by anarchy, any attempt by a country to increase its security results in a corresponding decrease in other countries security. The dilemma faced by states, then, is how to increase ones own security without threatening other states and thereby making yourself less secure as a result.
A third theory based on the realist paradigm, neo- or defensive realism, was rst formalized by U.S. political scientist Kenneth N. Waltz (1979). Waltz agrees that people are by nature selsh, that they are driven by a lust for power, and that international relations is, as Hobbes put it, a war of all against all. But Waltz no longer considers power an end in itself. States, in his view, pursue power for the sake of survival. For Waltz, the single most important property of the international system is the absence of central governing institutions. States operate in an anarchic world, where uncertainty of other international actors intentions reigns. To overcome the security dilemma, states must pursue their offensive capabilities if they want to survive. In general, neorealists agree with the following points: z States remain the primary actors on the world stage. The main goal of all states, however, is not power but survival in a dog-eat-dog environment. z The primary difference between states is not different goals but their differing capabilities to inuence the course of international events. z The unequal distribution of capabilities denes the structure of the international system and shapes the ways states interact with one another. We talk more about this point in chapter 3. Neorealists pay little attention to what is going on inside statesas, for example, whether states are democratic or dictatorial. Regardless of internal beliefs and ideologies, the foreign policies of all states in their view, are driven by the same systemic factors present in the international system; they are so many billiard balls obeying the same laws of political geometry and physics.9 Because the structure of the international system is dened by the capabilities of states, neorealists are pessimistic about achieving international cooperation and a world of peace and justice. The anarchic structure of the system compels states to worry about their relative position in the distribution of power and in self-defense to compete to improve or just maintain their position. For neorealists, permanent insecurity is the major impediment to global cooperation, and it is built right into the anarchic international system, whether we admit it or not.
Offensive Realism
Offensive realism A theory that blames conicts in the world on the anarchy of the international system, not on human nature. Great powers tend to seek hegemony to limit or destroy challenges from other great powers.
Of the fourth theory, offensive realism , turns neorealism on its head. Its leading proponent, John Mearsheimer, holds that states are not content with the power they have, but seek dominance or hegemony, to satisfy their sense of vulnerability in an insecure world. Mearsheimer argues that there is no such thing as the status quo. Every great power faces the problem of determining how much power is enough for its survival and thus is constantly striving for world dominance to eliminate the possibility of challenge by another great power. Offensive realism contrasts with Waltzs theory of defensive realism, where insecurity forces states to compete to keep their relative position in the global distribution of power.10
Realism in Perspective
Political realism has its gloomy moments. Its predictions for the future are not hopeful. Realists do not want to be discouraging, but they do insist we look at reality as they see it. That reality is an anarchic world where, in the absence of a central
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Idealism
Idealists are nowhere near as skeptical of international cooperation as are realists. Their assumption, that the world can be made better if we can only get the institutions right, leads us to two important theoretical perspectives on international relations. Idealists believe that the world, or at least its human institutions, is perfectible. In this sense, idealism is utopian. Idealists ask, What is wrong with human society? How can it be improved? Idealists are convinced that change is for the better and that human beings can become more caring, more mindful of others needs than they generally are. They believe that human beings can be perfected through education and by changing institutions and their relationships. The right structuring of institutions, they assert, enables human beings to bring about a better world, free of greed and envy. The two great transforming ideologies of the twentieth century, Marxism and liberalism, stem from the idealist view of the world. Many scholars would not place Marxism in the idealist camp. Karl Marx was an idealist, however, in the sense that he was a utopian and believed that the historical process, as it unfolded, would bring about a more just and equitable world through transformative changes in the way human society was organized. In addition, many modern critiques of the tenets of realism and idealism derive from Marxism. We discuss a few of these approaches in the last section of the chapter, What Are the Subjective Approaches to World Politics.
Marxism
History, according to Marxist theory, is a one-way street from the past into the utopian future. As we move from the past to the present, we see that certain thresholds in human experience mark turning points, or decisive changes, to a different form of socioeconomic and political organization. The historic instrument of these changes was what Marx called the class struggle. Every major socioeconomic change in the history of humankind, Marx said, occurred as a consequence of the struggle between the two most important socioeconomic groups in that period of time: the property-owning class, or haves, that controlled the key economic assets and made all the rules, and the property-less class, or have-nots, that owned none of the assets and worked for and obeyed the ruling class. Marx argued that the changes were typically violent because they involved real struggle between the haves and the have-nots. But the changes were always a change forward and indicated a progressive betterment of the human condition. Communism, for Marx, was the end-state of human social organization. Under communism, he asserted, all exploitation would cease; there would be no rich or poor and no class divisions, and the state would no longer possess coercive and oppressive authority. All humankind would live in harmony according to the principle From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.
Marxism The theory that history is a oneway street from the past to the future. As history progresses, thresholds in human experience mark a turning point in terms of socioeconomic and political organization. These changes are always a change forward and indicate the progressive betterment of the human condition. The engine driving the change is the class strugglethe tension between the class that possesses the means of production in a given society and the class that works for it. Marx identied the human race as having gone through prehistoric society, slaveholding society, feudal society, and capitalist society. The end condition of human society would be the classless society of communism.
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Karl Marx (left) wrote his Communist Manifesto in 1848 and started two movements to improve the conditions of the working class, socialism and communism. Vladimir Ilych Lenin (right), the leader of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and first communist ruler of the Soviet Union, introduced the theory of imperialism into Marxist thinking.
The ideas of Marx inspired both the democratic socialist democracies, with their pluralist, multiparty systems, in Western Europe and the dogmatic communist regimes in Eastern Europe, Eurasia, and Asia. In Western Europe, the social democratic party was the party of the have-nots, the working class, whose aim was the improvement of the workers life by peaceful means, such as elections and legislation. A central assumption of communist regimes is that improvement of the lot of the working majority of a population can come about only through violent means. Once the communist regime comes to power, the state can create a new man (or woman) who will have all the best qualities. To achieve these goals, capitalism, with its emphasis on individual and private gain, must be abolished and a new system of state ownership of the economy established. Once the revolution has been achieved, the state can then focus its vast powers on the education of the new man or woman and provide work in the new working environmentwhich is no longer governed by the prot motive but by the workers enthusiasm for work.
Imperialism A theory developed by Vladimir I. Lenin, who described it as the highest stage of capitalism (see Marxism). Under imperialism, national states driven by economic success and the need for more and more raw materials acquired colonies. These they proceeded to exploit for cheap labor and natural resources and to use as an expanded market where they could sell their goods.
Imperialism
The application of Marxism to the international arena produced two corollary theories. The rst was developed by the rst leader of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Ilych Lenin. Lenin used the term imperialism to describe the division of the nineteenth-century world by the European powers into colonial empires for each power. Imperialism, he said, was the most advanced stage of capitalism. Imperialism involved the movement of domestic capital abroad to Asia, Africa, and the Americas, in search of cheap raw materials, cheap labor, and new markets that the
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Dependency Theories
A second derivative of the dogmatic Marxist branch of idealism is dependency theories. In the two decades following World War II, most of the colonies of the European powers became independent states and were admitted to membership in the United Nations. The end of colonialism was a major event of the time. One of the big problems of the new states was how to develop their economies, prompting the elaboration of scenarios of how states could become industrialized as efciently and quickly as possible. As time went on, many of the new states seemed to be growing economically, but they were not developing in the sense of becoming industrialized states. A new theory, dependencia, or dependency, was born. The term comes from Spanish because the concept evolved in Latin America. Dependency theorists use state classications similar to those of imperialism: industrial states (core countries) and the developing states (periphery countries). They address questions such as, Why dont the developing states becoming industrialized? Why do they remain sources of raw materials and cheap labor? These questions are examined in detail in chapter 13.
Dependency theories A set of related theories that have in common the belief that lessdeveloped countries can never develop because they are dependent on the industrial states for capital and technology. The argument is that foreign investment in developing countries is a means of dominating and extracting capital from weaker states.
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Liberalism
Liberalism A philosophical approach that argues that human nature is basically altruistic and that human altruism enables people to cooperate. In the international arena, compassion and caring for the welfare of others should motivate state actions. War is not a certainty because violence and selshness are not part of the human condition but rather the result of awed institutions. In addition, all wars are a matter of collective concern.
Consistent with the idealist approach, the core assumption of liberalism is that the world is perfectible and, by choosing the right institutions, human beings can make it so. In contrast to Marx, who saw the perfectibility of human institutions and human beings rooted in immutable historical laws, liberals emphasize the individuality of each person and the fundamental human ability to choose. The liberal argument may be summarized as follows: Human nature is basically good andmore importantaltruistic; we care about others. These qualities make us perfectible. Through education, we can learn to use our reason. We can learn to consider the whole of humankind and not just our national or local problems. Liberals believe government can create institutions that will train citizens to greater tolerance and produce a society dedicated to social justice. One of the main goals of a liberal democracy is to provide universal education to all its citizens so they can make rational choices about their leaders and the policies they would like to see adopted. Participation in government also develops our reason. According to liberal thinking, democracy is the best and ultimate form of government because citizens elect representatives to make decisions for them based on their understanding of the candidates and the issues. The election process makes elected ofcials accountable to their constituents and thus limits their power to act arbitrarily. The result is a stable political system and a prosperous economy. Democracy provides sufcient security to its citizens so they can develop their capacity to care for others. Liberals also assert that our natural altruism lies at the heart of international cooperation and trust. Because their citizens feel secure, democratic states are less prone to make war on other states. And thanks to democracys internal stability, trade prospers among democratic states, improving the standard of living for all. One part of the liberal reform program insists on the merits of free trade to replace the economic nationalism that liberals believe propelled Hitlers Germany into World War II. Compassion and concern for the welfare of all should inform all actions taken on the global stage. An example of the worlds compassion is the humanitarian aid given to states experiencing famine or natural catastrophe. Another example is the enormous outpouring of sympathy for the families of the victims of 9/11 and for the United States as a whole from people and governments all over the world. In addition, according to liberalism, violence and selshness result from awed institutions rather than the human condition. Agreements made between states in secretwhat is called secret diplomacyis one example of a awed institution that can lead to war, as was the case with World War I. Liberals believe dictatorships are awed institutions that promote violence and oppression, and they therefore urge the promotion of democracy worldwide. The United States asserts its liberal philosophy when it calls states that have oppressive dictatorships, such as North Korea, rogue states.
Democratic peace theory Democratic peace theory argues that although liberal democracies may go to war with non-liberal states, they remain at peace with each others. To put it another way, democracies do not ght each other.
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Collective Security
Liberals are convinced that war is not a certainty. It can be avoided by perfecting institutions designed to control violence. Liberals are strong advocates of the United Nations and seek to extend and strengthen the Security Councils mandate of collective security, the second offshoot of liberalism we address. Collective security holds that individual agreements between countries are no guarantee against war. As a consequence, all wars are a matter of collective concern. The two world wars of the twentieth century demonstrated that agreements between states are no guarantee against war. The best guarantee is when all countries subscribe to the notion that an attack against one is an attack against all. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, U.S. President George H. W. Bush immediately called together the UN Security Council and secured a UN mandate to drive Saddam Husseins army out of Kuwait. The UN action against Iraq in 1991 may be viewed as a success story of collective action from the liberal point of view.
Collective security A concept of world order maintaining that aggression can be deterred by promising overwhelming collective retaliation by the combined power of the worlds states against any community member that pursued aggression. In other words, an attack against one is an attack against all. Collective security rst took form in the League of Nationswhich the United States refused to joinimmediately following World War I.
Regime Theory
A third derivative of liberalism is regime theory. This theory assumes that international policy making can be organized in such a way as to promote cooperation. It is possible to devise treaties and international agreements that will set up a process or regime to implement the aims of the signatory parties. Once the process is initiated, the states can move forward toward the treatys goals by making little modications, one by one, over an extended period. For example, the 1973 Polar Bear Treaty provides for specic action by the signatory states, a joint research program, and periodic consultation. The U.S.Russian extension of that treaty in 2000 goes further in establishing a joint commission to supervise and coordinate activities. Regime theorists believe that if states can agree on a general direction of action, subsequent meetings and consultations can rene and direct that action into increasing cooperation between states.
Neoliberalism
A third offshoot of liberalism is neoliberalism . Neoliberalism developed as a response to what liberals saw as the failure of realism. Realism proved unable to predict or explain the peaceful disintegration of the USSR in the early 1990s, the enormous transformation of global society that took place in the late twentieth century, and the emergence of global problems, such as environmental pollution, the AIDS epidemic, mass migrations, population growth, and failed economic development. The neoliberals proposed a new look at liberalism based on the following assumptions: z Progress in international relations can be achieved only through international cooperation. z International institutions can help countries resolve their differences peacefully. This is one reason why neoliberals are sometimes called neoliberal institutionalists.
Neoliberalism A philosophical position that argues that progress in international relations can be achieved only through international cooperation. Cooperation is a dynamic rather than a static process. By focusing on understanding the dynamics of the web of relationships driving the international system, states and other international actors can use the international institutions spawned by the system to promote peace and cooperation. More recently, the neoliberal economic argument in support of a global free market has come under criticism.
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z The world may look chaotic, but it has patterns that can be found by studying the dynamics of international relationships. z Peace and cooperation can be promoted if we focus on understanding the dynamics of the web of relationships and inuences driving the international world, such as democratic government, free trade, international law, international orga nizations, collective security, arms control, and moral decision making. Neoliberals, ask questions like these: z What kinds of political and economic processes promote cooperation? z How can negotiations lead to a cooperative solution for all parties? z What types of governments or institutions tend toward cooperation rather than going it alone? z What are the elements of conict resolution? z What kinds of economic institutions lead to stability and greater prosperity? Neoliberalism claims not to be a theory per se. Its basic assumption is that process determines outcome. Neoliberalisms economic aspect has come increasingly to the fore since the 1990s. Advocates argue that neoliberalism promotes universal prosperity through free trade, a balanced budget, and stable currencies. Critics respond that global market liberalism is just another term for global capitalism, whose chief international institutions are the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In their insistence on a deregulated global market, these institutions have been the main contributors to the worlds increasing social and economic inequalities. In addition, the assumption that the operation of the market can be the main guide for human activity in developing countries, replacing traditional religious or moral beliefs belies the pain and suffering globalization has inicted on the worlds weaker citizens. Opposition to the economics of neoliberalism inspired the creation of the anti-globalization movement and led to the mass demonstration at the WTO meetings in Seattle and Genoa. We discuss this approach more in chapter 12.12 If we look at the theories derived from idealist assumptions, we can see that, essentially, they all aim to transform the world in some wayto make it better. They provide a theoretical framework that explains how and why the world is badly organized and how and why reforming or modifying the appropriate institutions will bring the desired world harmony. On the negative side, both Marxism and liberalism, especially neoliberalism, have a strong utopian component. The goal of each is a perfect social system within which everyone lives in harmony. History suggests that that goal will not be achieved any time soon.
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Hidden in the mountains of northern New Mexico lies Blue Lake or Ba Whyea, an ancient sacred site for the Taos Pueblo community. Deep ecologists hold only veneration of the sacred in nature can deter the human race from annihilating its most treasured landscapes and keep it in touch with the wellspring of human existence.
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z Environmental: An environmentally sustainable system maintains a stable resource base, avoiding both the depletion of nonrenewable resources and the over-exploitation of renewable resource systems. An environmentally sustainable system further ensures the continuation of biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and clean watersheds. z Social: A socially sustainable system ends the imbalance between rich and poor, provides adequate social services, and promotes gender equality, and political accountability and participation.14 As you can readily see, sustainable development theory is more a set of goals to be reached than basic assumptions about the functioning of the world economy or international relations. The goals raise questions of how to balance competing objectives and how to judge success. Despite these drawbacks, sustainable development as a theoretical model dominates our thinking today about how human kind can continue to live on this planet without causing its ecosystem to crash. We will discuss the concept more in Chapters 13 and 14.
Deep Ecology
Deep ecology A worldview that promotes a reverence for nature, a concern for ecological principles such as complexity, diversity, and symbiosis, and that sees human beings in a living relationship with their environment. The environment does not exist for human use alone; we gain our identity from it. Deep ecology proposes to reconnect humankind with nature. Symbiosis The living together of two dissimilar organisms in a mutually benecial relationship.
Deep ecology developed out of the thinking of Norwegian environmentalist and philosopher Arne Naess15 and others like him who saw the ecological concepts of complexity, diversity, and symbiosis, as the way to relate human life to all things on the planet. For the deep ecologist, the environment has its own value independent of human needs. Human beings need to rediscover their place in natures web of interdependent elements and treat nature reverently. The deep ecologist sees human beings in a living relationship with their environment. The environment has its own reasons for being. It speaks to each of us and assigns us our identity. Modern society has lost this sense of identity. Many of us are indifferent to where we live. But to the Mohawk, the Huron, or the Navaho, a particular mountain or stream, or a particular lay of land, is sacred. A tribal member nds renewal by going back to the natural home revered by his ancestors. Deep ecology proposes to reconnect modern humans to their natural home. In international affairs, the deep ecologist tends to oppose large earth-moving projects, such as the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China, extensive logging, the paving over of swampland for parking lots, and the destruction of habitat for agriculture or a new factory. For the deep ecologist recognition and acceptance of our rootedness in nature is the ultimate wisdom.
Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism A theory whose proponents argue that women are more closely associated with the natural world than men are. Men have an instrumental attitude toward nature and ask, How can I use it? Women have a reverence and empathy for nature, as they contain within themselves the secrets of birth and regeneration.
A third offshoot of the ecological perspective is ecofeminism . The ecofeminist argues that women are more closely associated with the natural world than men because they are the child bearers and thus actively participate in the renewal of the species. Men, the ecofeminist argues, have an instrumental attitude toward nature. What can nature do for me? Women, on the other hand, have a reverence and empathy for nature, containing within themselves the secrets of birth and regeneration. Ecofeminism holds that capitalism is the last and worst outgrowth of a patriarchal, male-dominated society. The division of labor that capitalism calls efcient divided men and women into two separate worlds, one the world of paid work, and the other the world at home. Men, with the aid of male-dominated modern
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Ecojustice
The fourth theory derived from the ecological paradigm is ecojustice . Ecojustice theory starts from the observation that environmental quality is not equally distributed around the globe. Some environments are more desirable than others. Some environments, like the worlds forests, belong to a few states but are essential to all humankind to protect our common atmosphere. The ecojustice movement originated among working black women in Warren Country, North Carolina, on land that had been predominantly owned by black people since the end of slavery in 1865. The movement began when Warren County was selected to be the nal burial site for over 32,000 cubic yards of soil contaminated with PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls). A woman named Dollie Burwell objected to the location of the site, which was just behind her and her neighbors backyards. The merging of race, poverty, and pollution in a single issue rapidly picked up followers all over the United States and around the world, most notably in Kenya, Nigeria, and Russia. In Russia, in 1991 women lawyers took the initiative in organizing an ecojustice group, Ecojuris, to publicize the inequity of pollution in Russias major cities. The lawyers filed suit in a number of landmark cases, arguing that the principal victims of industrial pollution were women and young children.
Ecojustice The concept that, as environmental quality is not equally distributed around the world, methodologies and procedures must be developed to address the environmental inequalities that are the result of lack of natural resources, poor location, and poverty.
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Today, international relations scholars in the environmental eld have added ecojustice to their theoretical tools of analysis. Ecojustice theory drives the argument of the developing nations that because todays industrial pollution was generated by the industrialized countries, those countries must therefore pay for the cleanup. At the Third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, commonly known as the conference on global climate change, in Kyoto, Japan, in 1998, China and other developing countries opposed a treaty to limit emissions from the use of fossil fuels because it was not fair. In Chinas view, the industrialized nations were eager to prevent global warming and reach an international agreement because they already had achieved full development by polluting the planet at no cost to themselves. An adoption of the treaty would prevent developing countries from reaching their development goals. Ecojustice theory attempts to develop methodologies and procedures to answer those questions by analyzing the connections between poverty and environmental degradation. A leading ecojustice theorist, Andrew Szasz, found, for example, that toxic victims are, typically, poor or working people of modest means. Their environmental problems are inseparable from their economic condition.17 In Russia, ecojurists have documented connections between environmental degradation, the living conditions of low-paid workers, and high mortality rates. In accordance with the environmental paradigm, ecojurists believe that justice in human society cannot be divorced from a search for a just distribution of environmental goods. The environmental paradigm is the newest arrival in international relations. Many texts on world politics do not mention it at all. After reading about ecotheories, you may very well say, So what? Sure, the environment is important, but lets be real. It has nothing to do with power relations between states. Is this a fact? What about mass famines created by the expansion of the desert in Africa? What about torrential rains and mudslides in Central America? What about earthquakes in San Francisco? No one emigrates to Mexico after a California earthquake. But you may be sure that thousands moved northward from Nicaragua and Honduras after the disastrous rains of 1998. The environmentalists argue that citizens in the industrialized world are living the good life in a clean environment because they have transferred their most polluting industries to the developing world. The industrialized states have not tried sustainable development and so far have shown little desire to do so. To achieve sustainable development, the industrial states must recognize the primary importance of the environment to all humans, and not just a privileged few. The inequitable transborder effects of environmental pollution are already causing increased tension and conict in the world. This recognition demands both a retreat from the instrumental view of the environment as a human resource and a deeper understanding of the functioning and value of the environment in and of itself.
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_____ 1. Balance-of-power theory argues that war is most likely to occur when states in the system have reached balance. _____ 2. According to realists, the only way to contain power is through power. _____ 3. Marxists argue that class struggle is the key dynamic that fosters socioeconomic change over time. _____ 4. Democratic peace theory refers to the belief that liberal democracies typically do not ght one another, although they may go to war with non-democratic states. _____ 5. Ecofeminists believe that women are more closely associated with the natural world because they bear children while men view the environment as an instrument for achieving material objectives.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following statements would a neorealist agree accurately represents international politics? a. States are the primary actors in the international system.
b. All states have the same goals, but they differ in their ability to inuence world politics. c. The structure of the international system is dened by the unequal distribution of power among the countries of the world. d. None of the above e. All of the above _____ 7. Neoliberals believe which of the following statements about international politics? a. Progress in international relations occurs through the good will of individuals. b. The chaos of world politics can only be addressed using economic theories of behavior. c. International institutions are effective at assisting countries resolve their differences without resorting to conict. d. A combination of a focus on power in the military realm and cooperation in the economic sphere is the most effective way to analyze the international system. e. None of the above
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 2.2 www.BetweenNations.org
In the last quarter of the twentieth century, philosophers and political scientists launched increasingly sharp attacks on the basic assumption of political realists, idealists, and ecologists that the world and its political, economic, and social structure could be objectively known. The assumption that there is a real world out there, independent of ourselves, that all of us, using our reasoning power, can discover and use to our benet, underlies all Western philosophy from the Greeks to the Enlightenment. Realists and idealists may disagree as to whether humankind is basically imperfect or basically cooperative and develop contrasting theories as to whether world politics is continuous anarchy or can become a cooperative venture. Ecologists and realists may disagree about whether the Earth is warming or not, but both groups base their arguments on empirical evidence drawn from objective observations of the real world.
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Critical theory, constructivism, and most feminist theories in international relations question the ability of human beings to look objectively at the world. All people, they argue, are shaped by the society and culture in which they live. Our perceptions are formed by our societys dominant attitudes about wealth, race, gender, and religion. This assumption that our background and upbringing totally inform our perceptions of the world derives from the Marxist teaching that all science, art, and culture reect the interests of a given societys ruling class. Throughout history, each social class that rose to power imposed its prejudices, its ethics, its way of doing things on the society it governed. In their struggle against the ruling class, the other classes developed their own class culture and identity in response to the reigning status quo. Critical theory and constructivism carry this logic to its conclusion and hold that every individuals perception of reality is determined by personal experience of a given societys dominant culture relative to that persons position in its social structure.
Critical Theory
Audio Concept Critical Theory www.BetweenNations.org
The term critical theory was rst used by members of a scholarly group that formed at the Institute of Social Research at the University of Frankfurt in the 1920s and lasted into the 1950s. These scholars were appalled by the rise of what they saw as the lack of freedom and irrationality in European capitalist societies in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in fascism in Germany and Italy.18 Herbert Marcuse (18981979) and Jrgen Habermas (1929 ) are two major contributors to the ongoing evolution of critical theory in the latter half of the twentieth century. The common thread between them is that in modern society, human beings are increasingly losing their autonomy, their capacity to make independent individual decisions exclusive of outside control. Marcuse argued that advanced industrial society creates false needs to integrate individuals into the existing system of production and consumption. Mass media and contemporary culture, advertising, and industrial management all reinforce the political and suppress opposition.19 Habermas posited that the technological revolution had contributed to the suppression of individual freedom by forcing humans to learn and adapt to new technologies that function on the machines inner logic. The market, the state, and social and economic organizations: all operate on some form of strategic/instrumental rationality based on how technology works rather than on how humans really live. Habermas argued for social change through communication. A freer, more democratic world was possible not through revolution, as the Marxists taught, but through people nding community through communication.20
Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.
Constructivism
The critical theory started by the Frankfurt School leads directly into constructivism. Constructivism, like critical theory, posits that because human beings exist within society, knowledge can never be objective, only subjective. We all can use reason to try to gure things out, but how we reason is culturally determinedthat is, it is shaped, or constructed, by the society and culture in which we live. Thus, all perceptions and all cultures reect the worldview and social structure of a given social group, be it tribe or nation. We can never know what reality is, only what our perceptions of it are. Because reality cannot be known, every culture, every society presents a worldview that is equally valid. Contrary to the neorealist and neolib-
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Stari most, the old bridge, crosses the Neretva River at Mostar, where Bosnian Muslims and Croat Catholics lived side by side for centuries. Built in 1566 by the Ottoman Turks, it was destroyed by Croat fighters during the bitter fighting between Mostars Muslims and Croats in 1993. It was reconstructed using the same methods and materials employed by the original builders 500 years ago. Its reopening in 2004 is living witness to the concept that ethnic rivalry is not a given but is a subjective assumption that can be deconstructed.
action. They see information and communication about world events as data to feed into an activist agenda directing what should be done rather than a framework within which to analyze facts describing what actually happens.
Critiques of Constructivism
Critical theory, constructivism, and feminist theories have played a decisive role in shifting our focus from external, state-to-state relations to a closer look at the subjective dynamics of international affairs. But in so doing, they have produced what one educator has called the evidential dilemma.23 If there is no empirical evidence, on what does an individual, tribe, or state base a decision for action?
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_____ 1. Subjective approaches to world politics are so named because they rely strictly on opinions and are opposed to collecting data of any kind. _____ 2. Constructivist approaches to world politics tend to focus on the state level of analysis because they combine the impact of various entities when analyzing political behavior. _____ 3. Rather than having a single approach to world politics, there are multiple and conicting feminist theories of international relations. _____ 4. Generally speaking, critical theory questions the objective nature of reality, arguing that each individual constructs their own reality based on their own perception.
_____ 5. Most feminists argue which of the following? a. Basic attitudes and behaviors are biologically determined. b. Western civilization is a patriarchy (or male-dominated enterprise). c. Males have dominated the military while women have had an opportunity to control the arts. d. All of the above
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Case Study
The Future of Afghanistan
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States. Negotiations were in progress. The United States broke international convention by rushing headlong into a ventureone that has proved costly in lives and materielcontrary to the counsel of the worlds major powers. There is no indication that negotiation would not have worked. The proper way to conduct national affairs in a global community is through the global institutions established by that community. The United States has acted like a global bully, trying to push weaker states around. A realist looks after Number One. An idealist looks to international cooperation as the only way to secure peace and prosperity for all states. In essence, the debate focuses on two key questions: (1) What does looking after Number One entail? Does it mean only using a states own power resources, or can it include cooperating in international organizations? (2) In what ways can cooperation contribute to a states prosperity? In what ways could it be a hindrance?
QUESTIoNS
1. Depending on which side you took, did you nd that all the arguments you used came exclusively from either the liberal or realist approach? 2. In what areas did your arguments cause you to change approach? 3. Did you nd yourself arguing in favor of more centralized global oversight of state behavior or for the right of states to be the main actors in global politics? What reasons did you give?
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Realism holds that human nature is, by denition, imperfect. We all have an innate drive for power. National governments, therefore, should concentrate on promoting the national interest through a strong military to defend against aggression and a whats-in-itfor-me posture in the conduct of foreign policy. Idealism posits that human beings are perfectible. With the right institutions to guide them, individuals and states can learn to cooperate and to prefer peace to war. The ecological paradigm posits human society as a subset of the natural environment. This environment has 1 2 limits, and we must learn what those limits are and accommodate our institutions to them if humankind is to survive.
4 is a subjective 5 6 approach 7 9 10 What to 8 world politics? Understand how such approaches differ from realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm.
3 4 understand 5 6 key theories 7 8 result 9 from10 Identify and the that realism, idealism, and the ecological paradigm.
Critics of these approaches have developed critical theory, constructivism, and feminist theories of international relations that focus on the psychological and social components of state identity and behavior. These theories seek to explain how the identities of cultures and societies are formed and how these relate to their behavior on the international stage
From the realist perspective, we derive the theories of the balance of power, hegemonic stability, and neorealism. These are theories that explain the management of the international system as a decentralized, many-sided process that takes place among states.
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Learning Objectives
1
Understand what is meant by levels of analysis and who are the primary actors that operate at each level.
Identify the primary characteristics of a state. Understand how the state has developed over the past centuries and its current role in world politics.
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Chapter Outline
Applying the Levels of Analysis: The Example of Afghanistan Afghanistan from the Systems Level of Analysis
Understand how the levels of analysis are used to understand international relations; apply the levels to the case of Afghanistan.
n chapter 1 you learned that one of the ve forces shaping the planet is the increasing inability of the state to solve problems because of decentralizing ethnic, religious, and economic tensions. You further learned that most issues today are transnational and transboundary in character, promoting a centralizing tendency in the international systemas, for example, the tendency for states to turn to the United Nations (UN) and other international agencies for regulations and guidelines. What is this entity called a state, and why does international politics seem to revolve around it? How can we understand the tensions that push states toward dissolution and the tensions that push them toward international cooperation?
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Key Terms
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Treaty of Westphalia p. 64 nation or ethnic group p. 65 multinational or ethnic state p. 65 interdependence p. 67 international system p. 67 levels of analysis p. 71 multipolar system p. 76 balance of power p. 76 bipolar system p. 76 unipolar system p. 76 European Union p. 77 irredentism p. 82 race p. 82 groupthink p. 86
This chapter enables you to address those questions. We rst look at the statewhat it is, how it arose, and why it plays such a central role in international relations today. We then look at the structure of the international system by applying levels of analysis. For example, we may study the international system in its entirety, as we might study the solar system as a whole. Thats one level. But we can also study the international system at the regional level by looking at regional organizations of states such as the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). For a third perspective, we can study the international system at the state levelthat is, by looking at the world from the standpoint of the behavior of individual states. This is a very important level because the basic unit of analysis in the international system is the state. We can also study the international system at the substate level, looking at ethnic conict or civil wars and how these tensions affect the state and its ability to function at the regional and international levels. Finally, we can look at the international system through the role individuals play in moving and shaking world politics. We conclude the chapter by showing that by understanding what the state is and how it functions at these ve levels, we can begin to understand the centralizing and decentralizing tendencies at work in the world today. n
For all the paradigms, states are the basic building blocks of the international system. Chapter 1 presented three characteristics that differentiate a state from a tribe, an ethnic group, or a nationality. To review, a state is: 1. a geographic territory with internationally recognized boundaries 2. an internationally recognized and identiable population that lives within those boundaries 3. an internationally recognized authority structure or government Let us look more closely at these characteristics.
The modern state, as we understand it, grew out of rivalry for power and wealth among the ruling dynasties of Europe from the fteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The concept of an international system dates from the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War. The war had decimated large sections of Europe, and, important for our purposes, left no clear victor. Our modern understanding of state, then, is derived, essentially, from the European experience. The treaty recognized that none of the rival European powers at war could achieve a decisive win to dominate the other powers. The treaty thus called for the
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Definition of a State
The modern denition of state is based on the principles set forth in the 1648 treaty. Central to the denition are the concepts of legitimacy, sovereignty, and formal obligations. z Legitimacy means that all states have a right to exist and that the authority of the government in that state is supreme and accepted as lawful. z Sovereignty means that no higher authority than the state exists, or in Max Webers words, the state has a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force.1 The United Nations is made up of states, yet it has no authority to compel member-states to take any action or refrain from any action. It has no army of its own and must rely on the member-states to contribute their armed forces when any UN armed intervention takes place. In the last analysis, each state decides its own course of action. z States have formal obligations, or expectations vis--vis one another. States agree to rules drawn up according to international law for declaring and ghting a war, for implementing treaties, for continuing to recognize the legitimacy of the governments of other states, and for exchanging and treating diplomatic representatives. In recent years, however, the new global and transnational issues have prompted new thinking on this front. Although at an operational level the state still retains full control over the actions of its police and military, the conditions for their use are increasingly shaped by rules and regulations receiving their legitimation from the UN and other international institutions.2 For example, the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 was considered illegitimate by many (but not all) because the United States failed to secure the approval of the UN Security Council for the action.
Audio Concept Sovereignty www.BetweenNations.org
Nation or ethnic group A group of people linked together in some manner, such as a common territory, with a shared culture that may or may not be based on religion. This culture can be monocultural or multicultural a shared language, a shared history or understanding of the past, and a general desire for independence. Multinational or multiethnic state A statesuch as Nigeria, the United States, Russia, and Indiathat contains more than one nation and/or ethnic group within its territory. Most states are multinational in nature.
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all multinational. So are some of the worlds smallest states, such as Switzerland, Belgium, and many states in Africa and Asia. Multinational states frequently suffer from the desire of the component ethnic groups to live their own lifestyle or obtain more power in the central government.
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Interdependence The linking of states together in a web of wide-ranging interactions. These include: international nance, trade and commerce, environmental pollution, the information revolution, transnationalism, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs.)
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Sumerian city-states ourished at the dawn of human civilization in Mesopotamia in what is now Iraq. The city-states of Greece, Rome, and China were at their height between the fth century bc and the second century ad. The modern state had its rise in the Middle Ages, long after Rome fell. The history of Europe is the history of rivalrywar and conquestamong feudal chieftains, with the periodic ascendancy of a strongman. These rulers were eager to expand their domains. To do so, however, they needed to create sufcient wealth to raise an army. The medieval city was just coming into its own as a commercial power. Some cities, like Venice and Florence in Italy and Dubrovnik in modern Croatia, ourished as independent city-states. Others, like Prague, London, or Paris, accepted the rule of the prevailing strongman. Through patronage, royal subsidies, and the granting of imperial or royal charters, these cities became centers of trade, nance, and learning. In return for their liberties, the cities paid taxes to the king to support his armies. With tax money rolling in and helped along by marriages of convenience to princesses with large land holdings, the kings gradually became stronger than the feudal chieftains, whose power largely resided in their agricultural land base. The consolidation of royal power in the fteenth century put Europe well on its way to playing midwife at the birth of the modern state. Additional factors that led to the evolution of the modern state include the following: z Ideology and a Common Culture: We cannot be sure that modern states would have evolved out of this process if it had not been for the long political conict between the rising nation-states of France, Spain, and England, on the one hand, and, on the other, the pope in Rome, who called himself Vicar (deputy of Christ) of Christendom, by which he meant Europe. Over the centuries, the royal powers challenged the temporal or non-religious authority of the medieval Church and carved out a space where they could rule independent of its control, eventually leading to the development of Protestant and Catholic sects. Each sects acknowledgment of its king as the guardian of the one true faith led to the identication of a national leader and, by extension, the nationstate with a particular belief or ideology. Eventually, the ideology of nationalism replaced Christianity as the glue that bound European peoples together. z Technology and the Growth of Nationalist Sentiment: Perhaps no other development had as great an impact on the rise of the national state and the promotion of a common language as the printing press. In one month, Johannes Gutenberg could turn out more German bibles than the monks could write by hand in Latin in several years. Thus, the printing press made literature in the vernacular (the language people spoke in a particular locale) easily available and readily disseminated in the form of the printed book. People rushed to learn how to read and to buy the new books. Printing thus gave nationalism a big boost. With the appearance of books in vernacular languages such as English, French, and Spanish, people began to buy only those books whose language they could understand. In the process, some languages were winners. Some were losers. Because the printing press made it easy to distribute the printed word and booksellers made more sales with books printed in the local language, the press prompted kings to standardize the language throughout their domains. By the sixteenth century, in part due to having acquired a set of common languages, Western Europeans had developed a strong sense of nationality, territory, and common history. The French Revolution of 1789 spread the ideology of nationalism as far as Russia with
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Printing was actually invented in China, where the emperors disseminated their edicts and orders through a printed text composed of ideographs or picture symbols. European written languages use an alphabet representing the sounds or phonemes present in the spoken language. The advantage of the alphabet is that many combinations of sounds can be written down using a few letters. Johannes Gutenbergs achievement was the invention of movable type. Instead of carving a font of a word or ideograph, as the Chinese had to do, Gutenberg used a line of type that could be filled with different letters, depending on the word appearing in the text. Just before the year 2000, Time-Life conducted a poll asking worldwide leaders in science, education, government, technology, medicine, and other fields to name the most important events of the last 1,000 years. The printing press was voted the most important event.
the march of Napoleons armies eastward, thereby awakening the East European peoples to the possibilities of independence and the right to speak their own language, rather than the language of their German and Russian imperial masters. z Europe Becomes a Continent of Nation-states: In 1815, the European powers united to defeat Napoleon. But Napoleons legacy lived on. In Western Europe, England and France emerged as the two leading states promoting democracy as an integral part of their nationalist ideology. Throughout the rest of Europe, still under the rule of autocratic empires, nationalism assumed a more cultural aspect, leading to the consolidation of German states into a unied German Empire and the creation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, based on two ruling ethnic groups. Other nations living under imperial rule also demanded national recognition. In their push for their own separate national state, they turned to the European great powers for support. The instability and threat to the status quo posed by these developments resulted in the Triple Alliance (made up of
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Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy, 1882) and the Triple Entente (England, France, and Russia, 1907). Great-power rivalry and the fear that one European state might gain the ascendancy over all the others led to a balance-of-power game that played out in a domino-like series of events culminating tragically in World War I. World War I marked the fall of the Ottoman and German empires and the ascendancy of nationalism as the basis of the state. These two empires were replaced with nation-states. The one remaining traditional empire was the Russian Empire. Although instability caused by the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 forced the new leader, Vladimir Ilych Lenin, to give up the Baltic territories as well as Russias share of Poland, the remainder of the empire was reformed as the Soviet Union. In the twentieth century, the great overseas empires of Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal were replaced by independent states. From 19891991, the last European land empire, the Soviet Union inherited from the Russian tsars and enlarged after World War II, broke up to be replaced by independent states. z The Modern International System: The founding of the United Nations in 1945, at the end of World War II, formalized the concept of a global international system composed of national states. The UN began its existence with fty signatory states. Amazing as it may seem, most of todays states have come into being since then. Of the 191 UN member-states today, some are very small, like the African states of Sao Tom and Principe. Others are large land masses, like the United States, Canada, Russia, and Australia. As we show in chapter 8, geographyincluding size, location, and shapeplays a big role in the ability of states to participate in international politics effectively. Because most of the new states came into being as a result of the breakup of the colonial empires, virtually all their borders were drawn by the colonial powers. The citizens of the new states had virtually no say. With the exception of some island states, many of the new states contain more than one ethnic group. Some do not have a common language or a common ethnic group. As a result, a major problem is developing citizen loyalty to the new country and a sense of belonging among people who, just a generation earlier, were living under their tribal leaders in an imperial system of government imposed by rulers from far away. Nigeria is an excellent example of this kind of problem where over 300 ethnolinguistic groups were consolidated into one country by an imperial ruler. Under the principles of international law, the new states are as sovereign and independent as the older and more established powers. The principle of equality is recognized through the mechanism of one country, one vote in the UN General Assembly. In practice, however, the newer states can do little to oppose the power of the major states. The best they can do is to play one power off against the other to assure they do not fall under the control of one state permanently. In addition, todays states are living in a period of U.S.superpower dominance. It is hard for small, weak states to oppose the United States or larger regional entities, such as NATO, in their part of the world. The dynamics of the modern international system remain the same as in the days of the Treaty of Westphalia, at least in terms of the interaction between strong and weak states. Weak states must decide the merits of forming regional alliances, giving in to the superpower, or going it alone. The difference between 1648 and today is that the international action now covers the entire globe. In 1648, it covered only the continent of Europe.
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_____ 1. The state is the primary actor in the international system because no other actor in the system has the ability to harm the state. _____ 2. State sovereignty allows the United Nations to force its member-states to take actions when it is in the interests of the UN to do so. _____ 3. Both China and the United States are examples of multinational states. _____ 4. The majority of the 191 states that have membership in the United Nations today did not exist when the UN was rst formed in 1945. _____ 5. The 2003 United States invasion of Iraq followed the traditional Westphalian norms governing state sovereignty.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a state in the international system: a. A geographic territory with internationally recognized boundaries b. An internationally recognized and identiable population that lives within those boundaries
c. An internationally recognized authority structure or government d. An entity with membership in the United Nations Security Council e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following was a factor leading to the evolution of the modern state: a. The temporary slowdown of technological advancement leading to a focus on national unity rather than economic self-interest b. The feudal nature of European society in the early 1800s c. The development of a common culture and/or ideology among a group of people constituting the nation d. The devastating effects for the average person during the War of 1812
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 3.1 www.BetweenNations.org
How are we going to analyze the interactions of 191 states and various regional governmental and nongovernmental organizations? Because doing so is extremely complex, political scientists have developed a tool for getting a handle on the international system, its players, and how they relate to one another. It is called levels of analysis, a system for organizing the players into ve levels of international activity (see Table 3.1). Lets begin with the highest level.
Levels of analysis A method of classifying the players in the international system and how they relate to one another on ve levels.
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Actors
States, non-state actors, and individuals States, regional NSAs, individuals States, state-level NSAs, individuals Interest groups, ethnic groups, individuals Individual people
component parts of the forest, such as the deciduous trees and the coniferous trees. By identifying the behavior pattern of each component, you can classify the deciduous trees into oak, maple, larch, or birch. The coniferous trees might be pine, hemlock, and spruce. Through study of the forest, we can make generalizations about the conditions necessary for the survival of all forestsand of species of trees within the forest. In similar ways, though with considerably less accuracy, we can consider the international system as a whole and identify its components. Among the most important components are the types of actors within the system.
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collapsed or are in danger of falling apart because of political, social, or economic circumstances as failed or failing states. For the purposes of this book, the terms developed states, countries in transition from communism, developing states, and failing states are used. As you can see, the groups of states are not equal in power and wealth, and some states dont readily t into the categories. Because of its low gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, China is in many respects a developing country, but its military and the unparalleled growth of some parts of its economy put it among the industrialized states. In terms of its political system, it belongs in the second set, but not economically so, because of its extensive capitalist reforms. Although in theory all states are dened by the same characteristics, and each has one vote in the General Assembly of the United Nations, in practice we automatically assume differences based on economic and political factors. Indeed, the classication suggests a rank order, with the industrialized states at the top and the atrisk countries of the fourth set at the bottom. We thus may expect the leading states of the international system to be found in the industrialized world.
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Non-state Actors
Realists hold that the international system level of analysis includes states only. Liberals see the arrival of non-state actors as the evolution of a new global civil society where non-state organizations and groups both complement and challenge the state system. The category of non-state actors divides into several groups as shown in Table 3.3.
z Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs): IGOs are those whose members are national or multinational states (see chapter 6). Examples of IGOs are the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Court of Justice, as well as regional IGOs such as the European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, and the Organization of African States.
z Organized Crime: The second group of non-state actors are organized crime and drug groups, such as the Maa. z Paramilitary and Terrorist Groups: including al Qaeda, Basque terrorist groups, and U.S.based groups like the anti-abortion Army of God, and the Earth Liberation Front. These organizations operate in a shadow world, recruiting and training volunteers to carry out acts of terrorism or protest. While it would be great to excommunicate them and put them beyond the pale of global civil society, we still have to deal with them. In both the Muslim and the non-Muslim worlds, al Qaeda exerts an almost magical inuence. Some see al Qaeda as unabashedly bad, but many see it as their rescuer from the wretchedness of personal lives or the visible and extensive corruption in high places. z Nongovernmental Organizations: These are generally described as not-forprot organizations and their members are individuals rather than representatives of states. Four categories of NGOs may be identied. 1. Professional and scientic NGOs whose members are professionals in their elds and address issues generally related to their professional expertise. Examples are the International Political Science Association and the International Union of Concerned Scientists. 2. Religious or faith-based NGOs, whose members advocate responses to an array of topics supported by shared religious convictions. Examples include the World Council of Churches, and the American Jewish Committee. 3. Environmental NGOs represent the third category. Members of Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, or Friends of the Earth promote the goals and purposes of the NGOs charter. 4. Single-issue NGOs are exemplied by women taking leading roles in notfor-prot activities and forming NGOs focused specically on womens issues, such as Virtual Sisterhood and the Womens Jurist Association/ Womens Advocacy Center. z Transnational Corporations (TNCs): TNCs do business in the global economy. Many of these have budgets larger than those of some states (see chapter 7). A TNC branches out internationally and may set up headquarters in one state, build plants in others, and conduct business around the globe, depending on the business climate in a given state. Its sales are worldwide.
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Multipolar system An international system based on three or more centers of power (poles) that may include states or IGOs, such as the European Union. The nineteenth-century international system may be described as multipolar. Balance of power A foreign policy principle that world peace and stability is best preserved by way of a basic equilibrium among the worlds major actorstypically states. Bipolar system A balance-of-power system in which states are grouped around two major power centers. Unipolar system When a single superpower dominates the international system.
A second generalization derives directly from the notion of power relationships among lead actors, supporting actors, and very weak actors. At the system level of analysis, the strong states may be dened as those that attract weaker states into their orbit as the systems poles of power. During most of the nineteenth century, several powerful European states were rivals for power. The international system of the period may thus be described as a European multipolar system. As each state sought to prevent others from acting too aggressively and disrupting the system, it entered into an alliance with what it perceived to be like-minded states (see Figure 3.1). A so-called balance of power was produced through the alliances of two opposing groups of states. Because England was an island apart from the continent of Europe and had by far the largest empire, it saw its role as a balancer of power to prevent France, Germany, or Russia from dominating the European continent. The European multipolar system gave way after World War II to the bipolar (two-pole) system of the Cold War, where the two poles were the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). But the latter collapsed in 1991, and entering this century, no other countrywith the possible exception of China comes close to challenging the United States either militarily or economically. The current system could be classied as unipolar (see Figure 3.2). However, although there may be only one superpower, many regional powers are economically strong. Thus, the current system may be redened as overall unipolar with one superpower but with a multipolar regional structure. An in-depth discussion about the balance of power and power relationships follows in the next chapter. As mentioned, interacting with the groups of states are the increasing number of non-state actors. Since 9/11, there is some question as to whether groups like al Qaedaand others, such as Friends of the Earthare eroding the sovereignty of the state, as James Rosenau and other neoliberals contend. For example, the events
United States
European Union
China
Japan
Asia
Latin America
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European Union (EU) A multipurpose international organization comprising twenty-seven Western European countries. It has both supranational and intergovernmental characteristics.
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Trucks entering the United States from Canada at the Ambassador Bridge connecting Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan. Since NAFTA went into effect in 1994, trilateral trade between the United States, Canada, and Mexico has increased. Canada and Mexico send more than 80 percent of their exports to NAFTA partners. U.S. Canadian trade represents the largest bilateral flow of income, goods, and services in the world. Mexico is the second-largest trading partner of the United States. Ninety percent of the goods that are traded are moved by service transportation and threequarters of that movement is by truck.
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Fisherman checking his line under the five-mile long Mackinaw Bridge over the Straits of Mackinac connecting the state of Michigans Upper Peninsula with its Lower Peninsula. The Straits link the upper Great Lakes to the lower Great Lakes and thence via the St. Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Canadians and Americans cooperate in preserving the beauty and history of the Great Lakes, and local NGOs take especial pride in promoting the conservation of this largest body of fresh water in the Americas.
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Irredentism A foreign policy directed toward the incorporation within one states boundaries territories that historically or ethnically were related to it but are now subject to another political authority. Irredentism can lead to war when one state claims the people, and a part or a whole of another state.
territory, ethnicity, language, and/or religion (see chapter 1). Boundaries, closely related to the issue of territory, can cause serious problems. In the nineteenth century, the colonial powersGreat Britain, France, and Germanycarved up Africa. They drew boundaries that were useful to themselves, but these had little relation to the living patterns of the inhabitants. This situation is not limited to Africa. In Asia, India and Pakistan have clashed a number of times since the two states were created from British India in 1947. The issue is where to draw the boundary between them in the Himalayan territory of Kashmir. Neither state appears to care that a large majority of the actual inhabitants of Kashmir would probably prefer independence. History shows that boundary lines can be very important to the people who live within them. It also shows that not everybody who lives within a set of boundary lines wants to be part of the state those lines describe. Quite often, ethnic groups are spread out beyond the confines of one state. Sometimes one state has lost territory or lays claim to territory it believes it owns. Such situations can create irredentist pressures upon the home state to extend its political power to include lands lying within a neighboring state, more often than not inhabited by ethnic cousins. The Italian term, terra irredenta means unredeemed land. For example, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up at the end of World War I, Hungarians were living in all parts of the Empire but considered Hungary their homeland. The victorious Entente powers carved up Austria and Hungary, and distributed the land to other states. Suddenly some Hungarians found themselves a minority ethnic group in another country. As a consequence, irredentist feelings ran high in Hungary in the period between the First and Second World Wars. The nationalist policy to regain lost territories, or irredentism, drove Hungary to ally itself with Nazi Germany during World War II. When a people or ethnic group within the borders of a recognized state, like the Kurds in northern Iraq, wishes to carve out a part of the recognized state and set up its own sovereign government, we call this a movement for self-determination. In 1991, for example, the Kurds rose up to demand self-determination from Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi regime bloodily repressed the nascent civil war, using poison gas, bombing, torture, mass killings, and deportation. The regimes tactics forced NATO to establish a no-y zone in northern Iraq, declaring the area off limits to Saddam Husseins bombers and protected by NATO troops. See Table 3.5 for an overview of substate movements. Ethnicity Probably the single most signicant factor in substate conict is the presence of a heterogeneous population, meaning that a variety of ethnic groups are represented. An ethnic group, as discussed in chapter 1 is a group of people linked by a common bond. Most frequently this bond is language, but it may also be one of belonging to the same tribe or religion. Less frequently, race is a common bond. Language is the most common bond of ethnicity. If you have ever traveled to Europe, you will remember that in Paris the Americans tend to group together in one corner of a caf, the Germans in another, and the French somewhere else. Language is obviously an important reason for these divisions. When you visit Switzerland, you will nd that it is separated into three distinct areas, each of which is primarily populated by a different ethnic group. In each partthe French cantons, the German cantons, and the Italian cantonsthe signs are in the language of the majority population.
Race A division of humankind possessing biological traits that are transmissible by descent and that are sufcient to characterize it as a distinctive human type. Skin color is the major trait identied with race today.
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In Afghanistan, one of the main problems in creating a national state is that each of the countrys ethnic groups speaks a different language. The largest group, the Pashtuns, would like to control the government and have their language, Pashtun, become ofcial. The ethnic Tajiks and others disagree. And so tension between the tribes and their chieftains threatens the existence of the fragile state. Religion A third major reason people want to live apart is religion. Religious conict tends to occur wherever two religions neighbor each other and where the boundaries between the two are porous (or not well dened, meaning that people can easily cross the boundary and move from one region to another). The island of Ireland is a prime example. The Irish people in the independent Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, all speak the same language or languages. The 100-year-old civil war in Northern Ireland is over religion. z The Republic of Ireland is Catholic and wants to remain so. About half the people in Northern Ireland are Catholic, and most of these would like to join their Catholic relatives and neighbors in the Republic of Ireland. They also would like to share in the good economic times that country is enjoying. z The other half of the people in Northern Ireland are Protestant, the descendants of English and Scottish immigrants. They are afraid that the Catholic Irish will take over the province and vote to join the Republic of Ireland. Protestants then would have, in the Protestant Irish view, no rights at all. A peace accord signed on Good Friday, April 10, 1998, promised resolution of this conict. In 2006, the British and Irish governments and all the major political parties in Northern Ireland agreed to a permanent end of the ghting and the formation of a new Northern Ireland executive. Religion can be a source of conict between Muslims as it is between some Christians. Among the critical challenges to the future of Iraq are constitutional decisions relating to the sharing of power between the Shiite majority and the
For more information see The View From: The Holy Land: The IsraeliPalestinian Conict www.BetweenNations.org
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The market in the Shiite neighborhood of Sadriya, Baghdad, Iraq, April 18, 2007, after a Sunni-driven truck exploded, killing 140 people, smashing cars, and shattering buildings.
Sunni minority, in particular the sharing of oil revenues. The same is true in Kosovo, where ethnic cleansing rst by Orthodox Serbia and then by Muslim Kosovars make the presence of NATOs armed force indispensable to the areas security. In conclusion, when you combine territorial, religious, and ethnic issues into one package, you often discover a substate/state conict of seemingly irresolvable proportions. This is the case with the IsraeliPalestinian conict. This conict between Jew and Arab is now entering its second century. History offers a rather brutal lesson. Any government that has tried to create one nation from a multiethnic population has, in the main, had to rely on force to achieve its goals. You encounter this lesson again and again when reading the history of France, Britain, and Germany or when exploring the story of white expansion across the American continent. The Native American tribes were beaten back until the few that remained were sidelined onto reservations. The United States prides itself today as a multiethnic state that celebrates cultural diversity. But its history has several chapters on ethnic cleansing, including this signicant one about the people who reached the Americas rst.
The Actors
The rst actors usually considered at this level are powerful government ofcials or leaders with a world reputation, such as the president of the United States, the pope, or the head of the World Bank. But inventors, artists, actors, and athletes also
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Political Psychology
The second generalization to be made about the role of individuals in world events is that their perceptions and motivations play a key role in their decisions. Political psychology, a branch of international relations, is devoted to understanding these aspects of decision making, and the eld has produced testable hypotheses about the attitudes and thought processes of leading international political actors. z Misperception and Groupthink: One of the leading proponents of political psychology is Robert Jervis. Based on his study of the Cuban missile crisis, Jervis developed a series of hypotheses on the role of misperception in the management of crisis situations. For example, he claims that actors tend to see the behavior of others as more centralized, disciplined, and coordinated than they are, and that actors tend to overestimate the degree to which others
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Groupthink A mode of thinking that people engage in when the cohesiveness of their group is high and the members striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to evaluate alternative courses of action.
are acting in response to what they themselves do.6 In his analysis of the decision-making process of the principal U.S. actors during in the crisis, Jervis expanded on another important concept in political psychology: groupthink, earlier identied by Yale social psychologist Irving Janis in his seminal work, Victims of Groupthink (1972). The term describes a situation where each member of the group attempts to conform his or her opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group. This results in the group ultimately agreeing on an action, such as the Kennedy administrations attempted invasion of Cuba, which individual members by themselves might normally consider unwise. z Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance theory, developed by Leon Fes tinger in 1957, explains the psychological phenomenon of discomfort an individual experiences when he or she discovers a discrepancy between what he or she already knows or believes and new contradictory information. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a need to accommodate new ideas. When individuals are confronted with new facts that contradict what they knew before, they tend to resist the new learning or the new reality. Political leaders are no different. An example of cognitive dissonance might be the Pentagons initial picture of a swift and decisive American military victory in Iraq despite information that U.S. forces would meet a very different kind of reception. z Leadership Typologies: The nal aspect of political psychology mentioned here is the typologies of leadership offered to explain a leaders choice of certain kinds of decisions and actions rather than others. Some scholars like to talk about leadership styles based on a states political development: the traditional leadership of a prince or a monarch, the charismatic leadership of a modernizing leader like Fidel Castro or Franklin Roosevelt, or the organizational leadership of a leader in an already operating pluralistic polity, like former U.S. President Jimmy Carter or Helmut Kohl of Germany. Others scholars follow Sigmund Freuds typology of three dominant personality types: the erotic personality that needs to love and to be loved, the obsessive or inner-directed personality, and the narcissistic or charismatic personality that aims to change things for the better or the worse. A third typology used by scholars is the Myers-Briggs personality model based on four personality continua: introversion-extroversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judgingperception. The analysis of why certain individuals exert inuence or act as they do is fascinating, and if you are drawn to the topic, you may want to take a course in political psychology. Decision making is discussed in more detail in chapter 5.
The third set of generalizations that may be formulated about individuals has to do with the amount of power they have. Indeed, almost all questions about individual actors on the international stage center on power: What is it, who has it, and how is it used? The word power comes from the Latin word posse, meaning to be able, to have the ability to act or to do. In politics, power involves the ability to get someone to do something that he or she otherwise would not do voluntarily.
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At the turn of the twenty-first century, two of the major players on the world scene were George W. Bush, president of the United States, and Osama bin Laden, Saudi terrorist.
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whose names are unknown exert considerable inuence. For example, many states agreed to give money to alleviate the suffering of the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia. Large nancial institutions pledged billions of dollars in loans that have taken a long time to process. In the meantime, individuals from humanitarian NGOs, such as the Catholic Relief Organization and the International Red Cross, have long been at work, caring for the needy. Tsunami victims in South Asia, hurricane victims in Nicaragua and Honduras, refugees returning to Kosovo, famine victims in Rwanda and Ethiopia, the victims of earthquakes in Iran, and refugees in Darfur are all causes that individuals support. Some people help by sending a check, others by giving personal time to an organization that is raising money. Still others actually go to the area that needs help and volunteer their labor. In 1995, after the Fourth UN Conference on Women, held in Beijing, American and Canadian women who had heard about the murder of girl babies in China spent their own money to go to that country, adopt baby girls, and save their lives by bringing them back to Canada and the United States. Volunteers organize and manage the countless sister city programs, like the Albany/Tula Alliance and the New York City/Tokyo program, that connect local administrations, organizations, and individuals in a web of citizen diplomacy. Without the involvement of individuals at the grass-roots level, many international projects that alleviate suffering or promote cultural dialog could not be realized. When individuals care about someone or some problem in the world and act upon their feelings, they have an impact. You too can be a player at the individual level in the world today. Volunteers for Habitat for Humanity Building Homes in the Philippines
Dr. Robert T. Potter, along with 200 other volunteers, went to the Philippines to help Filipinos build a home for themselves. Volunteers are found in every NGO and provide home, food, and clothing to the millions of poor, sick, and homeless in our world today. The global community cannot do without them.
Source: Courtesy of Dr. Robert T. Potter.
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_____ 1. The levels of analysis allow us to organize international actors and events into ve distinct levels of international activity. _____ 2. Non-state actors include groups as diverse as the United Nations, al Qaeda, Greenpeace, international drug cartels and transnational corporations. _____ 3. Because they rob the state of power, realists view transnational corporations (TNCs) as a disruptive force for the international economic system that should be regulated. _____ 4. The most important factors used when focusing on the state level of analysis are power, wealth, and geographic location. _____ 5. Generally speaking, there is a lack of conict at the substate level of analysismost conict occurs at the international system.
Multiple Choice
c. Former communist states d. Failing or at-risk states e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following best describes the level of analysis that focuses on organizations like the EU, OAS, NAFTA, and the AU? a. International system b. Regional c. State d. Substate e. Individual _____ 8. Which of the following is NOT an example of an approach used to study the individual level of analysis? a. Misperception b. Groupthink c. Cognitive dissonance d. Power balancing e. All of the above
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 3.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following categories would you use to place China so that all of its attributes are accurately represented (political, economic, military)? a. Developing states b. Industrialized states
The discussion of the ve levels of analysisthe international system as a whole level, the regional level, the state level, the substate level, and the individual levelleads to a number of questions. What is the best use to make of them? Do analysts look at only one level at a time? Can levels be combined? By this time in your studies of international relations, you can probably answer those questions on your own. The levels can be used in any way. Analysts focus on a particular level of analysis on the basis of three things: 1. The type of situation 2. What they want to nd out 3. What paradigm or political theory they intend to use to determine what they want to nd out.
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_____ 1. The state level of analysis is the most effective at explaining the situation faced by Afghanistan. _____ 2. When looking at Afghanistans tribal structure we are using the substate level of analysis. _____ 3. The international systems level of analysis cannot be used to explain the lack of democracy in Afghanistan.
_____ 4. The United States does not possess the military or nancial resources to impose a solution in Afghanistan without the assistance of allies. _____ 5. The Talibans role in Afghanistan can be viewed strictly from the regional level of analysis.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 3.3 www.BetweenNations.org
Case Study
North Koreas Pursuit of Nuclear Weapons
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as a whole. The World Wildlife Foundation (WWF), for example, works toward the improvement of habitat for endangered species all over the world. Its scientists speak for the conservation movement as a whole, not for any one country. Others say the NGOs do not represent people but rather push their own agendas with no accountability. The WWF may demand the preservation of the Siberian tiger, for example, but only states can guarantee that action will be taken to preserve them. What do you think? Join the debate!
ply the hidden arm of the major states foreign policy and are paid accordingly, or they are carrying out the wishes of well-endowed foundations and corporations. z NGOs, particularly the international environmental groups, have come under criticism recently for making matters worse in the interest of making them better. The international environmental NGOs have been the most vocal opponents of the construction of large dams anywhere in the world, arguing that the electricity produced by them goes to the TNCs and not the poor people dislocated by the projects. z TNCs may provide jobs, but they destroy local economies and local lifestyles and ruin the livelihood of local merchants who cannot compete in price with the global giants. They also exploit workers, hiring them at the lowest possible wage in developing countries, where TNCs do not have to provide benets, such as health care, as they would in the developed states.
QUESTIONS
1. What role do you see NGOs playing in world politics? How can they promote contrasting views to problems? How do they hinder the formulation of solutions? 2. If you were the head of a Western government and wanted to spread education about diseases to a developing country, what kind of organization would you use to develop the program? Why? 3. What vital roles do states play in world politics that NGOs and TNCs cannot?
SUGGESTED READINGS
David C. Korten, Nicanor Perlas, and Vandana Shiva, Global Civil Society: The Path Ahead, The PeopleCentered Development Forum, http://www.pcdf .org/civil-society/default.htm. Sebastian Mallaby, How NGOs Hurt the Poor, Foreign Policy (September/October 2004): 5058. Jessica T. Mathews, Power Shift, Foreign Affairs (January/February 1997). See also the websites of NGOs ghting World Bank efforts to ght poverty: Friends of the Earth, www.foe.org; Environmental Defense, www.environmentaldefense .org; Swedish Society for Nature Conservation, www .snf.se/english.cfm.
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A state is dened as a territory inhabited by a people with a common language and a common culture. The characteristics of the state are sovereignty, legitimacy, and formal international obligations. States are either national, multinational, or multiethnic. The origins of the modern state, which emerged in Europe in the fourteenth and fteenth centuries, lie in the city-states of antiquity in Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome. Its current evolution can be tied to the following factors:
- ideology and common culture - technological advancement - Europe becoming a continent of nation-states
The system level of analysis. The basic assumptions at this level are that the international system is considered as a single whole and within this whole, actors interact with and respond to one another in ways that are predictable.
- The principal actors are the states with non-state actors playing a secondary role. Key non-state actors include intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), whose members each represent a participating state, and nongovernmental actors (NGOs), whose membership is global and voluntary. - Non-state actors have become increasingly visible in the postCold War world.
The structure of the international system is based on states. Under the principles of international law, all states are equal in sovereignty. Today, state domination of the international system is challenged by the large number of states (191) and their vulnerability to events and NGOs they cannot control.
The regional level of analysis enables us to compare across regions and to compare states within regions.
- At the regional level of analysis, we can generalize about economic and political capacity across regions, the structure of power within a region and across regions, and the dynamics of regional IGOs and NGOs.
The state level of analysis looks at and contrasts the behavior of individual states, which are the actors at this
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level. Common factors to compare and contrast 1 about 2 individual states are power, wealth, status and prestige, and population. The substate level includes the units that make up a state (provinces, states such as those of the United States, or Lnder) or that act as players in a regional organization, as well as IGOs and NGOs active at this level.
- The issues around which substate conicts revolve are most often of an ethnic, religious, or linguistic nature and frequently involve boundary disputes.
4 5 how the 6 levels 7 8 are used 9 Understand of analysis to10 understand international relations; apply the levels to the case of Afghanistan.
We use the levels of analysis like the lens of a camera to zoom in and out of a situation, looking at:
- The international system level of analysis for the broadest view of power relationships. - Zooming in on the state or substate level for an analysis of the variables that explain why a state or substate unit acts the way it does. - Zooming further in to the individual level to understand the characteristics and abilities of the individuals who seem most involved with the situation under analysis. - And returning to the regional level for an analysis of the power relationships at the level that may support the state or substate unit under investigation.
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Learning Objectives
1
Understand the difference between objective and subjective elements of power. Be able to describe each of the key objective and subjective power capabilities possessed by states.
Dene power, focusing on both hard and soft forms; understand the dynamics of power that make dening power a difcult task.
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Chapter Outline
How Is It Measured?
Understand what is meant by balance of power and identify key types of balance that may exist in the international system. Understand the concept of collective security and its prospects for securing peace in the international system.
Preventive war A preventive war is undertaken in order to prevent a possible future attack. A preventive war is initiated for purposes of national defense, but not in response to an imminent attackas when the United States attacked Iraq in 2003. Although the Bush administration described its attack as preemptive, it more accurately can be classied as preventive, given the circumstances.
ost questions addressed in world politics, as you learned in the rst three chapters, tend to focus on power. This is so because power (the ability of actors to get other actors to do what they want them to do) is all about politicsthe process of deciding who gets what, when, and how. A second, similar, denition of politics as the authoritative allocation of scarce resources again brings us face-to-face with power. The point is that allocating resources and getting people to do what we want them to do requires power. When President George W. Bush, for example, determined to launch a preventive war on Iraq on the grounds (later proved false) that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction that represented a possible threat to the United States, he employed a
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Key Terms
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preventive war p. 97 preemptive war p. 98 inuence p. 100 geopolitics p. 108 landlocked state p. 108 temperate zone p. 108 diplomacy p. 114 deterrence p. 117 alliances p. 118 globalization p. 121 ethnic nationalism p. 125
Preemptive war A preemptive attack occurs when State A believes that an attack by State B is imminent. State A attacks in order to preempt Bs attack. An example of preemptive war is the 1967 Six-Day War, launched by Israels preemptive attack on Egypts air force at a time when Israel faced increased military activity near its border. The war was fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Algeria contributed troops and arms used against Israel.
traditional realist version of power: military force in the quest of security. So did Israel when it initiated a preemptive war against Egypt in 1967, because it faced immediate military activity on its borders. Realists, you remember, believe the games of states take place in an anarchic global arena, dominated by a struggle for power. The only factor that will check power is powernot international law or appeals to moral behavior. By contrast, antiwar protests against President Bushs attack on Iraq immediately erupted around the world in another form of power, inspired by idealism: peace marches and street demonstrations. So politics and power play big roles in the paradigms used to study world politicsin these cases, realism and idealism. Because politics and power are so directly involved in world politics, they are underlying causes of centralization and decentralization in the international arena. As we esh out the concept of power, we will: z Examine the nature of power and how to dene it, with special attention to the concepts of hard and soft power. z Explore the major elements of power, looking at its objective and subjective characteristics as well as the difculties in measuring them. z Explore power patterns that have existed among states, such as balance of power and multipolarity, both of which illustrate different combinations of power alignment among states. z By the time you nish studying this chapter, you should be well grounded in one of the most important elements at work in world politics in the twenty-rst centuryand a major element in the understanding of unity and separation in the world political arena. n
When power in world politics comes up for discussion, the rst inclination is to think of military power, or brute force. This is not surprising, because in an anarchic system of states with no higher government to settle conicts, the nal option for self-help is military power. You see this impressive brand of power dramatically at work in most parts of the world. Yet, many observers make a compelling case that soft power should be used more effectively to spur cooperation. Power literally jumps out of each days news. On September 11, 2001, members of Osama bin Ladens al Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked U.S. commercial airliners and used them to crash into New York Citys World Trade Center and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., killing thousands of people. A fourth plane crashed in a eld in western Pennsylvania after passengers and crew intervened to prevent the hijackers from diverting the ight to another target in Washington. Here was a case of raw power exercised by a group with far less military muscle than its target,
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Venezuela Is among the Top Four Exporters of Oil to the United States
With huge oil profits, Venezuelas President Hugo Chavez has become the self-appointed champion of antiAmericanism, given significant financial support to like-minded Latin American leaders, and delivered millions of gallons of heating oil at a significant discount to lowincome residents in Philadelphia, Boston, the Bronx, and cities in Maine, Vermont, and Rhode Island.
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Inuence The capacity of one actor to change or sustain the behavior of another actor in the global system.
struggle to seize and use it in order to accomplish objectives. It lies behind the foreign policy of states as they pursue their goals in world affairs, it affects international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and it shapes the nature of decision making inside states. In a nutshell, power is at work around the globe twenty-four hours a day. Power can be described in two distinct ways, objective and subjective. Objective sources of power include a countrys assets that can be seen, touched, or measured, while subjective sources of power lie in the domain of human strengths or weaknesses. These objective and subjective capabilities represent the base of a countrys index of power or strength and will be covered in more detail later in the chapter. When translated into action that affects the behavior of a countrys population as well as that of other countries, those power assets become what might be called kinetic power, or power in motion. If potential power becomes kinetic power, it reaches the stage of influence. We speak of inuence because at this point power capabilities are in motion to affect the behavior of others inside a country as well as leaders and followers abroad. Power capabilities and inuence also take hard and soft forms. z Hard power generally refers to the tangible, measurable assets, such as military and economic strength, that give some countries more power than others. Hard power is the coercive kinds of power, such as economic sanctions applied by the United States to Cuba, or the military force used by the Israelis to occupy the West Bank. z Soft powercomprised of the subjective types of power discussed beloware those elements that give a country the ability to get what it wants through its capacity to attract and persuade rather than by its capacity to coerce through military or economic might.
Whereas hard power is a states economic and military capability to coerce, soft power is its ability to inuence through cultural, ideological, and moral appeal. Soft-power factors constitute major elements of a countrys overall power inventory. In part, soft power rests on the appeal of a countrys ideals and culture and on its ability to establish an agenda that will persuade others to agree on values, institutions, and behavior.1 Numerous critics of U.S. foreign policy believe the United States has not used its potential soft power adequately in recent years. Indeed, as
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In India, Bengaloorus big draw for outsourcing is its deep pool of skilled technology workers who speak English. They cost one-tenth of what they would cost in the United States and Western Europe. Bangalore changed its name to Bengalooru in November 2006.
the U.S. occupation of Iraq continued many foreigners came to perceive the United States as arrogant, self-absorbed, self-indulgent, and contemptuous.2 The image of the United States has not been helped by photos and reports of U.S. torture of prisoners at Iraqs Abu Ghraib Prison. By 2008, dislike of everything American was on the rise. Other forms of soft power include: z Information revolution: exemplied by the Internet and the World Wide Web, the information revolution clearly affects soft power. Consider that nearly a billion people now use the Internet on a regular basis. These relatively cheap ows of information have vastly expanded the number and variety of transnational channels of contact and have made state borders and other controls more porous. Indeed, terrorist organizations use the Web and the Internet to communicate and to incite violence. z Economic growth and development: Outsourcing of U.S. corporate operations to places like India and China illustrate this changing nature of power in the twenty-rst century. z Investments in education: As for U.S. investments in science, in June 2004, forty-eight U.S. Nobel Prize laureates criticized the Bush administration for ignoring scientic evidence of global warming, for its negative stance of stemcell research, and for cutting funding for scientic research.
For more information see The View From: Bengalooru [Formerly Bangalore] www.BetweenNations.org
Dynamics of Power
According to Hans Morgenthau, often referred to as the father of modern political realism, power refers to control over the minds and actions of othersa psychological relation between those who exercise it and those over whom it is exercised.3 A stunning example of this denition of power is the catastrophic March 11, 2004, terrorist railway bombings in Madrid that killed 200 people and injured some 1,800. The ten bombs that exploded on four trains in three Madrid stations
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during the busy morning rush hour were the work of an Islamic terrorist group associated with al Qaeda in Europe. In a letter faxed to the Spanish daily newspaper ABC, the group claimed responsibility for the attacks and warned that unless the country halted its support for the United States and withdrew its troops from Iraq, they would turn Spain into an inferno. In reaction to the bombings, during which the government of Spain engaged in a colossal cover-up that failed attempting to blame the attack on Basque terroristscitizens launched a massive antigovernment protest. With public opinion already against the war in Iraq, three days after the terror attacks, Spain voted out the proU.S. ruling party of Spain and brought into power a new socialist prime minister. A month later, the last of Spains 1,300 combat soldiers were pulled out of Iraq ahead of schedule. The terrorists had the capability to blow up trains, an act of power that inuenced Spanish voters to throw out the proU.S. Prime Minister and elect a new prime minister more in tune with their overwhelming opposition (and that of the Islamic terrorists) to the U.S. war in Iraq. Dening power is not as easy as it may seem. As we will see later in the chapter, measuring power is difcult because of its conditional nature. Multiple factors make the concept of power in world politics a subject difcult to pin down.
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Power Is Relative
Any one states power can be evaluated in context only. For example, China has great economic power when compared to its next-door neighbors Vietnam or Taiwan, but not when compared to the United States. Mexico has much greater overall power in relation to Guatemala, which lies to its south, than in relation to its northern neighbor, the United States. Vietnam worries more about Chinas power than about Cambodias, given the power difference in its two neighbors.
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Power, then, is relative, not absolute. While Russia has suffered severe economic decline, it still has a powerful military capability, and its presence is felt in those countries that lie close to it geographically, which Moscow refers to as the near abroad. The United States has vast objective power, but its perceived negative image abroad makes it vulnerable nonetheless. The relativity of power can also be seen in the capabilities of al Qaeda. Although this is an organization rather than a state, the will of its members and their readiness to commit suicide while killing as many people as possible have proven enormously effective in posing a threat to Western powers. Al Qaeda by no means possesses the colossal power of the United States, nor can it effect change through the use of commerce, nance, trade, or conventional military weapons. Nevertheless, it has demonstrated signicant relative power in its ability to cause the United States to shift huge resources to homeland security and increased military spending and to pay attention to a war on terrorism.
Power Is Situational
Power is meaningful only within a specic policy context. Here is one example. One states military capacity to win a war against anothers states military forces may be successful, but the so-called victor does not necessarily win the war against the defeated states population. U.S. military power cleaned house on Iraqs military in March 2003, yet it would be difcult to claim the United States had won the hearts and minds of the Iraqi people. U.S. military and civilians were being killed weekly after the military victory. This example shows that while Americas military power is very meaningful on the battleeld, it is much less capable of inuencing the civil society of a defeated country.
_____ 1. Hard power refers to basic military weapons such as guns and conventional bombs while soft power refers to technologically advanced weaponry (nuclear bombs, aircraft carriers, etc.). _____ 2. World leaders, like humans in general, are incapable of dealing with all the complexity of the world and thus are required to simplify the world in order to deal with it. _____ 3. Power levels are relatively stable for most countries over the long run. _____ 4. An absolute increase or decrease in a countrys power is meaningless unless it is placed in context (which country gained or lost, what is the relative effect vis--vis its adversaries, etc.).
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 4.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 5. Which one of the following does not contribute to a countrys soft-power capabilities? a. Cultural inuence b. Moral inuence c. Technological developments d. Investments in education e. None of the above _____ 6. Which of the following accurately describes what is meant by situational power? a. A country that is located between two small powers is situationally powerful. b. A country that is located between two large powers is situationally weak. c. Power capabilities that are meaningful in one context are not necessarily useful in another. d. The most effective way for a superpower to maximize its power is to spread military bases across the globe. e. All of the above
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Objective elements of power have traditionally included those capabilities or assets that can be seen, touched, and measuredor, in other words, empirically veried. How and where these elements of power are distributed on the global stage establishes who will be the big players and who will be the small actors in the drama. Neither Haiti nor Bangladesh has much chance of making its voice heard in the daily political struggle over who gets what, when, and how, whereas the United States, the European Union, China, and Russia do. Saudi Arabia has oil that the United States, Western Europe, and Japan need. This gives Saudi Arabia power; for despite its past role in supporting schools that teach anti-Western Islamic fundamentalism, states that need petroleum count Saudi Arabia as an ally. Terrorism and suicide bombings are other forms of objective power, with the awkward caveat that they are difcult to count or measure until the bombs go off. That they possess armed force (objective power), however, and the will to use it (subjective power) is not in doubt.
Military Capacity
Military preparedness has traditionally been the most compelling aspect of a countrys objective power. This is so because military capacity has been the way in which a country protects its territory and people from threats of aggression and furthers its objectives abroad. The world has changed rapidly, with new threats from sources other than nation-states. Threats now include terrorists, black-marketweapons proliferators, organized crime afliates, drug trafckers, and cyberspace outlaws. Longstanding ethnic and tribal conicts generate civil wars not easily quelled by conventional weapons, and porous borders do not lend themselves to predictable responses by military doctrines. At the same time, the worlds states continue to assemble weapons to defend against hostile or potentially hostile states. Military capability in our world of change still retains a high place in national leaders perceptions of power. That military capability occupies a priority position in terms of how state leaders calculate power is underscored by the level of global military spending. World military expenditures remain high; in fact, more money is spent on the military and the arms trade that on anything else in the world: over $1 trillion annually.6 By comparison, the entire budget for the United Nations is only about 1.5 percent of
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this amount. The military budget of the United States for scal year 2008nearly $650 billionis larger than military spending by all of the other states in the world combined.7 Figure 4.1 depicts U.S. military spending compared to some of the worlds other military spenders. States seek to acquire weapons despite porous borders and the numerous associated threats that seem to defy a military deterrent. South Korea worries about North Korea. Israel lives in a distinctly hostile neighborhood. India and Pakistan have their problems. Israel must deal with a two-war situation, one against Palestinian suicide bombings and another potentially waged by the surrounding countries. The Israeli situation is complicated by various terrorist organizationsHamas, Fatah, Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades, Islamic Jihad, al Qaeda, and Hezbollahfunded by nearby Middle Eastern states.
Billions ($)
The World CIA Factbook; SIPRI, Center for Defense Information and Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, 2007, British Ministry of Defense and European Union government ministries. Experts at the International Institute for Strategic Studies, a military think tank, say that Beijings ofcial gures underestimated real spending. NB: The following countries are shown with 2006 gures: Italy, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Spain, Brazil, Turkey and Netherlands. Figures for Israel and Taiwan are 2005.
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GNI Per Capita in U.S. Dollars $785 or less $768$3,125 $3,126$9,656 Above $9,656 No data
The values for the class intervals above are taken from the World Banks cutoff figures for low-income, lower-middleincome, upper-middle-income, and highincome economies. 0 0 1000 2000 Miles
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Geography
The geographic size and location of a state, as you might imagine, are extremely important as elements of objective power. Indeed, these factors are so important that a whole eld of study centered on geography and politics, called political geography or geopolitics , has emerged over the years. As we show in chapter 8, a number of geographic factors affect a countrys power capacity. z A country with natural harbors and outlets to the sea, for example, is much more favorably located than a landlocked state. z A country located in the temperate zone which lies between 23.5 degrees and 60.5 degrees north latitude and 23.5 degrees and 60.5 degrees south latitude has a climate more favorable for human and agricultural productivity than a country located near the equator or in the far north or south of the globe. z Mountains can deter potential invaders, as in Switzerland, or they can impede a countrys internal economic development, as in Bolivia and Peru.
Geopolitics The study of the geographical distribution of power among states throughout the world, with specic attention to the rivalry of the major powers. Landlocked state As the term suggests, a state surrounded by other sovereign states and shut off from easy access to the sea; examples include Paraguay and Bolivia in South America. Temperate zone Two (north and south) areas of the globe that lie between 23.5 degrees and 60.5 degrees north latitude and 23.5 degrees and 60.5 degrees south latitude. They are temperate in climate and said to be prime territorial areas conducive to economic development owing to temperature and other climatic factors.
Natural Resources
Natural resources constitute a key power capability closely associated with geography. These vital factors make it possible for a country to feed and shelter its population, industrialize its economy, and engage in trade. Access to natural resources like arable land for food production; coal, oil, and uranium; rivers for energy sources to run industries; or iron ore for steel production are the basis for comparFor more information see ative levels of GNP, levels and balances of trade, and military preparedness. If a Why It Matters to You: country does not have sufcient land to raise food, then it must import it, which Why Do Gas Prices means less money for other vital investments. If a country must import its oil, gas, Rise at the Pump? or coal, it has less money to spend on education and health care. So the natural www.BetweenNations.org resource base of a country becomes a key ingredient of powerand of course that base can change over time. Let us look more closely at the oil issue. Today the United States must import oil, whereas it used to be self-sufcient. Figure 4.3 depicts U.S. oil imports. Some observers have concluded that owing to U.S. oil FIGURE 4.3 dependence on countries like Saudi Arabia, the latter has the United States over a barrel. They point out U.S. Petroleum Imports by Country: 2005 U.S. Petroleum Imports by Country, 2005 that in 1970, the United States could trade a bushel of wheat for a barrel of oil in the world market. By 2002, Canada it took nine bushels of U.S. wheat to buy a barrel of oil. Note that the United States is the worlds largest Mexico importer of oil and its largest exporter of grain.8 Saudi Arabia U.S. dependence on oil illustrates how energy Venezuela resources affect a countrys power base and foreign policy. Oil, and who controls it, drove wars in the Nigeria twentieth century and was the main reason for conIraq icts such as the Persian Gulf War in 1991 and, arguably, for the U.S. preventive attack on Iraq in 2003. Angola Oil has given Saudi Arabia remarkable power in Ecuador its relations with the United States. While some observers take exception to Michael Moores docu0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 mentary lm Fahrenheit 911, the lm depicted the Millions of Barrels per Day nature of the Saudi kingdoms close oil ties with the Source: Energy Information Administration. Used by permission. United States.
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Population
Population as a critical ingredient of power depends on factors including its size (relative to the land size of the state it occupies), age distribution, health, and education. z Population size and density vary greatly from state to state, but, in general, a large population in a large territorial state can be an asset. It provides a base for selecting soldiers for military service and a work force for the economy. Small developing countries that face regional threats, however, may create large military forces despite their relatively small populations, as in the case of North Korea. With the high-tech smart weapons in todays military arsenals, however, big armies are no longer really as signicant as they once were. Figure 4.4 illustrates the top ten countries in terms of population size. The bottom line is that the large territorial states with huge populationsChina, the United States, Russia, and Indiatend to have substantial military forces with potential inuence in their region or the world. While China is often viewed as a potentially powerful country because of its 1.3 billion people, India is second in the world with just over 1 billion. The United States, by contrast, has a population of roughly 300 million, less than a third of Indias. Present-day Russia has roughly 143 million people. In keeping with our discussion in the preceding paragraph, keep in mind the geographic size of these FIGURE 4.4 Population: 2007
China India European Union United States Indonesia Brazil Pakistan Bangladesh Russia Nigeria 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 Population in 2007 (billions) 1.4
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countries. Russia is vast (6,592,812 square miles); the United States and China are each just over half the size of Russia; and India is only one-third the size of these. That means that India is less than one-fth the size of Russia but has seven times its population! z Population demographics affect a countrys power base. For example, if a large sector of the population is under fteen years of age, a substantial percentage has not yet entered the work force and therefore is unlikely to participate in the countrys economic productivity. Such is the case in many developing countries. A states population in the sixty-ve-and-older bracket also typically does not participate in economic productivity, yet it draws on social security programs and health benets. The United States faces this problemas does China with a rapidly aging population growing faster than its younger population. Figure 4.5 maps the average annual population growth rate for the years 2001 to 2015. z A key aspect of populationin addition to its level of educationis its health. By 2008 the HIV/AIDS pandemic has affected the security of states throughout the world. Over 40 million people are living with AIDS, with nearly 8,000 dying every day during 2006. Figure 4.6 illustrates how the AIDS epidemic is impacting different regions of the world. A point to remember is that countries with a FIGURE 4.5 Population Growth Rate
Average Annual Population Growth Rate, 20012015 Projection based on 198097 fertility rates and 1997 age-sex structure of populations Less than 0.0% 0.0%0.5% 0.6%1.0% 1.1%2.0% More than 2.0% No data
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The HIV/AIDS pandemic is undermining the power and security of states throughout the world.
EASTERN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA 1.7 million (1.2 2.6 million) EAST ASIA 750,000 (460,000 1.2 million)
healthy, literate, and socially mobile population enjoy a solid base for economic andPolitics political development. Countries with an unhealthy, uneducated, Duncan: World in the 21st Century, 3e 1036905_m_04_06 and socially immobile population have a less promising base for economic 11/12/07 and political power.
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National Culture
When we speak of national culture, we refer to qualities of intellect and behavior that are distinctly imprinted on and valued by national groups across the worlds stageRussians, Vietnamese, Germans, and so on. Not only do these qualities set national groups apart, they also distinctly inuence a number of attributes associated with power. These include attitudes toward workas in the cases of China and Japanpolitical culture, interethnic stereotyping, behavior within and between the peoples and cultures occupying state territory, and negotiating styles in diplomacy.10 Certainly cultural values impact how a country chooses to use power in world politics. Chinas culture produces a realist approach to power, demonstrated by its military buildup, while Japan is more pacist in its attitude toward the use of military power. How long Japan will retain this posture, however, is an open-ended question. Former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (elected in 2006, resigned in 2007) has argued that Japan should consider acquiring a preemptive military capability in view of North Koreas missile program. National cultures remain tenacious in world politics, despite what appear to be the homogenization effect of globalization and, by implication, the centralizing tendencies globalization is expected to produce. This fact has deep implications for power relationships in world politics, because looking at the world through the lenses of a national culture shapes one states perceptions and expectations about the power of another, conditions how it conducts its diplomacy, and can serve to unite a people in a common cause. The general aspects of a peoples behavior tend to stand out over time. The Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and South Koreans are known for their ethic of work, saving, thrift, and high value given to education. In Malaysia, Chinese dominate the business and nancial world, while Malays tend to control the government. Germans are known as extremely hardworking. American and Japanese workers also are recognized for their high productivity. A Confucian tradition runs from Japan to Singapore and encompasses the robust economies of Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and China. The Confucian ethic stresses self-restraint, which might explain this regions high savings rates. A believer in Confucian principles emphasizes scholarship and having to pass a difcult examination to enter the civil service. This emphasis has produced comparatively strong literacy rates throughout the region. In Japan, cooperative behavior and interpersonal relations are highly valued, as is the concept of efciency. This characteristic may have deep historical roots, as the Japanese people long ago built an agricultural society from the paddy eldsa task that required cooperation. Another cultural aspect of Japan is that, unlike America, it places society ahead of the economya cultural trait that in tending to unify a people becomes a power factor for the state as a player in world politics.11
National Morale
Although elusive and unstable, national morale reects the determination of a nation to support the policies of its government. After the 9/11 attacks, the Bush Administration, among other activities, used the media to rally the population in support of rst, retaliation against the Taliban in Afghanistan, and subsequently in preparation to attack Iraq. The Vietnam War is a classic case in which Vietnamese
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In Vietnams brand of market socialism, Ho Chi Minh City is the pulse beat of the countrys economic life. Some observers have seen it as Vietnams version of frenetic New York City, while Hanoi in the north is more like Paris, France, in terms of cuisine and culture.
national morale played a signicant role. As the United States became increasingly entangled in Vietnam from the early 1960s onward, morale on both sides affected its outcome. The Vietnamese, ghting on their own territory against foreign invaders, remained tenacious, while U.S. troops became decidedly demoralized as the body count rose. Todays Vietnamese, eld research and interviews reveal, are surprisingly optimistic about the future and are fascinated and comfortable with foreigners despite past foreign domination of their country. 12 In contrast, al Qaeda members and many Middle East Muslims are bitterly disenchanted with Western globalization, their governments ties with the West, and their own profound poverty. Palestinian refugee camps in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are filled with demoralized people of all agesmaking them a spawning ground for suicide terrorists.
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z Some states, however, suffer from a nearly total lack of government, and these so-called weak or failing states have little political and economic cohesiveness. They generally cannot mount a strong foreign policy and therefore suffer a lack of national power. Afghanistan, Angola, Azerbaijan, the Central African Republic, Georgia, Somalia, and Zambia are cases in point. Do you believe Iraq ts this category? The quality of government is undermined by internal conicts and loss of legitimacy. Internal conicts can arise from religious differences, ethnic frictions, military inghting, drug trafckers, guerrilla movements, and breakaway efforts by separatist groups using either ballots, as in East Timor versus Indonesia, or bullets, as in Kosovo. Loss of central government legitimacy is associated with internal conicts like these, as well as with rising widespread corruption. Although no state is immune from corruption, Mexico, Russia, and Bosnia were particularly corrupt at the turn of the twentieth-rst century. Another quality of government that plays an enormous role in a countrys power base is its ability to foster economic growth and quality of life for its citizens. Norways oil-fueled economic growth and government-led quality of life in health care, education, and welfare is a case-in-point. A countrys internal organization and political stability is a vital element of power. Countries with strong internal organizationexible, cohesive, and perceived as legitimate by their populationsare better prepared to mobilize power and use it effectively in the world arena than those that are divided, or, worse, racked by internal civil war. Switzerland, for example, is recognized as stable and economically efcient, while Haiti is not.
Diplomacy The negotiating process by which states and other international actors pursue international relations and reconciliation of competing interests by compromise and bargaining.
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_____ 1. Of the objective sources of power, military power has been the traditional focus among nation-states. _____ 2. A countrys level of economic development is important when measuring power because it captures a states ability to do many different things (sustain itself, engage in trade, maintain military forces). _____ 3. Population is such an important element of power that any methods to increase a states population should be employed when attempting to increase ones power. _____ 4. National culture, while important for those who focus on subjective elements of power, rarely has any practical effect on the way a nation employs the power at its disposal. _____ 5. Russia, which has experienced less than stellar economic performance in the past decade, is the prime example of a category of states called weak or failing states.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 4.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following is an example of successful diplomacy? a. Milosevics handling of Yugoslavian politics in the early 1990s b. The relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union in the period following 1985 c. The March 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States d. The UN resolution of the conict in Rwanda in the mid 1990s e. All of the above _____ 7. Which of the following statements is accurate: a. U.S. spending on its military budget is about twice the annual budget of the United Nations. b. Total military spending across the globe is second only to economic-infrastructure investment. c. The United States will spend more in 2008 on military expenditures than the rest of the world combined. d. Most countries have experienced a relative decline in military spending since the end of the Cold War. e. None of the above
Over the past 300 years or so, state decision makers have been guided by a principle referred to as the primacy of the state, meaning that states have centered their foreign policy on advancing their interests by using power to protect their territorial security, economic vitality, and political independence. In this view, each state relies on its own power, either by itself or in alliance with other states, precisely because no world government exists to regulate the affairs of territorial states. Recall that a major reason for the absence of world governmentor far-reaching international lawis that states view themselves as sovereign. They do not recognize any higher legal authority, including the UN, as discussed in chapter 2. Consequently, throughout history states have existed in
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Balance of Power
The balance-of-power theory, about which much has been written, emerged after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 as a way to promote world stability. The idea was that if one or more countries had sufcient power to balance the power of another country or alliance, then peace and stability would follow. The strategy checked power with power; if one alliance seemed to be gaining the edge in power, then an opposing alliance should increase its powerand vice versa. Keep in mind, however, that the balance-of-power theory did not work consistently well and had many breakdowns during this period. Balance-of-power tactics can be seen during the Cold War, when the United States and NATO faced off against the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. But many scholars argue that it was not the balance of power that kept war from breaking out between these two alliance systems but rather the balance of terrorthe fear of nuclear retaliation if one side attacked the other with a nuclear weapon. What prevented this, in the balance-of-terror model, was deterrence: posing costs and risks to a country thinking about launching a nuclear attack that outweighed any perceived potential gains. Such costs and risks would come in the form of a devastating, retaliatory second strike against the country that initially attacked.
Deterrence A defensive strategy to dissuade, without the actual use of force, another country from attacking. Normally used in the context of nuclear deterrence.
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Alliances Alliances are groups of states that come together in quest of mutually benecial ends. They affect the distribution of power among states by pooling their power to offset the power of other states and alliances. They may seek to augment their power, prevent the loss of power vis--vis other states or alliances, and to reduce uncertainties about their power. Types of alliances include defense pacts, nonaggression pacts (agreement not to attack each other), ententes (agreement to coordinate policies), or treaties of friendship (expressing common interests in world politics.
Alliances, a coalition of states seeking to increase their power relative to other states, obviously play a big role in balance-of-power politics. Alliances date far back in history, certainly to the time of warring Athens and Sparta. Typically formed to pool resources to offset the power of a perceived threatening state or coalition of states, the politics of alliance formation has been described by many terms: z Chain ganging refers to one alliance member acting in a way that instigates conict, forcing the others to follow, leading the international system to collapse as in World War I. z Burden sharing points to who shoulders what costs within the allianceas within NATO. z Free riding or Buck passing describes an alliance partner that contributes less to an alliance because a weaker state in the alliance has less of a choice, as in Australias alliance with the United States. z Bandwagoning happens when weaker states join a stronger state instead of uniting to balance against it. Many states have jumped on the bandwagon with the United States since post 9/11 because they may not wish to appear to be on its bad side. Does this mean that bandwagoning has replaced balancing since the United States invaded Iraq in 2003?
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z Multipolarity, as demonstrated in the breakup of the USSR, the rise of China, and emergence of trade blocs like the European Union and NAFTA, and so on. In this conguration, multiple centers of various types are forming. Whether balance can occur in this conguration is still an open question. See Figure 4.8, g Services Inc. which depicts power shifts in Europe from 1989 to 2005. z Unipolarity, referring to the United States as the single dominant military power in the global system. In this system, U.S. power may be viewed as the ultimate guarantor of world stability through military policingor as instigat2nd Proof 3rd Proof Final ing global instability through U.S.driven cultural imperialism and a protracted war against terrorism that can produce endless insecurity.16
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Source: John L. Allen and Elizabeth J. Leppman, Student Atlas of World Politics, 6th edition, 2004, map #18, p. 31. Used by permission.
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Globalization Globalization refers to widened economic integration and interdependence among the worlds states by way of international free trade, market economies, investments, and capital ows. Huge multi national corporations (MNCs) and global economic organizationsthe International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organizationcome to dominate global commerce as world trade expands. Globalization is also produced by the spread of global beroptic networks, digitalization, satellite communications, the World Wide Web, and computer technology. www.BetweenNations.org
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interdependence of states through international free trade, market economies, investments, and capital ows. World trade has grown astronomically, and huge multinational corporations (MNCs) and global economic organizations (Inter national Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization) dominate global commerce. These trendslinked with the spread of global ber-optic networks, digitalization, satellite communications, the World Wide Web, and computer technologyhave impacted state-to-state power relationships dramatically. How so? z Positive Effects of Globalization: In casting a giant shadow over the entirety of world politics today, proponents of globalization see the positive consequences on state-to-state power relationships. Thomas Friedman, New York Times columnist, in his book, the Lexus and the Olive Tree, views globalization as making old-fashioned power politics obsolete, owing to the imperatives of global capitalism. For Friedman, globalization leads to a democratic world, reduced poverty, higher standards of living in lesser developed countries, and thus less global conict, more unity and expanded regional integration. In his The World Is Flat, Friedman envisions more states such as India entering the global marketplace, demonstrated by outsourcing. Although positive for India as its power increases, U.S. economic power wanes under global ization. All states do not necessarily benet, at least in the short term, with increased interdependence. z Negative Effects of Globalization: Other observers believe globalization works negatively on power relationships. For one thing, in many parts of the lesser developed world, globalization is viewed as yet another brand of Western cultural imperialism. Competition has kept economic elites in power rather than generating wealth for everyone. Workers and the environment are exploited. In Latin America, Leftist leaders have come to power in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay, largely due to broad disillusionment with globalization, neoliberal free trade policies, market economies, and corrupt democratic governments ruled by powerful elites. In the recent outpouring of criticism of globalization, John Lewis Gaddis points out that 9/11 illustrates the dark side of globalization and interdependence, for globalization has spawned deep grievances against the United States as well as provided the power and means to attack it, as demonstrated in the use of civilian aircraft for suicide bombers.23 Joseph Nye argues that while never since Rome has any country loomed so large in power above the others as the United States does today, even Rome eventually collapsed. His point is that America is not invincible; it could undermine its own power through unilateralism, arrogance, and parochialism. Stanley Hoffmann, a professor at Harvard University, has also weighed in on the massive effects of globalization on power in world politics. Hoffmann stresses three forms of globalization, each with implications about power: z Economic globalizationwhich has recently been undergoing revolutions in technology, information, trade, foreign investment, and international business
Audio Concept Cultural Globalization www.BetweenNations.org
z Cultural globalizationwhich has led to recent assaults against Western culture (denounced as arrogant, secular, and smacking of U.S. hegemony) z Political globalizationwhich is characterized by a domination by the United States and its political institutions
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international system. Two newly nuclear-armed countries, India and Pakistan, repeatedly came into conict, and al Qaeda terrorists and the Palestinian-Israel crisis added to world instability and decentralization.
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Ethnic nationalism Identity of a people focused essentially on ethnic roots, such as Serb or Russian identityexpressed in behavior ranging from peaceful to violent.
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_____ 1. The two most signicant forces that have changed the traditional model of balance-ofpower politics are globalization and terrorism. _____ 2. Deterrence is successful when a state is able to restrict the use of force to a moderate level. _____ 3. Chain ganging refers to the situation where two adversaries continually increase the level of conict between one another until all-out war breaks out between them. _____ 4. The world has yet to see a unipolar balance of power exist in the international system. _____ 5. Rapid shifts in power distribution tend to create more instability than slower shifts.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 4.3 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following is the most stable balance-of-power system? a. Distributed balance system b. Unipolar c. Bipolar d. Multipolar e. None of these systems are any more stable than the other _____ 7. Which of the following organizations was the rst developed to implement a collective security approach to the international system? a. League of Nations b. Organization of African Unity c. United Nations d. International Atomic Energy Association e. The International Criminal Court (ICC)
Case Study
Power Factors in World Politics: Is Americas Power in Decline?
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Join the Debate The Big Debate about China: Will It Be the Worlds Next Superpower?
OVERVIEW
Chinalike much of the rest of the world, especially its neighbors Japan, South Korea, and Indiaspends a lot of time conjecturing about its future. In Asia, and around the world the concern is that Chinas economic strength, coupled with its rising nationalism, could one day lead it to assert its power aggressively, even militarily. China must be concerned about its foreign relations in order to keep its commercial, trade, and diplomatic ties working smoothly. Toward this end, Chinese leaders frequently assert that their country is peace-loving, would never seek hegemony, and is a benign emerging state rising peacefully, ready to cooperate with others on international issues. This setting brings us to a number of factors that must be calculated to reach a prognosis on whether or not China will become the worlds next superpower. Which side of this great debate do you think is most compelling?
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blitz to portray itself not as a communist threat, as in the 1960s and 1970s, but as a peaceful and benign country with economic opportunities for Asian neighbors and Western friends like the United States. z China has integrated its foreign policy with the international system by joining many international and trade arrangements, engaging positively with other countries, moving to resolve a number of territorial disputes, and adopting a more transparent decision-making process. z Its prestige in space exploration is growing. z Tourism is exploding. Amenities for visiting business and diplomatic delegations are gaining positive recognition. Chinas new elites are no longer isolated from the outside world as in the pastand China will host the 2008 Summer Olympics. z Visitors to China are impressed by its thriving indus trial zones along the east coast as well as the numerous state-of-the-art amenities and development projects, such as the German magnetic-levitation train (that whisks passengers in from Shanghais new Pudong airport at 250 miles per hour), modern glass and concrete ofces, shops, and apartment buildings; and the mammoth Three Gorges dam on the Yangtze River, with its enormous hydroelectric potential.
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z Unemployment is higha product, in part, of factory privatizationand more than 8 million people have lost their jobs in shut-down state-owned industries. z Chinas population is aging. This will place rising demands on the economy, as China must nd ways to care for its elderly. This problem will be especially severe in the rural areas, where the elderly are not covered by pension plans. Given its massive aging population, it may not be able to sustain its level of economic growth and spend sufciently on the military to overtake the United States. z China is plagued by low health and safety standards, underscored by frequent industrial accidents and epidemics like AIDS and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Dirty, unhealthy, overcrowded, highly polluted, and environmentally damaged urban centers contribute to Chinas health problems. z Corruption is widespread, despite government crackdowns. z Growth is straining Chinas infrastructure. The power grid is inadequate, reforming the state enterprises is taking much longer than anticipated, and the country is increasingly dependent on oil imports. z Chinas agricultural sector faces many problems. Although the country can feed itself today, its emphasis on food self-sufciency has produced huge surpluses of types of grain not in demand abroad.
Power is a capability that, when translated into inuence, enables one country (or IGO or NGO) to get another state (or IGO or NGO) to do something that it would not otherwise normally do. Power capabilities fall into two general categories: hard and soft.
- Hard power refers to objective capabilities, such as military or economic power. - Soft power is the states ability to inuence subjectively through cultural, ideological, or moral appeal, or through its economic strength and information technology skills.
It is important to note that changes in a states power base can have dramatic effects in the international system, such as changing the overall distribution of power, shifting the system from bipolar to multipolar, producing hegemonic states, or contributing to regional wars or cooperation.
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3 4 the difference 5 6 7 objective 8 and19 2 10 Understand between subjective elements of power. Be able to describe each of the key objective and subjective power capabilities possessed by states.
Objective elements of power include those capabilities or assets that can be seen, touched, and measured, or, in other words, empirically veried. Objective power capabilities include the following:
- Military capability - Economic development (national infrastructure, industrial base, technology, transportation systems, information, and communication systems) - Geography - Natural resources - Population
4 5 what is 6 meant7by balance 8 of power 9 10 Understand and identify key types of balance that may exist in the international system. Understand the concept of collective security and its prospects for securing peace in the international system.
Power shapes different relationships among states, with power shifts and realignments common over time. The term balance of power, for example, has a variety of meanings with regard to patterns of power. Balance of power may be seen in terms of different distributions of power within the international system, such as bipolarity, multipolarity, and unipolarity. Among the most dramatic forces changing the nature of power are
- Globalization - Interdependence - The information revolutionthe Internet and the World Wide Web.
Subjective power factors include the following: human values, beliefs, perceptions, and energy. They too help account for conict or cooperation among states, IGOs, and NGOs in world politics. They include:
- - - - - - National culture National morale Quality of government Political stability Quality of diplomacy Quality of intelligence
The emergence of non-state ideological beliefs, specically those of radical forms of Islamic fundamentalism, has produced a new form of terrorism power that threatens international stability. This threat was identied in the Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States of July 2004. Collective security calls for the pooling of state power in one organization, like the UN. This power is used to deter or defeat any country that has attacked another. Collective security has not worked well because states have been reluctant to place their military forces under UN authority and because of competing versions of national-security interests.
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Learning Objectives
1
Understand what factors at each level of analysis affect the formulation of foreign policy and identify the various perspectives used to explain foreign-policy decision making.
Understand how foreign policy translates power into outcomes, and identify the associated core, middlerange, and long-term goals that accompany it.
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By this I mean that a political society does not live to conduct foreign policy; it would be more correct to say that it conducts foreign policy in order to live.
George F. Kennan
Chapter Outline
An Approach to Translating Power into Action A Set of Core, Middle-range, and Long-range Goals
International Systemlevel, State-level, and Individual-level Factors Beliefs Shape Foreign-policy Decisions: Ideology, Religion, and Nationalism Some Perspectives on Foreign-policy Decision Making
Identify the different phases in the U.S. war on terror; understand the key components of the Bush Doctrine, and be aware of the criticisms of that approach.
hen you read daily newspaper headlines or watch television news, you quickly realize that at any given moment, foreign policy is a major aspect of world politics. Foreign policy is put into play by the worlds states, but other players, such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)including militant Islamic organizations like al Qaeda may also make decisions that affect the foreign policy of states. Each of these actors tries to employ some form of power and inuenceboth hard and soft powerto achieve desired objectives. When actors use foreign policy to interact and cooperate with other actors, it serves as a centralizing force. A good example of foreign policy as a centralizing force is Russian President Vladimir
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diplomacy p. 134 old diplomacy p. 135 new diplomacy p. 135 coercive diplomacy p. 135 core objectives p. 135 containment p. 138 national interests p. 139 intermestic p. 140 globalization p. 142 secular p. 143 nationalism p. 143 Bush Doctrine p. 153
Putins decision in October 2004 to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, a step in the direction of cooperating with other states to combat climate change and global warming. Another example is the dramatic announcement of Libyas Colonel Muammar al-Qadda in December 2003 that Libya would disclose and dismantle all its weapons of mass destruction. This surprise foreign-policy move led the European Union in October 2004 to end eighteen years of economic sanctions against Libyaa remarkable example of centralization. When foreign-policy decisions lead to conictas when the United States, backed by Great Britain, invaded and occupied Iraq in March 2003decentralizing forces are at work in the international system. The Iraq invasion split the world into countries that supported the actions versus the large part of the international community that did not. Many foreign countries do not see terrorism as a war, even though they are opposed to terrorism and may cooperate in ghting terrorism as a police action by arresting suspects or freezing suspected nancial assets. Foreign policy can involve the actions of a country or maybe an organization (like Greenpeace) or an individual (think of Osama bin Laden) abroad and the manner in which those actions are carried out. Individuals and groups that hold decision-making authority inside the state (or IGO or NGO) play a major role in shaping its external behavior. An obvious example is the personality, perceptions, and background of big-power leaders. For example, on one hand, President George W. Bush of the United States and former Prime Minister Tony Blair of Great Britain both forcefully pressed for the war in Iraq. On the other hand, were the strong leadership personalities of former German Chancellor Gerhard Schrder and former French President Jacques Chirac, both of whom strongly opposed going to war with Iraq in 2003. Given foreign policys pivotal role in world politics, this chapter looks closely at its major characteristics and how it affects the international system. z We begin with an examination of foreign policys close links to various kinds of power capabilities, discussed in chapter 4 and to its principal goals and the kinds of issues it entails. Among the key factors that drive foreign policy are: 1. National interests (vital interests or core objectives) 2. Political and government leaders 3. Domestic economic and political structures 4. International inuences We show how these elements come into play, and how and why foreign policies change while basic core goals stay in place. z Of great importance in this study is how foreign-policy decisions are made, and this chapter delves into that big question by examining four distinct dimensions of foreign-policy decision making:
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To get a grip on why leaders of countries and other organizations pursue all kinds of goals on the world political chessboard, we need to understand the basic elements of foreign policy. Beyond simply trying to do this for its own intellectual attraction or because you are taking a course on the subject, it is important to understand the foreign policy of your own country, as well as that of others, because it matters greatly in our lives. The Report of the 9/11 Commission of the U.S. Senate, as examined in the online case study for chapter 1 (www.Between Nations.org), for example, shows how numerous aws in U.S. national security intelligence gathering and processinga major aspect of U.S. foreign policy played a huge role in making possible the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States, with their horrendous loss of lives. The following discussion illustrates another consequence of foreign policy in your life. Seeing how relevant it is to each of us, let us probe this subject by concentrating rst on foreign policy as an approach to translating power capabilities into favorable outcomes, and then look at its core, middle-range, and long-range goals.
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Note that diplomacy is the overarching tool at the disposal of state leaders. Diplomacy is the way a country negotiates with other countrieshow a state conducts its political, cultural, economic, and security relationships. The issues on which states negotiate include everything from trade agreements to military conict. Diplomacy establishes representation abroad. It defends a countrys policies and observes other countries behavior. As Figure 5.1 indicates, there are two kinds of diplomacy, benign and coercive; within each category is a range of actions from most benign to most coercive.1 The nature of diplomatic negotiations has changed, however, over the years. Before World War I, for example, Europe was the focus of much diplomacy. Few nationalist sentiments complicated the diplomatic process, and ideologies like communism or Nazism had not yet established a footing in world politics. Secret diplomacy was the name of the game, and the diplomatsthat is, chief
Information Programs
Tariffs
International Organizations
Humanitarian Aid
Military Large Intervention Conventional War Espionage and Boycotts Clandestine Nuclear Sabotage and Embargoes Military War Action
Blockades
Source: The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision-making Department, Case Study, 19921993. Used by permission.
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Old diplomacy The form of diplomacy that characterized the era prior to World War I. European-centered, it emphasized secrecy and was generally devoid of nationalism. New diplomacy The style of diplomacy that has evolved since World War I, with emphasis on openas opposed to secretnegotiations and summit meetings, and in which nationalism has a greater impact on the negotiating process.
Coercive diplomacy The threat and use of force in tandem with diplomatic pressure by one actor on another. The UNs coercive diplomacy on Saddam Hussein to reveal more information on Iraqs WMDs in 2003 is a good example. (Coercive diplomacy failed in this case.)
Core Objectives
A countrys most vital national interests guide its core objectives. They include maintaining its 1. territorial security, 2. economic strength, and 3. political independence.
Core objectives A term used in foreign policy to identify a states primary objectives (or interests), such as pursuit of its physical (territorial) security, economic vitality, and sovereign political independence.
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Hardships of War
The Chechen capital Grozny, February 2000. Wars leave desolation and despair in their wake.
If a state is to remain a cohesive actor with some inuence and some sovereignty and exibility within the international arena, it must at all costs use foreign policy to serve its core or vital interests. No matter what a states central belief system or ideological persuasionfrom Irans and Pakistans Islamic beliefs to Indias adherence to Hinduism and Israels Judaismeach must attend to these three core interests if it is going to survive in the competitive international political system. To determine what exact policy will best serve a countrys core or national or vital interest can be difcult. Territorial security is a good case in point. The Bush administration decided to go to war against Iraq, rst, to protect American territory against the threat of an attack by Iraq using weapons of mass destruction which Iraq allegedly possessed. When it turned out Iraq did not possess such weapons, the justication for war and occupation switched to build democracy and make democratic Iraq a model for the Middle East. The more democracies the better, the theory went, because according to democratic peace theory (see chapter 2) democracies do not make war against each other. The war and occupation policies, however, rather than protecting American territory may have made it more insecure. Money and attention were diverted from Homeland Security, and the U.S. Army became weaker due to extended and repeated tours of service. Americas soft power image abroad suffered. We see this pursuit of core national interests in the U.S.led attack on Afghanistans Taliban forces, which protected bin Laden and al Qaeda insurgents, after the events of 9/11. The Taliban and al Qaeda represented an obvious security threat that had to be met. Core security interests equally were at stake in Israels military assaults on Palestinians as a consequence of Palestinian suicide bombings inside Israel since 2002. Saudi Arabias crackdown on radical Islamic insurgents in that country during 2004 underscores the royal familys focus on a rising national security threat. When you think about the international political system, keep in mind the key points you learned in earlier chapters. States operate in a global arena that has no world government to regulate interstate relations, no legal authority higher than
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Middle-range Objectives
States also pursue a number of mid-range goals as a way of making certain their vital interests remain primary. For example, states may enhance their prestige and viability in the international system by engaging in foreign aid programs and cultural exchanges, by sponsoring trade shows and conferences of heads of states, by exploring outer space, or by exchanging diplomatic delegations. They engage in such activities while seeking to support primary core interests. Here are specic illustrations: z China hosted its expensive fty-fth Anniversary of the Communist Revolution in October 2004, an event designed to portray Chinas image as a unied political state with a dynamic economic model of developmentone way to project the perception of power. z Russia continued to sponsor its outer space program after the Soviet Union collapsed and despite limited resources.
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z President Vladimir V. Putin hosted a huge celebration in Moscows Red Square on May 9, 2005, to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of the defeat of Nazi Germany. Invited guests included U.S. President Bush and dozens of other leaders who watched a decked-out military parade replete with Soviet symbols and Russian pride. z Greece hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games to promote its middle-range objectives.
Long-range Goals
As part of their long-range interests, many countries promote their belief systems and overarching basic values abroad. You can see this agenda at work throughout history and certainly during the Cold War years following World War II. The Cold War, roughly 19471991 (when the Soviet Union collapsed) was a period of open rivalry without direct ghting (hence Cold War) between two groups of states practicing different ideologies and political systems. The Soviet Union led one group of states, frequently referred to as the Eastern bloc. Mainland China belonged to this group for a period of time before it began to develop its own tensions with the Soviet Union. The United States and its allies were on the other side, often referred to as the Western bloc. During the Cold War the former Soviet Union, for example, sought to promote Marxist-Leninism, with its unique blend of economic determinism, permanent class conict, and basic antagonism between communism and capitalism. Toward that end, it sought to promote socialism and socialist-oriented allies in the developing countries, like Cuba under Fidel Castro, and to undermine the United States wherever and whenever possible. z Cold War Politics: The United States, for its part, operates on a different belief system or worldview, one that is centered in a liberal, democratic orientation. This set of perceptions was played out time and again during the Cold War and has emerged strongly in the postCold War period. During the Cold War, the main focus of U.S. policy and its long-range objective was based on containment, or curtailing the expansion and spread of communism. Prolonged competition and confrontation, with brief periods of cooperation and conciliation, characterized Soviet-American relations during the Cold War. In a mirror image of each side, American domestic and foreign policy reected virulent anticommunism, while deep suspicion of the West typied the Soviet leadership. The Soviets feared capitalist encirclement, and the Americans feared an international communist conspiracy. Each side, in mirror image, has seen the other as intransigent and aggressive. Much of U.S. policy since the collapse of the Soviet Union has focused on the long-term promotion of democratic governments and market economies. We see this objective in U.S. policy toward Russia, Eastern Europe, China, and Bosnia, underscored by the 1995 Dayton Peace Accords, which aimed to bring democratic government to war-torn Bosnia. z Promoting Islamic Principles: Long-term objectives are at work in Irans promotion of Islamic principles abroad, especially under Ayatollah Khomeini in the 1980s and during Afghanistans Taliban regime in the 1990s. Al Qaeda seems bent on dramatically altering U.S. and Western policies toward the Islamic world, although not necessarily upon destroying the United States or its freedoms and liberties, and upon expanding Muslim beliefs and support for a traditional Islamic form of government.2
Containment A U.S. foreign policy pursued during the Cold War that aimed at preventing the Soviet Union from expanding into Western Europe, Asia, and other regions of the Third World. President Harry S Truman announced it in 1947.
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Intermestic Issues that affect both foreign and domestic policy, such as international trade.
Meanwhile, on economic policy, U.S. labor organizations have opposed strongly the accepted policy of allowing offshore tax shelters for American businesses as well as the whole range of outsourcing that has become widely publicized in recent years. Similar patterns are found inside many states, where internal foreign-policy differences can be profoundas, for example, inside China, France, Germany, Israel, and Russia. In todays globalized and interdependent world, dening the best way to protect a countrys national interests and determining what issues to pursue have become exceedingly complex and difcult. The Soviet Union, for example, assumed that it was pursuing its national interests (and communism) in the most effective way possible by engaging in a weapons race with the United States. That quest, in the end, undermined its economy and environment drastically, as the world discovered in the 1990s after the Soviet Union collapsed. Keep in mind that the task of ensuring core interests affects a states internal or domestic activities as well as its external ones. Thus, as we have seen, foreign and domestic interests are in many ways interconnected. Examples of this intermestic phenomenon (international-domestic connection) include foreign policies in the arenas of international trade, defense spending, and the environmentall of which affect the job market, personal incomes of individuals who live in the home state, and quality of life in terms of air and water purity. Remember that the line between foreign and domestic concerns is often blurred.
_____ 1. States are not limited to coercive or hard power methods for translating power into policy. _____ 2. The two kinds of diplomacy include defensive and offensive. _____ 3. As a result of improved technology, new diplomacy is much more effective at maintaining secrecy so the objectives of foreign policy are met. _____ 4. Territorial security, economic strength, and political independence are examples of longrange objectives in foreign policy. _____ 5. Dening a countrys core national interests is a fairly straightforward task.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 5.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following is a viable tool for translating power into policy: a. Use of information programs/propaganda b. Espionage c. Economic blockades d. Humanitarian aid e. All of the above _____ 7. Which of the following activities would be directly related to the pursuit of core national interests? a. The U.S.led attack on Afghanistans Taliban forces b. The French sinking of the Rainbow Warrior vessel c. Participation in a United Nations Commission on refugees d. Greece hosting the Olympic Games e. All of the above
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Many factors inuence a states foreign policy; its self-image (history, beliefs, and values), the availability of natural resources, and geographic location (see chapters 4 and 8) are three examples. Historically, the self-image of the United States has been composed of a sense of moralism and pragmatism. Russias historic self-image has focused on conict between its Westernizers (who thought Russia should adopt European practices) and its Slavophiles (who rejected Western thought in favor of Slavic culture), the drive for territorial expansion, and emphasis on great-power status. While national self-images certainly change with time, we still can see elements of these historical self-images operating in foreign policy. The strong moral tradition of the United States is evident in its approach to Saddam Husseins Iraq leading up to the 2003 war. Russias leaders demonstrate the old conict between Westernizers and Slavophiles in their attitudes toward NATO expansion. Asian countries like China, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan have cultures that value hard worka major asset when it comes to economic production. The type of power resource possessed by a country, IGO, NGO, or individual actor is another crucial issue in foreign policy. Saudi Arabia has oil, and this fact deeply affects how Saudi Arabia can translate available power into policy. Argentina and Canada have food to export. France has nuclear-powered elec tricity to export. These different exports earn hard currency to help support core economic interests. In exploring the many factors that inuence foreign policy, with their multiple centralizing and decentralizing inuence, we will: z Examine the three levels where policy is made: the global, state, and individual levels. z Look more closely at the dynamics of foreign policieshow they spring from human beliefs and are tied to concepts like nationalism and religion. z Touch on the need to coordinate foreign-policy objectives and look at bureaucratic struggles in the formulation of foreign policy.
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Globalization The process of becoming worldwide in scope. When we speak of the globalization of industry, we refer to the process of industries going worldwide in scope, the internationalization of industry. The effects or consequences of globalization include the reduction of regional differences in lifestyle and the loss of distinctive regional identities.
see the United States as a dominant player in military and economic terms. Russia under the leadership of Vladimir Putin has been rebuilding and reasserting its power in world politics. The question of power distribution, use, and potential, then, are central aspects of the international system arena. Another major factor at work in the international system is the extensive worldwide impact of globalization that is, the growing links between people, communities, and economies around the world. Globalization has increased the interdependence of a country and the international or regional trade systemfor example, Mexicos membership in NAFTA or the participation of France and Italy in the European Union (EU). Now that it has joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), Chinas foreign economic policies will be affected by its rules. In short, countries that participate in regional trading groups must adapt their foreign policies to the dynamics of these organizations, just as membership in NATO shapes the foreign policies of member-countries. Another aspect of globalization is the Internet. A compelling example of this transformation in the global context of foreign policymaking is the websites associated with al Qaeda, where its essays, articles, and editorials may be found.4 Another example is the Middle East news media, Al Jazeera, which uses the Internet to broadcast major opinions, information, and attitudes coming out of the Middle East. Other factors at the international level that affect foreign policy include: z IGOs and NGOs: In 1995 the UN reported that around 29,000 NGOs were operating at the international level. By the year 2000, it was estimated that there were over 2 million NGOs in the United States alone. The most obvious highlevel IGO is the United Nations, a giant actor in world politics that makes foreign policy and certainly affects the foreign policies of other countries. z Worldwide climate change: The big question is how global warmingwith its mega-droughts, coastal ooding, devastating hurricanes, food scarcity, and many other types of ecological disasterswill threaten national security in countries around the world.
State-level Factors
State-level factors refer to those elements inherent to a given country. They include such items as its geographic location and natural resources, with attention to its neighbors as well as its size, shape, topography, amount of arable land for growing food, climate, and a host of other factors that affect its power base. Other statelevel factors include type of government (dictatorial or democratic), level of economic development (highly developed and rich, or underdeveloped and poor), military power, belief systems, and cultural underpinnings. Democratic governments, for example, make policy by means of a process that differs sharply from that of authoritarian-style governments. The former, like the United States, have a system that includes checks and balances, separation of powers, numerous actors, lobbyists, a free press, public opinion, and many other factors. Authoritarian systemslike those in China, Iraq under Saddam Hussein, Syria, and Zimbabweare more likely to make decisions based on input from a limited number of people and in the context of a controlled press. Saddam Hussein, a dictator, had more individual control over foreign policy than the U.S. president does. A states culture operates at the state level. Japans culture since World War II has reected a posture of pacicism in terms of military power. Japans rising nationalism, however, may foreshadow increased militarism in its future foreign
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Individual-level Factors
Individual-level factors include the role of political and government leaders, which is driven in part by their personalities, beliefs, and values. You can see this factor vividly when you consider the monumental role played by Adolf Hitler in leading Germany into World War II, Joseph Stalins policies of occupying Eastern Europe after World War IIpolicies resisted by U.S. President Harry Truman, resulting in the Cold War. A more recent example is Osama bin Ladens role in orchestrating al Qaedas infamous 9/11 attacks and the subsequent neoconservative ideological and religious beliefs of President George W. Bush in orchestrating the war on Iraq.
Nationalism A strong emotional attachment to ones nation that can be expressed in a range of behaviors from peaceful to violent.
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By contrast, totalitarian leaders and dictatorships do pretty much what they want, without concern for the populations likes or dislikes. The point here is that a number of organizations and groups inuence foreign-policy decision making in most countries. z In democracies you have a states executive leaders, legislative leaders, defense industries and defense leaders, and a wide range of interest groups, plus the media and public opinion. z In Islamic countries, different religious groups vie for power, as in Iraq, with its Sunni and Shiite divisions. In Iran, the authoritarian Shiite clerics have been at odds with more secular-minded educated Iranian citizens. z Russias President Vladimir Putins harsh stiing of dissent and political power points to his increasingly strong authoritarian role in foreign-policy decision making. Anti-Kremlin rallies have led to dozens of protesters beaten and detained in 2007.
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DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT Public Opinion News Media Interest Groups Law Makers
Source: David K. Hall, An Introduction to Policy Making and Implementation, The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision Making Department, Case Study, 19921993, p. 3. Used by permission.
The Rational-actor Perspective The rational-actor model focuses on the state as the key unit of analysisand inter-state relations as the setting for analysis. Figure 5.3 depicts this model. In this model, the state is viewed from the perspective of its leader, whom the model assumes is a rational (purposeful) decision maker. The leader makes foreign-policy choices calculated to achieve outcomes consistent with his or her states goals (for example, defending its territory). To achieve the states goals, the rational decision maker examines which alternative choice takes priority. The top choice will be the one that will maximize the benets and minimize the costs in achieving the countrys goal. In other words, the decision maker selects the option that has the highest payoff in terms of achieving the states goal. To summarize: people make the decisions for the statedecisions that have options, constraints, and informationso the rational-actor model takes a look at how a leader chooses among alternative courses of action. An example of where the rational-actor model has FIGURE 5.3 been used to understand Electronic Publishing Services Inc. foreign-policy decisions is the Rational-actor Model Missile Crisis, of October 1962. At that time PresDuncan, Cuban World Politics in the 21st Century, 3 e ident John F. Kennedy learned that the Soviet leader, DUNC.7322.0017 State A Nikita Khrushchev, had positioned nuclear missiles in Fig. 5.3 Cuba. The rational-actor model was used to generate 1st rational Proof answers 2nd Proof 3rd Proof Influencing to the following questions: Final 1. Why did the Soviet Union decide to place offensive missiles in Cuba? 2. Why did the United States respond to the missile deployment with a blockade? 3. Why did the Soviet Union withdraw the missiles?
State B
To do x
The state acts as if it were a unitary actor that rationally decided a policy on the basis of interests and outcomes.
Source: The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision-Making Department, Case Study, 19921993. Used by permission.
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The rational-actor model, then, is useful in trying to make sense out of complicated foreign-policy decisions, for instance, to help construct rational explanations as to why a countrys leader made certain decisions and to gure out how state A should react to state Bs behavior. The key assumption here is that people do act purposefully in ways that mirror their goalseven though they may not have sufcient information to make the most rational choices. Because humans are limited information processors, critics of this approach argue that: z A signicant weakness of this model is that it assumes a states leader makes foreign-policy decisions in a strictly logical, unemotional manner. z It fails to account for characteristics of the individuals who make these decisions on behalf of the state. Individuals have personalities, perceptions, emotions, beliefs, values, ideologies, selected information, and a host of other traits that affect their rational decision. z Decision makers may not evaluate a situation correctly, may be misinformed, lack adequate informationand may make choices that produce unintended consequences that undermine a states goals rather than advance them. The Organizational Perspective The organizational perspective of decision making (also known as the bureaucratic-politics model) emphasizes that large organizations view foreign-policy issues as opportunities for, or threats to, their organizations mission. This means that a large percentage of foreign-policy choices ow from the output of large organizations in pursuit of their organizational, not state, interests. Figure 5.4 depicts this perspective. Organizations have set ways of doing things, and they tend to focus on selected aspects of problems in terms of their own goals. Thus, foreign policy is the FIGURE 5.4 product of a power struggle between organizations. Organizational Model of Foreign-policy Decision Making In addition, organizations determine the information and options available to the top leaders, and State A these too ow from organizational interests. State B State Department Americas foreign-policy decision making relative Treasury Department to the Iraq War initiated in 2003 is rife with organizaDefense Department Policy decision To do x Congress tional in-ghting, turf battles, and conicts of organiLobbyists zational interests. The Defense Departmentunder the leadership of Donald Rumsfeld before his resigOrganizations competing inside State A lead to a policy decision nation in November 2006essentially ran the show that seeks to influence State B to do x with extraordinarily tight control. Former Secretary of Government is a collection of many organizations. State Colin Powell disagreed strongly with Donald Each organization responds to a foreign policy problem in terms of Rumsfeld and Vice President Dick Cheney, both of the impact of the problem (threat/opportunity) on the organization. Organizations are concerned with avoiding uncertainty. whom were eager for war with Saddam Hussein An organization's policy decision is shaped by routine standard and disagreements between these parties continued operating procedures (SOPs), which limit its flexibility. after the war began and as it became increasingly A government's foreign policy actions may be viewed as outputs of large organizations employing standard operating procedures and unpopular.7 Rumsfeld, for his part, had a low regard programs. for the Department of Stateand for Condoleezza Organizations determine the information and options forwarded up Rice as National Security Adviser and as Secretary of to the top leaders, and they implement the policies decided by the top leaders. State (after November 2004 when she replaced Colin Powell). A growing animus developed between the Source: The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision-Making Department, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Case Study 19921993. Used by permission. Security Council (NSC) during the war. In essence,
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Active Negative
While active-positive presidents, according to Barber, learn from their mistakes, this may not be so in every case. Some presidents, President George W. Bush, for example, may believe they have not made any mistakes to guide future learning. Note that recent research places George W. Bush in the Active Negative category.
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Let us now take a look at foreign-policy decision making in the global arena. Latin America is a good place to begin. Here we see the unintended consequences of Americas focus on the war in Iraq with Latin America distinctly out of focus in American foreign-policy decision making. Some of the consequences include: z Loss of U.S. inuence in that region z Mistrust of the United States z Rejection of the U.S. posture in the world It came as no surprise that President Bushs trip to Latin America in March 2007 led thousands to express their disapproval of the visiting president by protesting in city streets. Mayan priests in Guatemala vowed to purify an archeological site of Bushs bad spirits after he left, and around two thousand protesters tried to storm the U.S. Embassy in Mexico. Latin Americas disenchantment with its northern neighbor stems from two driving forces. z First, President Bush has virtually ignored the region since the 9/11 attacks, instead electing to go to war in Iraq based on false premises. As Latin Americans see it, President Bush simply has not offered effective leadership in helping to improve the quality of life in Latin America since he came to ofceapart from trade and anti-narcotics policies. z Second, the two-decades-old U.S.sponsored drive to privatize state industries and lift trade barriers (neoliberalisms free market economics) has excluded vast numbers of the regions poor. Outside of sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America in the early twenty-rst century has the worlds most unequal distribution of wealth.
As a result of discontent with U.S. decision making and neoliberal economic choices, one Latin American decision maker after another has been elected on platforms dedicated to improving the lives of the lower classes. One in four Latin Americans live on less than two dollars a day, and crime and unemployment is running high.9 New Leftist presidents have come to powerin Argentina, Chile, and Brazil where social democrats occupy the presidency, and in Peru, Mexico, and Colombia where the Left did not win presidential races but proved to be nonetheless powerful forces. The ery anti-American Venezuelan leader, Hugo Cha vez, was reelected president in December 2006. Chavez called his election victory another defeat for the North American empire and has vowed to deepen his socialist revolution.10 He has close ties with Fidel Castros Cuba. He met Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, when Irans leader came to Latin America to court some of the leftist leaders of Latin American in his hope to gain allies in his ght against Washington. The objects of Ahmadinejads courtship include the leaders of Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Bolivia. Chavezs decision making lends itself to the indiHugo Chavez of Venezuela and Lula da Silva of Brazil vidual perspective model. They meet at the Latin American summit in Rio de Janeiro, A major state-level and regional-level issue facing the Brazil, November 2004. United States is illegal immigration from Mexico. Spawned
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Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Nicaraguan president Daniel Ortega wave to supporters in Managua. Ahmadinejad, on a January 2007 Latin American tour to round up anti-U.S. allies, promised closer ties to Nicaragua. Rest assured that we will improve our relations to the point of fulfilling every wish and thing that we desire. It is our will to walk hand in hand, Ahmadinejad said after meeting Ortega. Earlier, the Iranian president had been in Venezuela, where he signed business agreements with President Hugo Chavez, an outspoken critic of George W. Bush. Each proclaimed the other an ideological brother.
by deepening poverty, loss of land to giant agribusinesses proting from market economics and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), tens of thousands of Mexicos small farmers have been forced to sell their corn-growing land to the food giants. The food corporations have beneted from billions of dollars in subsidies that allow them to pump cheap corn into the Mexican market, where tortillas are a basic food substance. Poor Mexicans consequently have ooded illegally across the border in search of employment, while the United States government struggles with what to do with the estimated 12 million illegal Mexicans living in the United States. How the United States reacts to this state- and regional-level problem will be shaped not only by Americas top individual leaders, but also by U.S. organizations that have a stake in the decision, and by the political process. Then, there is Mexico. Decisions made by Mexicos leaders play a role in the evolving outcome, for example, whether or not Mexico can create more jobs to meet the challenge posed by thousands of unemployed or underemployed Mexicans. If not, the human tide across the border continues. Once inside the United States, having crossed the border illegally, Mexicans want amnesty (citizenship) and have taken to the streets in places like Los Angeles to demonstrate this desiresimilar to the street protests against President Bush in Latin America during his March 2007 trip. Demonstrations about immigration policy have occurred across the United States, and have made the issue a factor in the 2008 U.S. presidential campaign. Immigration Protests
Thousands of demonstrators gather in the streets of downtown Los Angeles to protest legislation that cracks down against illegal immigrants.
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In addition to Latin America we can see how foreign-policy decision making plays out in other parts of the world. z Japan: In the Far East, in Japans new Prime Minister, Yasuo Fukada (elected in September 2007 after the former Prime Minister, Abe Shinzo, resigned) must contend with a complicated multiparty system ridden with many factions and prone to corruption. To stay in power and lead Japan, he must address this problematic internal system, which has contributed to over ten years of economic stagnation. That kind of economy affects the rest of world by holding back global growth. Not so long ago, Japan was the engine of Far East economic growth that helped propel the global economy. z Middle East: Arab countries are non-democratic, with strong authoritarian rulersalbeit not without their own internal factions. Such forces have complicated democracy building in Iraq, to put it mildly, as in the civil war between Shiites and Sunnis, coupled with tribal and clan divisions. Two examples illustrate authoritarian rule as it will impact foreign policy. Egypt is dominated by President Hosni Mubarak, although he faces strong opposition from the Muslim Brotherhood. Saudi Arabias king rules by decree in accordance with Islamic law (Sharia), with the backing of senior princes and religious ofcials. The king acts as the ultimate source of judicial power. He is commander-inchief of the armed forces. He approves and amends international treaties and agreements and regulations by decree. There are no institutional checks on royal authority. As a result, the king has enormous power in foreign policy. z South and Southeast Asia: The links between domestic politics and foreign policyand the usefulness of the four-perspectives modelare clear too. Although Indonesia, with the worlds largest Muslim population, is experiencing a historic shift into democratic government, the countrys political system comprises many political parties, ethnic and religious factions, and strong, charismatic individual leaders at the local and regional levels. With much constant political inghting, Indonesias foreign policy will be subject to these internal domestic pressures as well as to those of the external environment. z Pakistans president General Pervez Musharraf leads a country notorious for its long record of military involvement in politics, religious political parties, and hard-to-control ethnic groups in its northern regionsa competitive domestic political setting, to say the least. Pakistan is also well known for harboring al Qaeda and Taliban members, who are even embedded in the security and military forces Musharraf overseesanother complicating political factor in his domestic and foreign decision making. Because Musharraf has been the target of al Qaeda attacks himself, and because Pakistan closely supports the U.S. war on terrorism in return for substantial economic and military aid, Musharraf must crack down on al Qaeda militants now and then, capturing and arresting them when he can. Pakistan is also a good illustration of how individuals inuence foreign policy. z Afghanistan is notorious for its multiple ethnic groups, tribes, clans, factions, and warlords. Today these groups have made drugs the dominant feature of Afghanistans economy, and the warlords have tightened their grip on power. They oversee 90 percent of the worlds opium production and supply 90 percent of the worlds heroin, connected to international cartels, crime, and large amounts of money.11 Some people have termed Afghanistans President Karzai
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There has been a resurgence of chaotic conditions and opium production in Afghanistan.
the mayor of Kabul (Afghanistans capital) rather than the president of Afghanistan, over which he has far less control. All in all, then, using the concepts of foreign-policymaking discussed in this section is helpful in knowing what to look for in the settings that shape foreign policies across the globe.
_____ 1. While different in many respects, authoritarian and democratic governments use a mostly similar process when developing foreign policy. _____ 2. For some countries, religion plays an active role in the formulation of foreign policy. _____ 3. The president of the United States provides the sole voice for American foreign policy. _____ 4. In most countries, a number of organizations and groups inuence foreign-policy decision making. _____ 5. One of the criticisms of the rational-actor model is that it views a state leader as capable of making foreign-policy decisions in a strictly logical way.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 5.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. At what level of analysis do we focus when examining the role IGOs and NGOs play in inuencing the foreign policy of states? a. Individual b. Substate c. State d. Regional e. International _____ 7. Which of the following is NOT a difculty faced by democracies when coordinating foreignpolicy agendas? a. Clash between the need for secrecy and the publics right to accurate information b. Lobbying by interest groups c. The role played by an independent press d. Public opinion e. None of the above
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The foreign-policy repercussions of 9/11 are dramatic. President George W. Bush declared war on terrorism and developed a new national security strategy that became a major decentralizing force in world politics and a source of friction between the United States and much of the international community. The war on terrorism ultimately led the United States and Great Britain to spearhead an attack on Iraq on the mistaken assumption that Saddam Hussein had both WMDs and close links to al Qaeda. Following the invasion and occupation of Iraq, much of the Arab and Muslim worldand much of the rest of the worlddistanced itself from these two countries. Several countries that initially joined the U.S., British, and other coalition forces in Iraq later pulled out when their citizens working in Iraq were kidnapped or killed by insurgents or when their homeland became the target of terrorist action. Spain is a case in point, as is the Philippines. We now turn to a closer look at the repercussions of 9/11.
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z Keep U.S. military strength beyond challengethat is, continue its status as the worlds sole military superpower. z Spread liberal democracy and freedom in all regions of the world and strive to build a balance of power that favors freedom. (While not explicitly stated, you can see the shadow of democratic peace theory at work here, namely that the assumption that the more democracies around the world the better.) Democracies, according to the theory, may go to war with non-democratic states, but they remain at peace with each other. (See chapter 2.) In a global system without world government or enforced international law, the United States simply has to exercise a unilateral preventive war posture, based on military strength beyond challenge, according to the Doctrine. It must look out for its own vital security interests with the use of hard power, whether or not the rest of the international community agrees. Yet in the nations sharp focus rst on Afghanistan and then on Iraq, a number of foreign-policy specialists were deeply concerned that throughout this Bush-Doctrine period, Iran and North Korea were moving ahead in their development of nuclear-weapons programs. These countries could prove a greater threat to the United States and other countries than Saddam Hussein had been, given the on-site, ongoing weapons inspections in Iraq just before the U.S. attack. Much of the rest of the world did not agree with the U.S. position. The doctrine of preventive war differed from the previous U.S. practice of the doctrine of containment, of deterrence, and of mutual assured destruction during the Cold War. As the U.S. war in Iraq continued after 2003, eventually morphing into a civil war, the Bush Doctrine produced increased criticism for its declaration of American hegemony, unilateralism, and the right to attack anywhere in the world when the United States decided alone that it was in its interests to do so. Behind the scenes two schools of thought had developed within the U.S. administration. ThenSecretary of State Powell and thenNational Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice, plus U.S. Department of State specialists, argued that existing U.S. defense policies should continue. This meant keeping in place the diplomacy of seeking multilateral consensus with the international community for actions against common enemies and the containment of such enemies, as during the Cold War. Opposed to this view were Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and other inuential neoconservative defense policymakers, including Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle. They argued for direct and unilateral action. Their views won the debate, as underscored in the key tenets of the Bush Doctrine.
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Source: Time Magazine, March 26, 2007. Bars represent percentage of population polled in specic countries that believe the United States is mainly a negative inuence in the world. Used by permission.
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the globe that believe the United States is mainly a negative inuence globally. Overall, the least admired countries were Russia (40 percent), North Korea (48 percent), the United States (51 percent), Iran (54 percent), and Israel (56 percent). The most admired countries were: Canada, Japan, France, Britain, and China. Still, an interesting point about this table is that none of the countries listed like the United States less than fty percent.
_____ 1. Initially the broader international community supported the United States in its war against terror (when the United States was focused on Afghanistan). _____ 2. While not supported by many countries, the March 2003 invasion of Iraq was supported by a majority of UN Security Council members. _____ 3. The Bush Doctrine does not call for the United States to remain the worlds sole military superpower. _____ 4. The Bush Doctrine differed from previous U.S. policies of containment and deterrence through its advocacy of preventive war.
_____ 5. Which of the following is a criticism of the Bush Doctrine? a. The doctrines war on terrorism is too vague when dening the nature of the enemy. b. It violates accepted international treaties such as the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. c. It undermines the authority of the United Nations. d. It failed to unite the international community against the threat posed by radical Islamic militants. e. All of the above
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Case Study
The U.S.Saudi Arabian Relationship
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Join the Debate Globalization Demands a New Foreign-policy Approach for the Sovereign State
OVERVIEW
The exponential expansion of globalization has raised a major debate in world politics. The big question is whether or notand if so, to what extentglobalization has rendered obsolete traditional foreign policies that sovereign states have pursued over the past three centuries. As we know, states have long been the source of physical security, economic vitality, and political
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independence for their citizens. Consequently, a states foreign policy traditionally has focused on how to pursue its vital national interests: physical security, economic strength, and political security on the stage of world politics. Over time, however, globalization has brought porous borders and interdependence, thus facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and information, financial transactions, and institutions to connect people in a global human community. Does this mean that globalization is displacing the older realism (power politics) and idealism (international legal norms to govern state behavior)as well as traditional balance-of-power and collective security mechanismsthat have guided international relations over the past centuries?
non-state actors. New power realities created by globalization include the information-technology revolution, interdependence, and porous borders, through which multiple forms of soft power ow. The new issues on national and international agendas cannot be solved by one country alone.2 z New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman writes that the inexorable integration of markets, nationstates, and technologies to a degree never witnessed beforein a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and states to reach around the world faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before simply means that we must think of foreign policies with new techniques and agendas.3 In his more recent book, The World Is Flat, Friedman argues that the economic playing eld has been leveled by the global ber-optic network into which some 3 billion people are rushingfrom China, India, the former Soviet Union, and other countries whose economies have thrown off socialism.4 These countries are recipients of U.S. outsourcing, while U.S. leaders, according to Friedman, are letting the countrys scientic and engineering base erode. z Globalization has produced wars that states are losing because they have not adopted new strategies.5 The stateless, decentralized networks that cannot be fought by traditional foreign-policy techniques are terrorism, drugs, arms trafcking, intellectual property misuse, alien smuggling, and money laundering. Many would argue that the United States is losing its war on terrorism and that, in fact, attacking and occupying Iraq has increased the number of terrorists now opposed to the United States. z The attacks of 9/11 highlight the point that the globalized world in which we live is one where traditional foreign policy and powerful defense systems (including long-range missiles and nuclear weapons) may not protect American citizens.
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their foreign policies still make a difference. Consider the following: z Rivalries and security concerns between great and small states still operate in world politics. The United States invaded Iraq in 2003. China is at odds with Taiwan, North Korea with South Korea, and India with Pakistan. States still seek conventional weapons as well as those of mass destruction; the traditional state of war still persists.6 z If wars between states have become less common, wars within states (civil wars) have been distinctly on the rise. Outside states have found it necessary to intervene through NATO or under UN auspices to prevent such civil wars from spreading regionally. Think of former Yugoslavia during the early 1990s. z Globalization has not created an international society of global citizens, and IGOs frequently have little independence. Globalization has not seriously challenged the profoundly national nature of citizenship. When push comes to shove, national identity and national culture will trump global or international identity. z Some states remain far more powerful than others, and their foreign policies are more dominant than others. Traditional U.S. foreign policyand the power that backs itis the prime player in this scheme.
z The major national security threat to the Western states today is terrorism. The primary responsibility of a states government is to protect its people.
QUEstIoNs
1. Which side of the issue strikes you as more compelling? 2. Do you see elements of truth on both sides, leaving you somewhere between the two opposing sides of the debate?
NotEs
1. This view is derived from Banning Garrett, YaleGlobal, February 2004, http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/ display.article?id=3311. 2. See Joseph S. Nye, American Power and the 2004 Campaign. Project Syndicate, March 2004 Project Syndicate is an international association of 209 newspapers. 3. Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999), 78. 4. Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005). 5. Moiss Nam, Five Wars of Globalization, Foreign Policy (January/February 2003): 2937. 6. Stanley Hoffmann, Clash of Globalization, Foreign Affairs (July/August 2002): 104115.
Foreign policy is the course of action pursued abroad mainly by a government but also by a nongovernmental organization or individual in quest of some goal. Foreign policy is put into play by the worlds states and their governments, IGOs, and NGOs, including militant organizations like al Qaeda. Each tries to employ some form of power and inuencefrom hard to soft powerto achieve its desired objectives.
Power refers to the objective and subjective capabilities discussed in chapter 4, and policy refers to how power gets translated into policies, such as using hard- or softpower capabilities.
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The highest foreign-policy priority goes to core interests (also known as national interests): territorial security, economic vitality, and protection of the political system. Each goal can be achieved by a number of policies. Territorial security, for example, can be achieved via weapon use or acquisition, disarmament, arms control, or alliances. Problems arise in the course of choosing 1 2 among policy options. 1 2 3 4 what factors 5 6 each level 7 of analysis 8 9 10 Understand at affect the formulation of foreign policy and identify the various perspectives used to explain foreign-policy decision making.
- The individual dimension, in which the focus is peoplethe unique beliefs, emotions, values, and cognitive processes (how they sift through information and reach conclusions) that each brings to the decisionmaking table.
4 6 phases 7 in the8U.S. war 9 on terror; 10 Identify the5different understand the key components of the Bush Doctrine, and be aware of the criticisms of that approach.
Global-level factors are those broad international inuences on foreign policies (like the UN, the World Bank, globalization, and the Internet) State-level factors are those inherent to the country itself, such as its geographic location and belief system and core values Individual-level factors are the personality and perceptions of the leader of a countryor nongovernmental leaders who make a big difference in world politics. Key perspectives on how foreign-policy decisions are made:
- The systems approach depicts the many actors, pressures, and forces simultaneously operating to shape a states foreign-policy decision. - The rational dimension or aspect of foreign policy, which focuses on the state as a unitary actor, with no internal forces shaping its decisions. - The organizational dimension, which focuses on the important role of organizations in shaping policy outcomes.
The foreign-policy repercussions of 9/11 are dramatic. The United States declared war on terrorism and developed a new national security strategy (the Bush Doctrine) that became a major decentralizing force in world politics and source of friction between the United States and much of the international community. The war on terrorism ultimately led the United States and Great Britain to spearhead an attack against Iraq under the mistaken assumption that Saddam Hussein had both WMDs and close links to al Qaeda. The attack on and occupation of Iraq has led to rising numbers of al Qaeda followers and the isolation of the United States and Great Britain from much of the rest of the world, including some of their traditional greatpower allies within the UN Security Council and the international community (France, Germany, and Russia). The 9/11 attacks and other expressions of hatred directed at the United States stem not so much from objection to U.S. core values and beliefs but rather its policies in the Middle East, which have alienated many Muslims. The Bush Doctrine, with its emphasis on preemptive strikes, potential use of nuclear weapons, and unilateral foreign-policy implications, has decentralized world politics dramatically.
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Intergovernmental Actors
Learning Objectives
2 1
Dene intergovernmental organization, understanding how scope and purpose differentiate organizations from one another.
Identify the factors that lead states to join intergovernmental organizations as well as the reasons why a state might not join an IGO.
Understand how the UN attempts to manage security, economic, and social issues in world politics as well as issues with the management of the UN itself.
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Chapter Outline
Intergovernmental Organizations?
The Benets of IO Membership Supranationality and Reciprocity among Member-states Rejecting IGO Membership
Be able to identify and explain the functions of the key institutions that make up the European Union and discuss its prospects for the future.
ealism teaches us that the world is dominated by states, that no entity in the world is more powerful than a state, and that states rarely give up sovereignty to international organizations. In short, for realists and their contemporaries, the most important unit of analysis in world politics is the state. As we demonstrated in the rst ve chapters of the book, to a large extent, the realists are correct. A quick glance around the world, however, reveals a diverse array of non-state actors that have transformed international affairs. Most members of international organizations would probably take issue with the realist perspective of the world. Many believe the idealist or ecological paradigms better explain how the world does work and should work. n
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Key Terms
CHAPTER 6
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intergovernmental organization (IGO) p. 162 collective security p. 167 supranational organizations p. 168 reciprocity p. 169 League of Nations p. 171 Security Council p. 171 unanimity voting p. 172 majority voting p. 172 weighted voting p. 172 peacekeeping p. 172 General Assembly p. 177 the North p. 177 the South p. 177 qualied majority voting (QMV) p. 191
In general, we can divide international organizations (IOs) into two groups. One group consists of states; these are called international intergovernmental organizations, or IGOs. Some of the more important ones include the: z United Nations (UN) z European Union (EU) z North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) z Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) z Organization of American States (OAS) Membership in the second group of IOs consists of individuals or groups from different countries; these are known as international nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs. Examples of international organizations whose members are individuals or groups, not states include: z Greenpeace z Amnesty International z International businesses z International terrorist groups For a comparison of IGO and NGO membership, consider the following example. As an individual interested in human rights around the world, you can join an NGO like Amnesty International or Human Rights Watch. However, as an individual, you cannot join the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) because only states can be members of this IGO.
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z Judiciary: The EUs judicial branch has considerable inuence in the affairs of member-states; NAFTA does not have its own judicial branch per se. More is said about NAFTA and trade blocs in chapter 12. One of the interesting recent developments related to regional IGOs is the formation in the summer of 2002 of the African Union (AU). The AU replaced the thirty-nine-year-old Organization of African Unity (OAU) and took on an ambitious agenda designed to replicate many of the features of the European Union. In 2004, the AU established a Pan-African Parliament and a Peace and Security Council. The AU also has a peacekeeping force with the authority to intervene in national conicts. Recently, in fact, the AU dispatched about 7,000 troops to address the conict in Darfur, Sudan. In early 2007, the UN approved a hybrid UNAU peacekeeping force of more than 20,000. Most of the troops in the hybrid force will be African.4 In addition, the AU plans to create an African Court of Justice, an African Monetary Fund, an African Central Bank, and even a single currency. Supporters of the AU deliberately chose the EU as a model in order to promote democracy, the rule of law, and respect for human rights. Whether the AU will succeed in any of these endeavors is hard to say. But for the rst time, many (more than fty) former OAU members seem willing to give up some of their sovereignty, as EU members have, in exchange for the eventual benets of international cooperation. The commitment toward democracy is an encouraging sign for a continent with a history of dictatorships and military rule. Because the world has so manyand so many kindsof international organizations, we address them into two separate chapters. In this chapter, we explore several important IGOs, including the UN and the EU. NGOs are the subject of chapter 7. The rst main section of this chapter raises the question of why countries join intergovernmental organizations. The next two sections explore the worlds two most important IGOsthe UN and the EUand how they function. The aim of both this chapter and chapter 7 is to enhance your knowledge of the major players in world politics and to remind you that although states do drive international relations, they do not do it alone. Ignoring IGOs and NGOs would leave us with an incomplete understanding of the world. The twentieth century moved well beyond the state system that evolved from the Treaty of Westphalia, which envisioned sovereign states as the key players in international relations. The twenty-rst century is not likely to resemble that system either. The chapter case study on the International Criminal Court (ICC) taps into many of these ideas by looking at the demand by many states for the creation of this new non-state actor. It also considers the resistance to the ICC by some countries, most notably the United States.
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_____ 1. There are two kinds of international organizations, peaceful (economic-based) and conictual (security-based). _____ 2. The number of international organizations in the world grew signicantly in the twentieth century. _____ 3. The two variables used to classify international organizations are purpose (single-issue vs. multipurpose) and size (small vs. large). _____ 4. By most measures, both NAFTA and the EU are fairly similar organizations.
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_____ 5. Which of the following is NOT an example of a nongovernmental organization? a. Greenpeace b. Amnesty International c. Human Rights Watch d. OPEC e. PepsiCola _____ 6. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an international organization? a. Compulsory membership b. A charter stating goals, structure, and methods of operation c. A permanent secretariat (or executive) to carry on administrative functions d. Procedures based on consent rather than compulsion or force e. None of the above
Depending on the type of IGOmultipurpose, single-issue, global, or regionalcountries consider membership for a variety of reasons. In every case, states must weigh the costs and benets of membership. With many benets associated with membership, there is one clear cost of participation in an IGO: the potential loss of at least some national sovereignty because a country must sometimes go along with the other IGO members when it may not completely want to.
Economic Rewards
Some countries join an IGO because membership yields positive economic rewards. NAFTA, for example, was formed in part because of the perceived economic benets that would accrue to its three member-states: the United States, Canada, and Mexico. As a member of NAFTA, Mexican companies get better access
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NATO was originally designed to deter and repel a Soviet attack during the Cold War. Its activities, however, can be more mundane such as leading refugees to safety in Kosovo.
to the lucrative U.S. market. Chinese membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) offers a similar example. China knows that membership in the WTO will allow it to buyand, more importantly, to sellgoods more freely to all of the other WTO members. Similarly, France originally joined the Common Market (the forerunner of the EU) in part to improve its economic situation following the devastation wrought by World War II. As we describe later in the chapter, most countries belong to some type of regional trade organization because of the potential economic benets.
Political Influence
Another reason countries join IGOs is because they may gain political inuence. The Netherlands and Portugal, for example, are too small to inuence the course of world affairs on their own, but as members of the EU, they enjoy real political clout. In a similar way, membership in the UN allows smaller states to be seen and heard on world issues, to vote on an equal basis in the General Assembly, and to join UN programs and have an impact on how those programs are developed. The same argument holds for Uruguay and Paraguay in MERCOSUR (the Common Market of the South),5 a NAFTA-like arrangement in the southern cone of South America. And one reason that Germany and Italy supported the creation of the European Common Market in the 1950s was that they wanted to show the world especially the French and other Europeansthat they could be trusted as cooperative political partners and that they were not likely to start another world war in the heart of Europe.
Security
A country may also join an international organization because the IO can provide security. NATO is the most inuential security organization in the world. It is made
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Collective security The concept behind a security alliance that guarantees protection for each member of the alliance if it is attacked.
ICELAND
UNITED KINGDOM
BULGARIA ROMANIA
FRANCE
U.S.A.
PORTUGAL SPAIN
TURKEY
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dominate their direction. Intergovernmental organizations consist of representatives of national governments, and they promote voluntary cooperation among those governments. The central administrative authorities of IGOs, often called secretariats, tend to have very restricted responsibilities or authority to make decisions on their own, and they tend to have little or no coercive power to enforce their will.6 Because national sovereignty is such a highly guarded commodity, governments cooperate with each other but try to minimize the inuence of their joint international institutions.
Supranational Organizations
If international institutions gain considerable powers of their own, however, they become supranational actors because in some ways they are above the state. Supranational organizations have autonomous authority or certain powers of coercion independent of the member-states. EU scholar Roy H. Ginsburg described supranationality in the EU as follows: There is a body of law which is supreme over national law, and there are EU bodies which have powers independent of member governments, powers delegated to the former by the latter ... and, decision-making is based on majority voting.7 In this respect, both the EUs Commission and the European Court of Justice are supranational organizations. Keep in mind, though, that supranational organizations do not exercise total authority over member-state governments. Supranational institutions can inuence their members in several ways: z Voting Rules: An IGOs voting rules may be structured in such a way as to force countries to act more cooperatively than if they had full sovereignty. We present an example of this later when we consider the European Union. In organizations that are not supranational, such as the United Nations, states have greater inuence on the organizations decisions. For example, in order for the UN to use military force, all ve permanent members of the Security Council must agreethat is, there must be a unanimous vote. z Legal Authority: Supranational IOs can have legal authority over the memberstates. For example, the EUs European Court of Justice can overrule the national court of an EU member-state (such as Germany or Poland). z Inuence in New Areas: Supranational institutions may gain considerable inuence when a totally new policy issue arises. Instead of national governments dominating the new policy issue, supranational organizations can take advantage of the situation by leading or taking what is called an entrepreneurial role in developing new policies. In some respects, environmental policy in the European Union emerged in this way.8 z Interest Group Facilitation: IGOs can also be supranational in that they help foster cooperation among interest groups from member-states. Interest groups such as labor organizations and business associations (made up of representatives of different businesses) may do this on their own, of course, but they may be encouraged to do so by IGOs as well.
Supranational organizations International organizations that have been granted a signicant amount of authority from national governments. This autonomous authority is above the state and has designated powers of coercion that are independent of the memberstates. Supranationality, however, does not mean total authority over national governments.
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Reciprocity The concept that international organizations help reinforce positive behavior of states; one states responsible behavior is reciprocated by others, giving states incentive to keep their commitments.
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_____ 1. Certain IGOs, like OPEC, result in no costs for member statesonly benets. _____ 2. The main benets to joining an IGO are categorized under the following headings: economic, political, cultural, and ideological. _____ 3. NATO is an example of a collective security IGO. _____ 4. IGOs have the potential for reducing the political and administrative costs associated with making and enforcing agreements. _____ 5. Reciprocity refers to IGOs whose primary purpose is to provide humanitarian assistance to other countries.
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_____ 6. A supranational organization is one that: a. Transforms its member-states into substantially more powerful countries than they were prior to membership b. Reduces the need for member-states to worry about security concerns c. Has sufcient powers of its own, in some ways above the states that are its members d. Is able to exercise complete control over its member-states _____ 7. Which of the following is NOT a reason why states might opt out joining an IGO: a. Loss of sovereignty b. Lack of economic gain c. Lack of political gain d. Lack of security benet e. None of the above
The UNs geographic scope and diverse activities are unmatched by those of any other international organization. The comprehensiveness of the UN is reected in its many specialized agencies, including the International Labor Organization (ILO), the UN International Childrens Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the World Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO). People who do not know much about the UN make two common mistakes about it. One mistake is to overestimate its importance; the other is to underestimate it. In this part of the chapter, we explore the power and limitations of the UN and the areas where it is active. We also look at the way the UN makes decisions because, often, the way a decision is made is as important as the decision itself.
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League of Nations An international organization established in 1919 to maintain world peace and security. Although it did not prevent the outbreak of World War II, it did have a signicant inuence on the creation and structure of the United Nations.
Security Council The most important branch of the United Nations. It deals primarily with peace and security issues, and can authorize the use of military force. The Security Council consists of fteen countries: ve permanent members (Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States) and ten others that rotate periodically.
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Unanimity voting A voting rule that requires a unanimous decision. This type of voting rule gives each person (or country) a vetothat is, it takes only one no vote to nullify a proposal.
Majority voting A voting rule in which the majority of states (or individuals) must agree.
Weighted voting In international organizations, a method of voting in which extra weight is given to the votes of states with larger populations or greater economic inuence.
elements of realisms balance of power had to be combined with the notion of collective security and thus created a special voting rule for the permanent members. In order to accommodate the status of the worlds most powerful countries, the Security Council uses unanimity voting : A unanimous decision is required among the permanent members to authorize the use of UN force. Even if nine non-permanent members agree to the use of military force, any one of the permanent ve can veto the proposal. In short, a single veto from one of the permanent ve will block UN action. Note that the U.S. decision to go to war against Iraq in 2003 did not entail an ofcial vote in the Security Council. The United States knew it did not have the support of all permanent members, so it did not request a vote. Instead, the United States bypassed the UN structure and formed a coalition of the willing. With the existence of the veto rule, one might predict that the Security Council would rarely authorize the use of force. After all, the ve permanent members differ signicantly in their interests, and at least one of them is bound to use its veto. In fact, this has been the case. The Security Council was virtually paralyzed, for example, during much of the Cold War because of the frequent use of the veto, particularly by the United States. But this condition was deliberate; the UN founders wanted to make it difcult for the organization to use military force. They understood the dangers inherent in waging warespecially by an international organizationand they recognized that a political consensus among the worlds great powers was needed for the military force to be politically successful as well as victorious on the battleeld.10 The entire UN does not use unanimity voting, however. The UNs General Assembly (discussed in more detail later in the chapter) uses majority voting : a majority of states must agree to an action or policy. In the General Assembly, each country, no matter how big or small, is allotted one vote. A third form of voting is used in yet other parts of the UN. For example, in the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, variations of weighted voting are usedthat is, a country gets more voting weight if it makes a larger nancial contribution. With this voting rule, the United States has much more inuence than, for example, Kenya, because the United States is one of the largest nancial contributors to these institutions.11
Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping A military operation, normally associated with the United Nations, whose aim is to provide a buffer between warring parties who allow a neutral force to carry out peace plans. Peacekeeping operations may include overseeing the development of democratic institutions (also known as peace building), and sometimes the UN is called upon to enforce a peaceful solution when one or more sides do not wish for peace (also known as peacemaking).
A more common use of UN force is peacekeeping. Although peacekeeping is not in the UN Charter, it has become an increasingly important and controversial part of UN activities. The idea behind peacekeeping is that the UN steps in as a buffer when warring parties agree to allow this neutral force to carry out peace plans. In all, almost 84,000 people from over 110 countries now serve in eighteen UN peacekeeping operations around the world.12 Peacekeeping takes many forms, including: z z z z power-sharing arrangements electoral support strengthening the rule of law economic and social development.
Peace building is a term that describes peacekeeping plus additional UN efforts to oversee the development of democratic institutions. Sometimes the UN is called
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80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
Jan. 1991
Jan. 92
Jan. 93
Jan. 94
Jan. 95
Jan. 96 Police
Jan. 97
Jan. 98 Total
Jan. 99
Jan. 01
Jan. 02
Jan. 03
Jan. 04
Jan. 05
Jan. 06
Jan. 07
Troops
Military observers
Source: Prepared by the and Security Section ofSection the United Department of Department Public Information in consultation with the Military Planning Service Source: Prepared by Peace the Peace and Security ofNations the United Nations of Public Information in consultation of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, DPI/2444, January 22, 2007, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/chart.pdf. Used by permission. with the Military Planning Service of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations DPI/2444 January 22, 2007.
upon to enforce a peaceful solution to a conict when one or more sides do not wish peace. This situation, sometimes called peacemaking or peace enforcement, became more common the 1990s, sometimes with unfavorable results, in part Duncan: World Politics inin the 21st Century, 3e 1036905_la_06_02 because the UN may be perceived to be taking sides in the dispute. Despite our 11/12/07 attempt to distinguish among the three terms in this paragraph, you should know that people often use the term peacekeeping to describe all of them. Figure 6.2 graphs the trend in UN peacekeeping operations between 1991 and 2006. Aside from the surge in UN activity in the mid-1990s, the recent trend has been an ever increasing demand for UN peacekeepers. How successful are these operations? According to a study by the Rand Corporation, a foreign-policy think tank, of eight completed UN peacekeeping operations: in the Belgian Congo, Namibia, El Salvador, Cambodia, Mozambique, Eastern Slovonia, Sierra Leone, and East Timor, about two-thirds of these were deemed successful.13 Peacekeeping operations have become controversial in part because of recent disasters or near-disasters. One of the most problematic UN peacekeeping operations in the 1990s was in Somalia. This case demonstrated, among other things, that when UN operations move into highly volatile places, peacekeeping can evolve into even more peacemaking or peace enforcement. The Somalia NuGraphic Design, Inc. dangerous 7 Laurelwood Drive, New Fairfield, CT 06812 (203) 746-4181 (203) 746-4182 fax [email protected] case, however, does not typify the UNs peacekeeping experience. In many battered countries, including Cambodia, Namibia, Nicaragua, South Africa, and East Timor, the UN successfully has sent impartial observers to ensure that free and fair elections are carried out. In general, peacekeeping operations are more likely to succeed when the warring sides agree to allow the UN to help resolve their differences. This was not the case when the headquarters for the UN mission in Iraq was attacked in 2003, forcing the UN to leave the country.
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Thanks in part to the intervention of the United Nations, citizens of East Timor celebrate independence in this flagraising ceremony.
The UN Charter (Articles 43 and 47) envisions a UN force that operates by agreement with individual states that function under the collective chiefs of staff of the permanent members and report to the Security Council. Again, however, although a permanent member of the Security Council, the United States has never agreed to any such arrangement.16
UN Limitation
In the tension between national sovereignty and international cooperation, the UN is limited in what it can do because it is an intergovernmental organization with member-states that have divergent interests. UN members (especially the
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The UN attempts to bring peace and security to many parts of the world, but it can also become a target in war-torn areas. In this photo, demonstrators in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo, surround a burning UN van during a protest over the capture of the town of Bukavu by rebels.
ve permanent members of the Security Council) still retain almost all decisionmaking power over what the UN does. In fact, among the basic principles of the UN is recognition of the primacy of the nation-state. It is thus worthwhile reviewing the options that UN member-states have, especially the large ones, for preventing the UN from doing something they dont like. 1. Resolutions from the General Assembly (discussed below) are nonbinding, meaning a country is not obligated to follow them. 2. In the case of the permanent members of the UN Security Council, a veto is sufcient to prevent the UN from using military force. 3. Only the Security Council may make decisions that are binding on all UN members. However, the permanent members may, of course, veto any decision they do not like. 4. Member states may also withhold payment to the UN with a de facto nancial veto that can prevent the UN from carrying out certain programs. This option is not available to UN members who make very small nancial contributions. To get a better understanding of the nonmilitary aspects of the UN, we now turn to its efforts at managing global economic and social problems.
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization with an almost endless number of tasks to perform. While it certainly deals with military matters, especially in the Security Council, it also handles many nonmilitary activities, as the list below suggests. You are probably already familiar with some of them.
Branch of the UN
The United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund (UNICEF) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) The United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) The Universal Postal Union (UPU) The World Health Organization (WHO) The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Function
Establishes child health and welfare services around the world. Promotes international trade. Provides technical assistance to stimulate economic and social development. Promotes cooperation in education, science, and culture. Promotes international cooperation on all environmental matters. Promotes industrial development, especially among the members. Assists the UN to become more effective through training and research. Promotes humanitarian treatment of refugees and seeks permanent solutions to refugee problems. Assists both developed and developing countries in dealing with their population problems. Conducts research into the problems of economic development during different phases of economic growth. Promotes international postal cooperation. Improves health conditions in developing countries. Provides protection for literary, artistic, and scientific works.
protect children and migrant workers, and it has been a major global force for the advancement of the equal rights of women (see chapter 11). We talk more about these organizations in chapters 1114. Furthermore, the UN is involved in countering global crime and drugs. In some places, the UNs job is primarily to build democratic institutions. As noted earlier, the UN has sent impartial observers to ensure free and fair elections in many countries. It has also helped armed opposition movements transform themselves into political parties in El Salvador, Mozambique, and Guatemala. Typical examples of UN agencies or missions include the United Nations Angola Verication Mission (UNAVEM III), the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), and the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF), which continues to observe a 1974 ceasefire agreement between Israeli and Syrian forces in the Golan Heights.
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General Assembly A branch of the UN in which each member-state is allotted one vote, regardless of size. It is heavily involved in social welfare and economic matters, and it acts as the focal point of activity for the many agencies, committees, and institutes that deal with UN matters.
The North Loosely, the advanced industrial democracies of the northern hemisphere. Developed countries. The South Loosely, the less developed countries of the southern hemisphere. Developing countries.
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Two important points about the General Assemblys inuence must be made. z First, unlike the Security Council, the General Assembly is weakened because, for the most part, it can only make recommendations. Even though it is involved in a wide variety of activities, it cannot issue binding legislation, and it does not have the legal clout to bring violators to justice. This, of course, also hurts the efforts by Southern countries to achieve their goals. z Second, the General Assembly is weakened by the widely diverse interests of its members. Besides the North-South split, the General Assembly is fractured by countries with different religions, cultures, languages, and traditions as well as different territorial, political, and economic interests. General Assembly members even disagree on something the UN claims to uphold: human rights. Religious and cultural splits are particularly evident over issues involving the treatment of women (see chapter 11).
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Note that as a result of changes in relative economic inuence, Japans contribution drops to 16.6 percent while Chinas increases from 2.05 percent to 2.66 percent for the 20072009 period. This kind of payment arrangement may seem unfair to the largest contributors, but how much a country pays depends on the size of the countrys population, the size of its economy, and its per capita income. For example, because the United States is the wealthiest country in the world, it is expected to pay a higher
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share. In return, however, the United States is given more UN Secretariat jobs than any other member-state. Recently, for example, the United States has held the top posts at many UN agencies including UNICEF, the UN Development Programme, the World Bank, the World Food Programme, the International Court of Justice, and the Universal Postal Union. The UN has no legal obligation to provide specic jobs to the major contributors; it is more of a political bargain. The regular UN budget has risen over the last four of ve years from $1.48 billion to about $2 billion.21 This covers the Secretariat operations in New York City and Geneva as well as ofces in Nairobi and Vienna, plus ve regional commissions. While this gure may sound large, one must put it in the context of the vast number of tasks the UN must perform. In addition, to understand the size of the UNs budget, it helps to compare it to the budgets of other organizations. For example, when compared to the scale of U.S. defense spending (over $600 billion) or even the budget of a major city, the UNs budget seems quite small. Many countries (for example, the United States) fail to pay their dues to the UN for political reasons or for reasons of real or supposed economic hardship. The UNs budget situation was particularly bleak in 1999, when member states owed the UN almost $3 billion in dues: $1.7 billion for peacekeeping, almost $1.1 billion for the regular budget, and $148 million for international tribunals. In order to pay regular budget expenses, the UN often borrows from peacekeeping funds, which means the UN has been unable to reimburse those countries that have provided peacekeeping troops and equipment.22 The largest debtor has been the United States, which at one point owed the UN $1.67 billion, or two-thirds of the total due. The United States actually risked losing its vote in the General Assembly by not paying its bill at the end of 1999. This predicament was resolved by a last-minute compromise. U.S. pressure on the UN to reduce its contributions from 25 percent of the UN budget to 22 percent nally succeeded in early 2001, and in September 2001, the United States nally agreed to pay its UN dues of $862 million. Many less developed countries did not understand why the worlds most prosperous country, in the midst of unprecedented economic growth, should demand making fewer UN contributions. Nevertheless, by the end of 2006, the United States again owed the UN back dues, this time $291 million.23
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In spite of the sometimes obvious aws in the UN administration, public support for this IGO remains strong around the world. Support in the United States has been substantial over the last thirty years until recently. By the late 1990s, the vast majority of those polled in the United States72 percentthought the United States should not act alone to reduce international crises without the support of its allies.29 According to a 2002 study by the Chicago Council on Foreign Affairs, 57 percent of Americans said it should be a very important foreign-policy goal to strengthen the UN.30 Over the past several years, however, favorable attitudes toward the UN in the United States have declined. For example, in 2006, only 31 percent of those surveyed said that they had a positive opinion of the UN.31 A Gallup Poll in 2007 found that 66 percent of Americans surveyed thought that the UN was actually doing a poor job.32 Nevertheless, according to Daniel Drezner of Tufts University, the majority of Americans support giving up Americas veto in the UN Security Council if it means a more effective global body.33
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_____ 1. The primary goal of the United Nations is the establishment of a single world government. _____ 2. The most powerful body within the United Nations is the General Assembly. _____ 3. The Security Council uses a unanimity voting system while the General Assembly uses a majority voting system. _____ 4. Plans for implementing Security Council reform are fairly uncontentious and have the approval of a majority of the permanent members of the Council. _____ 5. The top seven contributors to the UN in 2006 were: the United States, Japan, Germany, Britain, France, Italy, Canada, and Spain.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Permanent members of the UN Security Council have what limitation placed on their membership? a. They may only use their veto power once per year. b. They are not allowed to vote on issues where they have a conict of interest. c. They are required to provide foreign assistance to less powerful Security Council members in their geographic region.
d. They must provide peacekeeping troops for any mission they authorize. e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is an option available to all UN member-states who wish to prevent the UN from doing something? a. Ignoring resolutions passed by the General Assembly b. Preventing the UN from using force by a veto vote in the Security Council c. Appealing to the International Court of Justice to prevent the UN Secretary General from taking his post d. Using the ECOSOC as a buffer to carve an exception to human rights regulations e. None of the above _____ 8. The largest debtor to the United Nations has been: a. China d. Russia b. France e. United States c. Iraq
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While the UN is a global IGO, many regional organizations exist as well. The main example of a regional IGO that we present in this chapter is the European Union. Many other regional organizations, including the African Union (AU), NAFTA, the Organization of American States (OAS), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), are international organizations with more limited scope and jurisdiction. The AU, as we discussed earlier in the chapter, has existed for only a few years and has not developed the extensive degree of policy coordination found in the EU. NAFTA, for the most part, only addresses economic issues, notably freeing trade among its members. The EU, as you will see, goes much further than both of these IGOs. The European Union is a unique phenomenon in the history of the world, especially because it brings together states that, throughout history, have waged war against one another. Remember, for example, that Germany and France went to war in 1870, and almost all of Europe fought in World Wars I and II. What began in the 1950s primarily as an economic-oriented organization of six West European countries has evolved into the most complex and integrated set of institutions anywhere in the world.38 The EU now comprises twenty-seven democratic member countries from west, central, and eastern Europe representing 490 million people. The U.S. population, by contrast, is roughly 300 million. The broad scope of the EUs responsibilities is reected in its three pillars. z Economic aspects z Common foreign and security policies z Justice and home affairs The economic aspects of the EU make up the rst pillar in the EUs framework. Most EU laws deal with economic matters among the member-states. In addition, several EU countries have pushed economic cooperation to such an extent that they have even created their own currency, the euro. To manage the euro, the EU established the European Central Bank. So far, thirteen EU member-states have given up their national currency in favor of the euro. Thus, for example, there are no more French francs, German deutschemarks, and Italian lira. Notably missing from the euro-zone are Britain, Denmark, and Sweden. The second pillar covers common foreign and security policies. Through the EUs third pillar, justice and home affairs, the EU states coordinate their policies to address immigration and drug trafcking and to cooperate more on border controls. This area has grown in importance with the threat of terrorism. The EU also has highly developed institutions including a trans-European parliament and Court of Justice. Thus, no other IGO can match the EU in depth of institutional structure or the scope of policies under its jurisdiction. The next section of the chapter explores the historical roots of the modern EU. After that, we provide an overview of the main EU institutions, the impact of EU voting rules, and the EUs constitution.
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With the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, France, Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg)the six members of the ECSCformed three new European communities: the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), the European Defense Community (EDC), and the European Economic Community (EEC). Unlike the EEC, both Euratom and the EDC proved ineffective, which is one reason why some old-timers continue to call the European Union the EEC.
EU Membership
EU membership has expandedknown as wideningon several occasions since 1957. Figure 6.3 shows the old and new members of the EU. In 1973, for example, the EU grew from the original six members to nine with the admission of Britain, Ireland, and Denmark. In the 1980s, Greece (1981), Spain (1986), and Portugal (1986) joined. Although not technically considered an expansion of the EU, East Germany became part of the EU in 1990 after it was reunied with West Germany. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden were admitted. The most ambitious widening occurred in 2004 with the addition of eight central and eastern European states FIGURE 6.3 An Expanded European Union
EU Expansion Original 6 Joined 1973 Joined 19811986 Joined 1995 SWEDEN Joined 2004 FINLAND Joined 2007 Applicant Countries
ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA
ATLANTIC OCEAN
GERMANY
LUXEMBOURG CZECH REPUBLIC
POLAND
SLOVAKIA
FRANCE
HUNGARY ROMANIA
Black Sea
BULGARIA TURKEY GREECE
PORTUGAL SPAIN
ITALY
MALTA
CYPRUS
Mediterranean Sea
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The European Union holds one of its first major meetings after its enlargement from fifteen to twentyfive member-states in Rome, October 2004.
as well as Malta and Cyprus. The most recent additions to the EU were Bulgaria and Romania which joined in 2007.
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Additional EP power has more frequently come from new treaties. The Amsterdam Treaty, which took effect in 1999, and the proposed constitution are expected to make the EP the legislative equal of the Council of Ministers in many policy areas, including judicial cooperation in civil matters (except family law), antidiscrimination measures, and specic industrial policy support measures.41
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Qualied majority voting (QMV) Associated with the Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers), a voting rule in which the larger countries have more votes than the smaller countries and no country has a veto.
In IGOs, states behave differently when voting rules change. In addition, some voting systems are better than others if the IGO wants to get work accomplished. In general, for an IGO to get things done, it may need to have voting rules that limit national control. Think of voting systems as falling along a continuum, with ease of decision making at one end and safeguarding of national sovereignty at the other. Consider the following diagram.
Voting Method
Unanimity Voting
Used by (Examples)
z UN Security Council z EU Council of Ministers z O rganization for Economic Cooperation and Development z UN General Assembly z EU Council of Ministers
Majority Voting
Small countries tend to benefit most because they are much more numerous.
Big countries are given more votes, but small states may actually come out the winner (e.g., compare Luxembourgs population with Germanys).
z EU Council of Ministers z T he IMF and World Bank (based not on population but on level of financial contribution)
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QMV matters a great deal because, unlike unanimity voting, it forces states to compromise to get what they want. Refer to Table 6.2, which compares voting methods. Note the contrast in the differing goals and outcomes of these different voting systems. Since November 2004, in response to the ten-member expansion of the EU, a qualied majority is reached if (a) a majority of member-states (in some cases, a two-thirds majority) approve, and (b) a minimum of votes is cast in favorwhich is 72.3 percent of the total. In addition, a member-state may ask for conrmation that the votes in favor represent at least 62 percent of the total population of the EU. If this is found not to be the case, the decision will not be adopted. While this may sound complicated, and it is, the EU sought to meet the demands of big and small states as well as to manage better the trade-off between decisionmaking efciency and the protection of individual state interestsall of which were important, by the way, during the constitutional debates among the thirteen American colonies.
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The off-shore oil rig has become one of the symbols of the worlds dependence on oil.
membership has often been at odds over foreign-policy issues. The divergent attitudes among EU member-states toward the Iraq War is an important recent example. Several eastern European countries and Britain backed the United States, while othersespecially France and Germanywere vehemently opposed to the war. Perhaps most important of all, the EU has had trouble establishing policies in critical areas such as defense. Three recent examples of this problem include the EUs incoherent response in the early 1990s to the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, its political divisions when the crisis in Kosovo erupted in 1999, and the lack of unity over the war in Iraq that began in 2003. Thus, it is probably safe to conclude that the EU will not look like a United States of Europe, any time soon. But it is also unlikely that the EU will backslide much, or at all. At least for now, we are more likely to see is a United Europe of States than a United States of Europe. We use the conclusion of this chapter as an introduction to the next. We have seen here in chapter 6 what intergovernmental organizations are, why states form them, and how some of the important ones work. An important theme of this chapter and of chapter 7 is that states drive international relationsbut they do not do so alone. For a better understanding of the centralizing and decentralizing forces at work in world politics, we must not ignore the role played by IGOs and NGOs. That said, we must also be aware of the limits of what international organizations can achieve. As we saw in this chapter, for example, IGOs can be ineffective when their member-states refuse to cooperate. This reects the natural tension between the urge to preserve national security and the urge to seek international cooperation. These themes are also at work in the following case study on the International Criminal Court.
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_____ 1. The EUs responsibilities rest on four pillars: economic, cultural, environmental, and security. _____ 2. The EUs Council of Ministers has signicant inuence as it has nal say on most important pieces of EU legislation. _____ 3. The European Commission houses most of the executive power of the EU. _____ 4. Qualied majority voting provides smaller countries in the EU more power to ensure that minority interests are not overwhelmed by major powers. _____ 5. Recent developments strongly point toward the establishment of a United States of Europe by the year 2012.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 6.4 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following is NOT a rationale for European cooperation: a. The need to rebuild war-torn economies after World War II b. The need to impose barriers to trade in order to protect edgling economies c. Economies of scale between EU member states made them more competitive internationally d. A cohesive Europe was better equipped to halt the spread of communism e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of unanimity voting: a. It is the best system for maintaining sovereignty. b. It makes getting things accomplished very difcult. c. It provides states with the most viable means of security. d. It is helpful to both large and small states. e. None of the above
Case Study
State Power, Individuals, and the International Criminal Court
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Join the Debate The United States Should Leave the United Nations
Since the end of the Cold War, many Americans have become uncomfortable with U.S. membership in the United Nations. Emphasizing the altered geopolitical landscape in which the United States has become the sole superpower, opponents view the UN as anachronistic or worse. The most recent doubts about the UNs relevance came with the U.S.led war in Iraq. While the Bush administration viewed the war as vitally necessary for U.S. national security, major UN members either opposed the United States or simply looked on. Supporters of continuing U.S. involvement in the UN, however, contend that the UN continues to play a vital role in world politics and that the United States, as its most important member, should recognize the valuable services the UN can provide. This debate explores the reasons the United States should and should not leave the UN. power, should have the same voting weight in the General Assembly as small, even tiny, states. This does not serve U.S. interests. Yet another reason to oppose the UN is that repellent members sometimes have inuential roles in the organization. For example, states with terrible human rights records routinely became members of the UN Human Rights Commission, and their representatives even become the chair (or head) of the commission. Members of the commission that were routinely criticized for human-rights violations included Cuba, China, and Sudan. In 2003, despite U.S. opposition, Libya was actually elected chair of the commission, backed by thirty-three states and opposed by only three. Thus, the UNs main human rights organization was headed by a country with an appalling record on human rights.3 Adding insult to injury, the United States was voted off the commission in 2001.4
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United States and the world can be addressed in a cooperative and legitimate setting. One should also recall many of the positive UN contributions to a better world. In 2001, the UN and SecretaryGeneral Ko Annan were given the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work for a more peaceful world. Annan was singled out for his commitment to human rights, his campaigns to take on new challenges such as the AIDS crisis and international terrorism, and his efforts to bring new life to the UN.5 This was the rst Nobel Prize for the UN as a whole, but the organization has received seven previous awards for individual programs. For example, in 2005, the UNafliated International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its director General Mohamed ElBaradei were also awarded the Nobel Prize for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy is used in the safest possible way. The United States, like most countries, has a stake in global stability, and the UN has been active in helping increase stability around the world. By 2004, the UN was deploying a monthly average of 56,000 military peacekeepers, four times the level of 1999. In 2006, the UN had about 84,000 peacekeepers involved in operations around the world. One must also remember the UNs extensive measures to address vital social and economic problems facing the people of the world. For example, the UN Development Programme has supported more than 5,000 projects in the areas of agriculture, industry, education, and the environment. UNICEF offers another example. The UNs children organization spends about $800 million a year on immunization, health care, nutrition, and basic education in more than 135 countries. The World Health Organization has been instrumental in helping eliminate contagious diseases in many parts of the world. Polio, for example, is on the verge of being wiped out worldwide.6 While the United States decided to go to war against Iraq in 2003 without UN authorization, the UN is still viewed as having a relevant role to play. By fall 2003 and early 2004, for example, even the Bush administration was making overtures to the UN for help in the reconstruction of Iraq. Many UN supporters believe the UN could help add legitimacy to U.S. efforts, thus speeding the reconstruction and saving American and Iraqi lives and nancial resources.
While the jury is still out in the case of Iraq, the UN has shown its value not only to the world but to the United States as well. As a member of the UN, the United States can have considerable inuence not only on security matters (because the United States has veto power in the Security Council) but also on the many economic and social issues under UN jurisdiction. For these reasons, the United States should be an active member of the United Nations.
NOtEs
1. A petition in support of the bill, which is available on the Internet, says that by signing the petition, you, as an American, demand to remain as a free American and not to become a state under the control of the United Nations nor to be assimilated in the UNs call for globalization. See http://www .petitiononline.com/HR1146/petition.html. 2. Speeches and Statements of Ron Paul, http://www .house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2003/cr042903 .htm. Ron Pauls ofcial website is http://www.house .gov/paul/). In Utah, inspired by similar sentiments, the La Verkin and Virgin city councils in 2001 considered ordinances declaring themselves United Nationsfree zones. La Verkins ordinance passed, making it the rst city in the United States to make such a declaration. See Marla Sowards, Resolution Calls for U.S. to leave U.N., Brigham Young University NewsNet, http://newsnet.byu.edu/story.cfm/ 42399, February 19, 2003. 3. Libya Takes Human Rights Role, BBC News, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2672029.stm, January 20, 2003. 4. The United States regained its seat in 2003. 5. Colum Lynch, U.N. Secretary General Awarded No bel Peace Prize, Washington Post, October 13, 2001. 6. According to the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, a branch of the World Health Organization. Before 1988, when the WHO started a global anti-polio campaign, there were more than 350,000 cases worldwide. In 2006, only 2,000 cases were reported, mostly in Nigeria and India. See the Global Polio Eradication Initiative website, http://www.polioeradication .org/casecount.asp. See also David Pilling, WHO in Sight of Wiping Out Polio Worldwide, Financial Times, January 7, 2000.
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Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are organizations whose members are states. They are different from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), whose members are individuals. International relations are usually dominated by nation-states, but non-state actors are playing an increasingly important role. IGOs vary depending on their scope and their purpose. IGOs can therefore fall into one of four main categories:
- Single-purpose, regional: NAFTA (economic; North America) - Multipurpose, regional: the European Union (economic, political, security; Europe) - Single-purpose, global: World Health Organization (health; no geographic restriction) - Multipurpose, global: the United Nations (economic, political, social, cultural, security; with no geographic restriction)
The United Nations is primarily an intergovernmental organization. It was developed, in part, as a collective security organization to replace the failed League of Nations. It has many functions, including the preservation of peaceful relations among states, running programs to help poor children around the world, and supporting agencies devoted to world health. The two most important UN bodies are the Security Council and the General Assembly.
- The Security Council, as its name indicates, deals with the UNs military matters. It consists of fteen members, ve of whom are permanent (Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States). A veto from any one of these ve members will prevent the use of UN military force. - The General Assembly deals with security issues as well, but it deals extensively with all of the nonmilitary UN activities. Every country, regardless of size, has one vote. This voting method gives tiny countries the same weight as large ones like the United States or India.
3 6 states 7 to join 8 9 10 Identify the4factors 5 that lead intergovernmental organizations as well as the reasons why a state might not join an IGO.
Governments sometimes yield some of their national sovereignty to IGOs because they perceive that international cooperation is in their national interest for economic, political, or security reasons. The political, economic, and military benets of membership in an IGO, even if its institutions are powerful (that is, supranational), are often perceived as outweighing the costs. But states always face the tension between their desire to cooperate internationally and their desire to retain as much independence as possible.
Although the UN gets a lot of press for many of its positive contributions, one should not overestimate its inuence on world politics. For example, the UN cannot act militarily unless it has sufcient support from the permanent members of the Security Council. The UN is also hurt by a lack of funding and by bureaucratic problems.
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5 6 7 8 10 of the key Be able to identify and explain the9functions institutions that make up the European Union and discuss its prospects for the future.
rules outweigh the costs in lost national sovereignty. Many countries in Central and Eastern Europe agree, and that is why so many of them recently joined the EU. The main EU institutions are the European Council (meetings among the national leaders), the Council of Ministers (meetings of specic government ministers), the Commission (the semi-executive branch of the EU), the European Parliament, and the European Court of Justice. These institutions could potentially evolve and create a United States of Europe, but this is unlikely. EU citizens still place their loyalty in their home government rst, and many are worried about too much power being shifted to the EU.
The European Union is a unique IGO in terms of its membership (democratic, mostly rich countries), the depth and inuence of its institutions, and the number of policy areas for which it is responsible (such as a single currency, common trade policies, common regional policies, and an emerging common foreign and defense policy). The EU has both intergovernmental and supranational features. Countries have decided, rst of all, that they want supranational institutions, and, second, that the benets of following supranational institutions and
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Non-state Actors
The non-governmental organization Greenpeace comes under attack as it puts its ideas into practice. Gleizes/Greenpeace.
Learning Objectives
2 1
Identify and understand the political, economic, and technological factors that have led to the rise of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
Using Greenpeace and Amnesty International as examples, identify the goals, strategies, and tactics of NGOs.
Identify the economic scope of international corporate actors and determine how powerful multinational corporations relate to state actors.
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Tell me, and Ill forget. Show me, and I may not remember. Involve me, and Ill understand.
Native American Proverb
Chapter Outline
Nongovernmental Organizations?
Identify the criticisms associated with NGO interactions with states; be able to recount specic examples associated with Greenpeace and Amnesty International.
hapters 1, 3, and 6 introduced you to the growing visibility of non-state actors without going into much detail about them. That is the task of this chapter. A variety of non-state actors exist, including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), international businesses, international media organizations, and even international terrorist organizations. The focus of this chapter is on two of these non-state actors: NGOs and international businesses. NGOs are organizations of individuals that seek to transform a political, economic, or social condition in one or more countries. International businessesusually referred to as multinational corporationsare introduced in this chapter but are explained in more detail in chapters 12 and 13. International terrorist groups like Hezbollah and al Qaeda are addressed in chapter 10. For now,
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Key Terms
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prisoners of conscience p. 209 corporate actors p. 211 home country p. 211 host country p. 211
it is useful to remember that all of these organizations are non-state actors made up of individuals who seek change that may be economic, political, social, religious, scientic, or cultural in nature. Besides the well-known NGOs like the Red Cross and Greenpeace, some rarely publicized NGOs are increasingly altering the landscape of world politics. For example, the Women in Development Movement and Women for a New Era have gotten the UN to focus on the role of women as an integrated part of a countrys overall development process. Around the world, there are thousands of NGOs,1 including: z Humanitarian z Scientic z Educational z Environmental z Womens rights z Religious organizations According to the Yearbook of International Organizations, there are over 6,500 international NGOs and millions of exclusively national NGOs, many of which are organized into international federations.2 The large number of NGOs is matched by their diversity. Some NGOs are single-issue oriented, while others deal with a wide variety of political, economic, and social problems. NGOs may be funded by individuals, unions, nation-states, local governments, and IGOs such as the UN. An important issue to track in this chapter is the relationship between nonstate actors and sovereign states. As we discussed in chapter 3, one of the signicant characteristics of our era is the weakening of the state-dominated Westphalian system (established roughly after 1648) through the emergence of non-state actors. As many parts of this chapter show, non-state actors can be unpopular with the worlds nation-states because non-state actors directly challenge government policies, and they are often perceived as threats to a countrys national interests. In addition, foreign non-state actors may be viewed with suspicion because of their ideas, values, or, in the case of international businesses, their products, particularly cultural products such as lms and TV programs. The result may be local resistance to non-state actors. Exposure to the globalization process associated with or nurtured by non-state actors can challenge old beliefs and social identities. People often react defensively to the forces of globalization by trying to hold on even tighter to local customs and beliefs. On the other hand, contact with non-state actors can increase peoples awareness of social, political, and economic discrepancies around the world.3 This chapter also brings out the theme of centralizing and decentralizing tendencies in world politics. As you read in chapter 1, for example, citizen
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The international system established by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 enshrined nation-states as the most important unit in world politics. As we saw in chapter 6, intergovernmental organizations play an important role as well. The power of most NGOs cannot rival that of nation-states, but they are now a permanent part of the global landscape. Some observers have even suggested that NGOs are a crucial force in world politics. Michael Edwards of the Ford Foundation, for instance, sees NGOs as
For more information see Why It Matters to You: NGOs and Citizen Activism www.BetweenNations.org
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becoming a force for transformation in global politics and economics.5 In this respect, NGOs contribute to the centralizing forces at work in world politics by, for example, creating a transnational sense of identity. In an era of increasing globalization, or at least regionalization, NGOs have helped establish or nurture links not just across national borders but across cultures as well. In the following pages, we address this issue of NGOs as a centralizing force and explore why there are now so many NGOs on the international stage. Several reasons explain why NGOs are so visible in world politics today. These reasons are rooted in politics, economics, and technology.
Political Factors
A host of political factors exist that have led to the increased presence of NGOs in the international system today. These include a favorable political climate; the increase in the number of weak states around the world; the further development of international law; and for some states the politics of foreign aid. z Favorable Political Climate: NGOs tend to thrive in democratic environments because democracies allow freedom of expression and association. By contrast, when government dominates society, as in communist and other authoritarian countries, it may be impossible for members of an NGO to meet and organize.6 In China, for example, one of the main problems for NGOs is that they fall into a legal gray area and are often unable to register as legal organizations. This unclear legal status leaves many organizations open to government criticism or worse.7 Elsewhere, since the collapse of communism around 1990, more and more countries have opened up politically and opted for democratic reforms, thus creating a more favorable climate for NGOs. z Weak States: Another political reason we have so many NGOs is that more states are either falling apart or struggling to provide services that people have come to expect from the state. As you saw in chapter 1, among the new forces shaping the planet is the growing inability of states to resolve their problems. Whether the state must contend with terrorism, migration, drug trafcking, or environmental degradation, it is increasingly required to seek the cooperation of other governments and international organizations. When a country cannot even provide basic services for its peoplebecause of poverty, its own incompetence, or deliberately harmful policiesNGOs are often there to help out. NGOs, for example, can help by providing expert analysis and identifying and managing problems. They can deliver immediate humanitarian assistance, and they can be important links to international relief efforts.8 We should expect, then, that as statesespecially in the developing world and the former Soviet bloc continue to face political, social, and economic upheaval, NGOs are more likely to step in as long as they are allowed to. z International Law: Another political reason for the growing importance of NGOs relates to the development of international law over the last fty years. For most of modern history, international law was created and managed by states. With the weakening of the state-dominated Westphalian system, however, the relationship between NGOs and international law has grown stronger. A specialized journal even addresses this topic: Non-State Actors and International Law. According to this journal, non-state actors are now a
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Economic Factors
More open economic environments also help explain the rise in the number of NGOs. The work of NGOs always entails moneysometimes a lot of it. Getting money from the donors to the international NGO and then to the recipient almost always takes place across borders. Open economic systems facilitate the transfer of money across international borders. Open economies also allow national governments to funnel money through NGOs to people or groups in other countries. In societies dominated by authoritarian or Marxist governments, NGOs do not tend to crop up. First, NGOs may face direct competition from governmental agencies. Second, the government may actually ban the activities or even the mere presence of NGOs.
The Chad Red Cross deliver much needed food supplies from the World Food Programme (WFP) to the Touloum camp near Iriba town on the Chad-Sudan border. Aid workers prepare to distribute the food to the refugees using a system of ration cards under the scorching midday sun and stifling heat in the dry border area between Chad and Sudan. The United Nations says fighting between Arab Janjaweed militias and African rebels in Darfur, western Sudan, has killed some 30,000 people and created the worlds worst humanitarian crisis with 1 million people forced to flee their homes.
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Technology
As we saw in chapter 1, advances in telecommunications and computer technology have facilitated the proliferation of NGOs around the world. The reverberations of the information ageincluding global news, the Internet, and faxeshave rendered national borders meaningless for some purposes. This revolution in telecommunications has beneted NGOs in a critically important way: members can communicate much more easily than ever before, both within a country and across the entire globe. Modern technology and rapid communications can, for example, link scientists in virtually any part of the world who are committed to the eradication of a worldwide disease. It can link student protesters with their supporters in other countries. It can also link aid workers in a remote village to their NGO headquarters in New York, London, or any other city. Two of the more recent successful NGOled campaigns, Jubilee 2000 and the International Campaign to Ban Land Mines, probably would not have succeeded without the Internet.10 Taken together, these three elementspolitics, economics, and technology have contributed to the enormous growth in the number of NGOs over the past fty years or so.
_____ 1. The favorable climate that has led to an increase in NGOs in recent years is the establishment of a UNsponsored fund for new international organizations. _____ 2. With the weakening of the state in recent years, NGOs have begun to play a more prominent role in the development of international law. _____ 3. Economic openness between countries has hindered the growth of NGOs. _____ 4. NGOs often pull out of states in an attempt to cover up their mistakes.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 7.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 5. Which of the following is an example of how technological innovation has assisted in the expansion of NGOs? a. Increased computer capabilities allow NGOs to operate more productively and are easier to establish as the cost of administrative tasks has decreased. b. The telecommunications revolution allows NGO members to communicate with ease, dramatically increasing their ability to form, grow, and accomplish their objectives. c. The Internet allows NGOs to register with the multitude of state registries required for operation within a states boundaries. d. All of the above
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This section looks at two specic NGOs to provide examples of the kinds of goals NGOs pursue, and the strategies and tactics they employ in that pursuit. The NGOs presented hereGreenpeace and Amnesty Internationalare well known and global in scope. Keep in mind, though, that hundreds of thousands of smaller NGOs operate internationally, nationally, and even locally. In general, the objectives and activities of all of these NGOs vary considerably (see Table 7.1). Both Greenpeace and Amnesty International can be highly controversial because their missions clash with the cultural, political, or economic interests of many countries. Thus, we begin with overviews of both NGOs and then later in the chapter, we look more closely at how states respond to them.
Greenpeace
Greenpeace is a not-for-prot organization made up of a network of national and regional ofces in over forty countries. Its membership consists of almost 3 million individuals worldwide, and its worldwide total income is roughly $200 million.11 Originally called the Dont Make a Wave Committee in Vancouver, Canada, this NGO was reorganized and renamed Greenpeace with the aim of creating a greener and more peaceful world. The green refers to the support of environmental protection, and the peace stands for the nonviolent resolution of differences.
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Example
Catholic Relief Services Amnesty International World Wildlife Federation International Council of Scientific Unions Women for a New Era ExxonMobil International Federation of Airline Pilots Associations Islamic Jihad World Council of Churches
civil protests in many places, including Lebanon, which was ravaged by civil war in the 1970s; in the Soviet Union and, later, Russia; in China; and in Turkey. Tactics used by Greenpeace include holding demonstrations in front of prominent public buildings; publishing scientic, economic, and political research; and lobbying politicians. The tactic for which Greenpeace receives widespread publicity is its blocking of nuclear-powered, whaling, sealing, or other vessels engaged in what Greenpeace calls the extinction-for-prot of a species. Greenpeace also carries out boycotts of companies, such as the 2002 consumer boycott of fuels sold by Esso, a division of ExxonMobil, for its failure to support the Kyoto agreement on climate change. The Kyoto agreement aims to reduce the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted by the burning of fossil fuels. Thanks to pressure from the 30,000 e-mails and letters sent to the Greenpeace headquarters in Europe, McDonalds agreed in 2006 to stop selling chicken fed on soy beans grown in newly deforested areas of the Amazon rainforest. As a result, Greenpeace reports, McDonalds vast buying power has created a huge demand for soy beans that have not been grown in the ashes of the rainforest.14
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Amnesty International
In 1961, London lawyer Peter Benenson read about a group of students in Portugalthen a dictatorshipwho were arrested and jailed for raising a toast to freedom in a public restaurant. The incident prompted Benenson to launch a one-year campaign called Appeal for Amnesty 1961 in the newspaper London Observer. The Appeal for Amnesty called for the release of all people imprisoned because of peaceful expression of their beliefs, politics, race, religion, color, or national origin. Benenson called these people prisoners of conscience. His plan was to encourage people to write letters to government ofcials in countries that held prisoners of conscience, calling for their release. The campaign grew enormously, spread to other countries, and by the end of 1961 the organization Amnesty International (AI) had been formed.17
Prisoners of conscience People imprisoned for peaceful expression of their beliefs, politics, race, religion, color, or national origin.
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The London-based AI has over 1.8 million members and supporters in over 160 countries. It also maintains specialist networks of peoplemedical professionals, lawyers, and otherswho use their expertise to campaign for victims of human rights violations. Like Greenpeace, AI attempts to remain impartial and independent of governments, political persuasions, and religions. AI believes part of its strength comes from being perceived as an unbiased champion of human rights. In fact, one of its principles is that people have fundamental rights that transcend national, cultural, religious, and ideological boundaries.
c WHAT CORPORATE AcTORS OPERATE In THE InTERnATIOnAL AREnA, AnD HOw POwERfUL ARE THEY?
Test Prepper 7.2
True or False? Multiple Choice
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_____ 1. Although not a completely clean energy source, nuclear power is considered to be more effective than coal because it does not produce greenhouse gases. _____ 2. Prisoners of conscience are people imprisoned because of peaceful expression of their beliefs, politics, race, religion, color, or national origin. _____ 3. Amnesty International is focused strictly on abuses that occur in countries in the developing world.
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_____ 4. Which of the following is a goal of Greenpeace? a. Promote peace, global disarmament, and nonviolence b. Free all prisoners of conscience around the world c. End the trade in conict diamonds d. All of the above e. None of the above _____ 5. Which of the following is a type of international non-state actor (NSA)? a. Humanitarian b. Scientic c. Terrorist d. Business e. All of the above
What Corporate Actors Operate in the International Arena, and How Powerful Are They?
3 Identify the economic scope of international corporate actors and determine how powerful multinational corporations relate to state actors.
Corporate actors Businesses and business associations; a catchall term for multinational and transnational corporations.
Corporate actors differ signicantly from the NGOs we just described. The primary mission of corporate actors is to make money. Since World War II, international corporations have played an increasingly powerful role in the world. By the early 1980s, these non-state actors accounted for about 80 percent of the worlds trade in noncommunist countries. By the same time, the twenty-ve largest banks were worth about $3.7 trillion.23
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z Other reasons for a company going abroad include establishing market dominance in the host country, avoiding high taxes in the home country, evading tougher environmental standardswhich increase production costsin the home country, and avoiding trade barriers in the host country. There are basically three kinds of international corporate actors behind all of this business activity: z Multinational corporations (MNCs) z Transnational corporations (TNCs) z Business alliances The following paragraphs describe MNCs and TNCs and the differences between them. We then look at the economic power the largest corporate actors wield.
Number of manufacturing facilities owned, leased, or operated by companies comprising the Coca-Cola system.
Africa 174
Summary of Manufacturing Facilities 33 Concentrate and syrup plants 8 Juice and juice-drink production facilities 5 CCDA water plants 1 Food service juice concentrate plant 935 System bottle/can plants Total 982 plants
c WHAT CORPORATE AcTORS OPERATE In THE InTERnATIOnAL AREnA, AnD HOw POwERfUL ARE THEY?
TABLE 7.2 The Worlds Top 50 Economic Entities
Rank 20052006
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
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Economic Entity
United States Japan Germany China United Kingdom France Italy Spain Canada India Brazil Korea, Rep. Mexico Russian Federation Australia Netherlands Belgium Switzerland Turkey Sweden Exxon Mobil Wal-Mart Saudi Arabia Royal Dutch Shell Austria
Rank 20052006
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Economic Entity
Poland Norway Indonesia British Petroleum Denmark South Africa Greece Ireland Finland General Motors Iran, Islamic Rep. Chevron DaimlerChrysler Toyota Portugal Argentina Hong Kong, China Ford Thailand ConocoPhillips General Electric Total Venezuela, RB ING Group Citigroup
Sources: For companies, the data refer to revenues in 2006: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2006/full_list/. For countries, GDP data is used from 2005: World Bank, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf.
national corporations (MNCs) and transnational corporations (TNCs). MNCs have foreign subsidiaries that are clones of the parent company. For example, a U.S. company with a German subsidiary consists of a self-contained operation in Germany that makes almost everything it sells in Germany, buys supplies in Germany, and employs mostly Germans. A TNC24 is based on the idea that there is only one economic unit: the world. TNCs usually view themselves as non-national entities. In common parlance, however, the term multinational corporation encompasses any company with business-related activity in two or more countries. Multinational corporations generally have a local perspective when it comes
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to sales, service, public relations, and legal affairs, but they have a global perspective with respect to parts, machines, planning, research and development, nance, marketing, pricing, and management. The UN estimates that there are more than 60,000 MNCs operating in the world, controlling 600,000 production plants and employing about 86 million people (see Figure 7.1, which shows the distribution of Coca-Cola plants all over the world). By 2004, MNCs accounted for about 25 percent of the worlds economic production and about 33 percent of world trade.25
_____ 1. MNCs generally have subsidiary companies in other countries that are clones of the parent company while TNCs view themselves as nonnational entities. _____ 2. Some MNCs, like Wal-Mart, control more economic resources than entire countries. _____ 3. In order to be considered an MNC, a company must have subsidiaries in at least ve countries. _____ 4. The greatest increase in economic clout held by corporate actors occurred during the time between WWI and WWII, with the expansion of power tapering off in the latter half of the twentieth century.
_____ 5. Which of the following is a reason why a country might move its operations to another country? a. Reduce labor costs b. Avoid high tax rates in the home country c. Evade tough environmental standards at home d. Establish market dominance in the host country e. All of the above
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The relationships between states and NGOs may be cooperative or confrontational. Sometimes a symbiotic relationship can exista relationship that is benecial to both parties. In some cases, governments wishing to tap into popular support for certain issues seek cooperative alliances with related NGOs. For example, the Brazilian governments Environmental Agency asked Greenpeace to monitor the Amazon rainforest for environmental violations such as illegal logging. A debt-relief campaign for heavily indebted poor countries, Jubilee 2000, was designed specically to change the perceptions of governments, the IMF, and the World Bank so they would be more environmentally friendly. Through its cooperation with Jubilee 2000, the British government gained popular international legitimacy. This debt-relief program managed to collect 25 million signatures supporting the program from around the globe and encouraged banks to cancel $30 billion in debt.27 Thus, as Kerstin Martens explains, NGOs are often directly involved in the design of policies and may shape political processes from inside the ofcial arenas.28
Greenpeace uses a mechanized road roller to crush ten thousand energy-wasting light bulbs at the Brandenburg Gate.
Greenpeace / Andreas Schoelzel
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Many NATO supporters, for example, claimed the humanitarian disaster that unfolded in Kosovo in 1998 and early 1999 warranted NATOs bombing of Serbian (Yugoslav) targets. None of the NATO members had a direct quarrel with Yugo slavia, and yet Yugoslav territory was attacked with the aim of forcing Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic to alter his policies toward his countrys Albanian Kosovars. After Milosevic agreed to withdraw forces from Kosovo, many people wondered whether these events represented a new trend that would play itself out in the twenty-rst century. While this example involves an IGO (NATO), the notion of a right of interference is increasingly accepted by humanitarian NGOs. NGOs may become targets not just of states but of other non-state actors as well. For example, recent anti-globalization efforts in Seattle, Prague, Davos, Genoa, and Washington have made NGOs targets of criticism by businesses and IGO ofcials. Religious groups may oppose NGO activities related to reproductive rights because they view NGO activities as sinful or disruptive of traditional family values. Many businesses and government ofcials critically describe many NGOs accredited by the UN as being either radical, leftist, feminist, pro-abortion, proenvironment, or pro-homosexual because their politics are divisive and unrepresentative of the mainstream.30
Lack of Transparency
Many NGOs are controversial in that many of them are not transparent or accountable. In short, how they make decisions and nance their activities is not always apparent, and they do not always have democratic accountability. NGOs may even fabricate information in order to push their agendaan agenda that may actually hurt the people it is supposed to help. Journalist and author Sebastian Mallaby has shown how some NGOs used false or misleading statements to galvanize opposition to dam projects in Uganda and China despite the local populations support. To help demonstrate these issues, the remainder of the chapter explores the many ways in which NGOs struggle against the interests of states. Lets rst look at political opposition to the two NGOs highlighted earlier: Greenpeace and Amnesty International, and then examine political opposition to corporate actors.32
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Greenpeace has gotten into trouble with countries and companies because of its own mistakes. For example, in 1995 it claimed that the deliberate sinking of the Royal Dutch/Shell oil platform, Brent Spar, would endanger marine life. But the NGO later admitted that its claims were scientically unfounded.37 As Michael Edwards, a Ford Foundation researcher and former NGO ofcial, said, NGOs are often less concerned with righting specic wrongs than with stirring up controversy. John Clark, who deals with NGO relations at the World Bank, has said that NGO campaigners sometimes gloss over facts because they are in a hurry to make their point. An even more unattering evaluation of some NGOs comes from Caroline Harper, a research director at the UK Save the Children fund. Harper explains how few NGOs have the in-house resources to master complex issues. Coming from an activist tradition, NGOs have generally neglected rigorous policy analysis, seeing such research as costly, a luxury and impractical. NGO advocates have tended to leap from the local to the global, armed only with highly contested anecdotal evidence.38 Despite the controversies, Greenpeace shows no signs of diminishing its efforts worldwide, and it has clearly played an important role in raising environmental consciousness.
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One of Amnesty Internationals complaints about the United States is its support for the death penalty. In this photo, opponents of the death penalty protest against this American policy.
z In a major 1998 report, AI was critical of the United States for many aspects of its criminal-justice system. Across the country thousands of people are subjected to sustained and deliberate brutality at the hands of police ofcers. Cruel, degrading, and sometimes life-threatening methods of constraint continue to be a feature of the U.S. criminal justice system.43 For example, women inmates in U.S. prisons and jails are routinely subjected to sexual abuse by male guards.44 z In response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, AI joined forces with the U.S. Human Rights Network to call on the U.S. government to recognize Katrina survivors as Internally Displaced Persons and to respect and adhere to the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement.
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One of the largest home-improvement stores in the United States, Home Depot, has been a target of the Rainforest Action Network for selling lumber from old-growth forests.
MNC-NGO Cooperation
The record of certication so far is mixed. In some economic sectors, the impact is noticeable, particularly in the forest products and clothing industries. The World Wildlife Fund and Greenpeace, for example, created the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Companies that meet the councils requirements can put the FSC logo on their products. Because of pressure from NGOs such as the National Labor Com mittee, GAP, Inc., became the rst retailer to agree to independent monitoring of a foreign contractor. While certications may lead to the improvements that NGOs seek, critics of this approach are concerned that, in the end, certification will be a weak substitute for a stronger political (state) role in addressing a countrys problems. In addition, some observers believe that NGO demands of MNCs can be inappropriate and that NGO criticisms can be misplaced. According to Marina Ottaway, a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, no matter what it does, Shell cannot pacify its Nigerian and international critics because what they want is beyond any single actors capacity to deliver.50
Typically, NGOs are critical of multinational corporations, and the bigger the company, the greater the criticism. However, sometimes the world is more complicated than the youre either with us or against us attitude suggests. For example, in 2002 the United Nations chose corporations as the main entities for tackling health problems in Southern Africa mostly because the companiesnot local governments or NGOshad the necessary resources. The Britain-based mining group Anglo-American, for example, plans to offer HIV/AIDS drugs to its workers and provide medicine regimens in the rural communities where the company nds its miners. While the motive may be seen as purely economicthe AngloAmerican estimates that about 23 percent of its 134,000 employees in Southern Africa are HIV-positivethe results may turn out to be very positive for the employees.51 In the future, companies and governments may nd it to their advantage to work more closely with NGOs, even if they are criticized for pandering to the NGOs, and even if the NGOs themselves are criticized by hard-core activists who argue that the NGOs are selling out to the enemy. For better or worse, some observers claim that increased cooperation between NGOs and MNCs is creating a new type of diplomacy. NGOs have put public pressure on companies at both the national and international levels to be responsible and responsive to the people with whom they interact. Still, the record thus far shows that NGOs often make only supercial progress with big businesses. When NGOs were critical of UK Minnow Premier Oil for its investment in Myanmar, the company responded with a detailed description of its social and environmental performance and commissioned an independent social audit, but it remains in Myanmar. Likewise, British Petroleum keeps its Petrochina stake, despite criticism from and a dialog with the Free Tibet Campaign.52
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According to Craig Warkentin of the State University of New York at Oswego, in order for nation-states or other large organizations (such as MNCs) to alter their behavior, a change of attitude is often required, and NGOs contribute to a longterm change in public attitudes.54 For example, NGOs can identify transnational problems that might otherwise be ignored. They may help establish internationallevel values and norms that can guide future international policies taken by nationstates or international organizations such as the UN.55 Although Greenpeace is still struggling in its campaign to ban whaling, for example, it is thanks to sustained Greenpeace pressure that the International Whaling Commission was transformed from an organization allocating whaling quotas into an organization protecting whales.56 Of course, if NGOs are unable to change enough peoples minds, they will continue to face formidable political obstacles. For instance, Amnesty International and other human rights organizations face a long, uphill struggle to convince countries (including China and the United States) to end the use of the death penalty. In China, the AIDS Action Project, an NGO that is partially funded from international sources, publicized government incompetence in the sale of HIV-tainted blood that may have killed over 1 million people. The governments response was to evict the NGO from its ofces in an effort to silence the group.57
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_____ 1. Many NGOs are criticized for their lack of transparency, in other words, they do not fully disclose their sources of revenue and how they spend their funds. _____ 2. After the publicity nightmare faced by the French after destroying the Rainbow Warrior, the French government and Greenpeace were able to establish positive relations that have lasted until today. _____ 3. Greenpeace has gotten into trouble not only for the positions it has taken, but also because of the mistakes it has made (such as making false claims). _____ 4. While Greenpeace has been criticized by many for its interference in domestic political affairs, Amnesty International has steered clear of controversy. _____ 5. Certication of businesses by NGOs has been an overwhelmingly positive force for environmental change by MNCs around the globe.
_____ 6. Which of the following complaints are made against MNCs? a. They interfere in the internal politics of states. b. They avoid high tax rates in home countries. c. They evade tough environmental standards at home. d. They establish market dominance in the host countries. e. All of the above _____ 7. Which of the following were NOT a subject of Amnesty International criticism? a. Brazil d. United States b. Mexico e. None of the above c. Israel
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 7.4 www.BetweenNations.org
Case Study
Doctors Without Borders/Mdcins Sans Frontires
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Join the Debate Should the International Community Allow Minke Whaling?
For years, Greenpeace and other conservation groups have battled to make all countries abide by the International Whaling Commissions (IWC) 1986 moratorium on whale hunting. However, pro-whaling states such as Japan, Norway, and Iceland have not complied with the moratorium. This has led to violent interactions on the high seas. For example, in the summer of 1999, when Greenpeace attempted to prevent ships from hunting minke whales near Norway, one of its boats collided with a Norwegian coast guard ship. One U.S. and two British Greenpeace members were arrested, while others escaped and returned safely to their boat. Because Greenpeace was in Norways waters and because Norwegian law allows whaling, the coastguard felt justied in thwarting the efforts of Greenpeace.1 The events raise interesting questions. What motivates Greenpeace members to put themselves at risk? Why have prowhaling states ignored the IWC moratorium? This debate explores the arguments for and against whaling. The issues discussed provide a concrete example of how NGOs and nation-states may compete against each other when they pursue incompatible goals. It also addresses the potential impact NGOs can have on nation-states. It remains to be seen if antiwhaling NGOs like Greenpeace will alter state policies in the short term or the long term, or if they simply face an uphill battle against states that will do what they want to do regardless of international pressures. ing in the past decades has had no signicant effect on the status of the stock.4 The Japanese government takes a similar position.5 From a cultural perspective, whaling has a long tradition in many parts of the world. As pro-whaling protesters in Japan often claim, whale meat is part of Japanese food culture.6 During a protest in 2002, demonstrators shouted slogans such as This is our dietary culture. Resume whaling now! and Fight off Greenpeace and the eco-eccentric anti-whalers!7
Norwegian Whaling
Vasquez/Greenpeace
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Culture and economics can be inseparable when it comes to whaling. For example, the Norwegian government believes that shing, sealing and whaling are among the principal means of livelihood of the coastal population, especially in the northernmost parts of the country.8 In addition, unlike large commercial shing operations, the typical whaling vessel is generally run as a family business, with a crew of three to eight, including the owner. The belief among these outts is that such small business operations do not threaten whale stocks. Icelandic pro-whalers make a similar claimthat minke whaling has been conducted around Iceland using only small motorboats for most of the past century. From the pro-whaling perspective, the problem with anti-whaling states and with NGOs like Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund is that they are practicing a form of cultural imperialism in preventing a resumption of the industry even though minke whale stocks are abundant. As Keiji Fujino, who runs a whale meat stall at the Karato (Japan) wholesale market, put it, They should stop telling us what to do. How would people in Britain like it if we told them not to eat cow?9
gram is divided, complicating efforts by Greenpeace and other anti-whaling organizations to discredit completely the research hunting argument. A Japanese survey of attitudes toward whaling has raised the ire of anti-whaling groups even more. According to the Japanese national newspaper Asahi Shimbun, only 4 percent of Japanese reported eating whale meat sometimes, and an additional 9 percent reported eating it very rarely.14 Anti-whaling advocates also highlight the unethical tactics used by pro-whaling states in the international arena. In some cases, pro-whaling states have resorted to bribery to get their way. For example, Japan has bought votes in order to gain greater whaling rights from the IWC. According to Greenpeace, Japan spent over $220 million of its fisheries aid in recent years on securing the support of ten countries, including Morocco, Guinea, and several Caribbean states. They have tied aid to votes, New Zealands minister of conservation, Sandra Lee, said. If this continues, then we will reach a point where countries that give the most aid in international forums will be able to swing issues their way. Instead, we should be debating on merit.15 Another argument against whaling is that maintaining a moratorium on whaling is crucial because whales mature and breed slowly. As the World Wildlife Fund argues, it can take a whale population several decades or even generations to recover from any depletion.16 Whales are also threatened by the by-catch problem (being accidentally caught in shing nets) and by the consequences of industrialization such as global warming, ozone depletion, and toxic chemicals. Given these natural and human-induced challenges, people opposed to whaling argue that whales should not also have to suffer the fate of being harvested. Finally, some scholars doubt the link between Japanese culture and the tradition of whaling. Jeff Kingston, for example, believes that whaling is an invented tradition. The support for whaling, he says, is rooted in more nationalistic traditions. There is a consensus in Japan that as part of the natural right for a sovereign nation it is perfectly right to continue whaling.17
NOtES
1. See Agence France Presse, Three Greenpeace Militants Arrested in Norway, June 12, 1999; and Green peace Blamed for Environmentalist Injury, Nordic Business Report, June 21, 1999.
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2. Alex Kirby, Norway Seeks Tripled Whale Catch, BBC News Online, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ science/nature/3753919.stm, May 28, 2004. 3. Norwegian Minke Whaling, Norwegian Embassy in Canada, http://www.emb-norway.ca/facts/ general/whaling/whaling.htm. 4. Information Center of the Icelandic Fisheries Ministry, http://www.sheries. is/stocks/whales.htm, September 25, 2004. 5. Agence France Presse, Some 700 Japanese Rightwingers Demand Reopening of Whale Hunt, May 19, 2002. 6. For an ofcial statement from the Japanese government, see the following link to the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, http://www.mofa.go .jp/policy/q_a/faq6.html (May 7, 2007). 7. Jonathan Watts, Whaling Ban in Danger as Japans Inuence Grows, The Guardian, May 20, 2002. 8. Norwegian Minke Whaling. 9. Watts. 10. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) maintains population estimates of most whales. See the IWCs website at http://www.iwcofce.org/ conservation/estimate.htm. 11. Greenpeace, http://www.greenpeace.org.au/ oceans/whales/whaling/norway.html. 12. Dan Goodman, Blubber Banned, Letter to the Editor, The Economist, September 30, 2000. 13. Reuters, Greenpeace Blasts New Japanese Whale Hunt, November 9, 1999. The Japanese govern-
14.
15. 16.
17.
ment, however, argues that the whale meat sold in the market is a requirement set forth by Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Also, according to the government, the sale of whale meat does not create any prot in Japans case. A nonprot research institute, which carries out this research program, sells the byproduct in order to cover a portion of its research costs. The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/q_a/faq6.html, May 7, 2007. Japan: The World Is Watching, Greenpeace, http:// www.greenpeace.org.au/oceans/whales/whaling/ japan.html. Jonathon Watts, Whaling ban in danger as Japans inuence grows, The Guardian, May 20, 2002. WWFs Position Statement on Whales, Whaling, and the IWC, World Wildlife Federation, http:// www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/ publications/, July 2004. Kingston also quotes Tomohiko Taniguchi of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs: This has become a touchstone issue for Japanese people who are sick and tired of being pushed around and told what to do by other countries like the United States, he argues. The forces that drive Japanese whaling, BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ asia-pacic/5080508.stm, June 15, 2006.
International NGOs, organizations whose members are groups and individuals but not countries, are diverse and have rapidly grown in number, especially in the past fteen years, thanks to technological advances and more open political and economic conditions.
Greenpeace
- The NGO Greenpeace promotes global disarmament and nonviolent approaches to resolving political differences. - Greenpeace seeks to prevent pollution and the abuse of the Earths oceans, lands, and fresh water. - It opposes nuclear weapons and nuclear power and seeks to protect the biodiversity of the planet. - It seeks to raise public awareness through informational campaigns, demonstrations, and publicity stunts.
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Amnesty International
- Amnesty International is a human rights NGO. It opposes the imprisonment of individuals for their political views, seeks to ensure fair trials for political prisoners, and opposes the death penalty, torture, and political killings. - It conducts letter-writing campaigns, holds fundraising concerts with prominent musicians, and issues regular reports on human rights conditions in most of the countries of the world.
5 7 associated 8 9 NGO 10 interactions Identify the6criticisms with with states; be able to recount specic examples associated with Greenpeace and Amnesty International.
4 6 scope 7 of international 8 9 corporate 10 Identify the5economic actors and determine how powerful multinational corporations relate to state actors.
Sovereign states can be inuenced by NGOs such as Greenpeace and Amnesty International. NGOs are highly controversial in countries where their missions are counter to the existing social, political, or economic order. For example, states may oppose NGOs because NGOs threaten their sovereignty (as in the case of humanitarian intervention), because they perceive the goals of NGOs as misguided, and because NGOs may lack transparency. Sometimes NGOs are able to publicize government activity they oppose, thus helping to effect short- or medium-term change (such as shutting down a polluting factory), or long-term change that involves peoples attitudes and, eventually, state policies. While much of this chapter described examples of political opposition to NGOs, the relationship between NGOs and nation-states and international businesses can range from hostile to cooperative.
International corporate actors are businesses whose activities take place in more than one country. Some have simple subsidiaries designed to address a particular countrys market, while others look at the world as a single huge market. Corporate actors have become major players in inter national affairs, especially since World War II. The economic power of some corporate actors rivals that of most countries. Corporate actors can have an important impact not only on the home countrys political and economic situation but also on that of the host country.
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Political Geography
Learning Objectives
1
Identify and understand how certain geographic factors impact a states power and security.
Identify the key premises of political geography and be able to dene the major terms and concepts within the eld.
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Chapter Outline
Issues and Perspectives of Political Geography The Players in Political Geography: Uniting and Dividing Forces
Understand how human perception interacts with geographic characteristics to affect world politics.
o begin this study of political geography, think about all the connections between land and politics in play around youin your hometown and in the country at large. Local issues that may come to mind include heated debates over property taxes, landlls, zoning restrictions, strip malls, water rights, or off-campus student housing. Within your state, you might nd political hot potatoes in the form of conicts between green-space proponents (those who believe in open space) and real estate developers, between political parties arguing over the territorial boundaries of congressional districts, and between corporations and individuals with competing views of where to dump nuclear waste. These issues fall within the domain of political geography. So does the
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political geography p. 234 geopolitics p. 236 geostrategy p. 236 natural resources p. 246 Kurds p. 254
United States relative to its abundant natural resources, arable land, climate, and ocean frontiers. Compare U.S. access to ocean harbors relative to Russia with its problem of access to warm water ports and difculty of extracting oil and gas from under the permafrost and transporting it. The study of political geographys spatial relationships and political processes illustrates the many ways in which the worlds geographic realms are growing both more interdependent (globalization) and more divided at the same time. A geographic realm refers to the large arenas of the world you very likely already knowlike Europe, Russia, the Middle East, and North America.1 A realm consists of different regions, such as Russias Siberia. The study of political geography at work among the states and nations that occupy realms and regions helps us explain the scope and shape of a geopolitical world undergoing rapid transformation that impacts world politics. Given the great changes since the end of the Cold War, scholars working on world politics have shown a renewed interest in political geography.2 Political geographys focus on the links between political power and territorial space help us understand our constantly evolving political landscape at the local, regional, and global levels. From desperate Mexican migrants traveling north over the sizzling Sonora Desert trying to cross the border into the United States to find work, to sectarian violence in Iraq, to Taliban ghters crossing from northern Pakistan into Afghanistan to launch a comeback, distinct groups of people are struggling over territorial space. States torn apart: z by one group ghting another (Congo, Rwanda, Nigeria, Sudan) z by gangs who control swaths of territory (Colombia and Brazil) z by warlords who usurp the power of legitimate government (Afghanistan, Somalia) z by conict over holy land (Palestinians versus Israelis in Israel) illustrate political geographys decentralizing forces. Terrorism generated by al Qaedas radical Islamic fundamentalistsin part a reaction to modernization within their territoryreects regional and global decentralization. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European Union (EU), on the other hand, highlight regional centralizing forces at work in political geographygiven the ways in which they tie together people and states. In this chapter, we begin by looking at what political geography is all aboutits focus, assumptions, and actors. Figure 8.1 sets the scene by depicting the worlds current states. Then we look at key spatial relationships that impact world politics, such as a states or regions absolute and relative location and boundaries. Absolute location refers to places latitude and longitude (a global location). Relative location tells us about one place relative to another in terms of landmarks, time, direction, distance, or related physical ties. As a leading video instructional series makes clear in its detailed survey of world
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geography, different cities, regions and states around the world generate power depending on their relative location and what is happening there politically,3 We next examine how place and territory shape human perceptions and inuences foreign policy. n AElectronic Publishing Services Inc.
Duncan, World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e DUNC.7322.0029 Fig. 8.1 1st Proof 2nd Proof
Identify the key premises of political geography and be able to dene the major terms and concepts within the eld.
To understand the news that pours through televisions, newspapers, magazines, and increasingly, the Internet, we need at least an elementary understanding of world geography and how it intersects with politics and power. Just as geography and power have played a vital historic role in determining the growth of civilizations and empires, so they do today in the dynamics of continuity and change in the worlds political landscape.4
For more information see Why It Matters to You: Iraqs Political Geography www.BetweenNations.org
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Political geographyand its related eld of study, geopoliticshas a particular focus. It looks at how, and in what ways, geographical features at the local, state, regional, and global level interact with politics and power. We can express this territory-space relationship in different ways to capture its essence. For our purposes, think of it as the study of geographic impacts on politics and political issues within and between states and regions. Conversely, it examines the inuence of politics and political issues on geography and the lives of people who live within states and regions. Political geography, then, looks at power in terms of territorial spatiality, or to put it another way: how power and political processes interact with geographic features. One thing becomes clear in the study of political geography. Geography frequently inuences political decision making, just as political power inuences geographical space. This means that a citys, states or regions: z z z z z absolute and relative location natural resources topography climate and other geographic factors
are subjects of study through the lenses of political geography. Iraqs oil reserves for example, coupled to its pivotal location in the oil-rich Middle East, bounded by six neighbors (Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Iran, and Kuwait), and locked in sectarian civil war, make it a likely candidate for a political geography assessment. Here people struggle for control of territorial space with a vengeanceand that struggle affects foreign-policy decision making and the lives of many other people outside Iraq. Those who look at geographical factors as a way to understand world politics are concerned, as one observer puts it, with the geographical consequences of political decisions and actions, the geographical factors that were considered during the making of any decisions, and the role of any geographical factors that inuenced the outcome of political actions.5 In other words, the spatial features of international politics are the heart of political geography. Think of political geography as a eld of inquiry that studies the numerous geographic forces that drive world politics, including the following: z The absolute and relative location, size, and terrain and borders of a state that inuence its development, national power base, foreign policy, security concerns, and territorial disputes. z Political control of key resources, such as arable land, oil, coal, water, and natural resources, drives national priorities in foreign policy.
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identity and national interests (territorial security, economic vitality, political goals) and why they utilize different kinds of power and diplomacy to pursue those interests. Their perceptions generate conict and cooperation between states, acting as either centralizing or decentralizing forces that, in turn, dene the role of political geography in foreign policymaking.
z Geopolitics, mentioned earlier, is the study of the geographic distributions of power among states, with attention to rivalry between the major states. The global contest between the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War is a good example. Geopolitics comes into play especially when leaders make foreign-policy decisions about military operations and assess a countrys overall power, when they look at a regions balance of power or at a country that may dominate a region and/or threaten regional stability. z Geostrategy is a territorial-based foreign-policy concept associated with geographic factors such as potential alliance partners, location, and terrain. The U.S. war on terrorism has distinct geostrategic overtones. The Bush Doctrine of preventive war illustrates geostrategic thinking in that it focuses on states whose foreign policies are perceived as threats to U.S. security. Geostrategy may view particular states as targets of interestor on the strategic importance of waterways like the Suez and Panama Canals and the Straits of Hormuz (an oil route). Geostrategy was at work, too, during the days of European colonialism, as in Spain and Portugals colonization of the Americas for God, glory, and gold. During the Cold War, Eurasia was extremely important in U.S. geostrategy aimed at containing the former Soviet Union. Al Qaeda is a loose collection of adherents of radical and militant Islam that has used a geostrategy of suicide attacks on U.S. and Western countries territorial assets by penetrating weaknesses in their defense systems. Al Qaeda reasons that weakening the power of the United States and the Westas well as Western-backed elites that dominate the Middle East masseswill create opportunities to strengthen fundamentalist Islam, especially in the Middle East in lands of what had been an Arab Empire of the seventh to thirteenth centuries. We return to this point later. z Offensive realism (see chapter 2) is a concept introduced by John J. Mear sheimer.11 While traditional realists assume that a state will seek to preserve its security with military power, by joining in an alliance when necessary, Mearsheimer sees it differently. He argues that great powers constantly search for opportunities to gain power over perceived rivalsand hegemony is their final goal. This neorealist perspective is different from traditional realism that assumes states seek security rather than power per se, and thus the global political system may be less predatory and conflict-prone than Mearsheimer argues.
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point.15 The 9/11 attacks on the United States, however, raise questions about the assumption that oceans make the United States more secure. z Choke points are strategic straits or canals that can be closed or blocked to stop sea trafc critical to the transshipment of goods and oil. Some of the more important choke points in the world are the Strait of Hormuz (oil shipments) at the entrance to the Persian Gulf (Oman), the Panama Canal (ships carrying goods) connecting the Atlantic and Pacic Oceans, and the Suez Canal connecting the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. See Figure 8.7 for choke points. z Shatter belt refers to a region of chronic political splintering and fracturinga highly unstable area in which states appear, disappear, and reappear with numerous changing names and boundaries. Central, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, with their age-old rivalries and animosities, have given this part of the world a shatter-belt identity. The breakup of former Yugoslavia, beginning in 1991, into sovereign states illustrates the shatter-belt effects of colliding ethnic identities (Slovene, Croat, Bosnian, Serb, Albanian, and Macedonian) and the Christian, Eastern Orthodox, and Muslim religions.16 The geographic region in and immediately surrounding Israel is a shatter belt where Islam, Judaism, and Christianity collide. See Figure 8.2.
For more information see Ethnic Conict www.BetweenNations.org
z Balkanization is a related term referring to the typical consequence of shatterbelt activitythe breakup of a region or state into smaller and frequently hostile political units. This concept is associated with the Balkan region, where the states of former Yugoslavia are located. Some scholars, such as Samuel Huntington, believe the United States runs the risk of becoming balkanized due to the inow of non-assimilating Spanish-speaking Hispanic immigrants. z Buffer state or states refers to a country or a group of countries that separate other ideological or political rivalsand that consequently come in for a good deal of buffeting from power-competing neighbors. Jordan is a buffer state between rival Middle Eastern states, just as Eastern Europe was a buffer region between Western Europe and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. As buffer states, Hungary and Czechoslovakia launched movements to become independent in 1956 and 1968 respectively, only to have them squashed by Soviet military forces. Poland has suffered dramatic consequences from its territorial buffer-state position in Eastern Europe and, in fact, has been carved up territorially more than once by rival power contenders. z Geo-Green strategyis a term introduced by New York Times correspondent, Thomas Friedman.17 Friedman proposes that Americas leaders should seek to aggressively curb Americas energy consumption and make an all-out effort to develop renewable and alternative energiesincluding expanding nuclear power. The Geo-Green strategy aims to reduce U.S. dependence on Middle East oil, reduce the price of oil (less oil consumption and demand for it), address the global-warming crisis, and force Middle East regimes to reform. The United States, with its second-to-none production of corn (ethanol), has a natural bases on which to build a culture of biofuels. z Geography of oil power also comes up frequently in discussions of political geography and world politics. The basic concept is that those countries with vast quantities of oil are able to wield political power within their regions and in the world. Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iran, and Venezuela come immediately to mind.
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or disputed. Stateswhich vary dramatically in size, shape, resources, topography, and, above all, in powergenerally are viewed as sovereign. Although the territorial state has dominated the world scene since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 (see chapter 3) and is recognized by other states for its legitimacy and sovereignty over a spatially dened territory and population, this is not the complete story. While states make and conduct foreign policy, form cooperative alliances, and constitute the membership of the United Nations, a states territory rarely contains a homogeneous population, all members of which share a single national identity. Our globe has many more national groups than it has territorial states. Further, the worlds present territorial states do not necessarily represent the aspirations of the several thousand national groups found around the world.18 Keep in mind the difference between nation and state. A state is a geographically bounded territory with governmental structures and sovereignty, while a nation is a group of people who consider themselves linked in a cultural and political togetherness. This situation of multiple national groups inside the same state has been one of the leading sources of civil warsconict within states, as opposed to between statesin the postWorld War II period. Yugoslavias breakup and Palestinian or Kurdish aspirations illustrate this state-national territorial dilemma. The number of sovereign states occupying real estate on the globe conceivably could grow dramatically in the future. States are in constant ux, with state boundaries shifting dramatically as a result of war, self-determination movements, negotiation, arbitration, and even by the sale of territory, as in the case of Russia selling Alaska to the United States in 1867. This constant emergence of new states around the globe deeply affects state-to-state relationships and foreign policy. Figure 8.2 illustrates these relationships as they were at the beginning of the twenty-rst century. To understand the inuence of geography on the power of any state, nation, or region, however, consider the following questions: z Where is the state located (positioned) on the globe? Are its neighbors friends or adversaries? z What is its multinational and multiethnic composition? z How large or small is it relative to other states? What is its size and shape? z What natural resources are contained within its boundaries and affect its power? z How do its topography and climate facilitate or deter security, economic development, and the acquisition of power? z What strategic role, if any, do waterwayssuch as the Panama Canal or the Middle Easts Straits of Hormuzplay? Todays Iraq illustrates ethnic and national complexities inside a single state that make its future governance tenuous at best. The Kurds in the north dream of independence rather than being part of Iraq. They have a strong secular national identity. Iraqs long-suppressed Shiites in the souththe largest population grouphave a strong religious identity and do not typically support secular political parties. Many Shiites believe their majority position entitles them to rule all of Iraq and to impose their version of an Islamic state. The Sunni Arabs in the center of Iraqwho dominated the Kurds and Shiites under Saddam Husseins rule through the Baath Partyare essentially nationalist in identity. They see them-
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Christians represent different sects and ethnic groups. Yezidis, Mandaeans, and Jews, although shown as religious groups, may also be considered as separate ethnic entities.
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Keeping in mind these thoughts and questions about states and nations many of which center on conict and decentralizationlets look at how political geography can provide information about cooperation and centralization.
Regions in Africa are well known for poor production and ineffective government policies that spawn the need for international relief programs.
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_____ 1. Political geography focuses on how geography features intersect with politics at the international system level of analysis. _____ 2. The Bush Doctrine is an example of geostrategic thinking. _____ 3. While geography is an important element when dening a states power, the strength of the United States rests on its people and their technological and economic capacity, rather than on geographic strengths. _____ 4. A shatter belt refers to the area of a country that is most likely susceptible to an air or sea attack (although not a ground attack). _____ 5. The Law of the Sea is an example of the intersection between geographic interests and international law.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following is not a basic premise of political geography. a. Where people live and what states they occupy are signicant factors in explaining their level of development. b. Human beings, like most animal species, compete with each other for territory.
c. Territorial features, such as topography and climate, are only important in a relative sense and there are no objective qualities to such features independent of the broader environment. d. The unique characteristics of a territory in which a population lives shape that populations perceptions, including how they dene their national identity and national interests. e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is relevant when considering the inuence of geography on a state or nation? a. Whether a state has friends or adversaries on its borders b. Its relative size and shape c. The natural resources contained in its land d. The climate and topography of the territory in which it resides e. All of the above
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With an understanding of major terms and concepts used in political geographyand the pivotal role played by territorial space in the life of a state and nation, we turn now to a closer look at geographys impact on a states power and security. Every country is located somewhere on Planet Earth, and that location translates into the relative power of place. States with access to the sea are better off in terms of trade possibilities than landlocked states. A country with vast oil deposits is more likely to exert inuence in regional and world affairs than a poverty-stricken country poor in natural resources, like Bangladesh or Haiti. This section focuses on location and development and then turns to location and territorial security.
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Source: Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), Figure 10.1, p. 177. Used by permission.
and the setting for the birth of the modern powerful territorial state. Relative location along the East-West axis was a determining factor in these developments. The Americas, to be certain, developed empiresAztec, Mayan, and Incan of no small signicance in that part of the world. Yet these empires succumbed to Spanish and Portuguese conquest and colonization. South America, with its mountains, deserts, and jungles, became known as the hollow continent, and urban life developed along the coastlines rather than within. Thus, the interior area remained isolated from much of the world, and many of its countries faced problems involving agriculture and the availability of arable land.
Climate
The East-West Axis lies in the temperate zone, which illustrates the important role played by climate in a societys development and power. Where a state is located affects its climate and, arguably, its potential for development. The temperate zones, as noted in chapter 4 are between 23.5 degrees and 60.5 degrees north latitude and 60.5 degrees and 23.5 degrees south latitude. The temperate zone theory holds that in these temperate zones a number of forces favor economic development, including an average mean temperature of around 70F, a four-stage seasonal pattern, and adequate rainfall. The temperate zones contain the United States, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, part of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and much of the Far East (China, Japan, and South Korea).
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In contrast, as we have seen, countries located near the hot and humid equator have a less favorable record in terms of economic developmentas measured by rates of increased gross domestic product and equality of income distribution. Latin America, the geographic region of the world with the highest income inequality, stands out in this regard. Recent research by the Inter-American Development Bank demonstrates that countries that lie near the equator have systematically higher income inequality than countries in more temperate zones.22 Indeed, research indicates a high correlation between latitude and inequality in this part of the world. z One reason cited is that life in tropical regions near the equator is complicated by disease and by problems connected with soil and water quality and with pests.23 z Another is that work is often to be found on tropical plantations where unskilled laborers must accept low pay. Incidentally, those large income distribution disparitiesnotably in Latin Americamean that political power tends to remain in the hands of the wealthier income groups. This situation helps account for low rates of democratic political development.
Natural Resources
A states natural resources play a big role in conditioning its development and power base, and therefore its capacity to find territorial security and exert inuence within the international system. Recall the discussion in chapter 4 of power factors in shaping foreign policy and international affairs. Does the state have strategic resources, like oil, to meet its own energy requirements or to export? Does it have arable land to feed its population? If not, it will have to import energy and food. In addition to the oil producers we have discussed previously, keep in mind the worlds food-producing states: the United States, Canada, and Argentina.
Natural resources A states basic resources that spring from its physical setting, such as oil, gas, uranium, coal, and arable land, so vital to agricultural productivity.
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Topography
Topography, or the physical and natural features of a region or state, affects its opportunity to integrate itself politically and protect its political sovereignty. Peru is less well endowed than Argentina from this perspective. Two-thirds of Peru lies on the eastern side of the Andes Mountains, much of which is unexplored even today. This makes two-thirds of Perus territory difcult to integrate politically because so much of it is so hard to reach owing to huge mountain barriers. Although it also lies to the east of the Andes, Argentina, in contrast, has a more forgiving territorial conguration that lends itself to a nationally unied state by way of telephone, telegraph, and transportation links. Economic integration of states in trade groupings is likewise affected by topographical relationships. Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay are territorially more accessible to each other, allowing greater economic ties within their trade organization (MERCOSUR) than with Chile. That state lies on the other side of the Andes from them. Members of the European Union enjoy geographic proximity links similar to those of MERCOSUR members.
The largest countries in land area, in descending order are Russia, Canada, United States, China, Brazil, Australia, and India. Size and shape help or hinder a states unity, development, and overall power. States come in ve basic shapes: compact, elongated, perforated, fragmented, and protruded. z Compact states are those where distances from the center to boundary do not vary greatly, as in Belgium (Figure 8.5a: Belgium). z Elongated states, like Chile and Vietnam, tend to be more difcult to manage than compact states (Figure 8.5b: Vietnam)
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MYANMAR (BURMA)
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c. http://www.cnr.vt.edu/boyer/geog1014/topics/108States/shape.html. d. http://www.cnr.vt.edu/boyer/geog1014/topics/108States/shape.html. e. http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?print=afghanis. All used by permission.
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Natural Disasters
Location can create obstacles to a countrys development and overall economic and political power in the global arena when it exposes a state to natural disasters such as earthquakes, typhoons, and hurricanes, which can sap nancial resources needed for economic development. Think of hurricanes in the Caribbean Basin and Central America or earthquakes in India, Indonesia, Mexico, and Turkey.
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United States during the Cold War in 1962, an action that brought the USSR and the United States to the brink of nuclear war. Territorial security and defensive measures have always been a natural geographic strategy on the global chessboard. Ancient China built its Great Wall, European medieval castles had their moats, and before World War II, France built an elaborate system of heavy fortications on its eastern frontiera system that failed to prevent invasion by Nazi armies. Since 9/11, the United States has worried about renewed terrorist attacks across its porous borders and has built a long fence on its southwestern frontier with Mexico (which does not actually deter Mexicans who cross over illegally into the United States). Israel has built a fence or wall through the West Bank to protect against Palestinians bent on suicide bombings. The former Berlin Wall dividing East and West Germany was ninety-six miles long; Israels wall is expected to be over 400 miles in length. The Berlin Wall was, on average, around twelve feet high; Israels wall is about twenty-ve feet tall.
Access to Water
A states access or lack of access to water has a powerful impact on its ability to develop and acquire power for territorial security within the international system. In this respect, landlocked states, or those with no natural access to the seacoast, are not in an enviable position. The forty-two countries in this situation face huge economic and logistical difculties in trade and transportation that entail taxes and impediments by neighboring states that, in effect, nearly cut them off from the world. Landlocked states are found in Africa, South America, Europe, Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan), and Northeast Asia (Mongolia). The gross domestic product (GDP) of landlocked sea countries typically is low. While one might think a landlocked state simply could resort to ying its goods in and out of the country, think again. Most goods in daily lifefood, clothing, and other commoditiesarrive overseas by ship because this is the least expensive means of transportation. With no coastline or ports, as shown in Figure 8.6, you can see the problem. To complicate matters, some countries are doubly landlocked that is, other landlocked countries surround them. Uzbekistan and Liechtenstein are cases in point. Other countries are known as transit statesthat is, states with or without a seacoast that are situated between a landlocked state and the sea and through whose territory trafc in transit passes. Uganda in Africa is such a transit state; it provides transit routes for both landlocked and other transit states. So is Afghanistan, discussed in the case study in chapter 2.
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Boundaries are sources of conict between states as well as between ethnic national groups inside states, which are sometimes in quest of land to create their own state, as are the Kurds and Palestinians. In another scenario, national groups divided by a state political boundary may wish that boundary removed so they can form one state. Witness the unbridled enthusiasm of East and West Germans in 1989 as they dismantled the Berlin Wall, which had divided them. Porous borders, on the other hand, can also cause tension, as with illegal immigrants and drugs pouring into the United States from Mexico.
Keep in mind that boundaries are three-dimensional.25 They have land, water, and air dimensionsand airspace over countries also has boundaries. Planes that wander into the airspace of another country, despite the international rules of innocent passage, run the risk of being shot down. Such an event occurred on September 1, 1983, when a South Korean civilian airliner, on a ight from Alaska to South Korea carrying 269 passengers, entered Soviet airspace. A Russian Air Force ghter shot down the plane, which crashed into the international waters of the Sea of Japan, killing all aboard. Another incident of this type occurred on February 24, 1996, when two small planes from South Florida wandered into Cuban airspace and ctronic Publishing Services Inc. were shot down by Cuban MiG ghter jets. Because states claim and exercise sovncan, World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e ereignty on, above, and below their territory, as well as over adjacent coastal waters, NC.7322.0040 international rules governing civilian use of national airspace and coastal waters . 8.8 have been set forth. They articulate the principle of free international airspace. A 1944 convention an airspace monitoring body, the International Civil 1st Proof 2nd Proof created 3rd Proof Final Aviation Organization (ICAO) that came into being in 1947.
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The Canal handles around 13,000 ships each year. It is an immense timesaver when compared to a trip passing around the tip of South America. The trip between the Atlantic Ocean entrance north of Coln and the Pacific Ocean south of Balboa is around 51 miles. The Canal opened in 1914.
_____ 1. Being located on an East-West axis facilitated growth of an empire because it facilitated the transmission of goods and knowledge. _____ 2. The favorable climate of countries located near the equator has facilitated their economic and political development. _____ 3. The distribution of natural resources among different countries has been a contributing factor to conict for well over a thousand years and is likely to increase in the future. _____ 4. Both absolute and relative location of a state play an important role in its level of territorial security.
_____ 5. Which of the following is not considered when examining the role geography plays in a states territorial security? a. Location b. Access to water c. Proximity to transportation or communication corridors d. All of the above
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At the beginning of this chapter, we noted that human perceptions form a kind of prism through which we interpret the world. Lets look at this assumption more closely and see how it applies to geography. Perceptions are the mental processes of leaders and followers from past to presentdecision makers at the highest levels in government and leaders of IGOs, NGOs, national groups, and guerrilla and terrorist organizations. Perceptions are what people think is true about the territorial world around them and their underlying assumptions about that world.
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Multinational states frequently are the scene of conict between national groups over territory. The Kurdsspread across four states (Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria) have sought a sovereign state for over a century. None of the states in which they live, however, want to cede territory to a Kurdish state, and their national groups are in conict with the Kurds. Leaders of multiethnic national states have little interest in giving up territory with its resources to ethnic nationalist breakaway movements. They typically come down hard on such groups. When Iran encouraged nationalist Kurds in Iraq to rise up in protest during the Iran-Iraq War, Baghdad used poison gas against its own Kurdish citizens! The struggle for territory for a Palestinian state in Israel, another example, has produced horrendous bloodshed in recent years.
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Indian subcontinent, where Indian Hindus and Indian Muslims live in a tense peace and Indian Hindus clash with Pakistani Islamic believers over Kashmir.
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Source: Department of State and Department of Defense, The Challenge to Democracy in Latin America, Washington, DC, 1986, 5. Used by permission.
maps have become vital tools in nding resources like sh and oil, projecting crop production, identifying climate change and environmental deterioration, tracking the AIDS epidemic, and following refugee ows stemming from civil wars and repressive regimes. The eld of mapmaking is experiencing revolutionary innovations in terms of attention to detail, visual quality, and accessibility.32 Maps are used constantly in foreign policy to shape public perceptions. U.S. relations with Cuba are a case in point. During the Cold War, when Cuba had established close ties with the former Soviet Union, the Cuban government in Havana became a major thorn in the side of U.S. foreign policymakers. Because the sea lanes of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, as we see in Figure 8.8, have long been considered vital security interests of the United States, Washington policymakers perceived Soviet inuence in Cuba as a major threat. Maps were utilized time and again to illustrate to Congress and the U.S. population Cubas proximity to the United States and the threat it posed to U.S. interests. The Cold War map in Figure 8.8 illustrates how Cubas location, coupled with its Soviet ties, cast it in the role of a giant warship controlled by the Soviets and conducting operations inimical to the well-being of the United States. The map of Cuba illustrates a key point about maps. Most people think of maps as unbiased reference objects, although they actually depict, like a photograph, a subjective point of view. This map is designed to convey the sense of Cuba as a geographically proximate security threat to the United Statesa strategic extension of Soviet power directly into the American backyard. The map legitimizes the U.S. foreign-policy position vis--vis Cuba and the former Soviet Union, depicted ctronic Publishing Services as adversaries thatInc. must be confronted with power. Maps, then, illustrate what the mapmaker wants to emphasize. Denis Wood makes this point in his classic book, can, World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e 33 The Power of Maps. NC.7322.0043 8.10
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_____ 1. Perceptions on territory, whether based on objective reality or not, play a signicant role in how a world leader acts with respect to other countries. _____ 2. The linkage between territory and identity has led to an extraordinary number of refugees as a result of civil wars in multinational states. _____ 3. The clash of civilizations refers to the ideological conict over two geographic spheres of the worldthe United States and USSR during the Cold War. _____ 4. Religion, while once important, is no longer a signicant factor tied to geography in world politics. _____ 5. Maps, while reecting an objective reality, are often used in strategic ways to affect the publics perception of events in world politics.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 8.3 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. All world leaders tend to do which of the following when dealing with world politics. a. See the geographic world shaped by the lens of their own national identity b. Behave based on biases and stereotypes relative to those who live elsewhere in the world c. Ignore information when it does not coincide with preexisting beliefs or values d. Oversimplify the outside territorial world of states, nations, and people e. All of the above _____ 7. In which of the following ways does territory not affect national identity? a. It gives members of a national group a common tangible focus. b. It provides resources that allow a government to facilitate bonding over a group identity. c. It generates loyalty and a sense of belonging to a piece of land occupied throughout history. d. All of the above
Case Study
Political Geography and Al Quaeda Terrorism
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POLITIcAL GEOgRAPHY
2. Building on his 1999 The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedmans The World Is Flat argues that the globalized era is one where states matter less, and the principal driving force is a level playing eld for international trade. The level playing eld has been made possible by software and the global beroptic network. Onto this playing eld have rushed servicing and manufacturing companies in China, India, the Philippines, and the former Soviet Union that attract the outsourcing market.4 3. While the state has remained the most signicant political organization of human beings for over three centuries, its decline was predicted well before the intense discussion of globalization in the 1990spreceded by discussion of interdependence in the 1970s. 4. In this era of electronic media, satellite television and the Internet increasingly are connecting people with distant images, ideas, and sources of information. This is the age of the electronic state.5 This use of electronic media is creating a major gap between physical place and information. The emerging cyberworld opens the door to social and political actions and movements by nongovernmental actors that transcend the power and author ity of the state.6 5. Globalization underscores economic integration and interdependencethe spread of free markets, capital moving across national boundaries without
restriction, the intertwining of the economies of the worlds states. The world is becoming a single, globalized marketplace. Which side of this debate do you nd more compelling? Why? What questions do you think this debate raises that would help inform you more about political issues?
NoTES
1. The Globalization Index, Foreign Policy (November/December 2006): 7481. 2. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Foreign Affairs, 72, no. 3 (1993): 2249. 3. Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, rev. ed. (New York: Anchor, 2000), 250. 4. Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005). 5. Stanley D. Brunn, Jeffrey A. Jones, and Shannon OLear, Geopolitical Information and Communications in the Twenty-rst Century, in Reordering the World: Geopolitical Perspectives on the 21st Century, 2nd ed., George J. Demko and William B. Wood, eds., 304305. 6. Simon Dalby, Geopolitics, Knowledge, and Power at the End of the Century, in The Geopolitics Reader, Gearid Tuathail, Simon Dalby, and Paul Routledge, eds. (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 308.
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Studies how geographic factors and power interact at the international system, regional, state, substate, and individual levels. It illuminates geographys role in world politics, from national identity to a states power and 1 2 development, to foreign-policy decision making. Assumes that a states location in a realm and region inuences its power, politics, and security. Location and territory go a long way in shaping the perceptions and actions of the people who live in states and identify with a nation. Focuses on the strategic and military power aspects of territorial spatial relations. Involves major actors in political geography, e.g. states and nations and their location, size, and shape relative to its neighbors, friends and adversaries, natural resources, topography, climate, and proximate waterways.
4 5 how human 6 7 8 interacts 9 with 10 Understand perception geographic characteristics to affect world politics.
Think of perceptions as the mental processes of leaders and followers from past to present. Perceptions are what humans think is true about the territorial world around them and their underlying assumptions about that world. Leaders act on these perceptions whether or not they actually reect the real world. Unfortunately for world peace, cooperation, and stability, human beings are not as rational in interpreting the outside world as they might think. Humans have a limited capacity to remember and process information accurately. Perceptions and cognitive processes lead to foreign policy based on biases, stereotyping, and prejudices. Territory shapes self-identity: national, regional, and religious. Maps are used extensively to shape perceptions.
3 4 understand 5 6 certain 7 geographic 8 9 10 Identify and how factors impact a states power and security.
Geography impacts a states power and security in world politics. This inuence occurs through locations inuence on a states power and on its territorial security.
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Learning Objectives
1
Understand how history and location impact nationalism, using Russia and America as examples.
Be able to identify and explain the factors that make nationalism such a potent force in world politics.
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Of the many unforeseen consequences of topography, the emergence of nationalism is, perhaps, the most familiar.
Marshall McLuhan
Chapter Outline
What Is Nationalism?
National Identity: Taproot of Nationalism A Psychological Group Identity among People An Emotional Force that Ignites Peoples Passions Historical Force of National Identity A Driving Force with Positive and Negative Effects
Understand how nationalism is used by world leaders for both personal and national gain.
revious chapters introduced the concepts of state and nation. You learned that each is different in important ways. These differences have powerful implications for the study and understanding of world politics. A state, of course, must not be confused with a nation. States are geographically bounded territories, with governmental structures and sovereignty, such as China, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, and Russia. The size and power of individual states vary greatly, but all are recognized as legally equal members of the international system of states. Chapter 8 discusses states in more detail. A nation, on the other hand, need not be geographically bounded or legally dened. A nation is best understood as a group
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ethnic group p. 264 civic national identity p. 266 national self-determination p. 269 xenophobia p. 270 devolution (or autonomy) p. 275 clan p. 279 Kurdistan p. 280 Catalonia p. 280 Galicia p. 280
of people who consider themselves linked in a cultural and political togetherness, typically consolidated by past or current struggles and suffering. Think about a nation, as Benedict Anderson describes it, as a psychological association, or as an imagined community.1 Anderson stresses that a nation is an imagined group of people, because fellow members of the nation likely will not meet, know, or hear about most of the nation-identifying groupeven though they share in their minds their cultural and political togetherness. Look at the fan waving the Mexican ag at the World Cup matches in Germany in 2006. He is expressing the emotive side of national identity, in this case rooting for Mexico against other nations in sports competitioneven though we can hardly expect that he knows every Mexican personally. A ag is a key symbol of the nation. Keeping in mind that denitions are incomplete and partial, we can make a number of observations that at least help us understand what a nation is. A nation in essence is a group of people who consider themselves culturally, historically, linguisticallyor ethnicallyrelated.2 Identity with a nation actually takes two distinct forms: (1) civic national identity and (2) ethnic national identity. Lets look at these distinctions more closely. Civic national identity refers to groups of people bonded together through: z Citizenship z Political participation within a circumscribed community z Shared common language and core political values regardless of the ethnic origins of the people within that group The civic nation togetherness is basically voluntary and associated with representative democracy in countries such as the United States (U.S. Declaration of Independence) and France (Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen). This form of national identity dates back to the eighteenth century. As in the case of ethnic national identity, ties to territory play a big role in bonding people together. Ethnic national identity stems from an ethnically dened group of people who share: z physical characteristics z a common culture, religion, language and ancestry Whereas the civic nation includes people of different ethnic origins who have assimilated into a common overarching core political value system, the ethnic nation tends to be dened by lineage and closed to outsiders. To be more precise, here the nation is dened by ethnic group identitythat is, a population of human beings who identify with each other on the basis of presumed common ancestry, culture, linguistic, ritualistic, and religious traits. Keep in mind
Ethnic group A population of human beings who identify with each other on the basis of presumed common ancestry, culture, linguistic, ritualistic, and religious traits.
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Tens of thousands of pro-secular demonstrators wave a huge Turkish flag during a rally in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, April 29, 2007. Tens of thousands of secular Turks gathered in Istanbul and chanted slogans against the pro-Islamic government, which faced severe criticism from the powerful military for allegedly tolerating the activities of radical Islamic circles. The demonstration against the government shows a deepening division between secular and Islamist nationalist camps in Turkish society. Protesters demanded a president with no Islamist ties.
Photo by Murad Sezer, Associated Press. Used by permission.
that an ethnic group typically becomes a nation when it begins to seek political control over its destinyoften by seeking its own state or more political control within the state in which it nds itself. Examples of nations that stem from ethnic identity are Tamils, Turks, Croats, Czechs, Kurds, Russians, and Serbs. When apprehended as an idea, to use Sir Ernest Barkers phrase, national identity becomes an exceptionally powerful force. Think of Adolf Hitlers brand of nationalism leading up to World War II, or Japanese nationalism during this same period. Here you can see national identitys power in mobilizing people into movements. For that matter, think of the assertive American national identity and nationalism expressed in the Bush Doctrine since 9/11 (see chapter 5). The Bush administration with its evangelical base, as historian Anatol Lieven points out, has invoked radical American nationalism to wage a unilateral, morally based, war against evil-doers.3 In Lievens view, this struggle between good, that is, America and those who agree with it, and evil, those opposing freedom and liberty, has fueled a self-righteous nationalist extremism that has strained Americas relations with the outside world. We look at radical American nationalism later in this chapter. This chapter examines how national identity becomes nationalism and how nationalism dramatically decentralizes world politics. While nationalism integrates people who identify with the same nation, it divides the people of one nation from those of another and all too frequently leads to conict. This consequence is vividly seen in Serb nationalism versus Croat nationalism in the erce ghting involved in the breakup of former Yugoslavia in the rst half
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of the 1990s. How the population of a nation sees itself, however, can divide perceptions within the same nation. Turkish nationalists are divided over how much Islam to bring into government policies. In April 2007, 700,000 people, waving the red national ag, gathered in Istanbul to protest the Islamic tilt of Turkeys ruling party and the ruling partys then presidential candidate, Foreign Minister Abdullah Gul. The rst section of this chapter examines the nature of nationalism in more depth and its world political consequences. Next the discussion turns to how nationalism is manifested across the world and acts as a decentralizing force. This understanding of nationalism leads on to how leaders have used nationalism as a powerful emotive force in domestic and foreign policy. n
What Is Nationalism?
1 Be able to identify and explain the factors that make nationalism such a potent force in world politics.
A sensible place to begin to explore the force of nationalism in world politics is to take a closer look at national identity and its many forces across the globe. In essence, nationalism is basically how national identity is expressed by an individual member, group, or mass constituents of a nationfrom ag waving to singing the national anthem to waging war in defense of the homeland as America did in World Wars I and II.
Civic national identity A group of people bonded together through citizenship, political participation within a circumscribed community, and a shared common language and core political values regardless of the ethnic origins of the people within that group.
c WHAT IS NATIOnALISM?
centralizing (within a nation) and decentralizing (nation versus nation) consequences for the world political system. As a centralizing force, nationalism has brought people with shared roots together inside new states, promoted unied democratic governments, challenged imperialism, and spurred economic development. These effects might well be classied as positive. Yet on the negative, decentralizing side, nationalism has led to horric world wars (German and Japanese aggressive nationalism in World War II), unspeakable genocide of a people (German nationalism against the Jews in the 1940s, and mass killings of Bosnians by Serb nationalists in the 1990s). Nationalism has less horric, yet still decentralizing, inuences too. Both French and Dutch voters rejected the European Union (EU) constitution in May and June 2005. French and Dutch opponents to the EU constitution worried, among other things, about loss of national control and identity to a large impersonal bureaucracy. This nationalist rejection sent the EU reeling, because the charter requires approval from all EU states to take effect. Now let us look at the nature of nationalism. A close examination of this key driving force in world politics reveals that at heart, in both its civic and ethnic types, it is: 1. A psychological group identity among people 2. An emotional force that ignites peoples passions 3. A power factor with strong historical roots 4. A driving force that leads to positive and negative impacts in international relations
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countries, the government controls the instruments of mass communication, such as mail, newspapers, telephone, telegraph, and television, Internet, radio, and satellite transmissions. By promoting the symbols of the nation, governments can motivate their people to all kinds of endeavors. Following 9/11, for example, Americans came together in a psychology of defense of the nationwhen the administration used many symbols of the nation (national anthem, ag, references to previous wars and others, defense of liberty and freedom) against al Qaeda forces. In contrast, a nationalist mural in Baghdad before the U.S.led invasion depicted Saddam Hussein ghting a three-headed serpent representing British Prime Minister Tony Blair, President George W. Bush, and then Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon.7
Six million U.S. women began to work in manufacturing plants that produced munitions and materiel during World War II, when the men normally doing factory work went to fight in the European and Pacific fronts. The U.S. womens role in the war effort is depicted by the character whose name was Rosie the Riveter. Rosie is a feminist icon and symbol of womens economic power.
Image courtesy of US National Archives. Produced by Westinghouse for the War Production. Created by J. Howard Miller. Modications Jone Lewis 2001. Used by permission.
c WHAT IS NATIOnALISM?
Indonesia; Eritrea in Ethiopia). These national self-determination movements frequently lead to bloodshed. For example, Indonesian militia groups went on a killing rampage against pro-independence people in East Timor after they voted for independence in 1999. The following brief list captures nationalisms wide-ranging possibilities and shows how over time it has united and divided peoples occupying the same territory in the international political system. It is a force at work at all levels of analysis. Studying nationalism helps explain how and why: z Violence and war occur in the international political system. z People act as they do toward each other across state boundaries and within multinational states. z Misunderstanding occurs so frequently in world politics. z Diplomatic negotiations can be exceedingly difcult over many issues. z Perceptions form an important element in assessing conict and cooperation. z Leaders manipulate the masses. Ethnic national identity, discussed above, has become more pronounced in spawning ethnic nationalism in world politics in the twentieth and twenty-rst centuries. It has led to frequently expressed emotionally bitter grievances against foreigners, passionate struggles for national self-determination and independence, and longing desires for a separate territorial state. As one scholar of ethnic nationalism, Eric Hobsbawm, notes:
Every separatist movement in Europe that I can think of bases itself on ethnicity, . . . that is to say, on the assumption that wethe Basques, Catalans, Scots, Croats, or Georgiansare a different people from the Spaniards, the English, the Serbs or the Russians, and therefore we should not live in the same state with them.8
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National self-determination The right of all people to determine their own government.
This obsessive ethnic nationalism, for example, lies at the heart of the postCold War breakup of Yugoslavia, in the wrenching upheavals in the Transcaucasian region, and in many other geographic regions of the world. American civic nationalism is different; characterized not by a particular ethnic group but by a melting pot of ethnic groups who adhere to a political creed embedded in American democratic institutions and ideals deemed superior to all others.9 Like its more ethnic-based counterparts, American nationalisma kind of patriotism rather than ethnic superiorityhas strong emotional patterns too. President Woodrow Wilson tapped into American nationalism as a reason for entering World War I, President Roosevelt for entry into World War II, and President George W. Bush for the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and the more amorphous war against terrorism. While new driving forces of globalization, interdependence, and the information revolution are transforming world politics, as discussed in chapter 1, nationalism simply refuses to go away. Its power to mobilize people through high drama and intense emotions, and its universal presence from around the world, left an unmistakable imprint on the twentieth century. Nationalist sentiments became powerful forces in world politics right after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire fell apart, when colonial powers like Great Britain and France assumed League of Nations mandates to control places like Egypt and
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This was one of the cigarette coupon photographs. Cigarette coupons could be redeemed for a series of photographs of Adolf Hitler taken by his personal photographer, Heinrich Hoffmann.
Mesopotamia (current-day Iraq), and as colonial rule was increasingly challenged. Here are historic examples of nationalisms emotive appeal in the twentieth century.
Nazi Germany
In the 1930s, Adolf Hitler mobilized the German people, whom he referred to as the Aryan race (pure fair-haired, light-skinned Germans, not Jews, Gypsies, or Slavs), by using propaganda techniques. He touched a sensitive cord in Germans with his emotive speeches at mass rallies arguing that the Germans had been stabbed in the back by the peace settlement at the end of World War I. This settlement saddled Germany with guilt and a huge nancial burden for causing that war. In the midst of the severe postwar economic depression, Hitler gained an enormous following by organizing goose-stepping jackboot parades, mobilizing youth movements, and holding charismatic nighttime speeches attended by thousands of his compatriots. Month by month, he laid out his plans for the superior German people to rule Europe. He envisioned a hierarchy of peoples, with the Germans dominating everyone else, slaves at the lowest level, and Jews and Gypsies entirely eliminated. Passions released by his ery xenophobia, or hyper-nationalism, led to World War II, the Jewish Holocaust, and ultimately the virtual destruction of Germany by Allied forces.
Xenophobia Xenophobia is a fear of foreigners. A form of extreme nationalism that unleashes violent action, it has led to genocide toward other ethnic national groups.
c WHAT IS NATIOnALISM?
independence from Great Britain in 1947. It was partitioned into two countries: India, with a Hindu majority, and Pakistan (which at the time included Bangladesh), with a Muslim majority. The origins of ethnic national conict in Africa, where many ethnic groups live inside single states (like the Yoruba, Hausa, Fulani, and Igbo [or Ibo] inside Nigeria) stem from European colonialism. The European powers carved up Africa (as well as the Middle East) in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with ethnic groups living inside articial territories that became states in the postcolonial period. The problem was magnied when European authorities gave preferential treatment to historically weak minor ethnic groups. Those groups used the coercive instruments of the state to suppress their ethnic group enemies and stay in power during the post-independence period. The problem in Africa, then, is the existence of scores of ethnic groups (many transformed into ethnic national movements) organized into a limited number of states. Minor ethnic groups are simply overpowered by majority ethnic groups coexisting inside the same state.
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Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the imperial throne of the Austro-Hun garian Empire, and his wife, Count ess Sophia, walk to their car in Sarajevo, June 28, 1914, just prior to their assassination. A nineteenyear-old Serbian student, a member of the Young Bosnia movement dedicated to a Bosnia free of Aus trian Hapsburg rule, assassinated them, igniting World War I.
c WHAT IS NATIOnALISM?
people from those who rule them. So Basques and Catalans opposed the Spaniards, Irish the English, and Armenians the Turks. Todays ethnic claims to nationhoodand the right to a separate territorial stateare quite different from the versions of nationhood and nationalism that existed during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Nationality, as it first bloomed, did not consider ethnicity essential to the consciousness of a people. The original nations of Europe and the Americas had no unitary ethnic base but rather a national identity based on cultural and political perceptions that constituted what it meant to be British, French, German, or Dutch.14 Nor, as discussed earlier, was ethnicity mandatory for the original American revolutionary nationalism that inspired the formation of the United States. These earlier versions of nationalism were rooted in the eighteenth-century concept of popular sovereignty, the basic democratic principle that the people are the ultimate source of all legitimate authority. This was expressed in the American and French revolutions of 1776 and 1789, respectively. As we have seen, however, by the end of the nineteenth century and in the early years of the twentieth, nationality and nationalism increasingly mirrored the ethnic component. Thus, when U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed the notion of self-determination of nations as a guiding principle for international relations at the conclusion of World War I, he opened the oodgates for any ethnic-national group to declare a national right to its own sovereign state. President Wilsons Secretary of State Robert Lansing worried that the idea of national selfdetermination was so loaded with dynamite that it might make the world dangerous.15 He said, It will raise hopes, which can never be realized. It will, I fear, cost thousands of lives.... What a calamity that the phrase was ever uttered!... What misery it will cause.16 If Secretary Lansing could see todays ethnic-national conicts and selfdetermination movements, he probably would not be surprised. President Wilson, of course, was using the self-determination phrase to mean the consent of the governed. Unfortunately for stability in the international system, Wilsons phrase became interpreted as national self-determination. It was translated in the minds of many ethnic leaders as the right of ethnic-national groups to have their own sovereign states. Thus, many ethnic groups around the world began pounding the doors for their right to a self-governing state. Still, the existence of more than one nationally conscious ethnic group inside a statea multinational state, as discussed in chapters 3 and 8does not mean an automatic breakup of the state. Many multiethnic national states, such as Switzerlandor the United States with its native Indian groupsare integrated entities. In other cases, autonomy emerges when a states government grants more political and economic power to ethno-national political groups in order to hold the country together. This has happened in Italy, where Rome granted more minority power to Italys separatist Northern League. The United Kingdom has done the same with Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and Belgium is really three regions: French-speaking Wallonia and Flemish-speaking Flanders and Brussels (bilingual).
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negative force, it has created a security nightmare for the international community. The problem is how to manage nationalism or prevent it from spreading its wide range of accompanying problems, including the creation of multitudes of refugees. (It should be noted, however that recent research by the World Bank on civil conicts around the world shows that rebel ghting more often is motivated by the greedy pursuit of lucrative commodities.)17 Still, nationalism has its benets as well as its dangers. Defenders of nationalist causes tend to subscribe to what may be termed liberal nationalism, the belief that every nationally conscious ethnic group should have its own state and that one ethnic or cultural group should not rule another.18 Those favoring this idea, however, do not suggest that every minuscule ethnic group, such as the Sorbs or Wends in Germany and the Amish in the United States, should have its own state. Yet they do believe that larger ethnic-national groups, such as the Kurds, Igbo, and Tibetans, are entitled to a state in order to avoid the large-scale violence seen in many multiethnic national states, such as China, Nigeria, and Russia. Proponents of liberal nationalism argue that democracy does not work in societies divided along linguistic and cultural lines. Examples cited include the former Soviet Union, China (with the Tibet problem), Nigeria (three sizable ethnic groups) and Iraq (Sunni, Shiite, and Kurds). Switzerland, with its distinct cultural and linguistic groups, is a notable exception to this claim. Given nationalisms liberal dimensions, as associated with the American and French revolutions, let us consider its positive and negative effects. Positive effects of nationalism: z Promotes democracy by uniting people in a set of core values and sense of history and destiny. z Stimulates the idea that political power legitimately resides with the people and that political leaders exercise power only as agents of the people; leaders receive their authority from elections. z Encourages self-determination and allows nationalities to preserve their cultures and govern themselves according to their own customs. z Stimulates economic development by mobilizing people in a common effort, as occurred in Germany and Japan after World War II. Negative effects of nationalism: z Lead to hyper-nationalism (xenophobia), feelings of superiority (Germans under Hitler, Serbs during the breakup of Yugoslavia), and ethnic cleansing, or the extermination of inferior ethnic-national groups (as occurred in Germany and Yugoslavia). z Produce messianismthe propensity to think that one nations duty is to save other nations or bring its core values to other areas. Some argue that mes sianism runs deep in current U.S. nationalism in its sense of mission to bring Western-style democracy to Iraq, as proclaimed by the Bush administration. z Stimulate violent self-determination movements and consequent bloodbaths.
c WHAT IS NATIOnALISM?
z Spawns great conict in the world, as between India and Pakistan and between North and South Korea, as well as generating suspicion, as with Chinas suspicion of Japan and Russias suspicion of the outside world. Facing separatist sentiments among the Armenian population, the Muslim government of the declining Ottoman Empire in 19151916 mounted a genocidal campaign that led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Armenians, a large majority of whom lived in the Ottoman Empire and who were Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox Christians. Given the power of nationalism, you might wonder how multinational states hold together at all, especially as people who identify with the same nationality do not necessarily cluster in one part of a states territory. People may live in different towns and regions, as was the case inside Croatia, Bosnia, and Serbia in Yugoslavia. When Croatia and Bosnia separated from Yugoslavia to form new multinational states, their multinational groups were not clustered in one part of the new states territory. This by no means is to suggest that people of different cultures or religions or languages cannot possibly live in the same state without either killing each other or seeking to break away and form their own states. Examples of people living peacefully in multinational states abound, from the United States to Switzerland and beyond. Most states, in fact, are multinational and peaceful. How do states adjust to multinational settings? States have tried to cope with, or govern, national groups within their borders in a variety of ways: z Federalism: We see this form of government in the United States, Russia, India, and Nigeria. z Genocide: Dominant groups seek to physically eliminate minority groups through violence, as in Sudans Darfur region, Hitlers Germany, Milosevics Yugoslavia, and the Hutus in Rwanda. z Expulsion: This occurs when a dominant group expels minority groups or scares them out. Milosevic pursued this method, as did Idi Amin in Uganda in the 1970s. Indonesia has acted similarly against the Chinese. z Integrationist Nationalist Ideology: Cuba and Mexico have a national policy that attempts to bring together different ethnic groups into one identity: blacks, mulattos (black/white mix), and whites are different groups of Cubans; Indians, mestizos (Indian/white mix), and whites are different groups of Mexicans. Cuba appears to have been more successful in this effort than has Mexico; Mexicos many Indian groups (Mayan, in particular) do not necessarily identify as Mexican, as blacks identify as Cuban in that country. z Autonomy (or Devolution): This occurs when national groups are given more autonomy, as with Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom. Devolution refers to a transfer and consequent sharing of powers from the central government to local government. Scotland and Northern Ireland have a traditional form of devolved government consisting of leg islative and executive branches, while Waless experience with devolution has been more limited. Scotlands ve million people, for example, have distinct legal and education systems, and the Scots have voted in their independence party.
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Devolution (or autonomy) The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political power and growing autonomy vis--vis the central government. Devolution can lead to self-determination movements, whereby ethnically identifying regions within a state break away and form their own independent sovereign new state.
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_____ 1. The two types of national identity are civic and ethnic. _____ 2. Civic nationalism is based on a strong historical connection while ethnic nationalism is founded upon a psychological group identity. _____ 3. Nationalism acts strictly as a centralizing force in world politics, bringing a group of people within a state together _____ 4. Earlier versions of nationalism were based on sovereignty of the people while the most recent trend is based on ethnic connections between people. _____ 5. Liberal nationalism refers to the division of a population based on political leanings.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following is not shared by a group of people who possess a common national identity? a. Economy b. Mass public culture c. Legal rights and duties for all members d. Myths and historical memories e. None of the above
_____ 7. The Olympic Games and World Cup soccer matches are examples of what characteristic of nationalism? a. A strong psychological connection b. An emotional force that ignites peoples passions c. A powerful factor with strong historical roots d. A driving force leading to positive and negative impacts in world affairs e. An identity that competes with transnationalism for a peoples loyalty _____ 8. What is the primary source of ethnic-national conict in Africa? a. European colonialism b. Economic disparity c. Linguistic differences d. Self-serving national leaders e. None of the above
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 9.1 www.BetweenNations.org
How nationalism is expressed in the twenty-rst century stems from the nations history and location. National identities found in the New World realms of North America, Central America, and South America, for example, are melting pot national identities of people whose families came from the Old World, mixed in with the native inhabitants of the new land. Mexico is a case in point. A Mexican identity emerged during and after Mexicos 1910 revolutionan identity that included both white, Indian, and mestizos. Cubas national identity incorporates black, mulatto, and white heritageall identifying with Cuba. In contrast, Serbian identity back in the Old World stems from a single ethnic group, the Serbs, because they live in their homeland rather than having sailed off to the New World. It must be said that the New World melting pot type of nationalism, however, is incomplete. One still nds ethnic-based nationalism
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Russians celebrating the failure of the coup. Russians gather in Red Square, in an explosion of Russian nationalism, to celebrate the failure of an attempted coup in August 1991 against Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. Members of the Politburo and the Soviet military and security services had orchestrated the coup. Although unsuccessful due to lack of Russian military support and Boris Yeltsins opposition leadership, the August coup sped up the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
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and great-power Russian chauvinism, as demonstrated in his characterization of Chechens as bandits, terrorists, scum [and] dark forces. As observers have pointed out, this kind of Russian chauvinism does not bode well for a Russia in which the population is, at minimum, 20 percent non-ethnic Russians.19 Under Putin, the government brought back the old Soviet anthem with different words. It approved the double-headed eagle of the tsars and the pre-revolutionary white, blue, and red ag as national symbols. The Soviet-period red star was reinstated as the militarys ofcial emblem in 2002. So Putins Russia and national identity incorporate the Soviet past as well as the legacy of the Russian Empire. Russia now has a national program called civic culture that teaches children what it is to have a Russian national identity.
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Today the Kurds are the fourth-largest ethnic group in the Middle East after the Arabs, Persians (Iranians), and Turks.
Black Sea Sokhumi Samsun
Ank Ankara
RUSSIA GEORGIA
T'bilisi
Bat'umi
Trabzon KURDISTAN RD
Van n
Tabriz i Rasht
Tehran
?? ????
CYPRUS Damascus LEBANON N Golan Heights Haifa West Bank* ISRAEL Jerusalem J r
Gaza Strip Amm A man ma
An Nasiriyan A i an Al Basrah
Suez
Kurdistan
For more information see The View From: Kurdistan www.BetweenNations.org
Kurdistan The Kurds, around 30 million in number, have lived for over 3,000 years in a region today comprising Turkey, Syria, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Kurds are also found in Iran and Iraq. A stateless nation, the Kurds dream of living in a free homeland called Kurdistan. Catalonia The region in Spain inhabited by Catalans. Galicia A region in Spain inhabited by an ethnically identifying group called Gallegos.
Earlier discussion identied the multinational statea state with multiple ethnicnational groups inside it like Switzerland. Another phenomenon is the case of a multi-state nation, that is, a situation where national group is spread across different states. The Kurds are a classic case in point. They identify with their original homeland of Kurdistan, which is now divided into different states. Their heartland is a territorial area divided among Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq (Figure 9.1) that they have been trying to establish as the sovereign state of Kurdistan.
Electronic Publishing Services Inc. Duncan, World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e DUNC.7322.0048 Fig. 9.3
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FRANCE ANDORRA
Logrono
NA
Pamplona
VA
RR A
Zaragoza ARAGON
CATALONIA Barcelona
Minorca
CASTILE-LA MANCHA
Mrida
A CI UR M Murcia
VAL
PORTUGAL
ENC IA
Toledo
U AD R A
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Source: DeBlij and Muller, Realms, Regions, and Concepts, p. 90. Used by permission.
ist organization ETA, which originated in 1959. Both the Catalans and the Basques have their own political parties that press for issues favoring their ethnic-national groups and territories. Within Catalonia and the Basque region however, people hold a range of views. Some are staunch defenders of independence movements; others are more moderate. Catalans and Basques do not raise the question of separation from the state, yet argue for more autonomy and power for their region.25 Because of Spains strong regional sentiments, especially the tenacious Catalan, Basque, and Galician identities, the Spanish constitution of 1978 recognizes and guarantees the right to autonomy of all the nationalities and regions of Spaina clear decentralization of power. Spains devolution policy has spilled over into international relations. After Spain granted autonomy to its regions, it joined the European Union, which makes clear its interest in negotiating directly with Spains regions as well as with the Spanish state itself. The map in Figure 9.2 shows Spains autonomous communities, which are political systems designed to hold the state together despite strong multiple regional identities.
Religious Nationalism
For more information see Why It Matters to You: Religious Nationalism in India and Pakistan www.BetweenNations.org
Religious nationalism, found in many parts of the world, is a synthesis of religion blishing Services Inc. nationalism that merges cultural identity with the legitimacy of older and secular 26 Examples of d Politics religions. in the 21st Century, 3 e religious nationalisma basic fact of contemporary international politicsmay be seen in Poland and Ireland (Catholicism), Afghanistan, 047
EX TR EM
Alicante
Cartagena
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Bangladesh, India, Iran, Israel, Lebanon, Sri Lanka, and Sudan. Indeed, its impact may be witnessed in U.S. domestic politics as well, in the inuence of the Christian Moral Majority and related movements since the 1980s, including the 2004 presidential campaign. Religious nationalism has spurred new levels of conict around the world, particularly in Israel, Sudan, and India. In Israel, contending versions of how to create a Palestinian state have led to escalating conicts among Palestinians and between Palestinians and Israelis with many people killed on both sides. As a result of religious nationalism, Sudan has been the scene of extreme violence characterized as genocide, creating one of the worlds most terrible humanitarian crises. Sudans government in Khartouman embodiment of a dark version of Arab nationalismhas sanctioned the oppression and brutalizing of its black, non-Arab Muslim population in the western region of Darfur, which is rich in oil. Tensions between the Arab Muslim government and its black tribes in the south are ongoing, not least because the government is trying to impose Islamic law on the tribes. Tensions grew into a full-blown humanitarian crisis in 2003, when two rebel groups emerged: the Sudan Liberation Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement. They demanded that the Sudanese government stop arming Arab militias (the Janjaweed) and stop their rampage through Darfur. Since then, as many as 400,000 people have died, two million have been displaced while eeing the Janjaweed, who rape, pillage, and murder the black population.27
_____ 1. The melting-pot style of nationalism refers to a situation where all members of a country have adopted a common national identity. _____ 2. Efforts to revive Russian nationalism have been successful, in part, because of the high concentration of ethnic Russians within the country. _____ 3. While sometimes used interchangeably, an ethnic group can transform into a tribe once it becomes politically active in seeking its own state. _____ 4. Ethnic nationalism generally has the same effect on world politics, regardless of the group espousing the nationalist sentiment.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 9.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 5. Which of the following is not a core value of American nationalism: a. A place where constitutional rights and liberties ourish b. An image of America as a land of promise with a destiny of prosperity c. A land populated by like-minded people who espouse American dominance in world affairs d. Emphasis on the value of life, the pursuit of happiness, and the possibilities of the future e. A heritage of gloried moral values _____ 6. Which of the following countries has not experienced religious nationalism? a. Poland b. Ireland c. United States d. Afghanistan e. None of the above
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The role of leaders in mobilizing and directing nationalist forces is extremely important. Nationalist sentiments, as you might imagine, offer an attractive source of power for leaders to use in pursuit of a variety of goals. The origins of Nigerias persistent political instability, for example, may be traced to this basic political behavior when political leaders stir up nationalist feelings, typically against other ethnic-national groups, to advance their own interests. The consequences are rising tensions and decentralization. Some leaders use nationalism to promote political unity and economic development, while others tap its emotional appeal to urge national self-determination movements to break away from the current home state. In other cases, leaders turn to nationalism to mobilize a countrys population for war, and still other leaders orchestrate an overarching nationalism, hoping to surmount separatist ethnicnational sentiments inside the country. These multiple purposes of nationalism are discussed below.
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z Algerias approach to the Berbers z Egypts insistence that there are no minorities in Egypt The process of legitimizing governments, then, is sometimes fostered by the use of religious nationalism.
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Japanese Temple
The Yasukuni Shrine was founded in 1869 as Tokyo Shokonsha, meaning the shrine or place to which the divine spirits of those who have made the great sacrifice are invited. It was renamed Yasukuni Shrine in 1879, to commemorate and worship those who died in war for their country. The shrines name today means peaceful country. Japans Asian neighbors, who experienced Japanese militarism and imperialism see the shrine differently in their own nationalist eyes. They find it offensive and ultra-nationalistic when Japanese prime ministers visit it.
A Summary of Nationalism
To summarize this overview of nationalism, nationalism has had a profound impact on world politics since its emergence in the eighteenth century. z It has provided the means for a nationally self-conscious people to resist perceived foreign oppression and has given rise to new governments and new territorial states for more than 300 years. z It energized the American and French Revolutions, broke up empires from the Austro-Hungarian to the Ottoman to the Soviet, and carved new states from the colonial and imperialist conquests of England, France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal. z It has played a huge role in the life of the state and international affairs, from igniting national self-determination breakaway movements to sustaining revolutionary momentum in places like Cuba and Mexico, to inspiring Palestinians to ght for statehood. Nationalism has engendered enormous international violence and conict, and it continues to pose complex problems for the international community, such as: 1. How to control the violence it generates (as in Bosnia and Kosovo) 2. Under what conditions international bodies such as the UN and NATO should intervene In some instances, however, nationalism is the impetus for healthy democracy, self-government, economic modernization, and development. The bottom line is that nationalism is a vital part of the contemporary international scene, and in the new millennium, the world will continue to experience its force.
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_____ 1. Slobodan Milosevic, a die-hard communist during the Cold War, fought to save the integrity of all of Yugoslavia when it began to destabilize into civil war. _____ 2. Russias use of nationalism carries a pattern of thought that stresses dominance and control of its neighbors. _____ 3. Chinese nationalism is unique as it comes in both aggressive and peaceful forms.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 9.3 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 4. Which of the following world leaders used nationalism to legitimize power that resulted in war: a. Nicolas Sarkozy (France) b. Angela Merkel (Germany) c. Nelson Mandela (South Africa) d. Franjo Tudjman (Croatia) e. All of the above _____ 5. Which of the following is an example of nationalism used to develop state unity: a. Olusegun Obasanjos political campaign in Nigeria b. Fidel Castros revolution in Cuba in 1959 c. Farabundo Marti Liberation National movement in El Salvador d. None of the above e. All of the above
Case Study
Ethnic Nationalism and Nigerias Prospects for Democracy
See www.BetweenNations.org
Join the Debate Should America Try to Transplant Its Civic Nationalism Abroad?
POSITIVE SIDE
Yes. The United States should try to transplant its civic core values abroad wherever, whenever, and however it can. 1. Ideals of liberty and democracy, equality and opportunity, rule of law, separation of powers, and the supply-and-demand marketplace are the strong core values for life and for societyand people should be encouraged to follow them. 2. The core values of the United States are those most likely to make people happy and prosperous. 3. If more people in more countries followed these values, the world would be more stable and more economically thriving. As democratic peace theory suggested, liberal democracies do not go to war against each other. 4. If the world were more stable, democratic, free, and economically prosperous, there would be fewer wars and greater possibility of world peace. 5. As the worlds leading power on the side of peace, the United States has a responsibility to embed its core values abroad. This is a civilizing mission of which all Americans should be proud.
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NEGATIVE SIDE
No, absolutely not. America should not try to transplant its core values abroad. 1. Look at what has happened to the U.S. image abroad since the Bush Doctrine began to push American ideals in Iraq. The United States has become the most disliked country in the world. Thanks to the U.S. occupation of Iraq, al Qaeda is now a brand of militant Islam franchise. Its anti-American, antiWest religious ideology has spread across the world. 2. American citizens do not have a corner on the market of core values by which to live. They have no business pushing their culture on others. When they do, they all too easily can embrace a doctrine of force and become cultural imperialistsforcing their nationalism on others. 3. U.S. citizens do not follow world events in depth. In fact, no more than 22 percent of the U.S. public follows, or even knows much about, world affairs. How can Americans possibly have the remotest idea, therefore, of what is best for the rest of the world? 4. If American values are pushed on the rest of the world, the United Statesin the context of good versus evilwill stand out like a sore thumb and become the target of suicide bombers here and around the world.
5. U.S. nationalism lately has taken a Christian evangelical religious tilt that followers of other religions, or no religions, around the world nd particularly offensive. Anatol Lievens America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism stresses that in waging a crusade abroad American nationalism has taken a radical, evangelical, and counterproductive form. 6. Because such a low percentage of U.S. citizens actually vote, the U.S. form of government is far less representative than it appears in theory. This point alone invalidates the U.S. governments export of national core values 7. The downside of American nationalism is its false sense of moral superiority and racism.
QUESTIOnS
1. Which side of the debate makes the most sense to you? 2. What factors to you think have most contributed to Americas type of nationalism? 3. How strongly do you think Americans disagree on the core values of their national identity and how they should be expressed in terms of domestic and foreign policies?
States, nations, and nationalism are key features and driving forces in todays international system. Whereas a state is a piece of territory with a government possessing sovereignty and inhabited by people, a nation is a psychological identity of people who see themselves as part of a common group. Nationalism springs from national identity that comes in two distinct forms: civic national identity and ethnicnational identity. Nationalism of the twentieth century increasingly had ethnic identity as its base, and therefore was frequently
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Nationalism has both positive and negative effects 1 on 2 world politics. On its dark side, American nationalism under the inuence of the Bush Doctrine (see chapter 5), has become jingoistic and militaristicundermining American inuence abroad, according to Anatol Lieven, one observer among many.
4 5 how nationalism 6 7 is used 8 by world 9 leaders 10 for Understand both personal and national gain.
Some states try to control disparate nationalist forces inside their borders by creating a power-sharing federal form of government, as in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. The principal ways leaders use nationalism to try to:
- Legitimize their power - Conquer perceived enemy ethnic groups - Promote state political unity and economic development by overcoming separatist sentiments within the state - Lead self-determination movements - Legitimize their preferred policy direction
3 4 how history 5 6 location 7 impact 8 9 Understand and nationalism, using Russia and America as examples.
10
Both history and location shape nationalism. Numerous distinctions are expressed in ethnic identity; some lead to cooperation, while others, more frequently, lead to tensions and conict. American and Russian versions of nationalism illustrate vivid contrasts. American nationalism is less focused on ethnicity than Russian nationalism. Religious nationalism has demonstrated a particular tendency to violence and conict. Sudan illustrates violent religious nationalism at work today, as did radical Islam under Afghanistans Taliban before 9/11.
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Learning Objectives
2 1
Be able to identify the different types of weapons used in war and understand the methods used to control these weapons.
Dene terrorism and understand the objectives and tactics of terror groups; also identify methods for dealing with the problem of terrorism.
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Chapter Outline
Identify and be able to explain what methods are available for deterring global violence.
hen the Cold War confrontation between Soviet communism and Western democratic capitalism ended in 1991, there was a sense of optimism that a new and more peaceful world order would emerge. Despite the end of the Cold War, however, violence in many parts of the world occurred throughout the 1990s and in some places actually increased. The rst few years of the twentyrst century gave the impression that for most of the world, war and the prospects for war would be as prevalent as ever. As we look to the future, the threat of nuclear war persists because of tensions between India and Pakistan, because of Russias inability to control its vast supplies of nuclear materials, because of tensions between North Korea, its neighbors, and the United States,
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misperception p. 296 biological weapon p. 303 chemical weapon p. 303 conventional weapon p. 303 structural arms control p. 307 operational arms control p. 309 domestic terrorism p. 311 international terrorism p. 311 Interpol p. 315 Europol p. 315 second-strike capability p. 319
and because more countries seek to acquire nuclear weapons. In addition, non-nuclear weapons are becoming more numerous, more widely available, and, in some cases, more lethal than ever. Put these weapons in the hands of terrorists, and you have a very dangerous world indeed. It would surprise virtually every analyst of world politics if you, or even your children, lived to a ripe old age without having to confront the scourge of international violence. Interstate and civil wars occur on almost every continent, and the threat of terrorism increasingly confronts everyone. This chapter examines these traditional subjects in the study of international relations. The rst part of this chapter lays out a description of, and analytical framework for, understanding why wars occur. The next section provides an overview of the tools of global violence, including weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons. This discussion is followed by an overview of the pressing issue of international terrorism, its impact, and how the world is responding to it. The nal section of the chapter takes a broad look at how global violence may be controlled. We review the ability to eliminate the motivations for going to war and, as an introduction to the next chapter, the ability (or inability) of international law and international organizations to keep the peace. As this chapter demonstrates, both centralizing and decentralizing forces are at work in the causes and prevention of global violence. z Decentralization is manifest, for example, in the growth of ethnic and religious conict in many parts of the world and in the efforts of nationalist movements that use violence to create a separate national identity (such as the Basques in Spain). (See chapter 9.) Centralization is present in the trend toward establishing international law and global structures to implement itfor example, military tribunals to try people accused of committing crimes against humanity. z Centralizing trends are also evident in the attempts by the United States, European countries, and many other states to provide a more coordinated response to terrorism. How these forces interact will help determine the extent to which global violence will be a feature of the world political landscape in the years to come. n
One of the most perplexing questions that faces humanity is, Why does war occur? This simply stated query has no simple answer; scholars are often at odds about every aspect of this question. In the next few pages, we provide a framework for answering it. One useful way to look at the many causes of war is to examine two categories. Underlying causes of war are generally long-term. For example,
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Americans killed on Saipan, WWII 3,144 Total killed at World Trade Center (9/11) 2,752 0 400,000 800,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 2,000,000
fear of the spread of communism led to U.S. intervention in Vietnam; U.S. dependence on foreign oil contributed to its involvement in the Persian Gulf War. Immediate, or proximate, causes of war are generally short-term and applicable to a specic context. Think of them as the trigger that sets off a war. The immediate cause of World War I, for example, was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914. Which is better at explaining the causes of warunderlying or immediate causes? Scholars are split on this question. To help demonstrate why, consider the causes of World War II. You will quickly understand why even very knowledgeable people disagree. Was World War II caused by Germanys long-term attempt to dominate Europe (underlying cause)? Or was the war caused by Adolf Hitlers personal rise to power (an immediate cause)? Or was the war simply the second act of a two-act play (World Wars I and II) in which the land-based Germany attempted to challenge the global leadership of sea-based Great Britain (underlying cause)? These are, obviously, not easy questions to answer. We now turn to a more systematic analysis of the causes of war. In order to make better sense of immediate and underlying causes, weve lumped the causes of war into three broad categories, which we explore below. But rst, take a look at Figure 10.1, which compares the number of casualties in several distinct conicts, compared to other causes of death. You may be surprised to learn how many people died in warparticularly if the war did not get much press coverage.
For more information see Why It Matters to You: The Toll of WarCasualties in Some Major Selected Conicts www.BetweenNations.org
Publishing Services Inc. Our rst category of causes for war highlights material or political motivations. In World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e this category are the desire for territorial gain, bids for national independence, 22.0900 economic causes, and domestic political pressures. Lets look at each in turn. 2nd Proof 3rd Proof Final
Proof
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Economic Causes
There are numerous economic causes of war. In the Persian Gulf War, for example, Iraq, the United States, and indeed all members of the UN coalition had an economic interest in going to war. Kuwaits oil elds and the Kuwaiti treasury enticed Saddam Hussein to go to war. The United States and UN were galvanized to take Kuwait back from Iraq because of concerns that a successful Iraqi invasion would leave too much oilthe backbone of the global economyin the hands of Saddam Hussein. Economics can also be an important cause of wars involving smaller countries. The Red Cross has shown how corruption, banditry, and ghts for diamonds, minerals, and timber fueled war in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Angola. In addition, war can actually generate income. For example, weapons manufacturers can reap enormous prots from ongoing struggles, and smugglers can evade blockades or sanctions so they can charge high prices for their illegal goods.1
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Ideological Causes
Ideological differences have contributed to many wars of the past and are likely to be involved in future wars as well. The Korean War, for instance, can be portrayed as the attempt by democratic capitalist states to prevent the spread of atheistic, authoritarian communism. In fact, the entire Cold Warbetween the United States and the free world on the one hand and Soviet-led communism on the otherrepresented a massive struggle between two competing ideologies that encompassed political, economic, philosophical, and religious differences. Another type of ideology is religious in nature, and al Qaeda offers an important example. Al Qaeda, as some scholars see it, is less an organization than an ideology. It violently seeks a radical change to the world order but is not linked to a specic individual or organization. Many who believe in al Qaedaism, for instance, are not associated with Osama bin Laden directly, but they do follow his precepts.3 Another element of the ideology is the feeling of political, economic, and cultural humiliation. The Islamic world has seen its inuence decline and now, for example, Islamic states in the Middle East rank among the lowest on most indicators of development. The sense of frustration among terrorists is aggravated
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by ongoing U.S. foreign policies in the Middle East, such as the U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia and Iraq, and U.S. support for Israel. Al Qaeda also vehemently opposes U.S. support for the political leaders of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, all of whom are targets of al Qaeda for their lack of religious purity and repressive policies. While al Qaeda is hostile to the U.S. way of life, it is especially motivated by opposition to U.S. foreign policies. A related idea motivating many Islamic terrorists is the presence of indels on sacred Islamic lands. Saudi Arabia is host to two of Islams holiest sites, Mecca and Medina. During the Persian Gulf War in 19901991, the Saudi government requested the aid of Western troops to safeguard the country from an Iraqi attack. But the presence of Christian troops on Saudi soil was viewed as an affront to Islam and brought back painful reminders of the bloodshed of the Crusades. This ideology of violent international jihad has been able to generate a seemingly inexhaustible supply of volunteers and recruits. Even if Osama bin Laden is killed or captured, al Qaeda will be difficult to neutralize, given the appeal of the ideology.
Psychological Causes
Audio Concept Psychological Causes of War www.BetweenNations.org
Many psychological factors can be used to explain why wars occur. Some psychological analyses of war focus on individual psychology; others deal with group psychology. For example, we could say that an individual leaders thirst for power partially explains Adolf Hitlers decisions that led to World War II. We could also apply many psychological theories in attempts to understand the personalities and motivations of Franjo Tudjman and Slobodan Milosevic, both of whom were responsible for starting the violence in Yugoslavia in the 1990s.
Misperception When applied to war and international relations, a cause of war in which one or more countries in a dispute misinterpret the intentions of the other. The misunderstanding leads to a war that perhaps was not desired by any country.
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For decades, terrorism has been a part of life in Northern Ireland, a part of Britain. The differences between Catholics and Protestants led to this incident in 2001 where Catholic parents and children ran a gauntlet of Protestants screaming obscenities at them.
z In 1983, terrorists bombed U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut, killing 241 American servicemen. The United States simply withdrew, taking no military action. The United States didnt want to offend Syria, a client state of the Soviet Union. z In 1984, CIA agent William Buckley was kidnapped and tortured to death the following year by Syrian-backed terrorists. The United States averted its eyes. z In 1988, Colonel William Higgins of the U.S. Marines was killed by terrorists, who released a video of his corpse hanging from a rope. Because none of these incidents generated much public outrage in the United States, Saddam Hussein had the impression (or misperception) that the United States would not act in the Middle East. After Egyptian leaders and others in the Middle East told the United States that Iraq would not attack Kuwait, the United States failed to take decisive action. For example, when the U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, went to talk to the Iraqi president, she did not send him strong enough signals to deter the attack.
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also possible that Iraqs WMD could have been used by terrorists in attacks against the United States and other targets. After Iraq failed to provide the UN with adequate explanations for its weapons programs and after the UN chose not to authorize force against Iraq, the United States and a coalition of countries used military force to achieve regime change in Iraq. Nevertheless, controversy persists over the Bush administrations decision to go to war. z First, after extensive searches, no signicant numbers of WMD were found. z Second, some doubt that the government of Saddam Hussein would have ever used WMDs against the United States. Moreover, many analysts believed that the Iraqi leader had been contained after the Persian Gulf War because of U.S. and British patrols of the no-y zones and because of the UN sanctions. z A third point of contention has to do with the very denition of preemptive war. As explained above, a preemptive war occurs when a country feels there is a clear and present danger of attack. A preventive attack, by contrast, occurs out of fear that another country might pose a danger in the medium or long term. Most analysts now conclude that Iraq did not pose a clear and present danger to U.S. interests. Since Iraq might have posed a serious threat at some distant time, the Iraq War is more appropriately viewed as a preventive war.
Gender-based Causes
Another more recent trend of analysis by feminist political researchers points to gender as a reason states go to war. As we saw in chapter 2, there are many strains of feminist thought in international relations. Some feminists believe natural differences (nature) exist between the sexes. Others believe the social environment (nurture) in which people are raisedan environment that encourages males to be aggressive and violent, and females to be quiet and cooperativeis more important. Both the nature and the nurture feminists might agree that war is essentially a male enterprise, but they might disagree as to why. Feminists also disagree on why, when women reach the apex of political power, like Englands Queen Victoria in the nineteenth century and Margaret Thatcher in the twentieth, they seem as ready to go to war as their male counterparts.
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_____ 1. We can divide the reasons for going to war into two categories: long-term and historic. _____ 2. The security dilemma illustrates how preparing to defend against a potential attack may actually increase the likelihood that you will be attacked. _____ 3. While there are a variety of reasons that explain why a country may go to war, all of these explanations center around international (not domestic) factors. _____ 4. Misperceptions in world politics can result in wars that none of the warring parties had desired. _____ 5. Virtually all scholars of world politics argue that multipolar balances of power lead to the most stable international systems.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 10.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Which of the following is a material or political motivation for going to war? a. Desire for territorial gain b. Bids for national independence c. Economic causes d. Domestic political pressures e. All of the above _____ 7. Which of the following statements is false? a. Anarchy in the international system makes wars more likely. b. In terms of security, the world is a selfhelp system. c. Except for the United Nations, the world has no world government. d. There is no such thing as a permanent ally or enemy in world politics. e. None of the above
Global violence is affected not simply by the outbreak of war but also by the type and number of weapons involved. This section deals with the tools of global violence. Most people are aware, at least vaguely, of the destructive power of nuclear weapons. (The bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945 killed about 100,000 people.) Increasingly, however, people are becoming aware of the threats posed by biological and chemical weapons. Compared to nuclear weapons, these weapons are cheaper to make, easier to make, and easier to make in secret. They are often called the poor mans weapon of mass destruction. Atop a missile, red from an advanced bomber, or even delivered by foot, biological and chemical weapons can have an enormous impact. The United States, its allies, and its rivals are all heavily involved in research in or acquisition of weapons technology, with the hope of gaining the edge. Advanced technology improves the force of explosives, makes targeting more accurate, makes information processing more efficient, and, ultimately, determines how well aggression is deterred and who wins a war. Lets take a closer look at the weapons of violence in world politics.
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fall into the wrong hands is Russia. Studies by the International Atomic Energy Agency reveal that thousands of radioactive sources worldwide, designed to generate high levels of radiation for industrial and medical equipment, are lying virtually unguarded in factories and hospitals, and more than 100 countries may have inadequate programs to prevent or detect thefts.9 Problems exist even in states that have relatively good records of keeping track of nuclear material. For example, Austrian nuclear physicist Fritz Steinhausler notes that the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission lists an average of 200 radiation sources that are stolen, lost, or abandoned within the United States every year.10
Nuclear Proliferation
Declared nuclear weapon states Non-NPT nuclear weapon states Suspected nuclear weapon states States with suspected clandestine programs
(Country may have active interest in acquiring the capability to produce biological warfare agents)
Missile
Agni II Shahab III Jericho II No Dong Taepo Dong I Taepo Dong II Ghauri/No Dong Ghauri II CSS-2
Range
2,0002,500 km 1,300 km 1,500 km 1,300 km 1,5002,000 km 5,500 km 1,300 km 1,5002,000 km 2,600 km
(Country has declared its chemical weapons, and committed to destroying them under the Chemical Weapons Convention)
Total
~27,600
Source: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Washington, DC, 2007), http://www.CarnegieEndowment.org. Used by permission.
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Biological weapon A weapon that utilizes living organisms such as anthrax or botulinum toxin. It is a weapon of mass destruction in that it does not distinguish between soldier and civilian. Chemical weapon A weapon consisting of harmful chemicals including tear gas, napalm, or poison gas. It is a weapon of mass destruction in that it does not distinguish between soldier and civilian.
Conventional Weapons
Most conventional weapons have been around for a long time or are simply modern variants of weapons that predate the twentieth century. For example, all the armed services make use of various kinds of guns, bullets, and bombs. Other common weapons include hand grenades, cannons, artillery shells, and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) as well as various platforms for ring weapons, such as submarines, planes, helicopters, and aircraft carriers. Furthermore, radar-evading cruise missiles guided by global positioning systems (GPS) can be launched from ships or jets. Smart bombs have sophisticated tracking and targeting systems, while dumb bombs (or gravity bombs) basically get dropped from a plane and land on their target by gravity. An unusual bomb is the GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast Bomb (MOAB) weapon, also know as the Mother of All Bombs. It weighs 21,000 pounds, is GPS-guided, and is designed to spread devastation over a broad areamuch like its smaller predecessor, the Daisy Cutter, which was used in Vietnam and the Persian Gulf wars.16 The worlds biggest conventional bomb, it is designed to spread devastation over a broad area or to penetrate hard and deeply buried targets, like the caves of Afghanistan.17 The term light weapons encompasses some of the weapons already mentioned but characterizes those that are light in weight, such as pistols, ries, and
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hand grenades. Light weapons may not seem as effective as weapons of mass destruction, or as powerful and precise as cruise missiles, but they are the weapon of choice in much of the developing world, and they can also lead to devastating results. In Rwanda in 1994, for example, 800,000 to one million people were killed after the Hutu-dominated government spent millions of dollars on rifles, grenades, machine guns, and machetes. These were later used to slaughter Tutsi civilians.18 In brief, then, conventional weapons is a loose term encompassing a wide range of offensive and defensive weapons.
Other Weapons
It is worth noting several other types of weapons. As a result of scientic and technological advances, scientists, engineers, and weapons manufacturers have become increasingly imaginative and innovative in nding new ways to subdue a foe. Some of the new or proposed weapons are designed to incapacitate a soldier, while others are designed to render military hardware useless. Many are also being designed to help acquire battleeld intelligence. Laser weapons, for example, are designed to inict temporary or permanent blindness on the enemy. Weapons designers are working on non-illuminating paints to make military vehicles invisible to radar. They are also developing armor as exible as skin, tough as an abalone shell, and enhanced with living characteristics such as the ability to heal itself when torn.19 Some of these weapons will not be developed for technical reasons; others may not be developed for political or ethical reasons. For example, even though supporters of blinding laser weapons believe the weapon is a nonlethal way of stopping an opponent, othersincluding the Red Crossargue that such weapons should be outlawed because they are inhumane.
Lebanese trucks remove debris from sites bombed by Israel in the July August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hezbollah fighters based in Lebanon.
Associated Press, Andrew England ,Lebanese Industry Counts Costs of Reconstruction, Financial Times, September 26, 2006. Used by permission.
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Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), such as the Predator pictured here, began to prove their worth as reconnaissance and attack vehicles at the start of the twenty-first century.
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The 800,000 to one million people killed in Rwanda in 1994 were not the victims of nuclear, biological, or chemical attack. The machete a conventional weaponwas responsible for much of the mass killing that took place between Hutus and Tutsis. In this photo, Hutu refugees walk past thousands of abandoned machetes.
From Corbis, Clea Koff, A Personal Legacy of Death and Heroism, Financial Times, February 5, 2005. Used by permission.
mines has dropped from fty-four to sixteen. Despite these signs of progress, however, more than 250 million remain in the arsenals of 105 nations.22
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The NGOs Amnesty International and Oxfam International created gravestones in central London to illustrate the campaign against arms sales in general and land mines in particular.
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A familiar saying in international relations is if you wish peace, then prepare for war. While this may make sense on the surface, preparing for war can increase tensions and make ones adversaries so nervous that war becomes more likely as was discussed earlier with the security dilemma. z Strategic Arms Limitation Talks: An instructive example of structural arms control is the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which began in 1969 and concluded in 1972. As the United States and the Soviet Union realized the dangers (each side had enough nuclear power to destroy the planet) and nancial costs of the nuclear arms race, they began the rst major arms control efforts of the Cold War. SALT resulted in an agreement in which neither side would attempt to gain superiority over the other. It limited the number of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile launchers each country could have. In addition, the two sides agreed that deployment would only be used for deterring warnot for aggression or victory in a war.25 SALT also limited each side to two anti-ballistic missile (ABM) deployment sites, with no more than 100 ABMs at each. This was later changed to only one ABM site. z The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty: Another agreement, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, signed by the United States and Soviet Union, sought to keep both states vulnerable to a missile attack. This notion may not make sense at rst, but the logic is that if each side knew that one could destroy the other, neither would start a nuclear war (see the section on deterrence below). In 2002, however, the Bush administration pulled the United States out of the ABM Treaty because of its faith in a missile-defense system that could potentially stop at least a limited number of incoming missiles. No country currently has the capacity to stop large ballistic missiles, and it will be some years before this goal is achieved by U.S. scientists and engineers. Some actually doubt the United States, or any country, will ever be able to build an effective missile-defense system. z Strategic Arms Reduction Talks: As the Cold War wound down in 1991, SALT evolved into the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). As the 1990s progressed, Russia and the United States were not just capping the number of nuclear weapons systems but also were paring them down. START I set limits of 1,600 on the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons systems and 6,000 on nuclear warheads. START II, begun in 1993, called for both sides to reduce their strategic nuclear warheads to no more than 3,000 to 3,500 by 2008. Illustrating the difculty of achieving structural arms control, the START II treaty was never ratied by the U.S. Senate. When George W. Bush became president, he said the United States would not ratify the START II treaty. The Bush administration eventually pushed for important reductions, but with the exibility to keep almost 4,000 warheads available in storage.
Many sales techniques are used in the lucrative weapons market, including sex appeal.
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_____ 1. Some analysts would argue that WMD should stand for weapons of mass disruption. _____ 2. Biological weapons are more devastating than chemical weapons. _____ 3. Some analysts of international relations would argue that land mines are more dangerous than nuclear weapons as land mines have killed or injured many more people than nuclear weapons. _____ 4. Structural arms control mimics the structural nature of the international system, with bipolar agreements being the most effective at reducing arms races. _____ 5. Operational arms control makes no active effort to reduce the number of weapons in the world.
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_____ 6. Which of the following is one of the original ve nuclear weapons states? a. Japan b. Germany c. India d. France e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following statements is false? a. Anarchy in the international system makes wars more likely. b. In terms of security, the world is a selfhelp system. c. Except for the United Nations, the world has no world government. d. There is no such thing as a permanent ally or enemy in world politics. e. None of the above _____ 8. Which of the following would be characterized as a conventional weapon? a. Rie b. Submarine c. Massive Ordnance Air Blast Bomb d. Cruise missiles e. All of the above
Terrorism is nothing new in world politics. Besides the obvious case of Americans as terrorist targets, people in Britain, Spain, France, Colombia, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Israel, and many other countries have often been the targets of terrorism. This section explores types of terrorism, provides a description of what terrorists objectives and tactics are, and suggests ways in which terrorism may be stopped.
Types of Terrorism
Terrorism is a method of violence or military strategy that is used sometimes by states but especially by non-state actors. According to military analyst George Friedman, terrorism is an attempt to defeat an enemy by striking directly against its general population and thereby creating a sense of terror which, it is hoped, will
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Domestic Terrorism
In the 1990s, U.S. citizens were reminded that terrorism need not be international in nature. The bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, which killed 168 people, was a striking example of homegrown or domestic terrorism. In fact, historically, domestic terrorism has been a bigger problem than international terrorism. One of the most serious sites of domestic terrorism is Algeria, where the government has been ghting what amounts to a civil war against Islamic extremists who are trying to overthrow the government. The 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States are also widely believed to be the work of domestic terrorists; the perpetrators remain unidentied.
Domestic terrorism Terrorism whose perpetrators are from the same country in which the terrorist act takes place; homegrown terrorism.
International Terrorism
What we are primarily concerned about in this chapter, however, is international terrorism, which involves citizens of more than one country. The nature of international terrorism can be extremely complex and involve many countries. For example, the suicide attack at Israels Lod Airport in 1972 was not simply an attack involving Palestinian terrorists and Israeli targets. Twenty-six people were massacred and almost eighty others wounded in an attack by Japanese terrorists who had gone to Israel on behalf of Palestinians to kill passengers on an inbound U.S. ight. More then half of the people on the plane happened to be Puerto Rican pilgrims visiting the Holy Land.29 As we discussed in chapter 7, international terrorist organizations are nonstate actors that are essentially beyond the control of states. Thus, a major challenge in stopping international terrorist organizations is dealing with non-state actors who have no formal or direct links to a state. It is easier to target a state than an elusive non-state actor. This problem is much worse in the twenty-rst century because of the global scope of the Islamic terrorist movement and the globalization of modern communications systems, illegal weapons, and nancial networks. We now turn to the objectives of terrorist groups and the tactics they use.
International terrorism Terrorism involving citizens or the territory of more than one country.
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Terrorist Tactics
Terrorist tactics are varied, but they generally aim to put fear in the minds of the general public or a specic group of people. In this respect, one could say that the main weapon of terrorists is psychological. A variety of tactics are available to terrorists, including: z Bombings: The most common terrorist tactic is bombing, such as the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, that killed 270 people, and the March 2004 bombings of crowded trains in Madrid, Spain, killing nearly 200 people and injuring up to 1,900. z Other Traditional Tactics: Both old methods and new technologies allow terrorists to exploit technological and scientic advances to carry out their plans. These tactics include arson, kidnapping, hijacking, sabotage, and threats that sometimes are not even carried out. As 9/11 showed, terrorist tactics can be quite unusual. Hijackings of commercial airliners and the use of jets or even crop dusters and other light planes for terrorism remain a concern not just for the United States but any country deemed a target by terrorists. z Biological and Chemical Attacks: Terrorists may also resort to biological attacks on the food supply. The United States feared that an al Qaeda cell may have been planning to poison water in the Seattle area in the summer of 2002. In addition, terrorists may resort to chemical attacks, as did the Aum Shinrikyo cult in 1995 when it released sarin nerve gas in Tokyos subway. z Environmental Attacks: Another form of terrorism, known as environmental terrorism, involves the targeting of hazardous waste disposal and even attacks on medical facilities that address health-related aspects of environmental pollution.
Northern Ireland
One example of a terrorist group that chose to stop terrorizing comes from Great Britain. In Northern Ireland (a part of Britain, not the Republic of Ireland), the
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Catholic and Protestant communities, which had been ghting for two centuries, made a major commitment to end the violence by signing the Good Friday Accord in 1998. Under the leadership of the British and Irish governments, both communities and the political parties that represented them agreed to compromises that would create new, local governmental institutions for resolving conicts. These compromises also meant turning away from terrorism as an accepted political instrument. In support of the peace process, mostbut not allparamilitary terrorist groups on both sides agreed to a ceasere.
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Interpol An international police force that maintains a data bank on criminal activity around the world. It also fosters country-tocountry and multilateral cooperation.
Europol A Europe-wide police force that fosters country-to-country cooperation as well as multilateral cooperation.
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As we saw in chapter 1, terrorism is a problem that one state cannot solve on its own, especially when terrorist organizations are using the benets of the technological revolution to coordinate their activities.
Terrorists pose many kinds of threats to countries around the world. Car bombings, kidnapping, radiological bombs, and cyberattacks on vital economic, administrative, and military computer networks are just a few possibilities. Suicide bombings, another terrorist threat, have been used extensively, for example, in Israel by Palestinian militants, in Sri Lanka by Tamil Tigers ghting an ethnic war for a separate state, and in Iraq since the U.S.led occupation, as Islamic insurgents have gone after foreigners as well as Iraqi citizens seen to be working with foreigners. There is some concern that the Iraq War is increasing the threat of future terrorist attacks. The instability in Iraq since 2003 appears to offer both recruiting opportunities and on-the-job training for new terrorist elements. Thus, despite the fact that the war in Iraq was incorrectly viewed as part of the war on al Qaeda inspired terrorism, it is becoming so as time passes. If we combine the problems of the Iraq War with disputes between the Palestinians and Israelis, the tensions within Lebanon, and the struggle of the international community to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons, the Middle East has become a major incubator of international terrorism.
Arms Smuggling
Another source of concern is the many ways weapons or terrorists might be smuggled into the target country. For example, in 2000 alone the following passed through U.S. border inspection systems: z 489 million people z 127 million passenger vehicles z 11.6 million maritime containers z 11.5 million trucks The magnitude of the trade in goods and the mobility of people make it impossible to track everything. In October 2001, an al Qaeda suspect was found inside z 2.2 million railroad cars z 829,000 planes z 211,000 vessels
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_____ 1. Terrorism is an attempt to defeat an enemy by striking directly at its general population in an attempt to mobilize that population to foster change in their government. _____ 2. While the main objectives of terror groups vary widely, the specic tactics used by such groups is remarkably similar. _____ 3. In the 1990s terrorist activities declined for a number of reasons, including: the collapse of the Soviet Union as well as preventive measures taken by states. _____ 4. Interpol is the worlds primary counterterrorism agency because it has been given signicant power and funding to accomplish its objectives.
Multiple Choice
_____ 5. Which of the following is a main objective of many al Qaeda members? a. To have Osama bin Laden sit on the Saudi Arabian throne b. To create an independent Palestinian state coexisting with Israel
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c. To create a united Islamic community (umma) that restores power and dignity to the faithful d. The creation of three caliphates to cooperatively govern the entire Islamic world e. All of the above _____ 6. Which of the following is not a tactic used by terror groups: a. Bombings b. Kidnapping/hostage taking c. Hijacking ships or airplanes d. Environmental attacks e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is a valid reason given as to why some terrorist groups stop their activities? a. Poor leadership within the terror organization leads to its demise. b. An overow of support from the host areas of the groups leads to divisiveness among competitors for power. c. Terror group members become disillusioned with their lack of effectiveness and disband. d. All of the above e. None of the above
Most observers of world politics believe that the twenty-rst century is likely to be as violent as the twentieth. The decentralizing forces affecting more and more countries often lead to violent nationalist and separatist movements. In addition, with the greater ease of acquiring weapons and their increased lethality and variety, the potential increases for conicts that stem from territorial disputes, personal ambitions, and religious and ethnic differences. If people are to reduce global violence, the motivations for going to war must be reduced. This chapter, as well as others in this book, suggests several ways of doing this. International law and international institutions, for example, are designed, in part, to help manage peacefully the relations among countries. But lets not forget the realist position that a strong country can deter aggression, thus contributing to peaceful (but perhaps tense) relations among countries. We look at this subject of deterrence rst. Then we look at strengthening international institutions and international law.
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weapons to retaliate against Country A. This psychological component of deterrence gives the concept a seemingly illogical side effect. Normally, we tend to think that uncertainty in an anarchic world breeds tension among countries. Such tension is believed by many to make war more likely. (Recall how close we came to World War III during the tense days of the Cuban missile crisis.) Ironically, however, deterrence can actually be enhanced by psychological uncertainty. As we have said, if Country A believes that Country D will retaliate, Country A will be deterred. This also works when Country A is uncertain about Country Ds intentions. As the noted international relations theorist Kenneth Waltz put it, if youre not sure that the other side will use nuclear weapons, you wont want to take any chances; knowing that the other side may retaliate is enough to deter a potential attacker.41 In short, maybe Country D wont use nuclear weapons in a counterattack, but maybe it will! 4. Reliable control: The fourth requirement for a country to deter an opponent is reliable command and control of the nuclear arsenal. In essence, Country D must be able to distinguish between an actual attack by Country A and a false alarm. Moreover, it must not allow the unauthorized use of nuclear weapons.
For more information see Mutually Assured Destruction www.BetweenNations.org
One of the great questions for the second half of the twentieth century is, Why didnt the United States and the Soviet Union go to war? Most analysts believe that deterrence was the keyin particular, mutual assured destruction (MAD). Both the United States and the Soviet Union had acquired enough nuclear weapons (with second-strike capabilities) that an attack on one country would have led inevitably to the destruction of the other. Each side had enough nuclear weapons to rain down destruction not only on the other but on the world as a whole. Hence, neither country initiated a war against the other. Is it possible to deter a country without assuring the total destruction of the attacker? Yes, because of the second requirement of deterrence: the ability to inict unacceptable damage. This may explain why we may not see a war between India and Pakistan. Their nuclear arsenals are limited, but even a single warhead exploded in the others national capital could inict unacceptable damage. Would India risk a war with Pakistan if it knew Pakistan could wipe out New Delhi? According to deterrence theory, that is unlikely. The same could apply eventually to Israel (which has nuclear weapons but wont admit it) and Iran (which is attempting to build nuclear weapons).
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International Law
Can international law moderate the competitiveness of states? Perhaps. To understand why, it helps to begin with another important question: If there is no global government to write global law and no global police force to enforce global law, then why do states adhere to it? Two main answers explain why. 1. First, a state may follow international law to gain a positive reputation as a state that can be trusted. Such trust is important in the dangerous and, as realists would say, anarchic world of international relations. 2. Second, states write and follow international laws because of the concept of reciprocity. Good behavior on the part of one country may be reciprocated by another. So, when countries have good reputations and can count on reciprocal treatment, interstate tensions diminish and war becomes less attractive and less likely.
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z Mediation, for example, allows an outsider (or third party) to propose a nonbinding solution for the disputing states. z With arbitration, a third party (a judge, for example) gives a binding decision. For the decision to be followed, of course, both sides of the dispute must agree in advance to accept the third party and that the third partys decision will be binding. z A more formalized method for resolving disputes is known as adjudication. This involves an institutionalized court that renders binding decisions. Such a court exists not just to resolve the dispute in question; it is a permanent legal body that handles cases year after year. The most prominent court of this nature is the UN-afliated International Court of Justice (ICJ), also called the World Court. The ICJ and its predecessor, the League of Nations Permanent Court of International Justice, established in 1922, was designed as a permanent court to ensure continuity in legal rulings across many cases. Unlike in mediation and arbitration, the ICJ is not subject to preliminary limitations on its procedures, evidence to be considered, or legal principles to be applied.42 A permanent court also has the advantage of consisting of judges well versed and experienced in deciding many kinds of international legal disputes.
In many parts of the world, especially Africa, children are being enlistedand sometimes forcedinto militias and army units.
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interests.46 Making matters more complicated for international law is that each state decides for itself when its vital national interests are at stake. Even among allies, agreement is difcult, as demonstrated by U.S. unwillingness to go along with its allies and support the ICC, the Kyoto protocol (which deals with environmental destruction), and treaties or protocols banning land mines, torture, and the death penalty.
_____ 1. Deterrence has been found to be one of the most effective weapons a state has against terror groups. _____ 2. Mutual assured destruction (MAD) was used during the Cold War to reduce the likelihood that nuclear weapons would actually be used. _____ 3. Unacceptable damage allows for an attacking country to be hurt, but not completely devastated. _____ 4. The UNs chief limitation in preventing conict lies in the fact that member states must come to an agreement before action can be taken. _____ 5. Similar to the founding of the UN, the United States has been the chief architect and proponent of the International Criminal Court.
_____ 6. Which of the following is a not a condition for successful deterrence? a. Second-strike capability b. Weapons of mass destruction c. Command and control of nuclear weapons d. Ability to inict unacceptable damage e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is a commonly accepted method for resolving legal disputes at the international level? a. Mediation c. Adjudication b. Arbitration d. All of the above
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Case Study
Why People Turn to Terrorism
See www.BetweenNations.org
Join the Debate Is the World Safer with More Nuclear States?
For decades, the ve major nuclear powers tried to prevent other countries from acquiring nuclear weapons. This was done, in part, for political reasons. If the big ve could keep their club exclusive, they would retain a unique advantage over other countries. The ve nuclear powersthe United States, France, Britain, China, and the Soviet Unionalso tried to keep a lid on nuclear weapons proliferation because new nuclear powers were believed to lack safe command and control systems. For example, a states structure for linking everyone involved in the decision to use the bomb may not be secure, or procedures for implementing that decision may not be safe. Main concerns focused on how new nuclear powers could ensure their nuclear weapons wouldnt be red accidentally, and that nuclear material wouldnt be sold to another country or fall into the hands of terrorists. One keen observer of nuclear arms control, Scott D. Sagan, highlights six problems related to controlling nuclear weapons.1 These issues are especially worth tracking since Pakistan and India joined the nuclear club in 1998 and because several states, including North Korea and Iran, are alleged to be actively involved in building nuclear weapons. First, emerging nuclear powers may lack the organizational and nancial resources to produce adequate mechanical safety devices and safe weapons design features. After the Persian Gulf War, for example, weapons inspectors found that Iraqs nuclear bomb design was highly unstable. It called for the bombs core to be crammed with so much weapons-grade uranium that it would be perpetually on the verge of going off. As one weapons inspector put it, I wouldnt want to be around if it fell off the edge of this desk. In addition, deterrence might not work with emerging nuclear powers because of poor communications with their adversaries. During the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union eventually learned to communicate routinely in order to avoid a miscalculation. In the case of relations between Iran and Israel, however, Iran has refused to talk to Israel, and its president has called for wiping Israel off the map. Many in Israel and elsewhere wonder whether Iran is even a rational country.2 Second, because the major world powers oppose nuclear weapons proliferation, emerging nuclear powers must develop their weapons under conditions of great secrecy and thus without thorough monitoring of safety efforts. Public debate is less lively, making it more likely that a small number of bureaucratic and military interests are in control and unchallenged. Third, in countries with volatile civil-military relations, accidents are more likely to happen. In 1990, for example, the Pakistani air force may have loaded nuclear weapons on its F-16 aircraft without informing then Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. As if this werent bad enough, the United States said that the F-16 hadnt been properly modied to carry nuclear weapons. In addition, this incident took place during a period of crisis over Kashmir.3 Fourth, because countries seeking to acquire nuclear weapons often face adversaries that are geograph ically close, reaction time and margins for error narrow signicantly. Between India and Pakistan, for example, there wouldnt be much time to determine whether an attack was real or not. Fifth, instant nuclear powers may not have the benet that the older nuclear powers had in learning about testing, training exercises, and deployments. In the early 1990s, for example, safety problems at military bases in Ukraine reportedly increased radiation levels at nuclear storage sites and produced violations of the schedules for technical servicing of missile warheads.
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Finally, because political and social unrest are likely in the future of many emerging nuclear states, the risks increase for accidental and unauthorized weapons detonations. Disgruntled operators, for example, might engage in acts of sabotage that could inadvertently or deliberately produce accidents. These problems call for serious attention, but they neglect to mention that even the major nuclear powers have not always been in complete control of their own nuclear weapons. Consider the following examples not from India, Pakistan, Israel, or even Iraqbut from the United States. In Damascus, Arkansas, in September 1980, during routine maintenance in a missile silo, a technician caused an accidental leak in a Titan II missiles pressurized fuel tank. Nearly nine hours after the initial leak, fuel vapors within the silo exploded. The pair of doors covering the silo, each weighing 740 tons, were blown off by the blast, and the nine megaton warhead was hurled 600 feet away. The warhead was recovered intact. One technician was killed in the explosion.4 More recently, the U.S. General Accountability Ofce reported that the Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore laboratories were guilty of safety violations, including exposing their employees to radiation and inadequate monitoring of radiological contamination.5 In a major effort to limit the development of nuclear weapons, most of the countries of the world have
sought to implement a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). The treaty assumes that if countries give up their right to test nuclear weapons, they will not try to develop them. By the end of 1999, 152 countries had ratified the global Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. President Clinton signed the treaty in 1996, but the Senate has yet to give its approval. Given the information above, it seems obvious that more nuclear states make the world more dangerous. However, could more nuclear states actually make the world safer because of deterrence?
NOTES
1. The following discussion borrows generously from Kenneth Waltz and Scott D. Sagan, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 8085. 2. How MAD can they be? The Economist, February 10, 2007. 3. See also Seymour Hersh, On the Nuclear Edge, The New Yorker, March 29, 1993, p. 5673. 4. CNN, http://cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experi ence/the.bomb/. CNN cites the following sources for this information: The U.S. Defense Department; Arkansas Democrat Gazette, September 20, 1981; Stephen Schwartz, letter to the editor, Commentary, January 1997. 5. Periscope, Newsweek, June 28, 1999, p. 4.
3 4 5 6 7 of weapons 8 9 Be able to identify the different types used in 10 war and understand the methods used to control these weapons.
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD), such as nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, do not discriminate between soldier and civilian. Weapons that are not WMDs are called conventional weapons. Some conventional weapons are extremely dangerous. Land mines, for example, pose the greatest threat to the largest number of people on a day-to-day basis. New weapons inspired by high-tech advances are changing the face of warfare. These include unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), lasers weapons that can inict
Immediate causes of war are the short-term factors that spark its outbreak. Underlying causes of war are the long-term trends that create tension between states.
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temporary or permanent blindness, and high-powered microwaves that can melt electronic systems. The global demand for weapons has remained robust in the postCold War era. Countries want to be well armed for many reasons, including preparation for waging offensive or defensive war. Countries also acquire weapons to deter potential attackers. Structural arms control agreements attempt to limit the number of weapons in existence. Operational arms control doesnt directly limit the ow of weapons but reduces tensions, and hence the need 1 2 3 for weapons, through measures that foster trust among adversaries, such as notifying the other side of war games, hotlines, and public disclosure of weapons sales.
Middle East and to attack Western countries that get in the way. Terrorists may be stopped by military confrontation (such as the war in Afghanistan) or by effective antiterrorist efforts, such as capturing and killing terrorists or cutting off their funding. But as long as terrorists believe terror is their only weapon and that political authorities will yield to their demands for political change, terrorism will persist.
5 6 be able 7 to explain 8 what 9 methods 10 are Identify and available for deterring global violence.
4 terrorism 5 6 understand 7 8 objectives 9 10 Dene and the and tactics of terror groups; also identify methods for dealing with the problem of terrorism.
Countries may be dissuaded from starting a war because of deterrence. International organizations like the UN can help make countries see the merits of cooperation and, at the same time, provide a military response to those who engage in aggressive activities. Terrorists, on the other hand, are much less susceptible to deterrence because their whereabouts are unknown, thus making it difcult for a state to threaten unacceptable damage on the terrorists and their allies. International law, while easily ignored because of the lack of a global police force, can still help states resolve differences peacefully, especially through the concepts of reciprocity and reputation. Controlling global violence has never been easy. Deterrence can fail, and both international organizations and international law may be ignored by determined, aggressive states.
The short-term aim of terrorists is to instill fear in a civilian population. Their longer-term objectives are political in nature. This helps distinguish terrorists from (common) criminals. International terrorist organizations have been, and will continue to be, inuential actors in the politics of many countries, as in the case of religious-inspired attacks in Northern Ireland, suicide bombers in Israel, ETA in Spain, and al Qaeda in many parts of the world. Al Qaeda may be thought of as an ideology. It seeks, by force, to overthrow the false Muslim states of the
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Afghani women brave possible retaliation to cast their rst votes in 2004. Because women had endured cruel suppression under Taliban rule, the United Nations insisted that womens rights be at the forefront of the Afghan agenda to rebuild the nation.
Learning Objectives
2 1
What is meant by the term human rights? Understand the origins of these rights and the international conventions that support their existence.
Understand why womens rights should be given special standing in the study of world politics.
Identify the different types of feminist theories and how they approach the topic of human rights.
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Human rights are womens rightsand womens rights are human rights.
Hillary Rodham Clinton
Chapter Outline
The Origin of Human Rights Global Justice Justice as Fairness International Conventions on Human Rights
Understand how the international community addresses human rights violations, especially in the case of womens rights.
Human rights Universal rights held to belong to individuals by virtue of their being human, encompassing civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights and freedoms, and based on the notion of personal human dignity and worth. Convention An agreement between states, sides, or military forces, especially an international agreement, dealing with a specic subject, such as the treatment of prisoners of war; an international treaty.
his chapter focuses on human rights, women, and global justice. The issue of universal human rights rose to the top of the international agenda in the years immediately following World War II with the adoption of the Convention Against Genocide in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that same year, and the Convention on the Status of Refugees in 1951. Since that time, the international community has drafted and signed many other conventions designated to protect the human rights of the most vulnerable groups on our planet, including women, children, and migrant workers. If the record of conventions is admirable, the record since 1945 of abuse of human rights on a global scale is far from laudable. For all the talk of human rights, the twentieth century was one of the
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human rights p. 329 convention p. 329 feminist theories of international relations p. 347 Human Development Index (HDI) p. 357 Gender Development Index (GDI) p. 357 Gender Empowerment Index (GEM) p. 357 microcredit p. 358
most violently abusive, especially toward women. Throughout the century, predatory and unscrupulous rulers used man-made famines as a way to keep their populations in line. The most famous was the famine in the Ukraine in 19321933, engineered by Joseph Stalin, dictator of the Soviet Union, to eliminate all Ukrainian resistance to communist rule. Ukrainian scholars estimate that from 19201939, from 25 to 30 percent of the total Ukrainian population of 31 million died.1 Another massive famine occurred in 2002 in Zimbabwe. Tragically, women and children bear the brunt of these cruelties. The twentieth century is also famous for its renewal of the practice of genocide. In 1915, the Ottoman Empire conducted the centurys rst genocide against the Armenian population within its territory. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolf Hitler sent an estimated six million Jews 2 to the gas chamber in an attempt to exterminate the Jewish people. In the 1970s, the regime of Pol Pot in Cambodia murdered over two million Cambodians who might have opposed his plan to reconstruct Cambodia into his ideal of a communist society.3 During the 1990s, in the Bosnian civil war and the war in Kosovo, the Serbs tried to uproot all Muslims in Bosnia by breaking into their homes and burning them down. In 1994, up to a million Tutsis were savagely murdered by extremist Hutus in the ethnically divided state of Rwanda.4 States that join the Union Nations must accept the obligations of its Charter, one of which is the promotion of respect for human rights.5 Yet, as we saw in chapter 7, even states like the United States that are in principle committed to upholding human rights have been accused of serious abuses by international NGOs, like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. Children are the helpless victims of these events. War and environmental disaster have orphaned millions of them. Many children suffer acts of discrimination, abuse, and sexual violence inside the classroom and in refugee camps. In 2004, terrorists seized a school in southern Russia. The majority of the victims killed in the bomb explosion and subsequent shootout were women and children. A new and disturbing problem is the recruitment of hundreds of thousands of young boys who have been orphaned or are otherwise without resources as soldiers into impromptu armies to risk their lives for whatever cause their mentors espouse. Child soldiers are being used in more than thirty countries around the world.6 Three hundred million indigenous peoples, stretching from the Arctic to the South Pacic and the Amazon, nd their culture and lifestyle at risk by the advance of globalization. The lives of religious and ethnic minorities are also at risk. So severe has been their persecution in the past 50 years that the UN has brought back to life the international treaties on identifying crimes against humanity and established the International Criminal Court to try persons accused of such crimes. One human rights situation that has improved is the status of refugees. With the return of millions of people to Afghanistan, Angola, and Sierra Leone,
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the number of refugees dropped from a high of 17 million in 2004 to 9.2 million in 2006, the lowest number in twenty-ve years. However, the number of displaced people within their own country is growing. The UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) is expanding its role in this area. Tragically, women and children under seventeen represent 73 percent of this number.7 Of this 73 percent, 70 percent will be uprooted women and girls. Of all these abused groups, women and girls are the most vulnerable. Not only do they suffer abuse and discrimination as a result of their refugee status but they are also maltreated simply because they are women. During World War II, the Japanese military practiced the mass rape of women in China and Korea as part of its strategy to subdue the country. During the civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina in the 1990s, the Serbian army systematically raped Muslim women so that they would be rejected by their families and communities. In many countries today, women continue to be considered and treated as second-class people. z In India, husbands and mothers-in-law sometimes burn women if they do not give birth to a boy child or if their dowry is judged too small.8 z In China, women sometimes kill their girl children at birth or abandon them on the steps of orphanages because Chinas one-child policy permits only one child per family, and most families want boys. z In Iran and Afghanistan outside of Kabul, women can be beaten to death because their dressknown as a burka, and legally required to cover them from head to toeis too short. z All over Asia and in Central and Eastern Europe, women are sold into slavery for the sex parlors of the prosperous industrialized countries. Our case study examines the global sex trade and the challenges the international community faces in alleviating the suffering of the victims. The plight of the victims calls forth our concern and our compassion. Why isnt the international community doing more about human rights? This chapter moves issues of human rights and womens rights from the periphery to the center of world politics. In so doing, we follow the neoliberal paradigm and environmental paradigms, which include the well-being of all humankind as a key value of international relations. Liberals consistently attach great importance to human rights and support humanitarian aid to correct the worst abuses. Concerned as realism is with interstate relations and the dominant role of power in the global jungle, realists traditionally consider human rights as marginal to the central problem of power. In their scenario, womens issues are a domestic problem that national governments should solve within their own territory. The attacks of 9/11 forcefully challenged liberal and realist assumptions. Political observers were unanimous in their opinion that endemic poverty and inequality were root causes of the tragedy. As a result, in post-Taliban
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Percent
Africa
Source: UN Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), State of the World Cities Report 2001, p. 18 pdf: Web address http://ww2 .unhabitat.org/istanbul+5/statereport.htm. Used by permission.
Afghanistan, the international community not only insisted that women be given a role in the new government but also that they have complete access to education. In January 2002, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) sponsored an international conference on poverty-reduction strategies where women were front and center in the sessions on poverty and inequality. If terrorism is rooted in inequality, then liberals and realists must recognize that the abusive treatment of women and other minorities in poor countries contributes in ways we do not yet fully understand to the formation of the terrorist mentality. The relationship between urban poverty and women-headed households in the developing regions of the world is shown in Figure 11.1. Our books theme of centralization/decentralization comes into play here. The IMF 2002 Conference on Poverty-Reduction Strategies started from the realization that a countrys societal attitudes, violence, and lack of education taken together foster poverty. The international community has a track record of helping states in the areas of economic development, education, and health, but societal attitudes and human rights are traditionally considered problems to be solved at the state level. However, economics is not and should not be, the only centralizing issue where the international community can come together and cooperate. The very concept of human rights means that rights accrue to all the worlds people, not just some of them. The challenge of the twenty-rst century is to make that happen. Electronic Publishing Inc. is divided into four parts: Services This chapter Duncan, World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e DUNC.7322.0051 1. The rst asks what human rights are and looks for answers in peoples search for global justice and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Fig. 11.1 1st Proof 2nd Proof 3rd Proof Final
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The typical dictionary denition of a right is a just and fair claim to anything whatever that belongs to a person by law, nature, or tradition.
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Audio Concept Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen www.BetweenNations.org
speedy trial. To address the deeper issue of what kind of government the English would accept, however, political philosophers such as Hobbes (see chapter 2) and John Locke asked fundamental questions such as these: How did governments originate in the rst place? Why would anyone want to be subjected to one? The answer came from an unexpected source. At that time, Europeans were rapidly colonizing the New World. Their rst impressions of the Native Americans was that they were uncivilized, or, to put it more kindly, living in a state of nature. A state of nature meant to the Europeans that there was no established government. So the question, became: What would urge a person living in a state of nature to agree to submit to a government? Hobbes and Locke answered the question by arguing that a person in a state of nature enjoyed life and liberty but lived in constant fear losing of both. If a person had property, it could be taken away at any time by anyone stronger. So the answer to why would one enter into a contract to form a government was that he would do so to secure his prior right to life, liberty, and property. So basic were these rights that Hobbes and Locke asserted they were given by God as a natural right, and thus could not be taken away by any government. This concept of rights was cogently set forth by Thomas Jefferson and others in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that man is endowed by his Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these rights are the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Essentially, Jeffersons inalienable rights are human rights that we claim at birth by the sheer fact of being human. Jefferson and others insisted that a list of rights be appended to the Constitution, and so in 1791 Congress passed the rst ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights. The United States was the second state to endorse such a comprehensive list. In 1789 the revolutionary French government passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen universalizing the concept of human rights. The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights derives essentially from the Declaration des droits de lhomme et du citoyen rather than from the U.S. Bill of Rights.9
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Global Justice
One way to dene global justice is to look at it is as a sort of balance or equilibrium between one states assets and those of other states (wealth, power, status, health, welfare, education) and the distribution of these assets among the states constituent groups. This denition highlights the fairness aspect of justice. Lets look a little bit more at this concept of justice.
For more information see Why It Matters To You: Human Rights for Nonstate Actor-Detainee www.BetweenNations.org
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termswe see immediately that an accepted global standard or set of principles must exist to enable due process to take place. We nd this global standard in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The UN Declaration sets forth general principles for a common judicial, political, and social process that the member-states assert to be universal. Selected principles are covered in Figure 11.2. z The rst set of principles assures equality before the law and redress of grievances. These concepts of justice are those that U.S. citizens generally associate with the notion of a fair trial. z The second set comprises principles associated with the building of a democratic society, such as freedom of speech and association. But because these rights are universal, the UN Declaration goes further to assure the right of asylum, the right to information wherever obtained, and the right to a nationality. z The third set of principles delineates an individuals economic, social, and cultural rights, including not only the right to work and to receive an education but also the right to marry whomever one chooses. z The nal set binds both individuals and member-states to furthering the principles described in the UN Declaration. These articles set the ground rules for all states that, if adopted, lead to the development of legal processes that support the rule of law, democracy, and equal opportunity, as institutionalized in the Western parliamentary states. Not all states adhere to the principles of the Declaration. Many countries today still do not assure the accused a fair trial, permit freedom of speech and assembly, or have a free and fair electoral system. In many states, education remains the province of wealthy and privileged men. There are millions of refugees in the world with no rights at all. Indigenous peoples are being denied their right to lead their traditional lifestyle. Women in most of Asia and Africa do not have the same rights as men either before the law or in guarantees of equal access to education, health care, and work. In particular, women do not have the same rights as men to marry and have a family. We talk more about human rights and women later.
Justice as Fairness
The second way to view justice is as an equalizing factor for the human condition. This aspect makes us think a little harder about the idea of fairness. What do we mean when we say it isnt fair that some people are born into poverty and some into wealth? It isnt fair that there is no gender equality or that people are judged by their race. In these instances, our talk of fairness refers to a condition that seems to exist in society or is inherent in the biological condition of a human being. In our best moments, we would like to even the odds a little. The U.S. Declaration of Independence rather grandiosely asserts that all men (and women) are born with the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Thats a tall order for any country to deliver, let alone the international system. But the liberal and idealist side of us would like to believe that human-made institutions can and will rectify the most egregious inequities of the human condition.
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All human beings born free and equal in dignity and rights. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. No one shall be held in slavery and slavery shall be prohibited. No one shall be subject to torture. Everyone has the right to recognition before the law. All are equal before the law and entitled to equal protection without discrimination. Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by national tribunals for violations of rights. No one shall be subject to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair public hearing by an impartial tribunal in the determination of his rights. Everyone has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty. No one shall be subject to arbitrary interference with his privacy. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement within the borders of each state and to leave any country and to return to his country. Everyone has the right to seek asylum in other countries and that right may not be revoked. Everyone has the right to a nationality and no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
Building of Democratic Societies, Articles 1821
Men and women of full age have the right to marry and found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and entitled to protection by society and the State. Everyone has the right to own property and no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Everyone has the right to social security and is entitled to realization of the economic, social and cultural rights. Everyone has the right to work. Everyone has the right to equal pay for equal work. Everyone has the right to form and join trade unions. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care, the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age, etc. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children shall enjoy the same social protection Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Universal Obligations, Articles 2830
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives, through public service. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government expressed through periodic and genuine elections held by universal suffrage and secret ballot or their equivalent.
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration can be fully realized. Everyone has duties to the community. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others. No state has the right to engage in any activity aimed at the destruction of any of these rights and freedoms.
Source: UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html. Used by permission.
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wealth was made, not inherited, and much of it came in a very negotiable form money. Many individuals who were born in poverty, such as the great U.S. steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, ended up extraordinarily rich. As people began to notice the gap between those who made it and those who did not, they started to ask why some became rich and others remained poor. The Industrial Revolution was still young when labor unrest and worker revolutions rudely shoved the question to the fore. In 1830 and 1848, European workers took to the barricades, demanding a change in their economic and social conditions to produce a more equal distribution of wealth. A studious young German named Karl Marx studied the workers plight and came up with two answers. The rst was the Communist Manifesto, published in 1848, which called on European workers to revolt to change their circumstances. The second was Das Kapital (Capital), Marxs explanation of why workers lived in such abominable and depressing conditions. These two works inuenced the course of the modern world perhaps more than any other books written in the nineteenth century (see chapter 2 for a brief discussion of Marxism). They also played a seminal role in the European womens movement, discussed later in this chapter. Despite the problems associated with removing inequalities of condition, disaffected human beings in all parts of our planet have shown a remarkable persistence in trying to change the world, or at least the distribution of outcomes. The concept of justice as fairness lies at the foundation of such movements as national struggles for independence, ethnic and religious struggles for equal representation in political, social, and economic life, legislation outlawing discrimination and establishing a minimum wage, and the international womens movement. In every case, violence has failed to win the battle. History suggests the only way to ensure fairness of any kind is to assure due process through the guarantee of human rights, those same human rights set forth as standards of achievement in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
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Group Rights
The UN Bill of Rights sets forth the individual rights of every human being on this planet. In the course of its history, however, the UN has found itself handling problems associated with the rights of groups, like refugees, that have experienced or are under threat of genocide and with the rights of prisoners, women, children, and, most recently, migrant workers. Figure 11.3 lists the various human rights conventions with the date they were formally adopted by the UN General Assembly.
Humanitarian Law
The nal component of international human rights is what is known as international humanitarian law. International humanitarian law is a set of rules that seek, for humanitarian reasons, to limit the effects of armed conict. It protects persons who are not or are no longer participating in the hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare. International humanitarian law is also known as the law of war or the law of armed conict. The fair treatment of prisoners of war, victims and perpetrators of genocide, torture, and other forms of cruelty are all covered under international humanitarian law. A list of some of the U.N. conventions that cover these issues is found in Figure 11.3.
For more information see Laws of War www.BetweenNations.org
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights * International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Protection of Minority Group Rights
1966 1966
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime of Genocide * Convention for the Suppression of the Trafc in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Geneva Convention) Convention on the Political Rights of Women * Convention on the Nationality of Married Women * Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination * International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid * Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment * Convention on the Rights of the Child * Convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers and the Members of Their Families Convention on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Draft only, 1994 * The US has not ratied these conventions.
Member-states Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Commission on Human Rights Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Committee Against Torture Committee on the Rights of the Child Committee on the Protection of the Rights of Migrant Workers and Their Families Working Group on Indigenous Populations
Source: Nancy Flowers, ed., Human Rights Here and Now: Celebrating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Used by permission.
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_____ 1. The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights is accepted in whole by all member-states of the organization. _____ 2. The UN Declaration covers the following areas of rights: equality before the law; rules to foster a democratic society; economic, social, and cultural rights; and other principles designed to support the Declaration. _____ 3. The key issue that makes the enforcement of human rights at the international level difcult is state sovereignty. _____ 4. Humanitarian law seeks to limit the effects of armed conict.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 11.1 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 5. Which of the following best describes the nature of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights? a. A legally binding document b. A resolution of the UN General Assembly c. A common standard of achievement regarding social justice d. All of the above _____ 6. Which of the following is not a provision of the UN Declaration? a. No one shall be subject to torture. b. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. c. Everyone has the right to own property. d. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of both spouses. e. No one shall be required to live under a totalitarian government.
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For many women, this question brings the retort, arent women human beings like men are? The history of women makes it clear how excluded they have been from due process and fairness. Until recently, the discipline of international relations had little to do with women. Womens history, however, shows that individual women could and did exert enormous inuence over the world politics of their generation. With the onset of early modern times in the seventeenth century, areas that had traditionally been womens preserve, like the household economy and care of the sick, moved into the new public world of the economy and science dominated by men. The womens movement grew from the realization, especially by middle-class women, that the much-touted benets of science and the Industrial Revolution had primarily beneted men. Even today, 70 percent of people living on less than a dollar a day are women.
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Womens suffrage in the United States goes back to 1776 when Abigail Adams wrote her husband, John Adams, to remember the ladies in the code of laws. Adams replied that men would fight the despotism of the petticoat. Women of property had the right to vote in some of colonial America, including New York, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and New Jersey. They lost this right in 1787 when decisions about voting were left to the states. Women organized for their rights in 1848, and fought long and hard for the vote, using civil disobedience as their tactics. Some western states give women the vote before 1900, but they did not get the right at the national level until passage of the 19th amendment in 1920.
Source: The Grainger Collection, NY. Used by permission.
home made them totally dependent on their husbands for every material good. A large number of highly educated and intelligent European women in France, Germany, and in Central and Eastern Europe were persuaded that emancipation from such intolerable conditions was the only way to womens liberation, and they worked actively under the socialist aegis throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Russia in particular after 1861 produced an extraordinary group of women reformers and revolutionaries. Russia is the only country today where women have founded their own political party. Wherever European women traveled during the nineteenth century, they brought their ideas of emancipation with them. Thus, as womenespecially middle- to upper-class womenbecame more involved in the suffrage or socialist movement at home, their peers were experiencing culture shock in the European colonies in Asia and Africa and demanding equal rights for all women everywhere.
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Female
42.0% 48.7 57.2 72.6 96.2
Male
58.0% 51.3 42.8 27.4 3.8
Source: Diaper Diaspora, Foreign Policy (January/ February 2007): 32. Used by permission.
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Despite setbacks, women have not given up on their agenda. However, they realize that without political pressure, all the ideas about equality, justice, and democracyeven those agreed upon in the Universal Declaration of Human Rightsare mainly talk. A notable exception to the slow progress of women is Norway where 38 percent of the parliamentary deputies are women and where gender equality now concerns promoting male equality! At the 1995 Beijing Conference on Women, Hillary Rodham Clinton represented the United States as its First Lady. She was considered militant by the media and many of the African and Asian delegates to the conference when, in her opening remarks, she called for the inclusion in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights the sentence Womens rights are human rights. In practice, then, womens rights are not yet seen as human rights. Throughout the world, including the developed countries, women continue to be thought of and treated differently from men, and their rights remain less than fully human.
_____ 1. It is only in the last 500 years that women have held such low social, economic, and political status in countries. _____ 2. The most inuential women in world history have predominantly been women of high status, mostly royalty. _____ 3. In some areas of the developing world, women are subjected to degrading and violent practices, including infanticide, sexual slavery, and bride burning. _____ 4. Womens rights were an integral part of the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights written in 1948.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 11.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 5. The Anglo-American womens movement focused on ________ while the European movement focused on ________. a. due process under the law; equal conditions b. equal conditions; due process c. equal pay for equal labor; equal social opportunities d. equal social opportunities; economic opportunities outside of the home e. the right to marry whom you choose; equal pay for equal labor _____ 6. Among the developed countries, which of the following countries was the last to give women the right to vote? a. The United States b. Norway c. Great Britain d. Kuwait e. France
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When confronted with the global circumstances of women, many of us shake our heads in resignation. But we need to make sense of this situationwhich leads us directly into theory. Theory, as we saw in chapter 2, enables us to put the many parts of a picture into a frame. Feminists do not buy the argument, normally advanced by men, that equality is merely a matter of economic development and education. Feminists know that even in the developed countries, women are not equal to men. How, then, do feminist theories explain the inequality? Feminist theories of international relations are what many call a gender-neutral theory of international relations and, as such, t primarily into the ecological or subjective thinking paradigms. Recall the discussion of feminist theories in chapter 2, where we said that most feminists would agree that basic attitudes and behaviors, including gender behaviors, are culturally determined. Because men have dominated politics since the beginning of history, views of politics in every society are based on male perceptions of the world. Realism and idealism are simply the modern variants of the same old thing. Universal human rights, the feminists argue, cannot be achieved unless the old liberal and realist paradigms are abandoned and the insights from feminist theories are adopted. According to feminist theories, men interpret history primarily in terms of wars, weapons, and conquests, whether military or economic. Mainstream international relations theorists generally term these issues high politics. Women see history in a different light. Wars bring destruction, and women tend to gain the least from wars. Their husbands may be killed, their sons may die, and their homes may be destroyed. War brings enslavement and hardship to all its victims, but the physical violation of women is generally considered a conquerors right.
Feminist theories of international relations An approach that believes that gender is the key to understanding international relations. The aim of feminist theories is to uncover the gender dichotomies, that are concealed or rejected by mainstream international relations and to lay these bare before the public eye.
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the theories agree that male concepts of international relations articially separate men and womens spheres of activity into a male public sphere of production and economic development and a female private and thus, unmentioned, sphere of reproduction and the role of the home in raising and feeding children. V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan group these strains of theory into ve general categories.17 1. Radical feminists focus on the role of culture in downplaying womens experience and womens ways of acquiring knowledge. Radical feminists hold that the division between public (industrial and agricultural) production and private reproduction (childbearing and child rearing) is a deliberate male construct designed to keep womens status low. Some members of this group go so far as to advocate complete separation of women from men as the only solution to the achievement of total gender equality between the sexes. 2. Socialist feminists stress the importance of economic issues in achieving equality and their relationships to power and culture. They agree with the radical feminists that the division between public production and private reproduction is the cornerstone of patriarchy. Far from advocating total separation of the spheres, they argue that each complements the other and that neither would be economically viable in isolation. The socialist feminists thus argue for using the same criteria of value on womens unpaid work in the home as is done in the public economy. Many mainstream economists appreciate the socialist feminist argument. The UN, in particular, is trying to perfect a formula that can be used worldwide to calculate the value of womens unpaid work. 3. Liberal feminists are the most active in equal rights movements. They seek to overcome the gender dichotomies of public and private spheres by replacing the concept of gender difference with the concept of gender sameness. Women have the same capabilities as men, they assert. They see U.S. Army privates Jessica Lynch and Shoshana Johnson, who served in Iraq, were captured by the Iraqis, and subsequently liberated, as prime arguments for mixed sex combat units, where women ght alongside men. In response, other feminists argue that in emphasizing sameness, liberal feminists run the risk of taking masculine traits and abilities as the norm to which women should aspire. How are we then to evaluate uniquely womens work like childbirth and child rearing? 4. Postcolonial feminists focus on the experiences of women of color. In the tradition of Marxism, this group sees globalization as a continuation of the process known as colonialism or imperialism in previous centuries. Specically, the fall of the Soviet Union and advances in communication technology have enabled global corporate and nancial institutions to bypass state regulations, while the greater permeability of state borders has aided and abetted transnational organized crime, including the global sex trade. Postcolonial feminists contest the Western feminist description of the division between the public and private sphere as a male construct. For women in the developing world, they argue, a clear division does not exist. Men dictate all cultural and societal values. Women have virtually no privacy to which they can retreat. In the public sphere, women are told how to behave in culturally authentic ways if they want to work. For example, in most Muslim countries, women must wear the burka or a suitable head covering. A man can stone his wife to death and have the backing of his community. In some parts of India, a woman is ostracized if she is seen in public alone, without her husband. In Bosnia, her family and community consider a Muslim woman raped in public
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International Security
How can we understand violence in the world today? Feminist theorists assert that understanding starts with the acknowledgment that virtually all cultures reward men for violence. Realism, feminists argue, is really the strategy and practice of using violence judiciously to achieve a states goals. High politics has always been dominated by men who have perceived the international arena as a dog-eat-dog no-mans-land characterized by a Darwinian ght for the survival of the ttest. In
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chapter 8, one concept of geopolitics presented involved the struggle for territory. This struggle, say the feminists, is typical of all male creatures in the animal world. Mao Zedong liked to say that Revolution [male violence] is not a dinner party [a female activity]. In mainstream IR, consideration of questions associated with low politics, such as international development, world poverty, womens issues, and human rights, comes after the issues of war and security have been exhaustively discussed. High politics, feminists argue, is to international relations what the national economy and industrial production is to domestic politics. Low politics corresponds to the female or reproductive sphere. Feminist theorists are united in the conviction that this distinction between high and low politics is a distorted way of looking at world politics. They argue that the traditional high politics of international relations is largely irrelevant to todays security concerns. Take the male concept of the state as an independent sovereign entity dened by territorial borders and a select population. Feminist theorists argue that this concept no longer ts the reality of the international arena. The modern world, the feminists say, is highly interdependent and faces multiple threats from so many sources that state independence may no longer be possible or desirable. Will the Balkans be more secure with an independent Kosovo? How sovereign is Afghanistan under virtual occupation by UNprovided troops? The citizens of East Timor may have gained their independence from Indonesia, but they will be facing certain starvation unless international investment revives their economy. The Palestinians have been ghting for independence for over a century, yet their fundamental insecurity is not a military threat from Israel but their own desperate need for economic development, a process that requires working with Israel, not against it. Feminist theorists were rst to argue that modern security is multidimensional and multilevel. The feminist argument for the multidimensional reality of security is represented by international relations feminist scholar J. Ann Tickner. Tickner questions the relevance today of the distinction between state (public) security and individual (private) security. In her view, the heavy emphasis on militarily dened security, common to the practices of the modern state, does not always ensure and may even decrease the security of individuals as well as their natural environments. Individuals, she says, face many forms of insecurity: ethnic conict, poverty, natural catastrophes, local terrorist acts, unemployment, family violence, and environmental degradation. None of these kinds of security are commonly linked with what states have traditionally dened as their national security goals. If the worlds multiple insecurities are to be addressed, virtually all the feminists approaches agree that international relations must be reformulated.18 z In this reformulation, the male emphasis on a states independence, sovereignty, and national or racial distinctness from other states has to go. The postcolonial feminist perspective sees striving for attachment and communityconcerns associated generally with womenas much a part of politics as the desire for independence and self-identication. Building community from the grass roots up is a dimension of international behavior in its own right, and, contrary to the male emphasis on independence and state sovereignty, is a unifying, centralizing, and cooperative activity. z The proliferation of community-building regimes like the European Union in the last half of the twentieth century, and even trade agreements like the World
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Bibi Mukhtaran
Bibi Mukhtaran (in burka) was sentenced to be raped by her villages tribal council in Pakistan because in June 2002, one of Bibi Mukhtarans brothers was falsely accused of having an affair with a high-status woman. The tribal council determined that the proper punishment for the hypothetical affair was for high-status men to rape one of the boys sisters. So the council ordered Bibi Mukhtaran to be gang-raped, and she was. Rather than commit suicide, Ms. Mukhtaran brought her attackers to court and ordered them to be punished. To rape, she allegedly argued, is morally worse than being raped. The attackers were sentenced to death and Ms. Mukhtaran received the equivalent of more than $8,000 from the president of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf and around-the-clock police protection. She used the money to open schools for girls and through her media connections raised additional money abroad. Her work became famous, and in 2005, she was invited by a Pakistani-American group to the United States to lecture. The Pakistani authorities response to the invitation was to arrest her to prevent her from going, claiming she might say things that would embarrass Pakistan.19
Trade Organization and NAFTA, provide evidence of the relevance of the feminist analysis. We may indeed be moving toward types of international organization that demand different, more inclusive denitions of national sovereignty than we now have. Feminists nd it signicant that Europe is the continent moving fastest toward a new form of state integration and that its integrated institution, the EU, is one of the most aggressive agencies in promoting gender equality. z Feminists also argue that there is a need to modify the realist and liberal views of the world that are based on assumptions of rigid boundary distinctions: levels of analysis, domestic versus foreign policy, internal versus international
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violence, and the ordered domestic life of the state versus anarchy in the international arena. Postcolonial, socialist, and postmodern feminists alike posit the need to identify interrelationships among all kinds of international actors at all levels of society. Conceptualizing violence as permeating all levels of society can help us rethink our traditional denitions of the state and lead to models that might, for example, provide ways to link domestic violence with regional and world wars. For example, the Serb-Christian rape of Muslim women and the Japanese rape of the Chinese women of Nanking represent individual acts by individual people. They took place in a climate of war, where such acts were praised and celebrated by their respective national governments as appropriate acts within the framework of the national culture. Boys and girls are taught to accept such behavior as the sign of male virility and strength. More than fty years after World War II, the Japanese have not apologized for the rape of Nanking. Feminists argue that the war on terrorism, though seemingly focused on the high politics of national defense and secure state borders, relies more than ever before on low politics for victory. Traditional womens issues, like culture, education, and sense of community at the local level, determine the origins of terrorism and are among the most powerful weapons we have to reduce the probability of the emergence of new terrorists. If only boys attend school and they are taught only the male virtues of violence and retaliation in a pseudo-military educational atmosphere, the likely result is the creation of young soldiers ready to die. The feminist analysis thus bypasses the issues that the United States and the West have raised, like the merits of returning violence for violence and what makes the wars in Afghanistan or Iraq legal or illegal. The solution, for feminists, is to broaden educational opportunities and perspectives. They urge the international community and NGOs to take the leadnot by force but by programs directed at the grass roots up. Some may argue that this position is too idealistic, yet few would deny that education is the only way to change long-held traditional attitudes.
International Economics
For more information see The View From: Women in Poverty www.BetweenNations.org
In the economic sphere, the socialist feminists argue that current models of economic development do not take into account womens particular needs nor the role they play in the development process. It is abundantly clear that the exploitation of womens unpaid labor in the home and local community and their lowerpaid and underpaid labor in the monetary economy have been crucial for the expansion of the global economy. As noted earlier, until recently, world economic data made no effort to assess womens unpaid contribution to a states economy. The UN is working on models to make these kinds of statistics available. Because women have been marginalized in the international economic system, most feminist theorists, especially liberal and socialist feminists, prioritize international issues associated with the achievement of social justice for women. One of the most important objectives of the world womens movement is to overcome womens exclusion from the halls of economic and political power and to promote new forms of economic production based on womens needs and requirements. To use Tickners words once more, Social justice, including gender justice, is necessary for an enduring peace.20 Women are at the forefront of most social justice movements precisely because they sense their exclusion from productive society. Through the Internet, women
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Environmental Security
As in the economic area, women have shown themselves the chief organizers and participants in local environmental organizations. In India, Vandana Shiva became world-famous overnight when her group of women, known as Treehuggers, hugged trees they did not want logged in their local communityand stopped the logging. These tactics have now spread worldwide. Men, say the feminists, do things to nature. Men decide to log, build dams, or turn wetlands into farmland. Women, ecofeminists argue, think and act differently (see chapter 2). They could bring to international decision making a sense of the oneness of humankind with the planet and a sense of the need for caring and maintaining the planet for the next generations. It perhaps was not by accident that a former Norwegian woman prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland, headed the UN World Commission on Environment and Development that in 1987 published its ndings in a report entitled Our Common Future.22 The report mentioned for the rst time the need for sustainable development if the human species is to survive. Norway is one of the most active countries in the world today in terms of promoting gender equality.
Vandana Siva
Indian feminist environmentalist and fighter for the rights of Indias poor.
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In summary, the main contribution of women to international relations theory and practice lies in a sense of self that is of and with this Eartha sense of interrelatedness that moves beyond boundary lines and frontiers, a sense of our commonality with the rest of humankind regardless of state borders, and a sense of our being an integral part of the natural world. Why is it that we view these values as womens values? The answer lies in the background and history provided in this chapter. Traditionally, social justice and equality have not been the primary concerns of international relations and arguably are not yet at the top of todays agenda. Feminist theorists argue that these are becoming major issues on the world agenda for two reasons. z The rst is the visibility of a host of new insecurities promoted to the forefront of the international agenda by 9/11. These insecurities relate vertically to individuals, families, and communities more than to the traditional horizontal concept of national security as territorial borders that are militarily safe from another state. These insecurities are forcing the worlds leaders to rethink the traditional and essentially masculine concepts of power, national security, and the anarchy of the international arena. z The second is that women, through international organizations and individual spokespersons, have become leading advocates of social justice, clearly articulating the relationships between social justice, womens rights, and economic fairness. In so doing, they have moved beyond the neoliberal belief in cooperation as a means to ensure global justice to a broader focus on achieving a more equitable world.
_____ 1. Feminist theories of international relations are considered gender-biased theories because of their focus on women. _____ 2. Radical feminists focus on cultural factors that explain the status of women in international politics and argue that these factors are a deliberate male construct. _____ 3. Socialist feminists argue that women should not be required to work in the home and that the government should fund programs that make fathers more likely to stay at home with their children. _____ 4. Liberal feminists argue that women are capable of doing everything that men can do and should not be restricted from activities such as combat. _____ 5. Feminists were the rst to argue that modern security is multilevel and multidimensional in nature.
_____ 6. Which of the following would be considered high politics? a. Diplomatic negotiations between two major powers b. Environmental concerns between two countries c. War between states as a result of a boundary dispute d. All of the above _____ 7. Postcolonial feminists a. focus on the experience of women of color b. see globalization as simply a continuation of imperialism c. contest the Western feminist depiction of the division between public and private sphere as a male construct d. do none of the above e. do all of the above
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The previous section argued that the changing nature of high politics brought on by: z The globalization of the economy z The rise of terrorism z Articulate, energetic international womens NGOs have modied the traditional attitudes of the international community toward nonintervention in the domestic affairs of states. Indeed, the UN has responded in different ways depending on the human rights issue. In this section, we continue to use womens rights as the focal point of our chapter discussion and add another area of human rights that has come to the fore in recent years: state violations of human rights.
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z The second or Copenhagen conference (1980) noted that signs of disparity were beginning to emerge between womens secured legal rights and their ability to exercise these rights. To address these issues, the Action Programme called for stronger national measures to ensure womens ownership and control of property, as well as improvements in womens rights to inheritance, child custody, and loss of nationality.25 z By the third conference in Nairobi, Kenya (1985), the delegates generally recognized that economic development by itself was not going to improve womens status. The conference communiqu attributed the lack of improvement to the failures of development in developing countries and to an increasing gap between rich and poor countries. The Forward-Looking Strategy for Women recognized that women did not enjoy equal rights but did not stress these rights as human rights. Still, gains were made at Nairobi. For one thing, the importance of the role of women in development was recognized and linked to equal treatment in employment, health, and education. As in the previous documents, the communiqu called for the political will to promote development strategies for women that seek to alter the unequal conditions.26 z At the Fourth World Conference (1995) in Beijing, the Action Programme nally identied twelve critical areas of concern where women received unequal treatment. Among these we nd for the rst time the statement that human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birthright of all human beings; their protection and promotion is the rst responsibility of governments.27 As at past conferences, however, there was strong disagreement among the delegates on the issues of human rights, violence against women, girl children, and the role of women in the economy. The Fourth Conference demonstrated more clearly than ever that the developed states view of gender equality differed substantially from that of the rest of the world. Even the developed states were not ready to push for the implementation of womens rights as human rights. Since 1995, the Commission on the Status of Women has adopted resolutions asserting the right of women to housing, and property and land ownership. And Resolution 2002/49 adopted by the Commission on Human Rights asserted womens right to equal ownership, and right of access to and control over land and property.
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Human Development Index (HDI) An index that provides a comparative measure of a states economic development. It is used in UN comparative economic databases. Gender Development Index (GDI) An index that puts the conditions of women into the measurement of human development. Essentially, the index uses the same data and same statistical measures as HDI but also captures inequalities in achievement between women and men. Gender Empowerment Index (GEM) An index that measures the extent to which women are equal participants with men in leadership positions in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country.
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Foreign direct investment (FDI) has been a traditional option, and, since 1990, private nancial ows to developing countries have increased a little over ve times. However, 80 percent of these investments went to just ten developing countries and represented only 2.5 percent of all FDI ows.30 Very few of these investments targeted women directly or indirectly. To help women, the international nancial community seems to be settling on two other complementary and more innovative responses. 1. One strategy is to empower individuals at the local level to become entrepreneurs by providing capital up front. The poorest states support this objective but add that reconstructing the local economy will not work unless the industrialized countries abolish all tariffs for the forty-eight poorest countries so local products of these states can reach the global market. 2. A second answer is to focus on women, the poorest adult members of every society, as the vehicle to turn poverty around. Microinvestment The change in the world nancial communitys attitude from big is best to small may be better is largely attributable to the work of Muhammad Yunus and his invention of microcredit. After Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus nished his studies in the United States, he decided he could do more for his country by researching the causes of poverty than teaching abstract economics to a privileged few. He conceived the idea of microcredit one day in 1976 when he was interviewing a woman who made bamboo stools. He learned that because she had no capital, she borrowed the equivalent of 50 cents to buy the raw materials for the stools. After repaying the middleman, she had a penny left after all her work and the sale of the stools. Yunus found forty-two other women in the same situation. These women were not lazy, he realized; they simply lacked capital. He reached into his own
Bangladeshi women meeting with a representative from the Grameen Bank to obtain microcredit to start a business. Microcredit has helped millions of women around the world lift themselves out of poverty by running small businesses that cater to local needs.
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treatment, infected women give birth to infected children, continuing the epidemic. While great advances have been made in the treatment of HIV, the medications are very costly and thus inaccessible to the majority of Africans. The international community has responded generously to the AIDS crisis and other targeted health concerns. A declaration of commitment on HIV/AIDS in 2001 united four nancing streams to fund an international effort to combat AIDS that is estimated to cost $10 billion annually. These streams are: z Domestic state spending on AIDS projects z Bilateral funding with the United States, the leading bilateral donor in terms of absolute dollars z Multilateral initiatives represented by the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria z Private-sector funding led by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundations large donation to help combat the epidemic. In contrast to the small is better approach of microinvestment to help women improve their situation in the developing economies, the international approach used to ght AIDS is to merge funds from multiple sources into one integrated distribution system.37 The Global HIV/AIDS and Health Fund now estimates that it provides 20 percent of all AIDS funding and 60 percent of all TB funding. And the money keeps coming. The international community with the United States in the lead gave $7 billion to alleviate illness and suffering from the Asian tsunami in 2004. And in January 2006, thirty-ve nations gave $2 billion to stop the spread of Avian inuenza.38 Critics of disease-targeted macroinvestment say that the public health of the worlds poor, especially women and children, will never improve unless the money is reoriented to stopping the brain drain of doctors from the developing world to the developed countries and to tackling the overall organization and delivery of public health. What benet is it if HIV-positive expectant mothers receive drugs to hold infection at bay but cannot obtain even the most rudimentary gynecological care or infant immunization?
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UN Preventive Actions
The human rights conventions clearly do not authorize the UN to intervene in the affairs of sovereign states without just cause. But it can take action, if the Security Council so resolves. Among the many ways the UN has taken action are sanctions, peacekeeping, the Conference on Human Rights (1993), and ad hoc tribunals. In the course of its history, the UN has initiated sanctions against three states for violations of human rights: South Africa, Rwanda, and the former Yugoslavia. Of these, the forty-eight-year sanctions against South Africa resulted in the governments ending white rule in that black majority country. The UN has sent peacekeeping missions to suppress or inhibit violations of human rights to Bosnia in 1992 and to Haiti in 2000. In both cases, the action failed. In 1993, the UN called a World Conference on Human Rights to develop an action program to strengthen adherence to the Universal Declaration and the various human rights conventions. In particular, the conference called attention to the plight of: z National, ethnic, and religious minorities z Indigenous peoples z Women and girl children z Children in general z Migrant workers z Disabled people z Prisoners undergoing torture
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It further called for human rights education and identies the Centre for Human Rights under the High Commissioner for Human Rights as the coordinating and monitoring agency.
Ad Hoc Tribunals
For more information see Hague Conferences www.BetweenNations.org
The 1990s, however, demonstrated that the realization and practice of human rights, if left to the good will of the states, as they are in all the conventions, would never take place. The horrors of genocide in the Balkans led the UN to go back to the ad hoc tribunals of the period after World War II, when the leaders of Germany and Japan were put on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, established in 1993 at the Hague, represented the third ad hoc tribunal since the 1940s. The new tribunal was empowered to hear cases involving grave breaches of the Geneva Convention, violations of the laws of war, and genocide. (see Figure11.3 for the appropriate conventions) The fourth ad hoc tribunal, established in 1995 in Tanzania, followed the horric genocide in Rwanda. The two recent tribunals have contributed greatly to the establishment of precedent as to what constitutes a grave breach of human rights and to the reinforcement of the concept that justice is necessary for lasting peace. There is now talk of organizing a tribunal to investigate the genocide in Cambodia in the 1970s.
Coffins containing the identified victims of the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia. In July 1995, the Bosnian Serb army staged a takeover of the small spa town and its surrounding region that the UN had made a safe area. The massacre occurred under the eyes of the UN peacekeepers. Over a period of five days, the Bosnian Serb soldiers separated Muslim families and systematically murdered over 7,000 men and boys in fields, schools, and warehouses. The massacre is considered the worst case of genocide in Europe since World War II.
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a brand-new state with a nonfunctioning government, Bosnia; the second involved the formation of a new state, East Timor, from an old state with serious social and economic problems, Indonesia; and the third, the Ivory Coast, was a failed state and a former French colony. Equally important, the organization of the UN is founded on state sovereignty. If the UN has the power to intervene at the discretion of the Security Council, the whole state system is put at risk, and global governance becomes reality. In summary, some argue that the UN Charter empowers the world community to take up arms in cases of serious violations of human rights. Others argue that state sovereignty takes priority. The interests of the dominant, stronger states rule the world, as they always have. The stronger states pick and choose what instances of human rights violations they act on based on the relative power capability of the state so accused. Can you identify the liberals and the realists in the argument? This section shows that the UN approach to intervention in response to violations of human rights has been far less consistent than its approach to economic and legal remediation in the case of womens rights. Which approach, in your opinion, brings the world closer to the realization of global justice?
_____ 1. The UN has been reluctant to view womens rights as human rights because many countries (including India, China, and Muslim states) do not agree with this premise. _____ 2. The UN has held four conferences on women; prior to the rst conference held in 1975 the UN had not directly addressed womens rights. _____ 3. The womens Bill of Rights was a product of the UNs rst conference on women. _____ 4. Microcredit has traditionally ignored the role women may play in a national economy. _____ 5. The AIDS epidemic is the single most deadly infectious disease for women in the developing world.
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_____ 6. Which of the following UN indices of economic and political development takes into account womens participation in leadership positions in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country? a. GENI b. HDI c. GDI d. GEM e. None of the above _____ 7. In which of the following cases did the UN Security Council authorize troops to address a human rights situation, but the troops were rejected by the country where the violations were occurring? a. Bosnia in 1996 b. Serbia (regarding Kosovo) in 1999 c. Iraq in 2003 d. Sudan in 2007 e. None of the above
Case Study
The Global Sex Trade: A Violation of Human Rights or Business as Usual?
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forced to serve in the military where there is a draft. In countries where they participate in some form of combat, such as ying planes, women are questioning the appropriateness of their role. Women have always defended their home and family. In a world fraught with terror, women should not be the ones to sacrice their lives for the next generation. 4. To ensure the human family continues, throughout history, women have needed specic rights accorded to them alone to protect the institution of motherhood and the education of children. Where women are largely viewed negatively, as other than males, as in the Western world, we see these institutions downgraded. In all countries where women are achieving so-called unisex quality with men, the birthrate has plummeted. Womens rights are not human rights. We need a Universal Declaration of Womens Rights!
NoTES
1. Dr. Louis Lanya al Farugi, Islamic Tradition and the Feminist Movement: Confrontation or Cooperation, Islam for Peace, http://www.jannah.org/ sisters/feminism.html. 2. Hinduism and the status of women, http://hindu website.com/hinduwomen.htm. 3. Information cited from a study by Hindus Against the Abuse of Women, presented at the Second International Conference on Bride Burning and Dowry Deaths in India, Women in Hinduism, http://www .atributetohinduism.com/Women in Hinduism.htm. This information is also found in Violence Against Women: A Violation of Human Rights, A Resource Guide to the Video. Institute for Development Training, RFD 1, Box 267 B Route 230, Trention, Maine 04605, http://www.curowrc.org/06.contributions/ 1.contrib_en/27.contrib.en.htm. 4. Statistics from V-Day Loyola, Womens Studies and Womens Resource Center, Loyola University, New Orleans, http://www.loyno.edu/womens.center/ vday.html.
Using any of the ve feminist theories of international relations, defend or refute the arguments of this thesis.
Human rights are rights that human beings claim at birth and that governments ought not to take away. A sense of justice, or equality, informs how states address these rights. Justice may be seen as due process, with its emphasis on a legal system in which everyone is treated equally under the law regardless of wealth, race, sex, or religion. Human rights, the principles or standards on which due process is built, are set forth in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and in international humanitarian law. Justice, as fairness, seeks to redress the inequality of condition among human beings by redistributing resources.
Womens history is one of almost universally low political, economic, and social status. No culture has considered women human in the same way it considers men to be human. Few women have been inuential individuals, and most of these were upper-class women, women rulers, or, in rare instances, philosophers and writers. The situation did not change with the Industrial Revolution. In the 1800s, women in Europe and America organized to protest their lack of equal rights. The womens movement dates from 1848. It had essentially two branches:
- The American and British movement focused on due process - The continental European movements focused on equality of condition, utilizing Marxist arguments to advance their cause.
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While the modern-day womens movement has helped achieve economic progress and human rights for women in many countries, the United Nations has yet to endorse the statement that womens rights are human rights.
4 6 types 7 8 theories 9 10 how Identify the5different of feminist and they approach the topic of human rights.
Feminist theories of international relations help us uncover gender bias in world politics. There are ve kinds of feminist international relations theory: radical feminism, socialist feminism, liberal feminism, postcolonial feminism, and postmodern feminism. We used these approaches to uncover gender bias in three areas of international relations: international security, the international economy, and the global environment. We noted that feminist theories emphasize cooperative centralizing tendencies in world politics over what feminists see as divisive decentralizing tendencies in male theories of international relations.
- The proling of womens issues in four world conferences on women - The adoption (in 1979) by the UN General Assembly of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - Development of a comprehensive data-collection system that measures and compares states economic development, the status of women, and the empowerment of women in public life (HDI, GDI, and GEM indices) - The elaboration of investments and aid programs specically targeted toward women, microinvestment strategies in the economic area, and combined macrofunding strategies to combat HIV/AIDS
The United Nations has responded to state violations of human rights in the following ways:
- Passage of international laws, after World War II, identifying crimes that can be prosecuted at the international level: crimes of war, crimes of peace, and crimes against humanity - Sanctions, peacekeeping, ad hoc international tribunals, Conference on Human Rights - Direct intervention (There have been three cases of UN intervention on charges of a states violation of human rights and commission of crimes against humanity, and two instances of non-UN sanctioned intervention.)
5 7 international 8 9community 10 addresses Understand how the human rights violations, especially in the case of womens rights.
Current arguments for and against intervention pit issues of human rights against state sovereignty.
The international community has responded in different ways to different kinds of violations. In the case of womens rights, the UN has responded as follows:
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Learning Objectives
1
Identify the different views held by advocates of free trade and protectionism; explain how global trade is managed.
Be able to dene international political economy and understand its key theories.
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Chapter Outline
What Is International
Political Economy?
Theoretical Perspectives on International Political Economy
Understand how the international monetary system is managed, identifying the primary international institutions that handle monetary issues.
o major event around the world can be explained without considering the links between politics and economics. Economics inuences every political issue, and every economic issue takes place within a political context, whether the event involves war, trade disputes, international loans, the expansion of a security organization, or the decision to create a single currency for many countries. Surprisingly, though, undergraduate students majoring in economics do not receive much training in politics. Likewise, political science or government majors are not required to take many economics courses. Whats more, few undergraduate political science and economic majors learn very much about politicaleconomic links at the international level. Unfortunately, the real world is not divided as neatly as it is for many college majors. n
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Key Terms
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International Monetary Fund (IMF) p. 370 Bretton Woods system p. 374 comparative advantage p. 376 mercantilism p. 377 neo-mercantilism p. 377 infant industry p. 378 rational choice approach p. 378 tariff p. 380 quota p. 381 nontariff barriers (NTBs) p. 381 regional trading bloc p. 382 most-favored-nation principle (MFN) p. 385 Uruguay Round p. 385 intellectual property rights p. 385 World Bank p. 393 national champion p. 397
International Monetary Fund (IMF) The United Nations agency responsible for overseeing the entire international monetary system. The IMF promotes exchange rate stability and orderly exchange relations among its member countries.
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For more information see Why It Matters to You: Should I Care About Intellectual Property Rights? www.BetweenNations.org
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Free market principles should dominate the political economy. Note: This liberalism is different from political liberalism (which grew out of political idealism). The individual or the firm.
The state.
Interest groups, individuals (demand), and government officials (supply) Cooperation or conflict, depending on the demands for either alternative.
Class (capitalist and proletariat) or the international capitalist system. Inherent conflict, especially class conflict; revolutionary change until Marxist utopia.
Harmonious and selfregulating; international economic integration through the world market.
chapter because of its special insights into the dynamics of IPE, especially the role played by domestic political actors. A common theme running through all theories of IPE is the interaction of states and markets.1 The term states refers to the governmental or public aspects of IPE issues, while the term markets reects the economic and private elements. The IPE approaches covered in this chapter deal, in different ways, with the interaction of states and markets. Table 12.1 compares these approaches to IPE. In the next section, we look at the historical roots of todays IPE by reviewing the Bretton Woods system, and we examine more closely the liberal economic philosophy that has dominated much of the thinking about the world economy for the past sixty years. We explore the pros and cons of free trade and use other IPE theoretical approaches to make better sense of the global trading system and the international monetary system.
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_____ 1. Analysts of international political economy (IPE) focus strictly on the way international inuences affect domestic politics and economies. _____ 2. Economic liberalism assumes that government should play a minimal role in regulating the economy. _____ 3. Neo-mercantilists tend to support exporting as much as possible while at the same time protecting domestic companies through import barriers. _____ 4. The rational choice approach emphasizes the international political sources of economic policymaking.
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_____ 5. Which of the following IPE theories argues that free trade should be pursued only when it is in the states interest to do so? a. Economic liberalism b. Neo-mercantilism c. Rational choice d. Neo-Marxism e. All of the above _____ 6. Which of the following IPE theories argues that the nature of IPE is inherently conictual and centered around the class struggle? a. Economic liberalism b. Neo-mercantilism c. Rational choice d. Neo-Marxism e. None of the above
For over a century, scholars and political leaders around the world have debated the merits and shortcomings of global free trade, a system in which companies can freely buy and sell goods and services across national borders without much governmental interference. Our theories of IPE take conicting positions in this debate, and politicians rarely agree as to the ultimate costs and benets of free trade and its opposite, protectionism (restrictions on trade). We begin our exploration of this debate with the rationale for global free trade and then discuss the rationale for protectionism. Along the way, we look at how countries protect their companies and workers, whether regional trading blocs are good or bad for the global economy, and whether protectionism is on the rise around the world.
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Bretton Woods system An international political-economic system of rules, procedures, and institutions designed to foster a liberal global economy through cooperative trade and monetary policies; named after the location of the original meeting in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.
postwar international political economy. The principal philosophy that infused the discussions was economic liberalism. Essentially, the lesson political and economic leaders drew from the 1930s and 1940s was that economic policies limiting free trade (protectionist policies) were chiey responsible for both the Great Depression and World War II. They felt that a radically different global economic system was needed to prevent similar tragedies. The new system was designed to foster a more constructive and cooperative environment among states and their companies. Instead of each state looking out purely for its own economic interest and selshly seeking its own benet at every turn, common rules should be established covering a wide variety of trade and monetary issues and specic economic sectors. In light of our discussion about national sovereignty and international law and organizations in prior chapters, it is worth emphasizing that the founding states in the Bretton Woods system decided to be bound by international rules even if it sometimes meant unfavorable rulings. What emerged from the Bretton Woods discussions were the main global trade and nancial organizations we have today. In the international monetary area, the Bretton Woods delegates set up the World Bank (also referred to as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) and the International Monetary Fund. In the trade area, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established.2 The World Trade Organization, the successor to GATT,3 came into existence in 1995. The key points of the Bretton Woods system are summarized below: z Free trade among countries is encouraged and protectionist barriers to trade minimized. z U.S. leadership ensures the smooth functioning of international trade and monetary relations. z International monetary relations are based on a xed convertibility into gold. That is, a specic amount of gold (1 ounce) can be exchanged at a xed rate against the U.S. dollar ($35). This arrangement is called the gold standard. z International institutions are established to encourage both international free trade (GATT) and stable international monetary relations (the World Bank and the IMF). Thus, instead of each country going it alone, as was done prior to World War IIwith disastrous consequencescountries trade and invest more freely with one another. The emergence of the Bretton Woods system provides another example of the dual forces of centralization and decentralization. On the one hand, Bretton Woods can be seen as a centralizing force because of the greater cooperation and coordination of the powerful (non-communist) states. On the other hand, the reduced government interference of states in international trade means that companies are much freer to go about their business, so to speak, in directions of their own choosing. The system put in place at Bretton Woods in 1944 still affects world politics and economics. Was the Bretton Woods system successful? The answer depends on ones time frame. Through the 1950s and 1960s, the world experienced a historically unprecedented economic boom. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, the Bretton Woods system frayed and then eventually was torn apart by economic strains in the United States and changes in the rest of the international political economy.
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enormously because planes cost so much; the cost of the planes ordered in one deal can reach $75 million or more.7 Threats of going to the foreign competition should occur more often in the future if the globalization process continues throughout the twenty-rst century. Economic liberalism is not the only approach that supports global free trade. For example, some (but not all) feminists believe trade restrictions can have a negative impact on female workers. Restrictions on textile exports to Western countries, for instance, can limit the potential earning power of millions of poor women working in the developing world.8 Neoliberal economists have a common saying about global free trade: A rising tide lifts all boats. No matter how big or small the boats are, the tide will lift them all. The analogy implies that global free trade will benet both the economically powerful states (big boats) and the developing countries (small boats). This notion is linked to two important concepts in economics and IPE. 1. Positive-sum game: Because a rising tide lifts all boats, a global free trading system is considered a positive-sum gamea game all of the players can win. In reality, of course, not everyone can win, but economic liberalism suggests that, in the long run, there will be far more winners than losers. As discussed below, this prediction contradicts the neo-mercantilist view, which sees the IPE as a zero-sum game; a win for one company (or state) must mean a loss for another company (or state). 2. Free Trade Promotes Comparative Advantage: The second important concept is the notion of comparative advantage, popularized by nineteenth-century British economist David Ricardo. In a liberal international economy, the theory goes, if countries specialize in what they do best and if no barriers to trade exist, then everyone will be better off. This is another example of how economic liberalism believes global free trade is a positive-sum game. In such an environment, free trade will lead to the best use of resources and an optimum distribution of wealth among countries. To demonstrate this key point, imagine a country that excels in making computers and another that excels in growing wheat. Comparative advantage tells us that if both countries specialize in what they do best and then trade with each other, they will both be better off than if they didnt trade at all. This holds true even if one country is better at making computers and at growing wheat, as the country will have more of both computers and wheat than it would without trade. In the end, though, for comparative advantage to work, trade between countries must not be blocked by trade barriers, such as quotas and tariffs (discussed below). Thanks in part to the application of these ideas, a growing number of products are losing their national identity. For example, Americans might think that buying a Ford means that they are buying an American car. However, only 30 percent of the parts of this car might be American. The General Motors brand Chevrolet uses the marketing slogan An American Revolution, but the Chevy Aveo is made in South Korea, and six other General Motors cars, including four different Chevrolets are made in Mexico. Six other GM cars, including three more Chevys are built in Canada.9 A liberal global economy has also led to foreign companies making cars in the United States. According to Toyota, for example, the company has ten factories in the United States employing more than 380,000 people with a total investment of about $15 billion. As a result, as much as 80 percent of a U.S.built Toyota Camry
Comparative advantage In a liberal international economy, the notion that countries should specialize in what they produce most efciently and/or at lowest cost compared to other countries.
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An Analysis of Protectionism
Are you convinced of the merits of global free trade? Most people are not. In fact, if you follow international trade at all, you know that states actually create many barriers to free trade. In this section, we offer several theoretical rationales for trade restrictions as well as examples of the protectionist tools governments use.
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materials (such as copper) can make a country particularly vulnerable to price uctuations over time, and many countries believe specialization can threaten their economic security. Countries that rely too heavily on oil exportsfrom Russia to Norway to Mexicohave, at times, also had trouble because of sustained periods of low oil prices. Nigeria, for example, lost over $2 billion in a ten-month period in 1998 due to low oil prices. This drop in oil revenue was a major blow to the governments budget and planning.12 z A second major reason states support protectionism is to achieve a diversied economythat is, an economy that does not depend on only one or two products. One rationale for protectionism that seeks to enhance diversication is called the infant industry argument. A state considering building a national car company from scratch, for example, might feel international competition is too stiff. Trying to enter the global car market from scratch is almost impossible, given the existence of such behemoths as General Motors, Ford, Toyota, Honda, Daimler Chrysler, and Volkswagen. The idea behind the infant industry argument is that the government should provide temporary help until the infant industry grows up. In the 1970s and 1980s, for example, the Japanese government helped block imports to strengthen the Japanese telecommunications and computer manufacturing sectors.13 When the infant industry is mature enough to compete on its own internationally, state support is supposed to end. Often it does not, however, and the infant industry argument can simply be a cover for traditional protectionism.
Infant industry A government and business strategy in which a new industry is granted protection from foreign competition so it will eventually be able to compete internationally on an equal footing.
Another explanation of why countries use protectionist policies is offered by the rational choice approach (also called the public choice approach). This approach to IPE shares many features of economic liberalism. However, the rational choice approach emphasizes the idea that protectionist economic policies are heavily inuenced by domestic political factors. Instead of seeing a nation-state as a single unit, this way of thinking perceives national government policies as the work of individuals and groups struggling for inuence in the political system. Thus, the most important levels of analysis, for this approach, are the individual and group levels. Consistent with traditional microeconomics, the rational choice approach assumes people are rational beings both in the marketplace and in politics. Thus, individual consumers, workers, managers, and company owners all weigh the costs and benets of the available alternatives with the aim of improving their satisfaction (or utility, as economists would say). An important contribution of the rational choice approach is the idea that rational reasoning occurs in politics as well as in economics. Politicians support or oppose policy alternatives by weighing their costs and benets. However, they weigh the costs and benets in terms of what is rational for the politician. Because they are not running businesses, satisfaction (or utility) in terms of higher prots is not what matters. In democracies, at least, what matters most to politicians is getting elected or reelected. Thus, politicians trying to maximize their satisfactionthat is, maximize their votessupport the policy most likely to guarantees their electoral success. The interesting concept offered by the rational choice approach is that politicians seek to maximize their votes whether or not their career is good for the country as a whole. One may wonder why the German government, for example, insisted that beer sold in Germany use only German water. The rational choice
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The farmers, like those across the European Union (EU), are integrated into the EUs Common Agricultural Policy. So, protests are often directed not just at the national government, but against EU officials in Brussels.
approach suggests that German politicians are responding to protectionist pressures from German brewers regardless of the interests of all German beer drinkers. In the end, German beer drinkers could pay higher prices and have their beer options limited, as the protection reduces foreign competition. So, whether or not protectionist policies are rational for the economy, they are rational from the politicians perspective if those policies help in the next election. The idea that politicians are more interested in getting elected than doing what may be right for the country, of course, goes against much of what people are raised to believe in democracies. Elected ofcials in the rational choice world are driven more by the desire to hold ofce than by any ideological stance or concern for the good of the state. If this is true, all one can hope for is that elected ofcials will choose policies that serve both the self and the state. How can this approach help us understand why states use protectionist policies? The rational choice approach suggests that government ofcials will create or maintain protectionist policies if enough pressure is brought to bear on them. Elected ofcials, after all, need to keep their important constituents happy. If enough of the constituents demand protectionist policies, the government is more likely to supply them. It should be pointed out, however, that free trade is still possible as long as voters or inuential groups encourage politicians or candidates to support free trade. Let us now briey summarize the theoretical rationales for protectionism. As we have seen, free trade can create both winners and losers in the competitive economic struggle. For at least three reasons, countries seek protection. 1. According to the neo-mercantilists and consistent with much of realism, states try to protect certain aspects of their economy on the grounds of national security.
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Balance
2. States may also want to minimize their economic vulnerability by diversifying their economy through the development of new sectors, which may involve protecting infant industries. 3. The rational choice approach tells us that countries use protectionist foreign policies if political leaders are concerned about getting into ofce (or staying in ofce) and when enough protectionist pressures come from important interest groups in society.
Balance of Trade
Two goals of protectionist strategies are securing prots for companies and jobs for citizens. States also try to balance the value of goods coming into and going out of the country. This refers to a countrys balance of trade. A countrys balance of trade is said to be in decit, for example, when more money is leaving the country than coming in. Figure 12.1 shows that the gap between U.S. imports and exports between 2002 and 2004 created a $54 billion trade decit.14 For 2006, the trade balance decit was almost $820 billion15 and should continue to grow, especially if oil prices remain high. A trade surplus implies that more money from trade is coming into the country than leaving. Chinas trade surplus with the United States, for example, has been rising steadily for years (see Figure 12.2). By 2006, for example, China had a $233 billion trade surplus with the United States.16 Note that this means that the United States had a $233 billion trade decit with China. The balance of trade can be manipulated with protectionist policies. If a countrys trade balance shows imports excessively outweighing exports, protectionist policies can reduce imports and/or increase exports. How can states achieve this kind of outcome? We answer this question below by describing tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers to trade.
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Tools of Protectionism
Governments wishing to protect their companies or industries have many tools at their disposal. The most common, and the most obvious, protectionist tools are tariffs and quotas.
Tariff A form of tax on goods being z Tariffs act like taxes on imports. For example, say that the Koreans wish to sell imported into aWorld country. Compare with Duncan: Politics in thequota 21st. Century,their 3e cars in the U.S. market. Each car originally costs $20,000 in the United
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States. However, imagine that the U.S. government has imposed a tariff of $1,000 on every Korean car imported into the United States. This makes the same Korean car now cost the buyer $21,000. What does this mean for Americans, and what does it mean for Koreans? For U.S. car companies, the tariff is benecial. Because of the tariff, Korean cars are now more expensive, and Americans are both less likely to buy them and more likely to buy American
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Quota A limit on the number of items a country can export to or import from another. Compare with tariff.
Nontariff barriers (NTBs) Methods of restricting foreign imports that are neither tariffs nor quotas. Examples include subsidies or tax breaks for domestic companies and relatively rigid health and safety standards for foreign competitors.
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these policies is to protect employment levels and domestic rms or industries from international competition.
Trading Blocs
Regional trading bloc A loose expression that may encompass both free trade areas and customs unions. These are political-economic arrangements that seek to foster greater trade cooperation among member states.
A check of the political-economic arrangements of countries around the world quickly yields a long list of regional trading blocs, often referred to as regional trading arrangements (RTAs), many of which have come into existence in the past 15 to 20 years. Most of the worlds major and minor countries are members of one type of trading bloc or another. RTAs are found on every continent, and sometimes membership crosses oceans, as in the case of the Asia-Pacic Economic Cooperation (APEC). One important question for observers of international political economy is whether RTAs are good or bad for global free trade. As noted earlier with respect to the Bretton Woods system, GATT and the WTO are based on the idea that members should cooperate in a multilateral (global), rather than bilateral or regional way. However, because of the increased use of protectionist policies, especially nontariff barriers, some IPE observers are concerned that the rising number of trade blocs will harm the global, multilateral free trade approach of the WTO. The worst-case scenario is a world of belligerent trade blocs in which a Fortress Europe competes against a Fortress North America, which competes against a Fortress Asia. Some opponents of trade blocs focus on the potential for job losses for some of the countries within a trade bloc. Many American opponents of NAFTA, for example, fear the agreement will encourage U.S. companies to move their operations to Mexico, where the wage rate can be ve times lower than in the United States. Why pay workers $20 an hour in the United States when you only have to pay them $4 an hour in Mexico?19 This problem is related to job outsourcing (and is the subject of the online case study for chapter 13, www.BetweenNations.org). Also in the case of NAFTA, people worry that many U.S. and Canadian companies set up shop close to the U.S. border in Mexico to evade the more stringent environmental standards in the north. Maquiladora factories allow mostly U.S. companies to invest in plants in Mexico, ship raw materials there, and then export nished goods back to the United States without customs duties. The maquiladora program was so successful that by 1999, there were 3,050 factoriesa third more than when NAFTA took effect (see chapter 14 for more on environmental aspects of this development).20
Protectionist Trends
The question of whether the world is becoming more or less protectionist has seemingly contradictory answers. In some respects, the world is indeed closing up. Since the 1970s, global economic troubles have built momentum, as exemplied by the increased use of nontariff barriers. In addition, in the wake of the Asian nancial crisis of the late 1990s, many countries have resorted to a variety of protectionist policies. Nevertheless, the desire still exists to maintain and even strengthen free trade and the multilateral approach. Compared to GATT, for instance, the WTO breaks new ground in the elimination of barriers to free trade. In addition, China, with one of the largest and fastest-growing economies in the world, is now a member of the WTO and bound by its trade rules that foster free trade. An interesting signpost for the future direction of free trade and protectionism is the outcome of the so-called Doha Round of WTO meetings. These global trade
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Of course, in these WTO negotiations, the decisions of the developing countries is also important. Some countries have asked for exceptions to free trade in sensitive economic sectors, that is, sectors believed to be unable to withstand global competition. Such positions, when taken to the extreme, do not facilitate cooperation with countries hoping to boost their exports. In the end, failure of the Doha Round could signify that the trade pendulum was swinging toward the protectionist side. Success of the Doha Round would imply that the pendulum was swinging toward more free trade. We address these WTO talks in more detail in the next section of the chapter. The development around the world of regional trade blocs also reects the dual trend toward greater protectionism and further opening of global trade. In some ways, trade blocs can limit the free ow of goods globally, but in other ways they may be seen as building blocks to a more open international economy. The countries in the key trade blocs are also the key players in the WTO, an organization committed to global free trade. Moreover, trade between the United States and the EU is enormous (accounting for over 55 percent FIGURE 12.3 of world GDP and 40 percent of world trade)22 and many jobs on one side of the Atlantic are dependent on what The Main U.S. Trading Partners by Percentage of Total U.S. Trade happens on the other side. For example, roughly half are Americans who owe their jobs directly or indirectly Canada 17% to EU companies. See Figure 12.3, which charts the main U.S. trading partners. Note that Americas NAFTA partners account for 27 percent of U.S. trade. By 2003, Other European Union the total amount of two-way investment was over $1.5 50% (25) 15% 23 trillion. These two major trading bloc partners have a strong stake in keeping trade owing. Mexico 10% To summarize this section, the forces for global free trade can be associated with worldwide centralizing Japan 5% China 3% tendencies because of the growing number of states Source: Adapted from the WTO, Merchandise Trade of the United States by Region and willing to coordinate and manage international trade Economy, 2005. Used by permission. through international trade organizations (see below).
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The forces of protectionism can lead to fragmentation on a regional level (more protectionist trade blocs) or on a state-by-state level, where countries struggle against each other with competitive protectionist policies. But, as we have seen, support for global free trade and support for greater protectionism are both at work.
Source: Adapted from the WTO, World Merchandise Exports by Region, 2005. Used with permission.
Whether you support free trade or protectionism, you may wonder how more than 190 countries and their millions of companies manage to do business every day. Figure 12.4 shows the countries leading the world in exports. In many respects, global trade may appear not to be managed at all. The forces of supply and demand regulate who buys and sells the multitude of products and services out there. But we also know that states impose rules (such as tariffs and quotas) to help manage the impact of participation in the global market. In addition, thanks to a historical convergence of circumstances, one of the most important international institutions is actually designed specically to help manage global trade. We now turn to this institution, the World Trade Organizationits mission, its contributions, and its critics.
not ruled completely by the invisible hand of self-interest. It is inuenced by the most powerful countries in the world and by the rules and institutions they helped create. In the area of international trade, the major international organization that buttresses the relatively liberal trading system is the World Trade Organization (WTO), the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). One early goal of GATT was to create a productive economic environment that would help countries rebuild from both the Great Depression and the destruction of World War II. Similar to other international organizations established by the Bretton Woods system, GATT created a permanent forum where countries and companies could discuss trade issues that concerned them. This forum was designed to be multilateralthat is, it involved many states, unlike the more cumbersome and historically protectionist bilateral and regionally oriented trade arrangements. At the heart of GATTs (and the WTOs) foundation was the desire to foster freedom of trade by the systematic and long-term strategy of lowering trade barriers. GATT focused at rst on the most serious and common barriers to trade: tariffs and quotas, which were discussed above. For nearly two decades (the 1950s and 1960s), thanks in part to GATT, the world experienced a historically unprecedented economic boom. By the early 1970s, GATT could proudly say that its basic aims had been achieved. Although it subsequently faced rising protectionism, it still ign, Inc. 7 Laurelwood Drive, New Fairfield, CT 06812 was (203)a746-4181 (203) 746-4182 fax [email protected] signicant factor in freeing up international trade. Between 1950 and 1996, for example, world exports rose sixteen times and world output rose ve times. World export of manufactured goods rose thirty-one times, while manufacturing
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Most-favored-nation principle (MFN) A pillar of GATT and now the WTO whereby imports from one state are granted the same degree of preference as imports from the most preferred states.
Uruguay Round A series of negotiations as part of GATT that lasted from 1986 and 1994. The aim of the round, begun in Punte del Este, Uruguay, was to tackle global trade barriers, especially nontariff barriers that were increasingly hindering free trade. It addressed seriously for the rst time services and agricultural goods. Intellectual property rights Rights given to persons over the creations of their mind. Such rights are customarily divided into two main areas: copyright and rights related to copyright; and industrial property, which includes protection of distinctive signsparticularly trademarksand industrial designs and trade secrets.
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For more information see The View From: Anti WTO Protesters www.BetweenNations.org
adjudicate disputes, no government deed any of its rulings. Even though some countries were short-term losers in particular cases, they still abided by the WTO because of the broader and long-term benets of WTO membership. The United States, for instance, was a short-term loser when the WTO forced it to lift illegal restrictions on imports of Costa Rican underwear. In another case, Japan was forced to reform its alcohol tax policies after complaints by the United States, the EU, and Canada. Nevertheless, WTO rules arent always clear-cut or completely enforceable because of opposition from member-states and the public.26
A steamroller crushes some of the half million compact discs at a dump site northwest of Moscow. Such efforts to crack down on companies who steal intellectual property are gaining momentum but still have a long way to go, particularly in the developing world.
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Violent Protests
Riot police guard the front of a Nike store from looters and vandals in downtown Seattle during the protests against the World Trade Organization in November 1999.
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_____ 1. The arguments for free trade clearly outweigh any arguments in favor of protectionism. _____ 2. One of the key elements of the Bretton Woods system was that international monetary relations were based on a xed convertibility into gold. _____ 3. The economic liberal approach argues that free trade benets all states, although larger states benet more than smaller ones. _____ 4. Protectionists argue that it is oftentimes benecial to not produce certain products as it provides an incentive for obtaining those goods more cheaply from others. _____ 5. One of the key problems that remains to be solved with the WTO is the absence of an effective and timely dispute-resolution process.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. The Bretton Woods system was designed to: a. Increase competition among selfinterested actors in order to maximize prot b. Prevent unlimited free-trade policies that would destroy infant industries c. Maintain the existing system of economic policies in order to foster stability
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d. Foster a more constructive and cooperative environment among states and their companies e. All of the above _____ 7. Comparative advantage refers to the belief that: a. All countries must act in their own self interest and take advantage of opportunities to capture markets whenever possible. b. Lesser developed countries have an advantage in developing today because they can utilize the lessons learned by the industrialized states 100 years earlier. c. All countries should specialize in what they do best and, with the absence of trade restrictions, everyone will be better off as a result of such behavior. d. Global free trade is a negative-sum game, therefore all countries must use whatever capabilities are at their disposal to gain an advantage over other states. e. None of the above _____ 8. The World Trade Organization uses which of the following in maintaining trade relations between states? a. Most-favored nation status b. Reciprocity c. Nondiscrimination d. All of the above
The political ramications of monetary relations are evident at both the global and national levels. At the national level, for example, budget decits and surpluses affect a states prosperity and, ultimately, its power and inuence in the world. Global financial interactions can even threaten the sovereignty of states. In our increasingly interdependent world, autonomous national economic policymaking is not really possible, especially for smaller states. Any states monetary relations are really international monetary relations. As a result, many people argue that at least some international cooperation is needed. The trouble, however, is that international cooperation is difcult to achieve.29 In the
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The new currency used by most European Union countries. It replaces the French franc, the German mark, and the Italian lira, among other national currencies.
U.S. jackets would be sold and fewer British ones would be sold. As a result, more jobs would be supported in the United States, as you and everyone else bought American. Because fewer British goods are sold, the job situation gets worse in Britain. British export companies wont do as well as they would have before the dollar devaluation. Ultimately, the trade balance shifts in favor of the United States. As this example suggests, changes in the value of a states currency can have a profound impact on the employment rate and the states trade balance. Consider these issues when you read about Europes single currency, which eliminates currency uctuations.
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Source: Adapted from IMF, IMF Executive Directors and Voting Power, http://www.imf.org/external/np/ sec/memdir/eds.htm, May 15, 2007. Used by permission.
monetary contributions should get the biggest say in its decision, critics complain Duncan: World Politics in the 21st Century, 3e an exploitative tool for a small numthat this voting arrangement makes the IMF 1036905_la_12_07 ber of rich and powerful countries. We discuss other criticisms of the IMF (and 11/1/07 World Bank) later in the chapter.
1. Most of the World Banks activity involves very low-interest loans through the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which has sign, Inc. 7 Laurelwood Drive,$360 New Fairfield, 06812 (203) 746-4181 (203) 746-4182 fax [email protected] loaned over billion CT since 1945. It typically loans $1415 billion for over 100 operations.36 2. The World Banks International Development Association (IDA) is designed specically to serve for the worlds poorest countries. It provides interest-free loans that can last thirty-ve years or longer. The loans are designed to improve such basics as primary education and health services, and drinking water and sanitation systems. The IDA provides roughly $10 billion in nancing for more than 150 projects in low-income countries.37
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3. A third agency of the World bank is the International Finance Corporation (IFC). While the IBRD and IDA make loans to countries, the IFC makes loans to companies. Making loans to companies in developing countries is risky; the IFC seeks to reduce these risks to investors. The main goal is to entice more investors to help companies in the developing world. 4. The fourth World Bank agency is the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Like the IFC, MIGA seeks to attract investors and private insurers into difcult operating environments. It provides political risk insurance for foreign investments, technical assistance, and dispute mediation services that may remove possible obstacles to future investment.38
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indicated, for example, that 30 percent of all World Bank loans were unsatisfactory, while 60 percent of the loans to the transition states of the former Soviet Union were unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, critics of the World Bank and the IMF are unimpressed with the generally slow pace of reform of the two institutions. Neo-Marxists and dependency theorists, for example, are particularly incensed because they believe the two institutionseven if reforms are madewill still be tools of rich countries.
_____ 1. A shift in exchange rates between two countries may mean consumers in France will have to pay more for an item sold in Germany, even though the price hasnt changed in Germany. _____ 2. All states of the European Union have switched to the euro as their national currency. _____ 3. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established to provide long-term loans for countries that need to develop infrastructure to become competitive on the world market. _____ 4. In the IMF, countries that contribute more to the Fund have the most inuence. _____ 5. The World Bank and the IMF, while not perfect, have generally been regarded by most as positive inuences on international economic development.
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_____ 6. Which of the following does not affect the value of currency? a. How long it has been in circulation b. Economic health of the issuing country c. Peoples condence in the currency d. Demand for the currency e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following did not lead countries to adopt the euro as their national currency? a. To create a more stable monetary environment in Europe b. To foster the development of a true single market c. To increase competition as a result of transparency in pricing across borders d. To give the European Union a boost in momentum to maintain its importance for the European public e. None of the above
Case Study
Bitter Disputes in the Global Sugar Trade
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prompted increased productivity in the U.S. auto industry and eventually higher quality in Americanbuilt cars. Critics of unrestrained MNCs, however, point to a variety of features they view as detrimental. For example, they say that because capital is more mobile than labor, MNCs move to where costs are low at the expense of their workers. Many opponents of MNCs decry the conditions under which host country employees work. Others point to the limited degree to which foreign knowledge or technology is passed on or adapted in the host country. Sometimes the MNC restricts the more advanced business aspects of the company to home employees leaving host country employees with bluecollar jobs only. Another complaint is that once a large MNC sets up shop in a host country, local businesses face bankruptcy because they cannot compete with its vast economic resources. Host countries can try to regulate the foreign company (for example, by requiring that a large percentage of the workers be local), but if they push too much, the MNC can simply threaten to pull out of the host country and go somewhere else. This is particularly relevant when cheap labor is vital to the companys operations, and most developing countries can offer plenty of cheap labor. Are MNCs good or bad for the global political economy? As the previous paragraphs suggest, the answer is, It depends. The opportunity exists for MNCs to have both positive and negative consequences. Much depends on the company and its relationships with the home and host countries. The answer also depends on ones perspective. What, for example, would mercantilists say about MNCs? What would the perspective be from the ecological paradigm? Should greater restrictions on MNCs be imposed by home countries, host countries, or both? Regardless of the answers to these questions, one thing is certain: multinational corporations are a permanent and growing feature of international political economy in the twenty-rst century.
NOTES
1. Jonathan Guthrie, You Have to Take Your Hat Off to Going Global, Financial Times, October 12, 2006. 2. The Years Biggest Deals, Business Week, January 11, 1999, p. 8.
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International political economy (IPE) is the study of the interaction of political and economic forces at the international level. IPE is a critical eld of study because every major and even most minor issues have both eco1 nomic and political elements. Economic liberalism assumes that because rational human beingsas business owners, workers, consumers, and so ontry to maximize their satisfaction (in terms of prots, for example), the most efcient economic outcomes will result. Government is supposed to play only a minor role in regulating the economy, and free trade should be encouraged among states. Neo-mercantilism emphasizes the role of the state in helping guide a countrys economy so as to increase the power and security of the state. Neo-mercantilist policies often involve protectionist policies such as tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers to trade. The rational choice approach emphasizes the domestic political sources of international economic policymaking. It looks at not only what motivates individuals (for example, prots) but also which interest groups in
3 5 views6 8 of free 9 Identify the4different held by7advocates trade and protectionism; explain how global trade is managed.
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According to the economic liberalism approach, if countries keep down their trade barriers to each other, everyone should be better off. If countries specialize in what they do best, comparative advantage suggests that national economies and the global economy as a whole can be run as efciently as possible. Protectionism places restrictionssuch as tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barrierson imports. Those who favor protectionism say that countries sometimes want to advance a particular industry (or company) for economic reason (such as the infant industry argument), for national security reasons (no country wants to depend on another for food or weapons), or for the protection of jobs.
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Global trade may appear not to be managed at all, but several forces act on the apparently chaotic international trading system.
- The forces of supply and demand play a part in regulating who buys and sells what to whom. - Governments impose rules (such as tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers) to help control the impact of their countries involvement in the global economy. - One of the worlds most important international organizations is the World Trade Organization, which, inspired by the economic liberalism approach, seeks to encourage global free trade.
Today, the value of a currency depends on many factors, including the health of the countrys economy and how strong that economy is compared to the economies of other countries. This combination of factors establishes a countrys exchange rate. One of the most important developments in IPE in a long time is the establishment of a new currency in Europe, the euro. Thirteen European countries including Belgium, Spain, and the Netherlands have chosen to eliminate their own national currency in favor of a single currency for all. The two most inuential international organizations in the global nancial system are the IMF and the World Bank.
- The IMF is designed to stabilize the overall health of a countrys economy or a geographic region that has been hit hard nancially. - The World Bank was established to promote economic development in the worlds poorer countries by nancing specic projects.
4 5 how the 6 international 7 8monetary 9 system 10 is Understand managed, identifying the primary international institutions that handle monetary issues.
Modern economic systems depend on currencies that are accepted by everyone. In the past, currencies have sometimes been linked directly to the price of gold.
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Worlds collide: The poor and the well-off live side-by-side in most countries
Learning Objectives
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Identify what is meant by development while understanding the difculties associated with arriving at a commonly accepted denition of the term.
Understand how different theories approach the issue of development and how each explains why some countries are rich while others are poor.
Identify and understand the political factors that affect the development process.
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The forgotten world is made up primarily of the developing nations, where most of the people, comprising more than fifty percent of the total world population, live in poverty, with hunger as a constant companion and fear of famine a continual menace.
Norman Borlaug
Chapter Outline
A Transformation of a Countrys Underdevelopment Crafting a Denition of Development Classifying the Worlds Countries
espite the technological and scientic advances of the twentieth century, poverty remains an unrelenting challenge in many of the worlds countries. Although global poverty rates have been falling, half the worldnearly three billion peoplelive on less than $2 a day.1 In some countries the literacy rate is 40 percent or lower (Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso, Niger), and in the least developed countries, where the prevalence of HIV/AIDS is high, life expectancy is in the thirties, compared to the upper seventies in the advanced industrial democracies. The largest concentration of poor people is in Asia, but most of Africa is also a serious concern, as are many parts of Latin America. Conditions have improved in many countries in the past fty yearsin parts of India and China, South Korea, Taiwan, and
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development p. 407 economic development p. 407 political development p. 407 social and cultural development p. 407 newly industrializing countries (NICs) p. 411 economic liberalism p. 412 modernization school p. 412 periphery p. 415 colonialism p. 415 core countries p. 415 import-substitution industrialization p. 416 New International Economic Order (NIEO) p. 416 capital formation p. 420 social overhead capital p. 420
Chile, for examplebut the solution to poverty and political instability remains elusive. It is likely that in the twenty-rst century, large numbers of people will remain mired in distressed economic, political, health, and environmental conditions. A helpful indicator of the gap between the worlds haves and havenots is purchasing power parity (PPP). See Figure 13.1 for a better understanding of the relative wealth of people living in different countries. This chapter looks not only at the problems facing the developing countries but also the reasons for the existence of poor (and rich) countries. In addition, it explores a variety of policy recommendations for improving the political and economic conditions of the worlds less developed countries (LDCs). Because there is much disagreement as to which paths successfully lead to development, it is expedient to rely on several theoretical approaches as guides. Fortunately, the theories discussed in previous chapters provide a solid foundation. With this chapter overview in mind, the sequence of topics is as follows: z First, the chapter looks at what is meant by development, with a focus on the politics of development. z It then examines key theories that explain why there are rich and poor countries. z The next section studies the factors that affect the politics of development, by which is generally meant whether countries are governed in ways that initiate and sustain the process of development or hold it back interminably.
FIGURE 13.1 Relative Wealth of Nations: Purchasing Power Parity, IMF 2006
GDP (PPP) per capita 40,00190,000 10,00140,000 6,25110,000 2,5016,250 1,5012,500 5011,500 251500 0250 No data
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GDP_PPP_per_capita_world_map_IMF_gures_for_year_2006.png.
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A useful way to begin a discussion of development is to look at povertythe very thing development tries to erase. Poverty in some developing countries today is truly monumental, and in certain countries it has gotten worse as the gap between rich and poor countries widens and as the worlds poorest states become more vulnerable than before. Many policymakers and scholars worry that povertyin itself a terrible condition for people to endureand violence interact to drive each other.2 This connection between poverty and worldwide violence is a dangerous example of decentralization in the international system. Examples of growing lawlessness associated with poverty can be seen, among other places, in Haiti and in Sudans Darfur region. Eighty percent of the worlds twenty poorest countries have suffered a major civil war since 1990, as in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Haiti. Behind rising global anarchy lies the growing gap between the worlds rich and poor countries and the failure of globalization to improve the lives of the vast majority of the worlds poor. In addition to purchasing power parity, a useful way to understand levels of development in countries is to designate them in terms of Gross National Income (GNI), the method used by the World Bank. Previously known as Gross National Product, Gross National Income comprises the total value of goods and services produced within a country in the form of wages, prots, rents, interest on the activities produced in a particular country plus all transfers of income from other countriessuch as prots on foreign investment, remittances of migrants, foreign investment inowsminus all such transfers of income to other countries. Gross National Income Per Capita is the GNI divided by population. This designation leads to the following country comparisons of annual per capita income: 1. In low-income countries the GNI per capita is $745 or less; 2. In lower middleincome the GNI per capita is $746$2,975; 3. In upper middleincome countries the GNI per capita is $2,976$9,205; 4. In high-income countries the GNI per capita is $9,206 or more. The less or least developed countries are those in the low- and lower middle income groups, while the developed countries fall into the high-income group. When you read about the developing countries, the reference typically is to those not in the high-income group. The World Bank calculates the GNI of countries by means of a conversion method that reduces the impact of exchange rate uctuations in the comparison of national incomes.
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Poverty, of course, has many dimensions. Its multiple aspects include: z Illiteracy z Poor health z Gender inequality z Environmental degradation z Gross inequality in political power and access to social services
These aspects of poverty are reected in the UNs Millennium Development Goals, a pledge made at the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000. At the summit, these eight goals, to be achieved by 2015, were made. They are shown in Table 13.1. Behind these goalstracked annually by the UNlies a pledge by developed states to provide 0.7 percent of their gross national product (GNP) as development aid for the poor.3 Six years after the Millennium Development Goals were set (2006), only Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg had achieved or surpassed the 0.7 percent target for development aid. Overall, the world was spending far less on development aid annually compared to the over $1 trillion in military spending. Meanwhile, the faces of global poverty persist, as reected in Table 13.2 Some of the more prominent features of poverty are shown in Table 13.3.
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Source: World Bank, World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People, 2004. Used by permission.
Conditions in developing countries vary considerably. A study by the Brookings Institution explored the gap between rich and poor states between 1980 and 2000. The study found that the gap is widening. However, the study also found that, in general, people in developing countries are living longer, the number of countries that have negative growth is lower than in 1980, and Asia expanded faster than all
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A long line of South Africans wait for their minibusses home to their townships as a luxury car drives past in Johannesburg, South Africa, April 2004. More than ten years after South Africas first free and fair elections, the country still has huge differences in income and wealth. Millions of black people are still poor with no basic human needs such as running water.
other areas of the world. In fact, incomes there rose much faster than among developed countries. Poverty and economic inequality continue, as in the past, to be linked to political inequality. One consequence of poverty and political inequality is that the majority of victims of human rights violations are peasants and rural and urban laborers.4 They, along with indigenous groups and women, fall into the category of the suppressedwith far less political power than landed elites, military ofcers, business and commercial groups, industrialists, and other power elite groups. The depth and spread of poverty, and its vast system of social and political inequalities, call into question the value or credibility of the legally guaranteed constitutional rights of citizens to a fair trial, a job, medical care, and access to education. This is true despite the appearance of new democratic governments that are supposed to promote citizenship rights. Behind these deplorable conditions lies the legacy of a states colonial heritage, geographic location, depth and scope of corruption, inadequate formal government institutions, and poor leadership. Each of these factors is discussed later in the section about the politics of development. Given the scope of poverty in the world and the large number of developing countries, scholars of world politics have devoted much attention to the developing world and the political dynamics that drive it. To borrow a phrase from Thomas Hobbes (15881679), life in the Third World can be nasty, brutish, and short.5 Given this dour perspective, the obvious questions to ask are, why are conditions in developing countries so bad, and how can these countries develop? The answers are explored in the following sections.
Fortunately, Hobbess pessimistic predictions and observations do not apply to everyone in every country. z First, not all poor countries today were always poor, and some countries are growing out of poverty. For example, China at one time was the richest country
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Development Overall change in a countrys economy, political system, and social structure that improves the quality of human life.
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the argument is that they may not reect the culture, religion, attitudes, and values practiced in a developing country. z Second, rates of development, as in economic development, vary greatly from one country to the next. China is moving rapidly in economic development, while Haiti and African states south of the Sahara are not. South Korea is far ahead of North Korea in economic growth, while Mexico is ahead of Guatemala, and Taiwan is doing much better economically than Sudan. Rates of development are by no means the same across countries, nor do they affect everybody within a country in the same way. A country may look like it is making economic progress, while in fact inequality may remain high among its population. As to alternative paths to economic growth, these vary widely from state to state. China, Vietnam, and Cuba follow variations of single-party rule (the Communist Party) that exist within the context of market economics. Bhutan, a small country in the Himalayas, pursues a philosophy of gross national happiness that recognizes the individuals spiritual needs, not dened simply as fulllment of material wishes. z Third, when development occurs in one sector of a country, such as its economy, that sphere of development tends to change other sectors, like the political and social systems. Indeed, many political economists believe economic development is a precondition for political (democratic) and social development (a growing middle class). If standards of living rise and an economy becomes more modern and diversied, it can generate movement toward a more democratic systemas occurred in Mexico just over a century ago. In fact, a look at the history of Latin America indicates that economic development typically leads to major change in a countrys political system, including the emergence of multiple political parties. Such a political transition might occur because a more diversied economy tends to produce more interest groups and political parties, higher literacy, and the spread of mass communication media like newspapers and television. A thriving economy, moreover, should generate more opportunities for upward mobility and higher standards of living for women as well as men. z Fourth, most of the developing countries have been affected by globalization, especially the technology revolution (see chapter 1). If you travel through developing countriesfrom China and Vietnam to Mexico and Guatemala you can see the presence of Internet cybercafes, IGOs, NGOs, MNCs, and global banking and nancial institutions. Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola have been globalized, along with McDonalds and K.F.C. (formerly Kentucky Fried Chicken). Still, opposition to globalization is common in some parts of the developing world. The reaction is caused by the perception that the development process is not homegrown but generated from abroadand, specically, by the West (think of al Qaeda). It is also a response to the conicts in identity arising from the interplay of changing economy, a changing social and cultural system, and the political regime.
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The son of, and successor to, longtime North Korean leader, Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il is known as Dear Leader. An autocratic leader of enormous power and influence, he has dramatically impoverished his country.
whether or not a country is doing well economically and whether or not it is doing better or worse over time. A country, however, could have a rising national income but still exclude much of its population from the political process. Similarly, a country may be growing economically in the short run but destroying its environment in the process, thus hurting long-term economic growth. To encompass these and other denitional problems, we propose ve components to the denition of development. z The rst component is economic. Because the equitable distribution of wealth (equity) matters just as much as overall economic growth, the notion of economic health is measured by GDP per capita. It is necessary to focus on not only the size of the economic pie, however, but also on how the pie is divided. For example, a countrys development would be very restricted if only 1 percent of the population beneted from 99 percent of the economic growth. z A second component of development is the health of the population. The most useful measurement is the infant mortality rate, which reects the quality and quantity of food, the availability of housing, and the quality of and access to medical care. z A third component of development is literacy. A countrys literacy rate is a useful indicator of development because it measures quality and access to education. Most people in the rich industrialized countries take for granted the ability to read and write, not to mention basic math skills. Illiteracy is a terrible problem in many countries, as shown in the tables above. Around the world, about one billion people are illiterate. z Environmental sustainability is the fourth component of development. This is the ability of a country to advance in economic development without destroying the environment in the process (see chapter 14 for more details).
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z The fth component of development is civil rights, particularly gender rights. In most countries, women play a relatively small role politically as well as economically (by traditional measurement). Thus, improvements in this area would see greater participation of women in political and economic life. (The fourth and fth components of development are not yet widely accepted among mainstream political scientists and economists. Historically, few people paid attention to these two issues, and there is still reluctance to include them. In short, then, development has come to encompass many elements besides economic progress. Development, then, is movement toward higher standards of living, widening opportunities to live a better life, upward social and economic mobility, and expanding participation in government. Explicit definitions of economic, social, and political development are the next topics to consider.
economic areas. However, over the past 15 years or so, progress has been many at least in terms of the number of people living on less than a dollar a day. Unfortunately, as we noted at the start of the chapter, half the worldnearly three billion peoplelive on less than two dollars a day.
The Breadline 1.25 1.20 People Living on Less Than $1 per Day (billions) 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 30 28
z First World countries are developed, rich, and democratic. z Second World refers to the worlds communist or former communist countries. These countries are also referred to as countries in transition. z Third World covers the rest of the worlds countriesthose that are relatively poor and polit ically unstable. A common expression that encompasses Third World countries is the global South, after the hemisphere where most Third World countries are located. This term contrasts with the North, after the hemisphere where most of the First World and Second World countries are found. Other terms commonly used to describe the Third World are less developed countries (LDCs), underdeveloped countries, and undeveloped countries. z Fourth World is sometimes used to refer not to countries but to indigenous peoples, such as the Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Mayans of Guatemala. It is important to note that there is no
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Source: The Economist, AprilApril 28, 2007. by permission. Source: The Economist, 28, Used 2007.
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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Newly industrializing countries (NICs) Those countries previously classied as less developed countries (LDCs) that have raised signicantly their levels of production and wealth typically through export-led growth.
_____ 1. A key decentralizing force in world politics today is the interaction between poverty and violence. _____ 2. As a result of the UNs Millennium Development Goals pledge, many developed countries now contribute 0.7 percent of their GNP to development aid. _____ 3. The GDP of the poorest countries is less than the wealth of the worlds three richest people combined. _____ 4. An acceptable denition of development focuses on two types of change in a countrys condition: economic and political. _____ 5. Countries that have industrialized in recent years but have not yet obtained high levels of
_____ 6. Which of the following components would you leave out when crafting a denition of development? a. Economics b. Civil rights c. Literacy d. Culture e. None of the above, all are important
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In many of the chapters, you have considered extremely difcult questions, such as, Why are there wars? In this chapter, you consider an equally daunting question: Why are some countries rich and politically stable, whereas others, are poor and politically unstable? This question leads to a host of other challenging questions: How can poor countries improve their economic situation? Must countries trying to develop economically also be democratic, or can a country be too poor to be democratic?8 Should the state play a dominant role in the economy, or should a hands-off approachletting the market drive the economybe chosen? Should all states try to develop by creating a U.S.style economy? Unfortunately, there are no easy answers to these questions, nor is there a consensus among academics or practitioners. Nevertheless, you can make signicant progress in addressing these questions by building on the theoretical foundations from earlier chapters.
Economic Liberalism
Economic liberalism An approach to IPE based on free-market principles and open international trade and monetary systems. Founded, in part, on the belief that the role of the state should be minimized because of potential inefciency as well as the fear of states abusing their power.
Modernization school An approach to development that seeks to modernize backward countries through the adoption of policies consistent with economic liberalism and free trade. The United States is usually seen as the successful model to emulate.
As chapter 12 showed, economic liberalism (neoliberal economics) grows out of the classical economics tradition. It is a variation on the classical free-trade and free marketeconomy liberalism of the nineteenth century, made famous in Europe with the 1776 publication in England of Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations. According to this approach, free-market principles should dominate a countrys political economy. Domestically, the state should limit its regulation of the economy. Internationally, the state should not construct barriers to trade and investment with other countries. When individuals can buy, sell, and trade freely across borders, everyone is better off in the long run. Since the 1960s, U.S. foreign policy toward developing countries has essentially relied on this approach. A look at the third edition of Walt W. Rostows 1991 book, The Stages of Economic Growth,9 shows how little the approach has changed since then. The modernization school, espoused by Rostow and others, attempts to modernize backward countries by encouraging the kinds of policies that helped the United States become so successful. The modernization theory also stresses the internal obstacles to development, that is, those located inside the developing countries themselves. How does this economic liberal approach answer the question, Why are there poor countries? The primary response is that in developing countries problems
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Neo-Marxism Dependency
Economic factors dominate politics and society.
Class (capitalist and proletariat) or the international capitalist system. Inherent conflict, especially class conflict; revolutionary change until Marxist utopia.
Mostly external.
are created or made worse by failed government policies. Policies that restrict trade, for example, can lead to what economists call market imperfections that hinder the efcient use of land, labor, and capital. Governments that meddle too much in the economy, that are excessively incompetent, or that are exceedingly corrupt also hurt development prospects. In some troubled countries, for instance, government policies favor a small minority of wealthy people. Kleptocracies are governments that essentially steal from the people; this was the case in the Philippines under the regime of Ferdinand Marcos (19651986). These political factors are discussed in greater depth later in the chapter. Proponents of the neoliberal economic approach admit that the international political and economic environment is competitive and sometimes even hostile. In the long run, however, there is no substitute for sound domestic policies. This point was recently echoed by the United Nations, which argued that effective governance, in conjunction with sound international assistance, is essential for development. As Mark Malloch Brown, the former head of the UNs Development Program, put it, Governance is a critical building block for poverty reduction.10
Neoliberalism in Practice
From the 1990s onward, in many developing countries, neoliberalism has emphasized: z Free trade z Market economies z Selling off inefcient state-owned enterprises z Exports z Decreased tariffs z Streamlining bureaucratic processes z Attempts to diversify economies
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For example, after decades of failed neo-Marxist economic programs, in the early 1990s India adopted neoliberal policies under the leadership of Manmohan Singh, the architect of Indias economic reforms and the present prime minister. His development philosophy is that government should reduce bureaucracy, open markets to attract foreign investment, and reduce the states role in business activity. From this perspective, the governments job is to concentrate its efforts where markets alone do not serve the public interest well. Critics of this viewpoint claim that such policies have not produced consistently positive results. In Latin America, for example, poverty remains entrenched and the environment has suffered. Critics of neoliberalism also associate poverty with the perceived negative effects of globalization.
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Periphery In the international system, that region or substate entity that is not part of the central decision-making group of states. Kosovo, Chechnya, Kashmir, and East Timor may be considered part of the periphery. Africa has been, up to now, a peripheral region of the international system. Colonialism Control of territories in what is now considered the Third World by rich, mostly European countries with the aim of gearing colonial development to the benet of the home country.
Core countries In the language of the dependency approach, the worlds rich countries, or First World countries.
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FIGURE 13.3 The Dependency Explanation of How the Rich Exploit the Poor
As the diagram suggests, multinational corporations from rich countries set up shop (invest) in periphery countries, usually with assistance from wealthy local capitalists (the core in the periphery). Profits from the MNC operations in the periphery are then sent back to the home country, leaving the peripheral country no better (or even worse) off than before.
MNC Exploitation Core Country Profits
Import-substitution industrialization Policies designed to increase national politicaleconomic independence by building up national industries so the country will not have to rely as much on expensive imports. Examples include nationalizing foreign companies, trade barriers on foreign goods, and diversifying the national economy in order to reduce dependence on a few exports. New International Economic Order (NIEO) The effort by developing countries to alter the rules of the international system, especially with respect to trade and nancial structures.
periphery, things would improve for the periphery. Neo-Marxists, however, believe these are only partial measures that wont signicantly alter the dependent relationship between the core and periphery. They argue that periphery countries should sever political and economic ties with core countries. By cutting the links to the exploitative core countries, development will no longer depend on their demands. One method of severing ties is to nationalize a foreign companythat is, to take over the factories and facilities of the MNC. On their own, periphery countries could then diversify their economy (become less dependent on a few exports) and avoid spending scarce cash on expensive imported goods. These prescriptions, import-substitution industrialization , were the centerpiece of the most important policy adopted by developing countries after World War II. In short, the policy called for domestic production to substitute for imported products. Another neo-Marxist, dependency-inspired strategy culminated in the 1970s with the establishment of the New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO was an attempt by developing countries to elevate the issue of economic development to the top of the international agenda and to make international institutions more responsive to the concerns of poor countries.15 The NIEO called for developed countries to: z Provide more aid to developing countries z Create debt-relief programs z Reduce their trade barriers to goods from developing countries In short, developing countries essentially demanded a restructuring of the international system to eliminate bias against them. For a time, it seemed as if the developing countries were nally gaining leverage, especially after the oil shocks caused by OPEC. By the 1980s, however, it was clear the NIEO had failed. The neoMarxist policies, such as import-substituting industrialization, adopted by many developing countries, especially those in Latin America, contributed to huge government budget decits, enormous debts, and rampant ination. The NIEO also failed because the much more powerful developed states were unwilling to cede signicant inuence to the worlds poorer countries. Even though these shortcomings, as well as the collapse of communism in 1989 1990, largely discredited dependency notions, similar ideas persist to this day.
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whether OPEC would ever play the kind of role it did in the 1970s. But it was those low prices that motivated OPEC and even non-OPEC countries to work together to stabilize and thus raise world oil prices. This effort led to the doubling of oil prices in the United States between 1999 and 2000. By 2004 and 2005 very high oil prices were again helping OPEC members (as well as non-OPEC oilproducing countries). The lesson of OPECas a group of developing countries banding together to leverage developed countriesis difcult to apply in other contexts. z First of all, OPECs successes have been limited, and oil has not been the cureall for its members economic and political woes. z Second, most countries in the developing world do not possess raw materials or manufactured goods or services that are in as high demand as oil. As a result, efforts to form effective cartels in other commodities have generally failed. After reviewing the above theoretical approaches to development, it is apparent that developing countries have generally followed three strategies, based on theoretical ideas and actual experience.18 1. First, some countries have tried to detach themselves from the international political economy (the neo-Marxist and dependency recommendation). For the most part, these efforts have failed. The change in attitude toward contact with developed countries is exemplied by the attitude of Brazils former president, Henrique Cardozo. Cardozo had been a leading proponent of the dependency approach and had denounced U.S. MNCs as instruments of American imperialism. By the 1990s, however, he had come to believelike many leaders in the developing worldthat MNCs can provide the capital and technology necessary for economic development.19 2. The next strategy for some developing countries was to change the international political-economic order. The most prominent attempt was the NIEO. This strategy thus far has also failed. The 1980s and 1990s saw a major ideological shift among developing states as more and more countries adopted neoliberal economic policies (for example, less regulation, favoring foreign investment). This offers a partial explanation for Mexicos decision to support NAFTA. 3. The nal strategy of developing countries has been to adopt neo-mercantilist domestic policies and to maximize the benets of participation in the international political economy. Almost every country in the world has, in varying degrees, supported the neo-mercantilist prescription of protecting domestic industries from foreign competition.
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_____ 1. The economic liberal approach to development argues that failed government policies are the key reason why developing countries are still poor. _____ 2. Neoliberalism emphasizes free trade, market economies, increased exports, and decreased tariffs (among other things) as important strategies for developing countries. _____ 3. Neo-mercantalists argue that the state should be the main determinant of organized political, economic, and social activity. _____ 4. The dependency approach to economic development argues that a certain level of dependence on the international economic system is healthy for states and that, in the long run, it will lead to economic development. _____ 5. The lesson of OPEC is that, if only the developing states would make the effort, economic cooperation between developing states clearly leads to success both economically and politically.
_____ 6. Which of the following is an example of a failed government policy that may be used to explain a countrys lack of development? a. Policies that foster trade at the expense of internal development b. Governments that fail to monitor and adjust economic factors when the situation is warranted c. Excessive corruption by government ofcials d. None of the above e. All of the above _____ 7. Which of the following did the New International Economic Order (NIEO) ask developed states to provide developing countries? a. Technology credits b. New low credit loans c. Debt-relief programs d. Reduced prices on defensive weapons systems to increase political stability e. All of the above
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The politics of development, as all politics, involves who gets what, when, where, and how (see chapter 1). As the economic liberal and neo-mercantilist approach emphasizes, politics and governing are intimately tied to all those decisions and outcomes that affect whether or not a country is moving toward improved standards of living for more and more people and toward wider popular participation in government. A countrys political system is most likely to promote developmenteconomic growth, equity, and increased civic participationif it meets three specic conditions.20 The countrys: z Leaders believe in the priority of development goals.
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z Political system is in control of its human and material resources. z Political system is able to mobilize human resources in support of development goals. In looking at a countrys politics of development, several questions come to mind. How do political decisions affect a countrys capital formation ? In other words, how are land, labor, and physical capital (like factories for manufacturing) developed to generate income in the country? What political decisions are made that affect a countrys vital social overhead capital, such as education and health? Who becomes educated? What do they study? How does politics determine whether or not roads, bridges, schools, dams, and communication facil ities are builtand whether or not they are built in the right places to benet the whole country? Where does politics come into the equation in terms of how much public spending supports the military versus schools, hospitals, and public health programs? To get a handle on these questions, lets look more closely at the factors that shape the politics of development.
Capital formation The process by which land, labor, and physical capital (like factories for manufacturing) are developed to generate income in a country. Social overhead capital A term used in economic development studies to indicate factors, such as a populations health, education, and welfare, that contribute to economic growth.
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Human Underdevelopment
With respect to human underdevelopment affecting the politics of development, sub-Saharan Africa, for example, enters the twenty-rst century with lagging school enrollments, high child mortality, and widespread endemic diseases like malaria and AIDS. Such diseases cut life expectancy by twenty years or more and undercut rates of savings and growth. In addition, many of this regions countriesas is the case elsewhere in the Developing Worldare plagued by an inability to produce sufcient food to feed their people. Add to this deciency in arable land the lack of other economic resources, such as those linked to energy (oil, natural gas, coal), and you can see how the problems of development multiply.
Income Inequality
Income inequality is extremely high in the developing states. In Latin America, which is typical, the ratio of income of the top 20 percent of earners to those at the bottom is around 16 to 1; in Brazil, it is nearly 25 to 1, compared to about 10 to 1 in the United States and 5 to 1 in Western Europe24 Needless to say, a countrys top leaders do not want to give up their privileged position. This breeds a political system featuring, among other problems, uncollected taxes, which deprives the state of money that could be invested in development projects; minimal political change, which impedes the incorporation of more people into national political life so their interests may be represented; and siphoned-off state funds for
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personal use. A classic case is Mexico, where corruption has held back more effective allocation of the states resources to improve human development at a time when peasant groups are demanding more land and labor is striving for higher wages. Indeed, in Mexico the ruling party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), that long ruled Mexico has been accused of channeling public funds to election campaigns.25 In a recent survey of high-ranking public ofcials and key leaders of civil society in over sixty developing countries, the respondents rated public sector corruption as the most serious obstacle to development and growth in their countries.26
Government Factors
Any discussion of lagging economic resources, as is clear in the preceding discussion, naturally brings into focus other issues of government in the developing countries. One of the big issues within that realm is the lack of government legitimacy.
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z Iraqs civil violencein part a reection of deep historical frictions among Sunnis, Shiites, and Kurdslingering after the U.S.led invasion dramatically illustrates how civil instability undermines economic development. In Iraq, the issue is not so much development as simply reconstruction to return to its prewar economic status. The number of people living in absolute poverty in Iraq in 2007 reached 43 percent of the population. These people lack the required food, clothing or shelter to survive. Poverty helps generate recruits for the anti-United States insurgency. Civil wara product of political decisions to make war against another group (typically another ethnic national group inside the state)is catastrophic for economic development. Civil conict destroys infrastructure such as roads, bridges, railways, telegraphs, schools, hospitals, and dams, promotes the use of force over peaceful approaches to conict resolution, and causes the governments legitimate power to disintegrate.29 In addition civil violence drives away domestic and foreign investment. A look at what has happened in Angola, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Iraq, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Sudan in the last decade of the twentieth century and the onset of the twenty-rst illustrates this point. Figure 13.4 depicts how turbulent the politics of civil wars have been in Africa. Keep in mind that one of the causes of civil war in developing countries is the intense identication with ethnic nationality rather than with the government of the state in which the ethnic groups live.
Cultural Factors
Not all the problems and issues associated with developing countries government are due to colonialismor to economic or government issues. In analyzing
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Turbulent Africa
Civil conflicts Countries where conflicts could easily start up again Civil conflicts that entail military intervention by other African countries Interstate conflicts
LESOTHO
Source: From Foreign Policy, no. 114 (Spring 1999): 15. Used by permission.
todays politics of development, a number of scholars increasingly have turned their attention to traditional attitudes and values embedded in a developing countrys culture as a major obstacle to development. In his 1994 book The New World of the Gothic Fox, Claudio Vliz argues that Latin America has been held back in terms of modernized democratic and advanced economic development by its culture. In making his argument, Vliz contrasts the Anglo-Protestant and Ibero-Catholic legacies in the New World. Latin Americans, he says, tend to be populist, oligarchic, or absolutistand awed by their social and racial prejudice and intolerance toward political adversaries. By populist is meant a leader who connects with the masses by stressing that the average person is oppressed by an elite that controls the countrys wealth. The remedy, the populist argues, is that he or she should use the government to seize power from the self-serving elite and use it for the benet and advancement of the people as a whole. So populism reaches out to ordinary people, talks about their economic and social concerns, and appeals to their common sense. The problem is that populism has produced oligarchic ublishing new Services Inc. power, that is, control of government power by a small faction of
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people or families. Populist appeals by a leader, according to Vliz, often lead to absolutism in Latin America, meaning all power should be vested in one ruler as in Cuba in the heyday of Fidel Castro or in current day Venezuela under Hugo Chavezs leadership. In contrast, Anglo-Protestants are more egalitarian, pragmatic, innovative, and adaptable to the compromise and bargaining inherent in democratic governance. A number of cultural traits are linked to economic and political development. Some of the more notable attitudes and values may be summarized as follows:32 z Time Orientation: A progressive culture stresses the future, while a static culture focuses more on the present or past. z Work and Achievement: The culture that values hard work as a key to the good life progresses, while the static culture focuses less attention here. z Frugality: Investment and a frugal approach toward nancial security tend to characterize progressive cultures; in static cultures, the values represent a threat to the egalitarian status quo, and one persons gains are thought to occur at the expense of another. z Education: Although the trigger for advancement in a progressive culture, education is of marginal importance, except for the elites, in static cultures. z Merit: An emphasis on merit and achievement are extremely important for advancement in a progressive culture, while family connections are more important in the static culture.
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cultures and religions, its radical proponents tend to indict the West as neoimperialists and neocolonialists who exploited their countries in the past, ripped away the cultures, silenced the languages, belittled the religions and denied the histories of native peoples. Imperialism was more than alien rule; it was cultural annihilation.39 Beyond resenting imperialism, radical upholders of non-Western political thought tend to be highly suspicious of perceived continuing Western hegemony, while stressing themes of cultural and economic emancipation from Western dominance. While it is an oversimplication to lump all non-Western thinking together, one component that much of it seems to share is the conviction that communitarian values and responsibilities take precedence over individualism. Progress, dened as moving toward a Westernized world of globalized market interdependence and secular materialist utopia, is not always the most desirable outcome. Progress instead should be measured in terms of the principles of, for example, Islam, Confucianism, or Buddhism. Bhutans pursuit of gross national happiness is an example of such traditional values in action.
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_____ 1. Generally speaking, the consequences of colonialism have been negative for todays developing countries. _____ 2. While income levels in the developing world are not high when compared to the developed world, the income distribution within most developing countries is fairly even. _____ 3. One of the factors that negatively affect development includes violence (such as civil war) within many developing countries. _____ 4. Weak military elites are common throughout the majority of the developing world leading to a lack of stability. _____ 5. The effect of globalization in the developing world has largely been the same: negative.
Multiple Choice
_____ 6. Which of the following are necessary for a country to successfully promote development? a. Its leaders believe in the priority of development goals. b. Its political system is in control of its human and material resources. c. Its political system is able to mobilize human resources in support of development goals. d. All of the above e. None of the above
_____ 7. Which of the following explains why many developing countries do not have control over their countryside? a. The states administrative power is not strong enough to extend out to the countryside. b. Given the small size of most developing countries there is not much political gain in focusing on these areas. c. Because of the colonial legacy these areas have traditionally been managed by corporate interests that took over once the colonial powers departed. d. All of the above _____ 8. Which of the following is a cultural trait linked to economic development? a. Time orientation (focus on the past versus the future) b. Work and achievement c. Education d. Merit e. All of the above
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authoritarian regime of General Augusto Pinochet promoted economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s, as do China and Vietnams centralized Communist Party governments today. Still, most scholars agree that economic development is tied to the transition to democratic institutions over time, although democracy does not automatically secure sustained economic growth at the outset.41 For economic development to occur, the countrys political elites must provide law and order, prop erty rights, and macroeconomic stability. They will do even better if they go beyond these requirements and prevent monopolies, corruption, and wide income inequalities through appropriate tax structures and other public policies, such as those pertaining to education and public health.42 How strong is democracy in the developing countries? Democratic government caught re in the 1970s and swept parts of the developing world in the 1980s, spreading through Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Riots in Buenos Aires, Argentina, as Banks Failed, 2002 Latin America. But by the 1990s, the idea that democEconomic vitality and political stability, factors of power, are closely racy was the wave of the future began to cool because interconnected. A failing economy often leads to political instability. it proved less successful in many countries than rst This is depicted in this photo of rioting that took place in Argentina imagined, in the sense that elections did not guar in 2002 when the population was unable to recover their money antee consolidation of democratic processes. In subfrom the countrys banks, owing to mounting economic difficulties. Saharan Africa, the surge to democracy fell apart, and in Latin America it produced a mixed picture.43 Today, many developing countries engaged in economic development projects profess to be democraticwhile, in fact, they remain highly authoritarian. Many resist the complex transition to democracy; it threatens the privileges of the powerful and arouses distrust in the disenfranchised. The big point here is that elections do not guarantee democratic rule, because traditional political cultures can get in the way. Links between economic development and democratic development are revealed in the very practical matter of how a country prioritizes its policies. Many scholars point to the trade-offs in the development process, and they note that no country can achieve all its development goals at the same time. Thus, governments must establish priorities. Lets look at two important countries to see how they have addressed perhaps the broadest trade-off in development: whether economic development precedes or follows political development. As youve read elsewhere in this book, since the late 1970s, China has chosen a path of economic development while the government keeps a rm nondemocratic political grip on the country. China still has only one political party, the Chinese Communist Party, and does not tolerate opposition gladly. In contrast, Russia has attempted to change its politics and its economics at the same time. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, Russia has thrown off many of its communist-era economic structures. The grip of the Communist Party has been destroyed, but the grip of the nomenklatura remains. The Russian term nomenklatura () is derived from the Latin
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_____ 1. The promotion of economic growth is possible in non-democratic environments. _____ 2. In the past fteen years the interest in democracy among developing nations has begun to wane, and many governments that profess to be democratic are actually authoritarian.
_____ 3. Russias attempts at development and democratization have led to a more decentralized political system in recent years. _____ 4. While Russia has experienced comparatively slow progress away from its communist past, they have been successful at reducing problems like ination and corruption.
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Case Study
Is Job Outsourcing Good or Bad for Developing Countries?
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CONcLUSION
So, given this information, what do you nd are the pros and cons of giving aid to African countries? Should aid be given to countries that may have corrupt governments? Should the United States and other wealthy countries be less stingy in their foreign aid? Are proponents of neo-Marxism and the dependency approach correct in doubting the interests and commitment of rich countries to help the poor?
NOtES
Jeffrey Sachs, Doing the Sums on Africa, The Economist, May 22, 2004. , The G8 Must Fund the War Against Poverty, Financial Times, June 7, 2004. , How to Save the World, The Economist, October 30, 2004.
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Development is a transformation in a countrys poor living conditions that leads to a higher quality of life. It may also be viewed as an improvement in economic, political, and social life for men, women, and children. Development has traditionally been dened in economic terms. There is much more to development than how much a countrys economy is growing. Just as important is how equitably income is distributed throughout the country. Political participation, the presence of human and civil and gender rights, and ecological conditions are also factors of development.
3 4 how different 5 6 8 the issue 9 Understand theories7approach of 10 development and how each explains why some countries are rich while others are poor. 4
The liberal neoclassical economics approach recommends capitalist, free-trade principles as the way out 1 of poverty. 2 3 The neo-mercantilist approach emphasizes the role of the state in fostering development. Neo-Marxism and dependency theory emphasize exploitative capitalist relationships between rich core countries and poor periphery countries as the causes of poverty.
4 5 understand 6 7 political 8 factors 9 that 10 Identify and the affect the development process.
The term politics of development refers to how developing states are governed, how political leaders actions encourage or impede growth, how political elites allocate their countrys scarce resources, and how the international political economy affects political and economic decisions in the host country.
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The habitat of the Arctic polar bear is threatened by the rapid melting of the Arctic ice attributed to a combination of natural and cyclical increases in south to north energy ows in the atmosphere and global warming.
Learning Objectives
1
Dene sustainable development and understand the factors that inuence the viability of sustainable development within a state.
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Chapter Outline
Sustainable Development?
Identify the major environmental issues the world currently faces and understand how the international community is addressing these issues.
Sustainable development We use the Brundtland Commission denition: Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (See chapter 2.) Climate change Any change in climate over time whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.
he principal challenge to our Earth in the twenty-rst century is ensuring the sustainable development of the planet. The greatest threat to our Earth for the next century is climate change. According to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change is any change in climate over time whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. The Panel was established under the UN in 1988 to investigate and report on warming trends on the globe. Three earlier IPCC reports found a warming trend in global temperature. The fourth report of April 2007 conrmed that trend in the strongest terms the IPCC has ever used: z There was very high condence that the global average net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming.1
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sustainable development p. 435 climate change p. 435 desertication p. 437 water stress p. 439 technological monoculture p. 445 ecological footprint p. 453 megacities p. 453 green revolution p. 454 biotech revolution p. 454 agribusiness p. 455 cloning p. 455 paleoclimatology p. 457 cap and trade system p. 459 global commons p. 459 regime theory p. 463
z It is very likely that climate change can slow the pace of progress towards sustainable development, either directly through increased exposure to adverse impact or indirectly through erosion of the [planets] capacity to adapt.2 Climate change is real: The polar icecaps are melting, polar bears are endangered, sea levels are rising in coastal areas around the globe. Worse case scenarios predict that the temperate climates of the globe will dry up and become desert, the Arctic will warm, and the Gulf Stream may turn around and head south. If the cost of climate change is highnamely, the collapse of the Earths environment and global social chaos, the cost of doing something about climate change is also high and there is no certainty that the measures will be effective. As we stated in chapter 1, the twenty-rst century is the century of the ecological paradigm. Today, for the rst time in human history we are face-to-face with the fact that human institutions and societies are not above and master of the natural world but are an integral part of the global ecosystem. The main concern of the human race today is to keep the Earth sufciently people-friendly so that the 9.3 billion human beings projected3 to inhabit it by 2050 will be able to survive. Keeping the planet people-friendly means understanding the complex relationships among the: z Global biochemical cycles z Human society z Worlds ecosystems so the environmental damage that now threatens human and other forms of life may be repaired. Sustainable development means developing sustainable forms of agriculture, animal and sh husbandry, industry, and lifestyles that can accommodate increased numbers of humans without ecosystem collapse. It also means preserving wild spaces that maintain and preserve our planets extraordinary biodiversity. These tasks are global in scope but demand continuous local attention. Environmental problems are thus among the most centralizing of all world problemsand the most decentralizing. Most environmental problems cross state borders or are inter-state in character. Hence, the environmental pollution of one country or failure to solve jointly an inter-state environmental problem affects the environmental conditions of many states. A single state, acting alone, cannot realize the solution to such problems; they require dedicated, focused, long-term international cooperation. Realists have come to share the idealist and environmentalist view that humankind cannot continue the same exploitative behavior as in the past. They also have come to believe that planning for the future must include environmentally sustainable programs and technology.
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Human beings have caused and overcome environmental problems since the dawn of the species. The rst humanoids may have come down out of the trees looking for food when the harvest of fruits and nuts became scarce. Historical evidence shows that the rst city-states between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and along the Indus River between India and Pakistan ceased to exist because of the salting of the irrigation channels caused by primitive ditch construction and erosion from the cutting of forests ever farther up river. The difference between the impact of earlier human societies on the environment and the impact of modern society today is one of scale. In early human history, humans were few, environmental damage was local and frequently could be remedied by a local solution or by migration to another location. In the twentieth century, the human race spread all over the globe, and except for the high mountains and the Arctic regions, now dominates the planet. As a result, problems such as poor water quality, air pollution, and soil degradation have become global in scale, requiring solutions at a global level that address specic ecological conditions at the local level. This chapter addresses these global problems and discusses potential solutions. The environmental challenges facing our world come in different forms; all of them involve pollution. Traditional pollution is the main problem of the developing countries: poor water quality, soil degradation, deforestation, desertification. z The major polluter is agriculture. Seventy percent of the worlds poor live in rural areas. Agriculture takes up more than one-third of the planets area and accounts for more than two-thirds of the worlds water withdrawals. Competition for water and land is increasing as urban populations grow and with them the demand for food. Forests are cut down to plant crops with the inevitable result of soil erosion. Climate change is altering the patterns of rainfall and the temperatures on which agriculture depends. The depletion and exhaustion of these resources poses a serious threat to our capacity to produce enough food and other agricultural products to feed the worlds people.4 Around the world, 1.1 billion people lack access to a clean water supply and 2.6 billion lack improved sanitation.5 z A second and possibly even more damaging form of pollution comes from advances in technology and the production of chemicals and man-made materials that have only recently been developed. The atomic age began when the United States dropped the rst atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Nuclear energy raised the twin horrors of planetary collapse through nuclear war and the danger of worldwide radioactive fallout through nuclear accidents, such as Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1987, or the improper storage of nuclear waste. z Chemicals pose an equal risk to the planet.6 The impact of pesticides, such as DDT, and herbicides on human health and the environment are major
Desertication The process of land becoming desert due to mismanagement or climate change.
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global concerns. The most recent global outcry has been over advances in biotechnology that allow for alteration of gene systems in plants and the cloning of animals. Genetically modied foods are the subject of the chapters online case study (www.BetweenNations.org). To date, every scientic advance in warfare, agriculture, and health has brought unanticipated consequences. We will talk more about that in a later section. The question is: Can the peoples of the Earth, through international cooperation, learn to alleviate both the old and the new environmental threats? This chapter is designed to start you thinking about how you would answer that question. z Our discussion focuses rst on the major components of the environmental problem: natural resources and population. z The next section examines the challenges to the global environment, describing the positive and negative effects on the Earth of the increased application of science and technology. z The third section looks at what the international community is doing to alleviate environmental problems. Although cooperation among the worlds states seems an obvious strategy, the drive to secure the shortterm economic and political survival of individual states and substate units (ethnic groups) has brought the negative decentralizing tendencies to the fore. z The last section asks: Why cant the international community agree on solutions to environmental problems? n
In chapter 8, you learned that geography has a profound impact on human development. The territories people inhabit condition their level of development and their ability to become powerful on the world stage. For some regions, notably Saharan Africa, Siberia, and the Canadian Arctic, the environmental conditions are so unfavorable as to make sustaining human life very difcult. This section is divided into two parts: z The rst deals with the role of natural resources in human development. z The second looks at the impact of population on those resources.
Natural Resources
Natural resources include all the resources on Earth that sustain human life: air, water, soil, and climate, as well as energy and construction resources, forests, coal, oil, gas, and mineral deposits. The first group are termed renewable resources,
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Renewable Resources
The rst factor that most people mention as essential to life on Earth is airnot frigid Arctic air but air that blows not too hot and not too cold, providing a temperate climate where the growing season lasts a long time and it is easy to keep warm. Until recently, no humans lived on Antarctica, and only a few hardy tribes lived in the Arctic. Until very recently, there were no large cities in the Arctic. Even now, the populations of the largest Arctic cities do not exceed the populations of mediumsized cities in the rest of the world. The tropics also were not densely settled until recent times. While their warm climate is favorable to human beings, it is also favorable to disease-causing microbes. Neither the Congo River basin nor the Amazon River basin was densely settled until modern times. The indigenous tribes that formerly occupied the tropics were largely hunter-gatherers who had, over the millennia, adapted to a climate rife with lethal infections and where crop growing was difcult. The soil of the rainforest provides few of the nutrients for its trees and plants and hence few nutrients for an agricultural crop like corn. Dense mangrove forests protect coastlands from killer waves and, once gone, take a long time to regrow. Because climate plays such a substantial role in where human beings choose to settle, dense human settlements inevitably create air pollution and heat islands, and thus, to a degree not yet totally understood, affect climate change. How climate change will play out in terms of the modication of worldwide population distribution and the location of suitable land for industrial and agricultural use, no one knows. A steady and dependable source of fresh water is the second crucial component for the emergence of settled human society. The rst agricultural communities were in the river basins of the big rivers, the Nile, the Indus, the Tigris and Euphrates. Water today remains one of the Earths most precious resources. Large numbers of people live without adequate access to water, and the situation will only get worse. In the third section we discuss the new phenomenon of water stress. Today, all around the globe, the temperate lands retain their geographic and ecological advantages over areas of climate extremes. The highest population density is in this area. The most trade and sharing of information occurs between states in the temperate climate zones. The states located in the tropics continue to have major difculties with disease (AIDS, malaria, TB), agricultural and industrial development (land reform, technology), and the establishment of stable forms of government.
Water stress A term used by the United Nations to indicate consumption levels that exceed 20 percent of available water supply.
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application we call technology. The close connection between the exploitation of natural resources, technology, and the environment has proved both a blessing and curse for our planet. In todays world, the two kinds of natural resources most in demand are energy resources and mineral resources. The country with the richest mineral reserves and oil and gas resources is Russia. However, most of these reserves lie in Siberia, where the harsh climate makes it difcult to build permanent settlements, attract people to live, and bring the minerals and oil out of the ground. In addition, Siberia is a long way from everywhere. To get the resources to market, the Russians must build lengthy pipelines and maintain a long transportation infrastructure, once again under the harshest climatic conditions. By contrast, the only energy resource of Western Europe is coal, and compared to the reserves in China, the United States, and Russia, the amount is small indeed. Western Europe is also lacking in mineral resources. Hence, most of the efforts of the European industrial states have been put toward either acquiring colonies rich in natural resources or making trade deals to secure them. The developed states consume so large a share of the mineral and energy resources that one of the big tensions in the growth of the developing countries, as you saw in chapter 13, is how to secure for the poor countries the materials and energy necessary for indusFIGURE 14.1 Crude Oil Reserves Worldwide
Britain 4.9
Iraq 112.5 United States 22.4 Libya 29.5 Algeria 9.2 Mexico 26.9 Saudi Arabia 261.8 Qatar 15.2
Crude Oil Reserves Worldwide Of the globes 1 trillion barrels of estimated reserves in 2002, some two-thirds of that was in the Middle East. Here are the reserves of major producers, in billions of barrels.
Venezuela 77.7
Nigeria 24.0
Source: 2004 The Christian Science Monitor, http://www.csmonitor.com. All rights reserved. Used by permission.
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2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
trialization at a price they can afford. The developed countries want strict environmental controls on the extraction and distribution of resources. The developing countries would prefer to industrialize rst, as the industrialized world did, and then talk about environmental regulation. The most critical natural resource today is oil. As you can see by Figure 14.1, the largest and also most accessible reserves are in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates top the list; Kuwait, Iran, and Russia come next. We will look at the energy challenges to our Earth in section 3. These countries hold the reserves to keep cars on the highway and industry in production. So both the developed and the developing countries want to make sure they secure their much-needed share of the black gold. In chapter 8, we learned about past and present oil wars. If China and India maintain their fast pace of development, and we nd no other source of energy for transportation, then we can expect more oil wars in the future. The global environmental challenges posed by industrialization and the domination of the process by fossil fuels are discussed in the next section.
nic Publishing Services Inc. Population n, World Politics incomponent the 21st Century, e The last of the 3 global environment is population. In June 2007, the 7322.0067 world population was estimated at 6.6 billion7 and growing at the rate of about 80 2 million persons per year.
z Ninety-six percent of projected 2nd Proof 3rd Proof population Final growth will be in the developing countries,8 with India expected to have the largest population of any country by 2050. In the 1970s and 1980s, the growth rate of the worlds population seemed so high that there were predictions that it would reach unsustainable levels and go over 12 billion people by 2050. Figure 14.2 shows that this prediction, fortunately, will not come to pass. While the upward trend in population
st Proof
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growth will continue, it will do so at a slower rate and will be marked by sharp differences in growth rates among major regions. As the band representing the European growth rate gets smaller toward 2040, the band representing Latin America and the Caribbean gets wider and wider, as does the band representing Africa. Can you explain why the band for Africa is so small, despite being the continent with the highest birthrate in the world? z Second, in addition to unequal rates of population growth, there are huge inequalities in population distribution. Population density, the number of people in 1 square mile, is increasing in the large cities and along the seacoasts at such a rate that city governments and urban planners cannot design and install the needed infrastructure to cope with it. Today, over 50 percent of the worlds population lives in urban areas. The major growth of megacities, or urban conglomerates of over ten million people, is most pronounced in the developing countries. z Third, as birthrates decline, the number of senior citizens per 1,000 population is increasing. In 2000, 6.9 percent of the global population was sixty-ve or older. Between 2000 and 2050, the ratio of elderly persons to working-age persons (ages 1564) will double in more developed regions and triple in less developed regions. By 2050 one out of ten people will be over 65.9 z A nal characteristic of global population trends is the increasing number of migrants. In 2005, there were an estimated 191 million migrants worldwide, up from 176 million in 2001. Roughly 3040 million of these were undocumented workers. Half of them were women. These migrants send home to their families in the developing world an estimated at $233 billion annually. The money enables those families to have a higher standard of living and thus helps boost the economic wellbeing of the entire country. The impact of outmigration varies from continent to continent. The impact of migration on Asia and Latin America has been small because of their large and growing populations despite declining birth rates. By contrast, Europe and North America have experienced substantial net inows of population.10 In 2001, immigration was estimated to represent upward of 70 percent of annual population growth in the developed world. Immigration now accounts for 89 percent of Europes population growth and is the primary reason the population growth rate in the United States is a positive number. Large-scale migration requires signicant adjustments of cultural and behavioral attitudes by immigrant and host-country citizens to integrate the newcomers. The riots and destruction of property that occurred in the suburbs of Paris and other French cities in the summer of 2006 in large part reect the inadequacy of migrant-assimilation policy. This brief description of key components of the global environment raises serious issues about the human future on this planet. How did things get so critical? Will attempts to solve environmental problems lead to peace or war? Will we beat climate change? The next section discusses the challenges to the global environment.
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_____ 1. Nonrenewable resources include water and soil because once polluted these resources cannot be used again. _____ 2. The origins of settled human societies along big rivers was a result of access to fresh water and a moderate climate. _____ 3. With time, human societies exhaust resources close to them and require technological solutions to exploit resources farther away or more difcult to obtain. _____ 4. Over 90 percent of population growth will occur in the developing countries.
_____ 5. Approximately what percentage of the worlds population live in urban areas today? a. over 10 percent b. over 30 percent c. over 50 percent d. over 70 percent e. over 90 percent
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was round brought together a set of technologies that gave European sailors the condence to sail across uncharted oceans. The knowledge they brought back of the lands they found changed the way Europe thought about itself and the world. In a single century, Europe leaped from a musty backwater of the planet to the center of global activity. During the next two centuries, the application of technology for industrial purposes, known as the Industrial Revolution, enabled Europe and then the United States to take the lead in the expansion of international trade and the conduct of international affairs. As modern technology has spread farther and farther around the globe, the economies of individual regions and countries have become intertwined. In many ways, this process has proved a centralizing force. Among the negative results, however, is the almost total destruction of preindustrial societies, many of which had long practiced sustainable development. Another negative corollary has been environmental pollution on a global scale, accompanied by uneven distribution of economic and environmental costs among the wealthy industrialized states and the poor developing statesa decentralizing force in the modern international system.
The uneven distribution of technology creates distortions in the consumption of energy and other natural resources. z First, the concentration of technology use in the northern industrialized states produces one set of benets and costs in terms of environmental pollution. z Second, the continuation of traditional lifestyles on the edge of the more technologically advanced cities in the developing countries presents costs and benets associated with public health and the control of disease. A look at the benets and costs of technology follows, and the next section deals with the benets and costs of applying science to public health. Technology has, arguably, raised the standard of living in virtually every country on the globe. Modern conveniences have made life easier for all fortunate enough to have them and are sought by people in countries that are striving to industrialize. Throughout the world, the cell phone and e-mail have become common modes of communication. As a matter of principle, most people agree that everyone ought to share the benets that technology has brought. The problem is that the application of technology does not bring only benets; it also brings unpleasant environmental surprises. The rst major problem with technology, as distinguished former Harvard professor Harvey Brooks explains,12 is that the benets of an invention are immediately evident and indeed, seem to increase as the use of the invention spreads. The environmental and social costs remain hidden for quite some time. By the time the negative consequences of the technology register in the public consciousness, society can no longer do without it. Take the automobile, for example. Despite the old-timers teasing, Why dont you get a horse? the benets of driving a car so clearly outweighed the problems of caring for and feeding a horse that purchases of new cars steadily increased in the early years of the twentieth century. With the arrival of Henry Fords mass-production assembly line, cars became affordable for nearly everyone. As fast as they could think them up, the new automobile companies provided innovations and adapted their product to the publics needs. Paved roads came into being.
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The Model T Ford was the first car built on a mass-production assembly line. The Model T rolled off the production line at the Piquette Avenue plant in Detroit, Michigan, October 1, 1908. Over the next nineteen years, Ford built 15 million automobiles with the Model T engine, the longest run of any single model with the exception of the Volkswagen Beetle. Because of its low cost, the Model T put the ordinary American behind the wheel, starting the United States love-in with the automobile.
Today, the negative impact of the automobile is now only too evident: clogged highways, high gasoline costs, and worst of all, tailpipe emissions that contribute 8 percent of the nitrogen oxide pollution that promotes global warming. Yet in the United States, there is no longer another viable transportation option, without a huge economic investment. The culture of the automobile has permanently changed the way American society is organized. We cannot go back to the horse or even the train, and no one quite sees the way out of this dilemma. We live in a technological monoculture, a combination of market domination and political, economic, and social inuence exhibited by the auto industry. Technological Monoculture As you saw in Table 7.2, the annual income of General Motors is larger than the GDP of all but the wealthiest countries. Furthermore, the auto industry has tight links with the petroleum, synthetic, and natural rubber industries. Its production network operates worldwide. In order to use the automobile efciently and safely, the worlds governments are paving the globe with two- and four-lane highways. To service cars in the developed countries, small businesses have set up public parking lots, repair shops, delis, and food marts at the gasoline stations that line the roads. The fast-growing Chinese economy has generated thousands of middle-class jobs, enabling middle-class Chinese to buy their own cars at an unprecedented rate. In 2004, China became GMs secondlargest market after the United States, overtaking Germany.13 Auto travel takes off where air travel ends through the car-rental business anchored at the airport. The automotive industry, with its supporting systems, now constitutes a more and more self-contained social system that is unable to adapt to the environmental stress brought about by its success. Today, the auto industry is the main contributor to air pollution. While big city governments like Los Angeles government can crack down on gasoline-powered lawnmowers and the types of machines and chemicals used by your corner dry cleaner, it has proved less effective in cracking down on gasoline-powered cars.14
Technological monoculture The domination of the market by one variant of a technology that is utilized in a specic industrial sector by a company or group of companies, and the use of this domination for political, economic, and social inuence.
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Millions of people need to get from here to there every day. Their needs keep millions of other people employed maintaining roads, selling gasoline and groceries, and building malls where you can park your car and shop. Short of a major economic collapse, the prospects are dim that Americans will be able to adapt their car-based lifestyle to the exigencies of global climate change.15 Reduction in Variability Technology monoculture leads to the second problem with technology: reduction in variability, both within human society and in the environment where that society is situated. Just as the domestication of plants and animals thousands of years ago led to the concentration of certain ora and fauna on human-managed land to the exclusion of other species, so technology is a selective process. By contrast, healthy natural ecosystems are marked by high variability. Human activity affects these systems in ways that only now are beginning to be understood. All human management of the environment, whether it be the city, farm, or maintaining wilderness, provokes a response from the ecosystem as it tries to adapt to the impact of human disturbance. In Figure 14.3, human-managed society is shown as interacting with the Earths ecosystems and the global biochemical cycles that moderate the atmosphere. Human society takes from those ecosystems the renewable and nonrenewable resources humans want, thereby changing the original ecosystems in that location. However, this ecosystem, over time, has found a stable equilibrium between its diverse elements through its interaction with the global biochemical cycles in what is called the Gaia (from the ancient Greek word for Earth) principle. When human activity intrudes on the stable equilibrium formed from all those varied patterns, the ecosystem responds to reach a new equilibrium based on the new patterns. The reaction is always a reduction in the variety of patterns and in the
GAIA
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So destructive of human life was the Black Death (bubonic plague) that raged through Europe in the fourteenth century that many scholars believe it undermined the sociopolitical system and contributed to the rise of new forms of government and religion that did not insist on absolute authority. The increase in size of European cities, particularly during the seventeenth century, created optimum conditions for the spread of plagues of epidemic proportions. Advances in the science of medicine eventually brought the dreaded epidemics under control. Three of the most signicant advances are outlined below. z New Medical Technology. The Dutchman Zacharias Jensenns invention of the microscope in the 1590s enabled European scientists to see organisms invisible to the naked eye, transforming their understanding of disease. In due time, the bacilli causing the major epidemics were identied. New medical technology continues to revolutionize the practice of medicine and save lives from debilitating illnesses. z Sanitation. The progressive enactment in the nineteenth century of sanitation and water-treatment programs in all of Europes major cities and, eventually, in the countryside brought epidemics under control for the rst time in history and made cities safe for habitation. Western colonial administrations helped spread scientic medical practice around the globe. As the worlds regions adopted Western sanitation measures and used vaccines to inoculate their populations against disease, epidemics became less frightening, and the death rate in both Western and non-Western countries dropped. z Vaccines, Antibiotics, Insecticides. In the twentieth century, science turned its attention to the eradication of contagious diseases. In 1901, a campaign was launched to eliminate yellow fever from Havana by attacking mosquito-breeding places. Forty years later, the invention of DDT contributed to the U.S. victory over Japan by protecting U.S. troops from the mosquitoes carrying the malaria and yellow fever viruses. In 2000, New York City health ofcials used the same approach to limit the spread of the West Nile virus as was used in Havana 100 years earlier; they attacked mosquito-breeding places, only this time they used highly sophisticated bioengineered chemicals. The Internationalization of Medical Research By the twentieth century, most of the scientic work on disease was performed at the national level: in the medical research community, in university and government laboratories, and in hospitals. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia, has been a key player in collecting data and providing timely warnings of the path of an epidemic. Fol lowing the establishment of the UN, the World Health Organization (WHO) was created in 1950 with the goal of ensuring that health services were available to everyone on the planet. WHO has led the way in distributing vaccines and medi cations, and in providing the health workers to deliver the medication to aficted countries, particularly the developing countries. A major achievement has been the eradication of smallpox. The last case of known smallpox was in 1977. WHO also has led the struggle to eradicate TB. The discovery of penicillin in 1928, encouraged its successful use as an antibacterial during World War II. WHO led the international effort to eradicate TB in the 1950s and 1960s. It looked as if international cooperation in science had conquered all the worlds major diseases. Then came AIDS in the 1980s. AIDS has now reached epidemic proportions, particularly in Africa, South Asia, Russia, and China. The 1990s saw the emergence of a more deadly TB bacillus, increased instances of malaria, and the emergence of
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Injuries
27.2% 9.0%
9.8%
5.3%
14.4%
Cancers
Cardiovascular Diseases
29.3%
4.9% Other
Source: The World Health Organization, World Health Report, 2002, Annex: Table 2, Death by Cause, Sex, and Mortality Stratum in WHO Regions, http://www.who.int/whr/en/ or http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/. Used by permission.
new diseases like West Nile virus and Ebola hemorrhagic fever. In 1991, cholera swept down the west coast of South America, the rst such outbreak in nearly a century. Between 1991 and 1995, it infected one million people and killed 11,000.17 In 2003, a killer virus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was identied in Hong Kong. In a very short time it had infected people all over the planet, sowing panic in its path. A major concern in the twenty-rst century is bird u, known to be spread by birds and poultry. Figure 14.4 shows that infectious diseases represented over 27 percent of the leading causes of death in 2001. Eightythree percent of these deaths occurred in the developing countries. Why have old diseases returned, and why do new viruses keep appearing? The immediate answers are found in environmental pollution: namely, the substandard living conditions and malnutrition that set entire populations at risk in the developing countries. Insufcient and contaminated water supplies are highways carrying waterborne infections and disease to populations whose immune systems are already weakened from malnutrition. The malnutrition is brought on by the farming of lands degraded by overuse, drought, and pesticides. In the shantytowns or barrios surrounding the major cities Africa, Asia, Central and South America (see chapter 13), sanitation and clean water are difcult to come by. In these conditions, insects and rats multiply. The overtaxed urban administration nds itself without sufcient resources to confront the problems properly. So the epidemics return. vices Inc. The second answer lies in the millions of people who are on the move in our the 21st Century, 3e modern world. Statistics on migration in the past century were given earlier in this chapter. The consequences of that migration indicate how much of a global problem these mass movements of people have become. Wherever people move, they carry with them the infections they may have at the time, thus globalizing disease. Proof Airplane 3rd Proof Final travel facilitates this movement of population, since you can y from Asia to Europe or North America in less than a day.
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A Chinese Couple Ties the Knot at the Height of the SARS Crisis
Note that the bride and groom are both wearing facemasks, but they manage to complete the requisite marriage kiss anyway. They are photographed in Tiananmen Square, Beijings central square.
The catastrophic die-off of Amerindians from infectious diseases brought by the Europeans serves as a global warning. A microbe that has stabilized and been rendered relatively harmless to its home population can destroy a population on another continent. And so, at the beginning of the twenty-rst century, the developed countries nd they can no longer remain insulated from the spread of contagious diseases. Instead they must now seek to reduce the risk of infection by going abroad to solve public health problems in the developing countries. Public health is no longer the domain of health ministries acting in their individual countries. Its regulation and promotion have become the concern of WHO and private and public organizations throughout the world. At the start of the twenty-rst century, the containment of disease is being sought through the promotion of sustainable development at the international level.
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The 1990 civil war in Rwanda may be one of the rst identied cases of a civil war caused by environmental concerns. The post-independence growth of both the Tutsi and Hutu populations made huge demands upon the Rwandan environment, demands that no government was able to meet. Environmental stress was evident in widespread deforest ation resulting from uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel, overgrazing, soil exhaustion, soil erosion, and pervasive poaching. The political tension between the major ethnic group, the Hutus, and the ruling group, the Tutsis, that was present at the founding of the state in 1959 boiled over in horric genocide and mass ight into neighboring countries. But perhaps the environmental war that has received the most media attention in recent years is the war in Darfur, in Sudan. While many have called it a racial war between Arab and Black African, or a war ignited over the management of the oil elds in the region, the initial cause of the war is beginning to be understood as environmental. The north of Africa has been experiencing reduced rainfall for decades. Reduced rainfall causes herders to graze their flocks on reduced vegetation, the desert expands, rival herders compete for pasture. These are the prime ingredients of an environmental war.20 Proponents of the green paradigm pessimistically predict that environmental wars will be ever more frequent in the future, unless the world as a global community moves quickly to take measures that promote sustainable development and ecojustice at the same time. Reduced Birthrates in the Industrialized States A second major inuence of science on population growth involves such developments as the contraceptive pill and amniocenMother and Child in Ethiopia tesis. Chapter 11 presented the negative side to amnio At the turn of the twenty-first century, Africa is a catastrocentesis as used by women in India and Pakistan to practice phe of poverty, famine, disease, violence, and ecological sex-selective abortion. The pill has its two sides as well. On degradation. Each of these problems feeds off the rest. the positive side, it has dramatically altered attitudes Research is beginning to clarify the links among them, toward human reproduction by separating the act of pro opening a new area in international relations called creation from the sexual act. Where the pill is used, fear of ecological security. pregnancy has almost become obsolete. Women can have children when, if, and as oftenor as infrequentlyas they please. In China, the pill was a major instrument in implementing the One Child program. The pill took a long time to reach Africa, which is another important reason why the population increased so rapidly. But the pill quickly conquered the Western world and much of Asia, where it played a big role in reducing the birthrate and keeping it down. The ability to choose when to give birth, like all technological and scientic advances, brought enormous immediate benets to women, who enthusiastically entered the business and professional worldlong the domain of men. The pill also had its negative side. Where adopted, it produced an environmental surprise. With decreased social stigma, intercourse before marriage increased,
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Ecological footprint The biologically productive area required to support one person.
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groups with different cultures speaking different languages is likely to bring increased violence, as each group struggles for its share of material goods already in scarce supply in the megacities of the developing world. Third and nally, as the densely populated megacities expand to accommodate the increased population, the amount of arable land available to feed the enormous numbers of urban mouths steadily decreases. Feeding the urban hungry in developing countries may increasingly depend on food imports from the developed world.
The green and biotech revolutions involve the application of science to agriculture and animal husbandry with the aims of improving crop yield and crop resistance to pests and climate variation, and enhancing breeds of domestic animals. Both these scientic advances have had centralizing as well as decentralizing impacts on the world. The green revolution started in the 1920s and continues today. The biotech revolution extends the application of biological science to the breaking of animal and plant gene codes and the human gene code.
The Green Revolution, spreading over the period from 196768 to 197778 transformed India from a food-deficient country depending on food imports to one of the worlds leading agricultural nations.
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Agribusiness The totality of industry engaged in the operations of a farm, the manufacture and sale of farm equipment and supplies, and the processing, storage, and distribution of farm products. Agribusiness may also refer to one giant multinational corporation engaged in one of these farm operations, such as Archer Daniels Midland (ADM).
Cloning The growing of an individual from a single cell of its parent. The individual gen erally is considered an identical copy of the parentfor example, Dolly the sheep.
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_____ 1. One of the negative results of technological advancement and the Industrial Revolution has been environmental pollution on a global scale. _____ 2. While the benets of technological advancement are seen immediately, the environmental consequences often remain hidden for considerably longer. _____ 3. Environmental surprises are instances where the environment unexpectedly recovers from pollution or overuse. _____ 4. More and more civil wars are being fought in parts of the world as a result of overpopulation and scarce resources. _____ 5. Not all environmental activists welcome the advent of the contraceptive pill as a positive for the environment.
Practice Test Questions Practice Test 14.2 www.BetweenNations.org
_____ 6. Applying science and technological advances to the area of health has led to which of the following policy concerns at the international level? a. Overpopulation b. Pandemics as a result of antibiotic resistant illnesses c. Conict between international organizations regarding access to medicine d. Local corporations producing counterfeit drugs e. All of the above _____ 7. Norman Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize because a. he developed high yield strains of rice b. his work resulted in the elimination of indigenous cultures c. he helped reduce food shortages in India and Pakistan d. he built on the research of Henry Wallace e. he cloned Dolly the Sheep
This section briey considers the major environmental problems of our timeclimate change, air pollution, and global water problemsand indicates how the world is organizing to address them. At the outset, you ought to be aware that the states of the world have signed a large number of environmental treaties that constitute a signicant body of international environmental law, and that under UN auspices, a host of IGOs are working on global environmental problems, as shown in Table 14.1. In addition, as discussed in chapter 3, numerous international environmental NGOs are working in different parts of the world to improve environmental conditions. Before turning to a discussion of the international response to global environmental problems, it is only tting to emphasize the role of NGOs and, indeed, individuals in moving the world community to action. Among the movers and shakers of environmental issues, many are women such as Kenyan Nobel Prize winner, Wangari Maathai, and Indian ecologist Vandana Shiva, who have organized groups at the local level to promote environmentally sustainable policies, and in so doing, achieved international recognition for their efforts. It may
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Climate Change
Climate change is the foremost challenge to our planet in the twenty-rst century.
International Findings
Scientists generally agree that global temperatures have risen a little over a degree F in the last 150 years and that carbon dioxide levels have risen about 30 percent. But scientists do not agree on the cause of this trend, nor what to do about it. Paleoclimatology has evidence of what might be called natural periods of warming and cooling throughout Earths history. Scientists do not know precisely why they occurred or whether climatic uctuations based on the Earths orbit around the sun and uctuations in solar energy provide the entire explanation. Scientists have been collecting meteorological data for only the last 150 years or so. Considering the age of the Earth, that may be an insignicant database from which to make major predictions. A large number of scientists believe human activity has made a major contribution to the currently rising temperatures. Others are withholding judgment. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) makes the strongest case for the theory that man-made emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere is forcing current global warming. Forcing means increasing warming faster than would occur under normal conditions. In 1990, the IPCC published its rst lengthy report backing a conclusion that while natural greenhouse gases keep the earth warmer than it would be otherwise (the greenhouse effect), emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, thereby contributing to the Earths warming faster and more than is good for its ecosystems.29 As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, the IPCCs Fourth Report published in 2007 asserts with even greater certainty that climate change in our time is driven by the emission of man-made greenhouse gases, most notably CO2.30 Those who question the IPCCs analysis argue that the Earths climate is dynamic, constantly changing. There will be change but not the catastrophic change forecast by the IPCC. We do not know enough about climate change, and the hypothesis centered on the greenhouse effect is only one of many in play. If the models now in use were good ts to actual climate data, then why havent the temperatures risen as much as the models predicted? The 1.6 degree F average increase in the Earths surface temperature in 150 years is far less than earlier studies forecast. Roy W. Spencer, for example, senior scientist for climate studies at NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center believes that neither current measurements nor climate change theory supports the popular perception of global warming as an environmental disaster.31
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Snowpack
Glacier melt
Forest fires
Warmer, drier summers and earlier springs may lead to increased forest fires.
Extreme weather
A possible increase in extreme weather, e.g., tornadoes, hail storms, heat waves, droughts, dust storms, floods, blizzards
Agriculture
Calgary
Reduced flow decreases power generation. Increased demand for irrigation and a change in crop types due to a longer growing season
Hydroelectric power
Groundwater
Lower river flow reduces water supply, water quality, and recreation activities.
What is a layperson to make of these arguments? Certainly there are signs of climate change all around. Many parts of the world, including much of the United States, have been experiencing drought in the past few years. Yet 2002 saw heavy rain in Europe that caused catastrophic oods in Eastern Europe. In 2004, four devastating hurricanes struck Florida, and a deadly earthquake and tsunami struck Southeast Asia. In 2005 Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast. How should these signs be interpreted? Do we wait and see? Should the use of fossil fuels be drastically curtailed? Let us take a look at the international communitys response to the problem.
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Air Pollution
The air we breathe is a global commons. The air belongs to all people, and it belongs to no one. It is what might be called the common property of humankind. But if the air is free to everyone to breathe, it is also free to everyone to pollute.
Cap and trade system A central authority (usually a government agency) sets a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. Companies or other groups that emit the pollutant are given credits or allowances that represent the right to emit a specic amount. The total amount of credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level. Companies that pollute beyond their allowances must buy credits from those who pollute less than their allowances, or face heavy nes. This transfer is referred to as a trade. In effect, the buyer is being ned for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced emissions. Thus companies that can easily reduce emissions will do so, and those for which it is harder will buy credits, which reduces greenhouse gases at the lowest possible cost to society. The Kyoto Protocol provided for this kind of system to reduce CO2 emissions. Global commons Areas of the Earths biosphere shared by all the worlds population; examples are the oceans and the atmosphere.
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The global commons are those parts of the biosphere held in common by all humanity. These include the oceans, outer space, the seabed, Antarctica, the electromagnetic spectrum, and the atmosphere. One major problem of the oceans and the atmosphere is that they are fast becoming pollution dumping grounds for everyone in the world. In his book The Endangered Atmosphere, Marvin Soroos argues that humanity faces the daunting challenge of constraining its releases of air pollutants to preserve the essential qualities not only of the atmosphere but also of the larger Earth system.35 Take another look at Figure 14.3. The model tells you that human society, the natural ecosystem, and the atmosphere are all interconnected. Without the planets unique atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. The emission of greenhouse gasses threatens the life-saving layer that protects human beings from the suns lethal rays. The major air pollutants are carbon dioxide (CO2), other greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulates, tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in gas. Air pollution impacts on public health and wellbeing, and the functioning of earths ecosystems. The industrialization of most of the world has made air pollution a global condition.
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and on hillsides to prevent soil erosion, mudslides, and catFIGURE 14.5 astrophic ooding. Motor Vehicle Trends, 19462001 Of all the nonrenewable energy sources, natural gas is the cleanest. New discoveries of gas reserves have greatly 70,000 increased the availability of natural gas, and for the short term, gas seems to be the best answer to energy pollution. 60,000 Consumption of gas is in third place behind the consump50,000 tion of oil. Oil represents around 40 percent of the worlds total 40,000 energy supply, or what is currently on hand for distribution. 30,000 In addition to this supply, there are proven reserves (roughly how much oil is in the ground at a certain location) and 20,000 potential reserves (a guess at how much there is). Most of the easily obtainable oil lies under the Arabian Peninsula 10,000 and in Iran and Iraq. Mexico has some excellent reserves off 0 its coast in the Gulf of Mexico. But the rest of the easy-to1 Year extract oil has already been taken out of the Earth. Finding and extracting more oil is a job for the big petroleum MNCs 1961 1971 1981 1991 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 and national oil companies. The limitations of oil are the 2000 2001 2002 Linear (1961) most discussed and pressing concern because oil is the major fuel of the modern transportation system. The numSource: World Resources Institute, World Resources 19981999, http://www.wri.org/ ber of the vehicles has increased world wide eleven times wri/powerpoints/trends/sld026.htm. Data from American Automobile Manufacturers Association, World Motor Vehicle Data 1993, p. 23, and Motor Vehicle Facts and Figsince 1946! (See Figure 14.5 for current data.) ures 1996, p. 44. Used by permission. To date most of the motor-vehicle registration is in the industrialized world. But China is undergoing a huge economic boom, and its population of 1.3 billion is becoming increasingly prosperous. In 1973, the developed countries consumed about 62 percent of all energy produced in the world (see Figure 14.6). In 2003, their share is down to 50 percent. By contrast, Chinas share of total energy consumption has doubled in that amount of time, and it is now the second consumer of energy after the United States. If China and India adopt the energy-proigate lifestyle of the West, Americans will FIGURE 14.6 Regional Shares of Global Energy Consumption
Regional Shares of Energy Consumption, 1973 and 2002 1973
15% 17% 6% 62% China Developed Countries Developed Countries Developing Countries Countries in Transition China 51% 27% 10% 12%
2002
Developing Countries
Countries in Transition
Source: Compiled from World Energy Agency/World Energy Outlook 2002, Figure 2.3, and International Energy Agency, Energy Information Administration/International Energy Outlook 2006, World Total Energy Consumption by Region, Reference Case 19902030, Table A1, http://www.eia.doe.gov/olaf/ieo/pdf/ieoreftab_1.pdf. Used by permission.
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Wind energy experienced the largest growth in the United States in 2005. Total world generating capacity at the end of 2004 was enough electricity to service 9 million households. Wind turbines generate 20 percent of Denmarks electricity. The American Wind Energy Association forecasts a bright future for the industry. Detractors argue that wind energy does not come pollution free. The big turbines catch birds in their blades, killing or injuring them. Environmentalists find wind farms an aesthetic eye sore in such environmental havens as Cape Cod or the Adirondack Park in upstate New York.
almost certainly experience a dramatic change for the worse in their lifestyle, increased air pollution and higher rates of asthma and lung disease. Most analysts doubt there is enough non-renewable energy if the whole world consumes at the rate the industrialized world does today. Renewable Energy Sources The turn to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and geothermal power is hampered mainly because of cost, according to economists Jerry Taylor and Peter Van Doren.37 The breakeven point, where costs for geothermal heating equal costs for oil or gas heating, is projected at twenty years. Solar power is about the same. At present, the cheapest form of renewable energy is wind power. The problem with wind power is that you need some fty square miles of wind turbines to generate electricity for around 70,000 homes. Many people do not like the look or sound of so many wind turbines so close to their houses. In sum, people are not rushing to use renewable, or soft, energy sources because they are either too expensive or not aesthetically pleasing. Perspectives change, however, and wind power started to look increasingly attractive. The high cost of soft energy today does not mean it will not become more attractive tomorrow. But some things will never change. Solar energy demands continuous sunlight. Wind power needs constant wind. So far, these events do not occur regularly anywhere on the planet. The viable options today are still reliance on fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, and on energy conservation.
Energy Wars
Securing energy is a global problem that is likely to become worse. In 2001, California, which has the fth-largest GDP in the world, experienced rolling blackouts. For many countries, such blackouts have long been routine. They simply do not have enough energy available to keep the lights on all the time. Increased energy use in China, terrorism on the pipelines in Iraq, and a bad hurricane season in the Gulf of
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Regime theory Developed by Oran Young, this theory holds that international cooperation depends on well-designed regimes. If a treaty promotes a well-designed regime, the chance of the treaty being implemented is much greater than if it designates a awed regime.
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FIGURE 14.7 Water Stress Dened in Terms of Percentage of Total Available Water Withdrawn
1995
2025
Water withdrawal as percentage of total available More than 40% 40%20% 20%10% Less than 10%
Source: World Water Organization, Water Demand and Scarcity, p. 5, http://www.worldwater.org/waterData.htm. Used by permission.
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Source: World Resources Institute, 19981999 World Resources (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 188. Used by permission.
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size because the rivers had stopped owing into it. By the 1990s, the sea was down to half its former size. China presents another illustration of what happens to rivers when a country turns to irrigation to water its elds. Slowly but surely, the northern part of China is drying out. The Yellow River is simply being overused for irrigation. As more and more water is diverted to industry and cities upstream, less is available for use downstream.43 Water Pollution Pollution further contributes to the water crisis. Outbreaks of water poisoning are becoming common in the United States. The green revolution in agriculture, with its extensive use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, has dumped a range of pollutants into river basins. Wherever industry exists, toxic chemicals and heavy metals seep into waterways.44 Dams for Flood Control and Hydroelectricity Finally, the damming of rivers for water power and ood control has contributed to water shortages and changed river basin environments. Damming has further affected human health. The newest case is the Senegal River development project in West Africa, where the dam has failed to live up to its promise in ridding the area of age-old diseases.45
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7. Environmental problems are highly complex. Scientic knowledge of how nature responds to human activity is too limited to be able to predict future response with any degree of accuracy. 8. Last but not least, all human beings are part of the problem. Most people are locked into a culture of denial. The lesson from the industrial and scientic revolutions is that we cannot continue to dene all technological change as progress. The motto of the environmentalist links the decentralized locality with the international center: Act locally, think globally. More than any other issue before the world today, environmental concerns challenge the international system and state governments to nd ways to cooperate for a healthy planet.
_____ 1. Global warming is not currently supported by the scientic community; efforts to address climate change are generally the result of environmental alarmists. _____ 2. The global commons refers to natural resources (such as air or water) that cannot be cleanly divided into territorial elements when it comes to pollution. _____ 3. The United States argues that the Kyoto Protocol is critically awed because countries like China and India are not parties to the treaty. _____ 4. One of the reasons why the environmental issues covered in the chapter have not been addressed is the cost associated with xing the problems.
Multiple Choice
_____ 5. A cap and trade system creates a. A dilemma for states where pollution is decreased in some areas but signicantly increased in others as a result of competition among industries b. Environmental pockets or protected zones where wildlife are safe from the effects of pollution
c. Limits on the amount of pollutants a corporation may produce while at the same time providing incentives for producing less than the limit d. Environmental disasters in the developing world e. None of the above _____ 6. The primary source of air pollution is a. Toxic waste b. Deforestation c. Overpopulation d. Energy consumption e. None of the above _____ 7. Which of the following is an international response to water scarcity? a. Partial Test Ban Treaty b. LRTAP Convention c. International water treaties d. Kyoto Protocol e. Regional Seas Program
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Case Study
Should the International Community Regulate Genetically Modied Foods?
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Join the Debate The Best Strategy for Solving Global Environmental Problems
OVERVIEW
This chapter identied basic environmental factors, such as clean air and clean water, that humans need to survive on Earth. To meet the challenges posed by the industrial, scientic, and technological revolutions, many multilateral treaties have been signed. The regime building that results from these treaties suggests that the states of the world may be moving toward a centralized approach to global environmental problem-solving; there is international recognition of the problem and a willingness to cooperate. Many view this development as highly positive. Others argue that the treaties are awed and have done nothing but create new levels of UN bureaucracy that achieve no progress towards sustainable development. In this view, strong legislation based on shared experience at the state level is the most effective and efcient way to go. In these arguments, note the underlying tension between the forces of decentralization and centralization. From your reading of the chapter and the chapter on intergovernmental organizations, describe the type of world environmental governance that would provide the best management of our difcult global environmental problems: Would it be a more centralized UN management system with the IGOs calling the shots, continuing the treaty/regime building system? Or more emphasis on the role of individual UN member-states in developing the best and most enforceable national laws? Support your answer by consulting Table 14.1 listing IGOs and multilateral agreements that play the key roles in global environmental governance. of global environmental management is needed, not less. z The UN intergovernmental institutions have proved effective in improving the public health of the worlds population. They could be equally effective in managing the worlds environmental problems. z International treaties bring the signers into a regime where there is consensus on how the environmental object is to be managed with regard to standards and implementation procedures. z International treaties promote a sense of shared environmental stewardship among the treaty signers. In the Ramsar Agreement, all wetlands come under the treaty, not just those of one state. All states feel a common bond with the problem. z Environmental problems are unequally distributed around the Earth. International governance helps equalize the material and nancial burden of dealing with problems among the worlds states. z The polluters of the worlds environment are also unequally distributed. International treaties, as international law, force polluters to pay for their environmental destruction. z International environmental NGOs provide the input from civil society at the global level, identifying areas of concern and priority areas z IGOs are catalysts for environmental cooperation, whether it is treaty making, treaty implementation, or environmental legislation at the state level. For example, UNEP played an important role in developing regimes such as the Montreal Protocol and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The World Conservation Union has an impressive record in drafting and promoting national and international environmental law. It has helped over 75 countries prepare and implement national conservation strategies. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change played a major role in building consensus for the Kyoto Protocol through its analysis and projections of climate processes.
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TABLE 14.1 Selected IGOS by Date Established and Multilateral Agreements by Percentage of States Party to Them in Global Environmental Governance
Selected IGOs in Global Environmental Governance Organization
UN Affiliated Food and Agricultural Organization UN Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization International Maritime Organization World Health Organization International Atomic Energy Agency UN Industrial Development Organization UN Development Program UN Population Fund UN Environment Program Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Commission on Sustainable Development Outside the UN System Intergovernmental Council for the Exploration of the Sea World Bank, International Monetary Fund and regional development banks World Conservation Union Global Environmental Facility World Trade Organization 1902 1948 ICES coordinates undersea research, including assessment of sea stocks. These multilateral finance institutions provide loans, technical assistance and other support to improve environmental management around the world. IUCN assists countries to preserve and protect their environmental resources. GEF is the designated international financial mechanism to fund largescale environmental projects. WTO monitors sustainable environmental practices as they impact on global trade. 1945 1945 1948 1948 1957 1966 1968 1969 1972 1978 1992 FAO is lead UN agency responsible for assessing state of global agriculture. UNESCO promotes global cooperation in education, science, culture and media. IMO is responsible for maritime safety and monitors pollution from ships. WHO manages international cooperation to improve public health among nations. IAEA monitors nuclear safety and non-proliferation agreements. UNIDO focuses on increasing industrial capacity in developing countries. UNDP connects countries to knowledge and resources needed to develop. UNPF provides reproductive health and family planning information and assistance to states requesting such services. UNEP promotes wise and sustainable use of the global environment. IPCC assesses information pertaining to global warming and climate change and provides periodic status reports. CSD monitors and reports on implementation of Rio Earth Summit treaty.
Est.
Function
Treaty
1. Aarhus Convention on right of public access to environmental information and decision-making 2. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 3. Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change
Responsible IGO
Aarhus Conv. Sec. UN Economic Commission for Europe UNEP CMS Secretarial UN Climate Change Sec.
Budget
$855 thousand $1.8 million $16.8 million
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Treaty
4. Ramsar Convention on on Preserving Wetlands 5. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 6. Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movement of Acid Rain and Waste 7. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 8. World Heritage Convention 9. Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting Ozone Layer 10. Vienna Convention on Protection of Ozone Layer 11. Convention on Biological Diversity 12. UN Convention to Combat Desertification
Responsible IGO
IUCN RAMSAR Bur. UN Division Ocean Affairs UNEP Basel Convention UNEP CITES Secretariat UNESCO UNEP Ozone Secretariat UNEP Ozone Secretariat UNEP Biological Diversity Sec. UN Sec. on Combating Desertification
Budget
$2.4 million $1.2 million $4.2 million $6.7 million $8.1 million $3.9 million $1.2 million $10 million
Source: Derived from World Resources Institute, Decisions for the Earth (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004), Tables 7.1 and 7.2, pp. 142143, 146147. Used by permission.
do not constitute a unied system of international law. There is no mechanism to develop common approaches or even common understanding of what they mean. 4. Although multilateral environmental agreements are legally binding, multilateral instruments to settle disputes are weak, and the implementation of treaties is slow. The International Court of Justice, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, is obliged to rule on legal disputes submitted to it by UN member-states. But treaty enforcement is different from settling a dispute The treaty regimes have no powers of treaty enforcement and no authority to monitor treaty implementation. z With respect to using the UN as an enforcement and monitoring agent, corruption is so high that no real remediation of environmental problems can take place. Look what happened to the oil-for-food program in Iraq. z The budget allocated to each treaty is low, and it pays only for the bureaucracies at the international level. The total sum allocated to the treaties in 2003 was $92 million, compared to the $19 billion New York State spent on education in 2004. Where do you stand? Join the debate!
www.BetweenNations.org
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CHAPTER 14
FURtHER INfoRmAtIoN
An absolute must is the World Resources Institute biannual publication on selected environmental themes: World Resources 20022004: Decisions for the Earth (Washington D.C.: World Resources Institute). It provides a wealth of information on environmental regimes and decision making at all the levels of the international system as well as the need for input from civil society, the role of NGOs, and much more. Carlo Carerro, Carmen Marchiori, and Sonia Orrice, Endogenous Minimum Participation in International Environmental Treaties, Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection: http:// papers.ssrn.com/abstract_id=XXXXXX, December 2003, http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:Jt5Yraz GrTMJ:www.feem.it/NR/rdonlyres/2C7B6772-5545
-40D3-B914-9B1E500EB5DC/975/11305.pdf+inter national+environmental+treaties&hl=en. Marcia Mulkey and Keith E. Chanon, Ofce of Pesticide Programs, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Wash ington, D.C. 20460, National Compliance and Enforcement of International Environmental Treaties (Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.), http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache :NBlIt8iIB-kJ:www.inece.org/conf/proceedings 2/19-NationalCompliance.pdf+international +environmental+treaties&hl=en. ENTRI, Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators, http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/index .jsp.
The focus of the chapter is the environmental paradigm, namely, that human society is rooted in the planets ecosystems. The main concern of the human race today is sustainable developmentthat is, survival on this planet. Survival depends on learning how to relate to the natural world in such a way as not to destroy its capacity to sustain all living beings. The global environments key components are natural resourcesboth renewable and nonrenewableand human resources or population.
The challenges to the global environment are the huge human footprint made by the industrial and scientic revolutions, including environmentally destructive industrial monocultures such as the automobile, megacity societies, and the increased density of a still-growing population forced on the move by wars, marginal farming, famine, and the desire for a better lifestyle.
The green and biotech revolutions represent the new challenges to the global environment. Their footprint and implications are still unknown.
473
4 6 7 8 9 world10 Identify the5major environmental issues the currently faces and understand how the international community is addressing these issues.
- International Research. There is no scientic consensus on the exact relationships between the greenhouse gases released by human activities into the atmosphere and the current period of global warming. - The International Response. In the absence of certainty about what is happening, the international community has taken steps to prevent further human contributions to the warming trend. These steps include the Montreal Protocol for Protection of the Ozone Layer (1979) and the Kyoto Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992). Not all states endorse these steps. Some states like the EU have signed regional agreements, other like the United States, have signed bilateral or multilateral agreements.
Climate change
on another country far away. The emission of chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) into the atmosphere has contributed to the deterioration of the ozone layer that is vital to the maintenance of life on Earth. - The international response to global air pollution problems include the Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Convention (1979), the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) against nuclear testing in outer space and on the seabed, the Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1987), and the Kyoto Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).
Air pollution
- Energy sources are the main contributors to pollution. The world today is dependent on fossil fuels as its major energy source, and fossil fuels are the principal contributors to the greenhouse gases that produce global warming. The least polluting fossil fuel is natural gas. Nuclear energy is still considered too dangerous, and energy from renewable resources, like solar power, windpower, and geothermal sources, is either too unreliable or too expensive to be used efciently on a mass scale. - Emissions of air pollutants from one country can be borne by the wind and air currents to fall as acid rain
Environmental problems are hard to resolve especially because people are locked into a culture of denial.
www.BetweenNations.org
Endnotes
Chapter 1
1. Aristotle, Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett, The Modern Library (New York: Random House, 1943), 5155. 2. Harold Dwight Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What When and How (Magnolia, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1990). 3. David Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965), 50. 4. Niall Ferguson, A World Without Power, Foreign Policy (July/August 2004): 3239. 5. William Blake, Jerusalem, from Milton, A Poem in Two Books (18041808), The Portable Blake, ed. Alfred Kazin (New York: Viking, 1946), 412. 6. William Wordsworth, in The Oxford Book of English Verse, ed. Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952), 617. 7. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, or, Life in the Woods, in Henry David Thoreau, ed. Robert F. Sayre, Library of America (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1985), 321587. 8. For more discussion, see Ruth Benedict, Race and Racism (London: Routledge, 1942), and Race, Science, and Politics (New York: Viking, 1945). See also Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race: An International Perspective (New York: Quill, 1983), 1519. 9. The Green Belt Movement has over 30,000 members and has racked up substantial achievements in forestation, food security, and the empowerment of local Kenyan communities to preserve and restore their environment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1992), chap. 1; and David Reed, ed., Structural Adjustment, the Environment and Sustainable Development (London: Earthscan Publications, 1996), chap. 2. Arne Naesss thoughts are best set forth in Ecology, Community, and Lifestyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Dai Qing et al., The River Dragon Has Come! The Three Gorges Dam and the Fate of Chinas Yangtze River and Its People (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1998). 1996 gures from U.S. Department of State data. http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/38.htm. Andrew Szasz, Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice (London and Minneapolis: Minneapolis University Press, 1994), 151. Wikipedia, The Frankfurt School, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Frankfurt_School. May 5, 2005. Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964). Jrgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action. Vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society, reprint (Boston: Beacon Press, 1985). Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chap. 6. David Campbell, National Deconstruction, Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). Michael R. Matthews, Constructivist Thinking in Science and Mathematics, in National Society for the Study of Education, 99th Yearbook, ed. D.C. Phillips (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 161192.
15. 16.
Chapter 2
1. Denition provided by Thomas Kuhn in the 1969 postscript to the second edition of his book, The Structure of Scientic Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), Postscript. 2. Prophesy adapted from Sir John Hackett, The Third World War (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1982). 3. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (New York: Penguin, 1981), 212217. 4. Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan, The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill: The Age of English Philosophy, ed. Edwin A. Burtt, The Modern Library (New York: Random House, 1939), 160162. 5. For an exposition of this view, see Robert Wright, Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny (New York: Vintage, 2001), 2944. 6. U.N. Ofce of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery, The Human Toll, http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp. 7. The carrying capacity of a natural ecosystem is determined by its maximum sustainable yield and this in turn is the product of its size and regenerative powers. Grasslands and forests in humid areas have greater capacities of regeneration and hence greater carrying capacities than have semi-arid regions (Lester R. Brown, The Twentyninth Day [New York: W. W. Norton, 1978], 13). 8. As printed in Dictionary of Quotations, ed. B. Bergen Evans (New York: Avenel, 1978), 734735. 9. Owen Harris, Realism in a New Era, Quadrant 39 (April 1995): 13. 10. Mersheimers theory is set forth in his book, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003). 11. Harvey Blume, Interview with Niall Ferguson, Boston Globe, September 24, 2006. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/ 2006/09/24/qa_with_niall_ferguson/. 12. For a discussion of this point of view, see Paul Treanor, Neoliberalism: origins, theory, denition, http://web.inter.nl.net/users/Paul .Treanor/neoliberalism.html. 13. World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, Paragraph 27, Chairmans Foreword, http://ringofpeace.org/environment/brundt land.html). 14. For a discussion of these aspects, see Johan Holmberg, ed., Making Development Sustainable: Redening Institutions Policy and Economics (International Institute for Environment and Development:
Chapter 3
1. Max Weber, Politics as a Vocation, lecture given in 1918 at Munich University, Munich, Germany, Paragraph 4, http://www.mdx.ac.uk/ WWW/STUDY/xweb.htm. 2. See Markus Jachtenfuchs, The Monopoly of Legitimate Force: Denationalization or Business as Usual, European Review (2005), Vol. 13: 3752 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 3. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1976), 129160. 4. James N. Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics: A Theory of Change and Continuity (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 114140. 5. The United Nations recognizes 191, but the independent state of the Vatican chose not to join. Taiwan would like to be recognized as independent but so far has not obtained international recognition. 6. Robert Jervis, Hypotheses on Misperception, World Politics 20, no. 3 (April 1968), reprinted in Richard A. Falk and Samuel S. Kim, eds. The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1980), 481482.
Chapter 4
1. Joseph S. Nye, Hard Power, Soft Power, Boston Globe, August 6, 1999. 2. Associated Press, reported in the (Rochester) Democrat and Chronicle, July 32, 2002. 3. Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 6th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979). 4. Ibid. 5. Dale Copeland, The Origin of Major War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000). 6. See data on military spending from the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), http://www.sipri.org. 7. Budget of the United States Government Fiscal Year 2008. Department of Defense Ofce of Management and Budget. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2008/defense.html. Accessed January 18, 2008.
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NOTES
8. Lester R. Brown, Earth Policy Institute, April 14, 2004, http://www .earth-policy.org/Updates/Update38.htm. 9. International Wildlife (September/October 1999): 24. 10. Morgenthau, 146153. 11. Peter F. Drucker, In Defense of Japanese Bureaucracy, Foreign Affairs 77, no. 5 (SeptemberOctober 1998): 78. 12. Observations by one of this books coauthors, W. Raymond Duncan, based on a research trip to Vietnam in the summer of 1998. 13. Morgenthau, 159. 14. Vladimir Petrovski, Diplomacy as an Instrument of Good Governance, 1998, http://www.diplomacy.edu/Books/mdiplomacy_book/petrov ski/regular/default.html. 15. The Iraq Survey Report, authored by Charles Duelfer, adviser to the Director of Central Intelligence on Iraq weapons, was released in October 2004. It concluded that the Iraqs WMD program was basically destroyed in 1991 and that Saddam Hussein ended Iraqs nuclear program after the 1991 Gulf War. See U.S. Almost All Wrong on Weapons, Washington Post, October 7, 2004. 16. See Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Choice: Global Domination or Global Leadership (New York: Basic Books, 2004). 17. John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 18. Niall Ferguson, The End of Power, Foreign Policy (July/August 2004): 3239. 19. Ibid. 20. James F. Hoge Jr., A Global Power Shift in the Making: Is the United States Ready? Foreign Affairs (July/August 2004): 27. 21. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Vintage, 1987). 22. In an informal poll of 100 academic economists, a large majority rated the U.S. economy as a serious problem, and one in five described it as in crisis. The Economist, October 9, 2004, p. 31. 23. See John Lewis Gaddis in Strobe Talbott and Nayan Chanda, eds., The Age of Terror: America and the World After September 11 (New York: Basic Books, 2001). 24. John Rourke, International Politics on the World Stage, 6th ed. (New York: Dushkin/McGraw Hill, 1997), 7477.
13. Zbigniew Brezinski, formerly President Jimmy Carters National Security Adviser and professor of American Foreign Policy at the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University, describes the foreign policy of President George W. Bush as catastrophic. See Brzezinski, Second Chance: Three Presidents and the Crisis of American Superpower (New York: Basic Book, 2007), chap. 5.
Chapter 6
1. Adapted from A. LeRoy Bennett, International Organizations: Principles and Issues, 5th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1991), 2. 2. Suspect Subsidies, The Economist, November 22, 2003. 3. See, for example, Jorge G. Castaneda, NAFTA at 10: A Plus or a Minus? Current History (February 2004): 5155. 4. See Congos Adada to Head Darfur Peacekeeping Mission, Reuters, May 8, 2007; and the Coalition For Darfur, http://coalitionfordarfur .blogspot.com/2007/05/darfur-congolese-to-head-un-au.html. 5. MERCOSUR members include Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela. 6. For a more thorough description of IGOs, NGOs, and supranationalism juxtaposed with confederalism, federalism, and consociationalism, see John McCormick, The European Union: Politics and Policies (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996), 1013. 7. Roy H. Ginsburg, Demystifying the European Union (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littleed, 2007), p. 164. 8. See, for example, Environmental Policy in the European Union, in Helen Wallace and William Wallace, Policy-Making in the European Union (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), 236255; Michael G. Huelshoff and Thomas Pfeiffer, Environmental Policy in the EC: Neo-functionalist Sovereignty Transfer or Neo-realist Gate-keeping? International Journal 47 (Winter 19911992): 136158; Rdiger Wurzel, Environmental Policy, in Juliet Lodge, ed., The European Community and the Challenge of the Future (New York: St. Martins, 1993), 178197. 9. Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions: Can Interdependence Work? Foreign Policy (Spring 1998): 8396. 10. Another IO that uses unanimity voting is the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 11. Adapted from Lawrence Ziring, Robert E. Riggs, and Jack C. Piano, The United Nations: International Organization and World Politics, 3rd ed. (Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt Brace, 2000), 61; and Regular Budget Payments of Largest Payers: 2004, Global Policy Forum, http:// www.globalpolicy.org/finance/tables/reg-budget/large04.htm, October 2004. 12. The current top ten nancial contributors are: United States (27 percent), Japan (19 percent), Germany (9 percent), United Kingdom (7 percent), France (7 percent), Italy (5 percent), Canada (3 percent), Spain (3 percent), China (2 percent), and the Netherlands (2 percent). See the following links at the UNs peacekeeping website: http:// www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/ and http://www.un .org/News/Press/docs/2006/pko152.doc.htm. 13. UN website, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/pko152.doc .htm. 14. Nile Gardiner, The Decline and Fall of the United Nations: Why the U.N. Has Failed and How It Can Be Reformed, Heritage Foundation Reports, February 7, 2007. 15. The UNs peacekeeping website, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/ dpko/contributors/. See also Carola Hoyos, US Takes Chance to Target Peacekeeping, Financial Times, July 2, 2002. And while just under 2,000 UN peacekeepers from 106 countries have died in the line of duty, only fifty-seven of these were American. See United Nations, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/fatalities/totals.htm. See also the United Nations, as quoted by the Public Broadcasting Systems, http://www.pbs.org/tal/un/budget.html, and the U.S. State Department website, http://www.state.gov/p/io/rls/fs/2001/4842 .htm. 16. United Nations Bureau of International Organizational Affairs, U.S. Department of State, April 1997, http://www.state.gov/www/issues/ iofaqs2.html#ONE, and The Charter of the United Nations. Senior military ofcers, staff ofcers, and military observers serving on UN
Chapter 5
1. This model and discussion is adapted from Michael A. Freney, Andrew E. Gibson, and W. Raymond Duncan, The International System, The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision-Making Department, Newport, Rhode Island. 2. Ibid. 3. Michael Scheuer, Imperial Hubris: Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror (Washington, D.C.: Brasseys, 2004), xviii. 4. For example, see the websites of Al-Islam (www.al-islam.com), AlAnsar and Alneda (www.wincoast.com). See also the site of the Saudi oppositionist Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia (www.islah .info). These sites are available to any Muslim, and they explain and amplify bin Ladens words and intentions. Al Jazeera can be found at www.aljazeera.com. 5. Christian Science Monitor, February 20, 2004. 6. William R. Farrell and Mel Chaloupka, Four Perspectives on Decision Making and Execution in National Security Organizations, The United States Naval War College, National Security Decision-Making Department, Newport, Rhode Island. 7. Bob Woodward, State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006). 8. James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992). 9. Chris Kraul, The Jerusalem Post, December 5, 2006, p. 9. 10. Ibid. 11. MSNBC, September 2, 2006; Fareed Zakaria, The U.S. Lets Afghanistan Founder, (Rochester) Democrat and Chronicle, August 4, 2004. 12. Security Scholars for a Sensible Foreign Policy, http://www.sensible foreignpolicy.net/index.html. In essence, the scholars asserted the current foreign policy harmed the struggle against Islamist terrorists and pointed to a long list of blunders by the Bush team in Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere.
NOTES
A3
20. 21.
missions are directly employed by the UN, usually on temporary transfer from their national armed forces. Peacekeeping troops participate in UN peacekeeping under terms that are carefully negotiated by their governments and remain under the authority of those governments. The troops and their commanders are deployed as national contingents that report on operational matters to the missions Force Commander and, through him or her, to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General. The authority to send or withdraw peacekeepers remains with the government that volunteered them, as does responsibility for pay, disciplinary, and personnel matters. Paul Lewis, U.S. Panel Splits on Ways to Improve the U.N., New York Times, September 13, 1993, p. A13. World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/, August 1998. The UN regular budget provides funding for the General Assembly, the Secretariat, the Security Council, ECOSOC, and the International Court of Justice. Additionally, the regular budget provides partial funding for certain UN agencies, such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the UN Environment Program. For more information about the UNs budget, see the website of the UN Association of the USA, http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c =fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833. Ibid. Global Policy, http://www.globalpolicy.org/finance/tables/sum budgetanddebt.htm; and The United Nations Association of the United States of America, http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c =fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833. United Nations Department of Public Information, DPI/1753/Rev. 15, March 1999. Global Policy Forum, http://www.globalpolicy.org/nance/. Edward Mortimer, Tight Hand on the Purse, Financial Times, May 8, 1996. Ted Carpenter, Delusions of Grandeur: The United Nations and Global Intervention (Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute, 1997), 128 129. Washington Times, February 25, 1997, p. A15. Council on Foreign Relations: http://www.cfr.org/publication/7631/ iraq.html. See also The NewsHour, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/ bb/middle_east/july-dec04/oil-for-food_12-3.html; and Julia Preston, Former Chief of U.N. Effort Faces Charges of Corruption, The New York Times, January 17, 2007. Samantha Power, The Worlds Most Dangerous Ideas: Business as Usual at the U.N., Foreign Policy (September/October 2004): 39. The poll was conducted between October 15 and November 10, 1998. The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, quoted in http:// www.clw.org/pub/clw/un/399chicagopoll.html. Worldviews 2002 Survey of European and American Attitudes and Public Opinion on Foreign Policy, Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.worldviews.org/detailreports/usreport/html/ ch4s4.html. Rasmussen Reports, http://www.rasmussenreports.com/2006/ September%20Dailies/UnitedNations.htm. Gallup Polling, http://www.pollingreport.com/defense.htm. Daniel W. Drezner, Mind the Gap, The National Interest, Winter 2007. The number killed in battle has fallen to its lowest point in the post World War II period, dipping below 20,000 per year by one measure. Associated Press, Despite Headlines, Global War Casualties Decline, September 1, 2004. UN website, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/pko152.doc .htm. See also How peacekeeping works, BBC News (online), April 17, 2007. UN website, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q9.htm. Power, 39. R. ODonnell, Economic Union, in B. Laffan, R. ODonnell, and M. Smith, Unsettled Europe: European Integration in a Transformed World (London: Routledge, 1997), 17. Previously, the commissioners were appointed by common agreement among the member states and approved as a whole by the European Parliament. The Commission shares the power of policy initiation with the
41. 42.
43.
44.
45. 46.
47.
48. 49.
50.
Council in Pillar II (Foreign and Security Policy) and in Pillar III (Justice and Home Affairs). Neill Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, 5th ed. (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003), 88. Some refer to the constitution as a treaty. A constitution is a contract between a state and its citizens, but a constitutional treaty is an agreement between sovereign states. See, for example, George Parker, One Summit Conquered, But It Is Still a Hard Climb to the Peak of Ratication, Financial Times, June 21, 2004. For a discussion of EU decision making in the European Council and the other EU bodies, see Youri Devuyst, EU Decision-making After the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe, Policy Paper No. 9, University Center for International Studies, EU Center/CWES, at the University of Pittsburgh website, http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/cwes, July 2004. There are three main procedures for enacting new EU laws: codecision, consultation, and the assent rule. The main difference between them is the way the EP interacts with the Council. Under the consultation procedure, the EP merely gives its opinion; under the co-decision procedure, the EP genuinely shares power with the Council. The European Commission, when proposing a new law, must choose which procedure to follow. In principle, the choice will depend on the legal basis of the proposal. See the EUs website, Europa, for more details: http://europa.eu.int/institutions/decision -making/index_en.htm. Reuters, Veteran Politicians Hand Over EU Reform Blueprint, October 18, 1999. Before the EU expanded in 2004, 10 votes went to big countries like Britain and Germany, while Spain got 8 votes; others get 5, 4, or 3; only 2 went to tiny Luxembourg. There were a total of 87 votes, and for a legislative measure to pass, 62 votes, or 71 percent of the total, is needed. (In a variation of QMV, in certain circumstances, 54 votes had to be achieved by 8 states.) As of the November 1, 2004, change, the total number of votes for the full 25 member-states is 321. Here is the complete list of voting weights in the Council: Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom 29; Spain, Poland 27; Netherlands 13; Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Portugal 12; Austria, Sweden 10; Denmark, Ireland, Lithuania, Slovakia, Finland 7; Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovenia 4; and Malta 3. When East Meets West, The Economist, November 22, 2003. Quoted in Simon Serfaty, Imagining Europe After the Cold War (New York: St. Martins, 1992), 162163. For a nice summary of the debate over the democratic nature of the EU, see Philippe Schmitter, Amitai Etzioni, Vivien Schmitt, and Fritz W. Scharpf, EUSA Review Forum, European Union Studies Association 17, no. 1 (Winter 2004). George Parker, One Summit Conquered, But It Is Still a Hard Climb to the Peak of Ratication, Financial Times, June 21, 2004.
Chapter 7
1. The Union of International Associations, quoted in Maryann K. Cusimano, Mark Hensman, and Leslie Rodrigues, Private-Sector Transsovereign Actors: MNCs and NGOs, in Maryann K. Cusimano, ed., Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda (Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins, 2000), 256. 2. As quoted in Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst, International Organization: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005). 3. A nice summary of NGOs and the globalization process is by L. David Brown, Sanjeev Khagram, Mark H. Moore, and Peter Frumkin, Globalization, NGOs, and Multisectoral Relations, in Joseph S. Nye Jr. and John D. Donahue, eds., Governance in a Globalizing World (Washington, D.C., Brookings Institution, 2000), 271296. 4. Tadashi Yamamoto, Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacic Community: Nongovernmental Underpinnings of the Emerging Asia Pacic Regional Community: A Twenty-fth Anniversary Project of JCIE (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1996). 5. Ibid. 6. This section borrows from the nice summary laid out in Cusimano, Hensman, and Rodrigues, Private-Sector Transsovereign Actors, 257261.
A4
NOTES
7. Virginia A. Hulme, 250 Chinese NGOs: Civil Society in the Making, China Business Review 29, no. 1 (January/February 2002). 8. Kelly-Kate Pease, International Organizations: Perspectives on Governance in the Twenty-rst Century, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003), 3435. 9. Shirley V. Scott, International Law in World Politics (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004), pp. 7678. See also Anne-Marie Slaughter, The Future of International Law: Ending the U.S.-Europe Divide, www.crimesofwar.org, September 2002. 10. Quentin Peel, How Militants Hijacked NGO Party, Financial Times, July 17, 2001. 11. The Greenpeace 2004 Annual Report lists total income at 163,439,000 euro. 12. Greenpeace, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/our -core-values (May 5, 2007). 13. Greenpeace Canada, http://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/about -greenpeace. 14. Greenpeace, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/ victories and the McDonalds website http://www.mcdonalds.com/ corp/values/purchasing/supply_initiative/rain_forest_policy.html, (May 5, 2007). 15. Greenpeace, http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/en/press/releases/ we-love-japan-but-whaling-bre. 16. Greenpeace, http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/en/press/releases. 17. Amnesty International, http://www.web.amnesty.org/, May 28, 1999. 18. Amnesty International, http://www.amnesty.org/web/aboutai.nsf. 19. Amnesty International, http://www.amnestyusa.org/Our_Issues/ Conict_Diamonds/page.do?id=1011014&n1=3&n2=74. 20. Amnesty International USA, http://www.amnestyusa.org/. 21. Facts and Figures About Amnesty International, Amnesty International, http://www.web.amnesty.org/web/aboutai.NSF/. 22. Amnesty International, USA, http://www.amnestyusa.org/About _Us/Executive_Director_of_Amnesty_International_USA/page .do?id=1101198&n1=2. 23. Joan E. Spero and Jeffrey A. Hart, The Politics of International Economic Relations, 5th ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1997), 96148. 24. A short description of the distinction between transnational and multinational corporations is in Peter Drucker, The Global Economy and the Nation-State, Foreign Affairs 76, no. 5 (September/ October 1997): 159171. 25. Thomas Oatley, International Political Economy: Interests and Institutions in the Global Economy (New York: Pearson-Longman, 2004), 5. 26. For more information on CGM, see John Reed, U.S. Law Gives Lesotho Textiles Cutting Edge, Financial Times, September 14, 2004; The African Growth Opportunity Act website http://www.agoa.info/ ?view=.&story=news&subtext=124; and Pursuit Magazine online http://www.pursuit.co.za/archive/augsep_denim.htm 27. See Quentin Peel, How Militants Hijacked NGO Party, and Alan Beattie, Campaigners Offer Integrity for Inuence, Financial Times, July 17, 2001. 28. Kerstin Martens, Examining the (Non-)Status of NGOs in International Law, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 10, no. 2, Summer 2003, pp. 124. 29. See, for example, Gareth Evans and Mohamed Sahnoun, The Responsibility to Protect, Foreign Affairs (November/December 2002); Lee Feinstein and Anne-Marie Slaughter, A Duty to Prevent, Foreign Affairs (January/February 2004); and Lara Marlowe, Advocate of Right of Interference Chosen to Restore Kosovos Civic Life, Irish Times, July 5, 1999, p. 15. 30. Pease, 3536. 31. Laurie Garrett, The Challenge of Global Health, Foreign Affairs 86, no. 1 (January/February 2007). 32. Keith Suter, Nuclear Testing: Paradise Lost, Bulletin of American Scientists 51, no. 5 (September/October 1995). 33. See Conciliation Proceedings: Ruling by UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar, New York, 5 July 1986; text in International Legal Materials 26 (1987): 1346. 12A: Ruling Pertaining to the Differences Between France and New Zealand Arising from the Rainbow Warrior Affair (http://www.jura.unimuenchen.de/tel/cases/Rainbow _Warrior.html); and ibid.
34. Suter, Nuclear Testing. 35. Tom Abate, Greenpeace Founder Defends Biotech, San Francisco Chronicle, June 10, 2002. 36. Guy de Jonquires, The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But ..., Financial Times, July 20, 2001. 37. Ibid. 38. Cesar Chelala, Torture in Tibet, Boston Globe, June 22, 1999, p. A15, Op-Ed. 39. Ibid. 40. Number of Executions Worldwide Falls by More than 25 Percent, Press Release, Amnesty International USA, April 27, 2007. 41. Ibid. 42. Barbara Crossette, Amnesty Finds Widespread Pattern of U.S. Rights Violations, New York Times, October 5, 1998. 43. Barbara Vobejda, Abuse of Female Prisoners in U.S. Is Routine, Rights Report Says, Washington Post, March 4, 1999. 44. Amnesty International, Israel: Occupied Territories, http://www .amnestyusa.org/By_Country/Israel/. 45. Amnesty Now (Fall 2004): 19. 46. International Business Leaders Forum, The Business of Peace, quoted in Marina Ottaway, Reluctant Missionaries, Foreign Policy, no. 125 (July/August 2001): 4454. 47. Marina Ottaway, Reluctant Missionaries, Foreign Policy, no. 125 (July/August 2001): 4454. 48. Roasters: Recognize the Rights of Ethiopian Coffee Farmer, Oxfam America, http://www.oxfamamerica.org/whatwedo/campaigns/ coffee/starbucks/. 49. This discussion of corporate certication draws primarily from Gereffi, Garcia-Johnson, and Sasser, The NGO-Industrial Complex. See also Bennett Freeman, Drilling for Common Ground, Foreign Policy, no. 125 (July/August 2001); and Ottaway, Reluctant Missionaries. 50. See James Lamont, Summit Accused of Ignoring Aids, Financial Times, August 30, 2002; UN Looks to Businesses for Help in Fight Against AIDS, Financial Times. August 30, 2002; and Business Plea for Greater Investment in Poor Nations, Financial Times, August 29, 2002. 51. NGOs Refine Ways to Go After Big Oil, Petroleum Intelligence Weekly, April 24, 2002. 52. Putting an End to Torture ... Nation by Nation, Amnesty International brochure, 2002. 53. Craig Warkentin, Reshaping World Politics: NGOs, the Internet, and Global Civil Society (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littleeld, 2001). 54. L. David Brown, Sanjeev Khagram, Mark H. Moore, and Peter Frumkin, Globalization, NGOs, and Multisectoral Relations, in Joseph S. Nye Jr. and John D. Donahue, eds., Governance in a Globalizing World (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2000), 271296. 55. Bond. 56. Cindy Sui, Chinese NGO That Probed Village AIDS Deaths Evicted, Agence France Presse, July 3, 2002. 57. Jon B. Wolfsthal, Russian NGOs Go Nuclear, Foreign Policy, no. 129 (March/April 2002): 9092.
Chapter 8
1. See H. J. de Blij and Peter O. Muller, Geography: Realms, Regions and Concepts, 12th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006). 2. See John A. Agnew, Global Political Geography Beyond Geopolitics, International Studies Review 2, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 9199. 3. The Power of Place: Geography for the 21st Century, http://www .learner.org/resources/series180.html. 4. See W. Gordon East, The Geography Behind History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965). 5. Martin Ira Glassner, Political Geography, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 11. 6. Youssef M. Ibrahim, The World Has Lost Iraqs Oil, USA Today, October 21, 2004. 7. Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992). 8. Ibid., 236. 9. Ibid., 2. 10. See, for example, John T. Rourke, International Politics on the World Stage, 7th ed. (New York: Dushkin/McGraw Hill, 1999), 124.
NOTES
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11. John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 12. G. John Ikenberry, American Power and the Empire of Capitalist Democracy, Review of International Studies 27 (2001): 191212. 13. Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, American Primacy in Perspective, Foreign Affairs 81, no. 4 (July/August 2002): 24. 14. William C. Wohlforth, The Stability of a Unipolar World, International Security 24, no. 1 (Summer 1999): 541. 15. Mark Thompson, Broken Down, Time Magazine, April 16, 2007, pp. 2841. 16. For more on this fascinating concept, see George J. Demko and William B. Wood, Reordering the World, 3132, 5355. 17. Thomas L. Friedman, The Geo-Green Alternative, New York Times, January 30, 2005. 18. William B. Wood and George J. Demko, Introduction: Political Geography for the Next Millennium, in Demko and Wood, eds., Geo political Perspectives on the 21st Century, 2nd ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), 8. 19. The Sunni Triangle is a roughly triangular area of Iraq to the northwest of Baghdad. Inhabited mainly by Sunni Muslims of the same ethnicity as former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein and most of his Baath Party, it became the center of armed Sunni opposition to coalition rule after the U.S.led invasion. The Triangles three corners lie in or around Baghdad, which is on the triangles east side, with Ramadi on the west side, and Tikrit on the north. 20. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), chap. 10. 21. Ibid., 184. 22. Inter-American Development Bank, Facing Up to Inequality in Latin America: Economic and Social Progress in Latin America, 19981999 Report, Distributed by the Johns Hopkins University Press for the Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, D.C., 1999. 23. Ibid., 98. 24. Michael T. Klare, Resource Wars: The New Landscape of Global Conict (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001). 25. George B. Demko, Why in the World, 63. 26. See Martin Ira Glassner, Political Geography, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1996), chap. 36, for an excellent review of this subject. 27. These observations are drawn from Guntram H. Herb and David H. Kaplan, eds., Nested Identities. Nationalism, Territory, and Scale (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littleeld, 2000), 1619. 28. See the Global Displacement Project website, http://www.idpproject .org/global_overview.htm. 29. Stephan Faris, The Real Roots of Darfur, Atlantic Monthly (April 2007), 6769. 30. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 22ff. 31. See Edward F. Bergman, Human Geography: Cultures, Connections, and Landscapes (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1995), chap. 8. 32. Ibid., 227. 33. Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (New York: Guilford Press, 1992).
10. Ibid. 11. Carleton J. H. Hayes, Modern Europe to 1870 (New York: Macmillan, 1953), 417418. 12. See the excellent account of the emergence of Iraq out of the collapsing Ottoman Empire by Christopher Catherwood, Churchills Folly: How Winston Churchill Created Modern Iraq (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2004). 13. R. R. Palmer, A History of the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), 520521. 14. William Pfaff, The Absence of Empire, New Yorker, April 10, 1992, pp. 5969. 15. Robert Lansing, The Peace Negotiations: A Personal Narrative (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifin, 1921), 97. 16. Ibid., 98. 17. The World Bank studied forty-seven civil wars that occurred from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe between 1960 and 1999. Research indicates that the single biggest risk factor for the outbreak of war was a countrys economic dependence on commodities. The drive for prots from coffee, narcotics, diamonds, and other gemstones both prompts outbreaks of violence and determines their strength over time, says the study. Diamonds Are the Guerrillas Best Friend. New York Times, June 16, 2000. 18. Michael Lind, In Defense of Liberal Nationalism, Foreign Affairs 73, no. 3 (May/June 1994): 8799. 19. Astrid Tuminez, Russian Nationalism and Vladimir Putins Russia, PONARS Policy Memo 151 (April 2000), American International Group, Inc., and Council on Foreign Relations, 3. 20. See Minxin Pei, The Paradoxes of American Nationalism, Foreign Policy (May/June 2003): 3137. 21. Ibid., 32. 22. Ibid., 3637. 23. Ibid.; and Rudolph J. Rummel, Death by Government (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1994). 24. Parliamentary Affairs 51, no. 2 (April 1998): 259. 25. Publius 27, no. 4 (Fall 1997): 138. 26. Mark Juergensmeyer, Religious Nationalism: A Global Threat? Current History (November 1996): 372376. 27. Robert McMahon, Sudan: Darfur Crisis Highlights Struggle Over Genocide, Intervention, Radio Free Europe, August 30, 2004. 28. Bill Powell, Chinas Split Personality, The China Blog, Time and CNN, April 9, 2007.
Chapter 10
1. Forum: War, Money and Survival (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2000). 2. Greg Cashman and Leonard C. Robinson, An Introduction to the Causes of War (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littleeld Publishers, Inc., 2007), 17. For overviews of democratic peace theory, see also Spencer Weart, Never at War: Why Democracies Will Not Fight One Another (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); and Bruce Russett and Harvey Starr, From Democratic Peace to Kantian Peace: Democracy and Conict in the International System, in Manus Midlarksy, ed., Handbook of War Studies II (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 93128. 3. Jason Burke, Al Qaeda, Foreign Policy (May/June 2004): 18. 4. John G. Stoessinger, Why Nations Go to War, 7th ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1998). 5. Rick Atkinson, Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War (Boston: Houghton Mifin, 1993). 6. Stoessinger, 187. 7. Andrew Flibbert, After Saddam: Regional Insecurity, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and Proliferation Pressures in Postwar Iraq, Political Science Quarterly 118, no. 4 (Winter 20032004): 558. 8. Graham Allison, Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe (New York: Times Books, 2004). See also Kurt J. Campbell, Robert Einhorn, and Mitchell Reiss, eds., The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2004). 9. Clive Cookson, Security Warning on Radioactive Materials, Financial Times, June 26, 2002. 10. Vicki Haddock, A Radioactive Dirty Bomb Could Be Headed for Your Neighborhood, San Francisco Chronicle, April 28, 2002.
Chapter 9
1. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Viro, 1991); rst published in 1983. 2. Walker Connor, A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a ..., in John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, eds., Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 3746. 3. Anatol Lieven, America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). 4. Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1991), 9. 5. Ibid., 10. Smith calls this element the national peoples sense of patria. 6. Ibid., 14. 7. Todd S. Purdum, Threats and Responses: U.S. Hurries; World Waits, New York Times, September 18, 2002. 8. Erik Hobsbawm, Whose Fault-Line Is It Anyway? New Statesman and Society, April 24, 1992, pp. 2426. 9. Minxin Pei, The Paradoxes of American Nationalism, Foreign Policy (May/June 2003): 3137.
A6
NOTES
11. Ronald M. Atlas, Combating the Threat of Biowarfare and Bioterrorism, Bioscience (June 1999): 465477, Table 2. 12. Vladimir Isachenkov, U.S., Russia Working to Protect Bioweapons, Associated Press, May 28, 2002. 13. Anthrax Effect Depends on Exposure, Los Angeles Times, October 13, 2001. 14. Alexander Nicoll, Bioweapons Set to Dominate, Financial Times, July 10, 2002. 15. Center for Civilian Biodefense Studies at Johns Hopkins University, Texas Department of Health, and the U.S. General Accounting Ofce. See also Bioterror Threats, Knight-Ridder Newspapers, October 10, 2001. 16. Alexander Nicoll, US Deploys Old Airborne Toysand Tries Some New Ones, Financial Times, November 7, 2001. 17. Satellites and Horsemen, The Economist, March 9, 2002. The Daisy Cutter is succeeded by the MOAB bomb. 18. See, for example, Michael T. Klare, The New Arms Race: Light Weapons and International Security, Current History (April 1997): 173 178. 19. Carl T. Hall, Pentagon Examines Uses for Biotech, San Francisco Chronicle, June 23, 2001. 20. Brochure, Campaign for a Landmine-Free World, http://www.vvaf .org, 1998. 21. Juan Forero, For Colombians, A Growing Peril From Land Mines, Washington Post, November 2, 2006. 22. Paul Donovan, Making a Killing, The Guardian (London), February 7, 2001. See also http://www.vvaf.org/htdocs/landmine/freeworld .html. 23. 639 Million Guns Surveyed, Press Democrat News Services, June 30, 2002. 24. On the impact of light weapons sales, see Klare, The New Arms Race. 25. Seyom Brown, The Causes and Prevention of War, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1994), 203205. 26. Amy Yee, India, Pakistan agree on nuclear pact, Financial Times, February 22, 2007. 27. Sha Zukang, Thoughts on Non-Proliferation, Presidents and Prime Ministers 8, no. 2 (March 1999): 10. 28. George Friedman, Naming the War, Strategic Forecasting, Inc., http://www.stratfor.com/coms2/page_home, August 3, 2004. This denition is essentially in line with the denition of terrorism contained in Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f(d). That statute contains the following denitions: The term terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to inuence an audience. See Appendix B: Background Information on Terrorist Groups, U.S. Department of State, Ofce of the Secretary of State, Ofce of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Patterns of Global Terrorism, Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of State, http://web.nps.navy.mil/~library/tgp/tgpmain .htm. 29. Brian Michael Jenkins, Forward, in Ian O. Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 1999), vi. 30. Burke, Al Qaeda, 19. 31. Dominique Mosi, Tragedy Exposed a Groundswell of Hatred, Financial Times, September 24, 2001. 32. Robert L. Hutchings, X + 9/11, Foreign Policy (July/August 2004): 71. 33. Europol Dispute Knocks Pledge to Co-ordinate Terrorism Fight, Financial Times, June 8, 2004. 34. U.S. Ill-Prepared for Weapons Proliferation, Commission Warns, Baltimore Sun, July 9, 1999. 35. John Heilprin, Nuke Inventory Flaws Revealed, Associated Press, November 7, 2001. The problem of keeping track of nuclear material is prevalent even in the more responsible countries. According to Austrian nuclear physicist Fritz Steinhausler, Within the United States, youre losing track of radioactive material literally every other day. Every other day. And controls here are among the highest in the world. He notes that the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission lists an average of 200 radiation sources that are stolen, lost, or aban-
doned within the country every year. See Haddock, A radioactive dirty bomb. The Trojan Box, The Economist, February 9, 2002. See Flynn, America the Vulnerable, 64; and James P. Pinkerton, Ship Ahoy, What Evil Lies in the Cargo Holds, Newsday, May 28, 2002. Tim Woolston, spokesman for the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, reported that the pipeline had been shot more than fty times in the past, but never seriously enough to create an oil spill. See Maureen Clark, Alaska Pipeline Continues to Spew Oil, Associated Press, October 6, 2001; Kim Murphy, Alaska Pipeline Poses WideRanging Security Risk, New York Times, October 14, 2001; and Maureen Clark, Clamp Slows Leak in Alaska Pipeline, Associated Press, October 7, 2001. Eric Pianin, Vulnerability of Chemical Plants Causes Worry, Washington Post, August 6, 2002. Kenneth N. Waltz, in Scott D. Sagan and Kenneth N. Waltz, More May Be Better, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 2029. Ibid. A. LeRoy Bennett and James K. Oliver, International Organizations: Principles and Issues, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002), 110. The London Agreement embodying the Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT). See Antonio Cassese, International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 248, and Shirley V. Scott, International Law in World Politics: An Introduction (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 258. Scott, ibid. Kelly-Kate Pease, International Organizations: Perspectives on Governance in the Twenty-First Century, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003), 237. Cassese, 11.
Chapter 11
1. Since we have no rm data of the period, it is very difcult to know how many people perished during that time. The Soviet government made a conscious effort to deny the genocide took place and only a few reporters were able to reach the affected regions to determine the facts. For estimates on the deaths caused by the famine, see Christian Science Monitor reporter William Henry Chamberlin, The Political Famine of 19321933 The Ukraine: A Submerged Nation (New York: the Macmillan Company, 1944) as published at http:// ukraine-today.com/reference/facts/17.shtml. There is a great deal of other information relevant to the persecution of the Ukrainians during that period. Thousands who resisted collectivization were sent off to concentration camps where they perished. Interested students will also want to look at the Library of Congress webpage: http://www.historywiz.com/ukrainefamine.htm that has links to multimedia exhibits as well as Library of Congress archives on the subject, and also http://www.infoukes.com, the website of the Ukrainian community in Canada. This website contains rsthand accounts as well as general accounts of the causes, progress, and effect of the famine. Finally, to get an idea of the range of estimates as to how many died, see Matthew White, Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm http://users.erols. com/mwhite28/warstatl.htm and 30 Worst Atrocities of the 20th Century at http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/atrox.htm. Both sets of data have been updated to 2004. 2. Vincent Chtel and Chuck Ferre, The Victims of the Holocaust: An Estimation,http://www.jewishgen.org/ForgottenCamps/General/ VictimsEngl.html. 3. Talking about Genocides, Cambodia 1975, http://www.ppu.org.uk/ genocide/g_cambodia1.html. 4. PBS, Chronology of Slaughter, The Triumph of Evil: How the West Ignored Warnings of the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and Turned Its Back on the Victims, 1999. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/front line/shows/evil/etc/slaughter.html. 5. We, the peoples of the United Nations, determined ... to reafrm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women ... have
NOTES
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6. 7.
8.
9. 10.
11.
12.
13.
25.
resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims. United Nations, Preamble, Charter of the United Nations, http://www.un .org/aboutun/charter/index.html. Human Rights Watch, Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, http://www .hrw.org/campaign,crp/index.htm. For the latest gures on refugees and internally displaced persons, see UNHCR, The State of the Worlds Refugees (Oxford and London: Oxford University Press, 2006). Also see UNHCR,Protecting Refugees, A Childs World, http://www.unher.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/ home?page=PRO-TECT&id=3b8373992. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Refugees and Others of Concert to UNHCR, 2000 Statistical Overview (Geneva: UNHCR, August 2002) Table iii.1 Refugee population by country/territory of asylum, sex and age, end-2000, 4/4. National Public Radio devoted a section of its news coverage on June 8, 2000, to reports of continued bride and wife burning in India. The report especially stressed the role of the mother-in-law in wanting to be rid of her daughter-in-law. For a copy of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, see www .yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/rightsof.htm. Eleanor Roosevelt, Speech Presenting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to the Third UN General Assembly, December 9, 1948, http://www.americanrhet-oric.com/speeches/eleanorroosevelt declarationhuman-rights.htm. John King Fairbank, China: A New History (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1992), 1819. Evelyn Fox Keller, Reections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985). In 1791, the ardent French proponent of the rights of women, Olympe de Gouges, responded to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen with a Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen. Because of her unyielding opposition to the bloodshed and terror of the revolution, she was guillotined in 1793. In 1792, English author and feminist, Mary Wollstonecraft, published Vindication of the Rights of Women. Norway was the rst European country to give women the right to vote in 1913. Women got the right to vote in the United Kingdom in 1918, and in the United States in 1920. Women did not get the right to vote in France or Italy until after World War II, and gained this right in Switzerland only in 1971. Joseph Kahn, The Most Populous Nation Faces a Population Crisis, New York Times, May 30, 2004. Robert Marquand, China Faces Future as Land of Boys, Christian Science Monitor, September 3, 2004, p. 1. Executive Summary, Women Watch Working Groups, http://un.org/ womenwatch. The classication of feminist theory is grounded in the analysis found in V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, Global Gender Issues, 2nd ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), 165177. The following discussion is based on J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 127144. As reported in the op-ed editorial by Nicholas D. Kristof, Sentenced to Be Raped, The New York Times. September 29, http://tecfa.unige .ch/staf/staf-e/marquis/nyt2.html. The following discussion is based on Tickner, 129. Amnesty International, Stop Violence Against Women [Philippinestime to end abuse in the home], ASA 35/001/2004 (5 March 2004), http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGASA350012004 ?open&of=ENG-PHI. United Nations, World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Christian Science Monitor, September 3, 2004, p. 1, http://www .csmonitor.com/2004/0903/p01s03-woap.html. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations concerning the World Conference on International Womens Year, Mexico, 19 June2 July 1975, as cited on http://www.choike.org/ nuevo_eng/informes/1453.html. Resolution 35/136, World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women (adopted on 11 December 1980 by the General Assembly
26.
27.
38. 39.
at its 35th session), http://www.choike.org/nuevo_eng/informes/ 1454.html. Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace Nairobi, 1526 July 1985, http://www.earth summit2002.org/toolk-its/women/un-doku/un-conf/narirobi.htm. Womenswatch, Information on the 12 Critical Areas of Concern of the Beijing Platform for Action, and on Other Emerging Thematic Issues, http://www.un.org/women-watch/asp/user/list.asp?Parent ID=30. United Nations, Human Development Report 2003, Human Development Indicators 2003, Table 22, 110113. United Nations, Human Development Report 2001, Gender Empowerment Measure, Table 22, 214217. Carol Adelman, Americas Helping Hand, Wall Street Journal, August 21, 2002, p. 12. Federal budget data is from Congressional Budget Ofce, Historical Budget Data, 19602001, Table 1, http:// www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=1821&sequence=0#t6. Grameen Bank webpage, www.grameen-info.org/bank/GBGlance .htm. Time to Take the Credit, The Economist, March 17, 2007. Thomas Dichter, Hype and Hope: The Worrisome State of the Microcredit Movement, online, 2005, http://www.micronancegateway.org/content/article/detail/31747. The conservative think tank, the Cato Institute, argues that the potential of microcredit to lift the worlds poor out of poverty is grossly overestimated. According to a Cato study, The average poor person in the past [and today] is not an entrepreneur, and when he or she has access to credit, it is largely for consumption or cashow smoothing. Cato prefers savings-based services. Source: Barney Jopson, Potential of microcredit grossly overestimated, Financial Times, February 16, 2007. Executive Summary, Women Watch Working Groups, http://un.org/ womenwatch, p. 5. United Nations, World Health Organization, Prevalence and Death Rates Associated with Tuberculosis, Geneva, 2002, http://www .developmentgoals.org/mdgun/23.htm. United Nations, Johannesburg Summit 2002, Medio Info. Fact Sheets, Facts about Africa, http://www.johannes-burgsummit.org/html/ media_info/factsheets.html. The prepublication draft, UNAIDS Global Resource Tracking Consortium, Financing the Expanded Response for AIDS (Geneva: UNAIDS, 2004), http://www.eldis.org/ef/search/disp/DocDisplay .cfm?Doc=DOC15220&Resource=flhiv. Information on funding found in this chapter was derived from this document. Laurie Garrett, The Challenge of Global Health, Foreign Affairs (January/Febeuary 2007): 1520. United Nations, General Assembly, Resolution 96 (I) The Crime of Genocide, December 11, 1946 (Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During the Second Part of Its First Session from 23 October to 15 December 1946 [Lake Success, N.Y.: United Nations, 1947]), as published at http://www.armenian:genocide.org/Afrmation.227/ current_category.6/afrmation_detail.html. United Nations International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 8, http://www.hrweb .org/legal/genocide.html. Ko Annan, Address at the United Nations University, Japans World Role in the 21st Century, Tokyo, November 11, 1999, http://www .un.org/News/ossg/sgcuff99.htm. Ko Annan, Remarks at the World Bank, On Peace and Development One StruggleTwo Fronts, Washington, D.C., October 19, 1999, http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sgcuff99.htm.
Chapter 12
1. See, for example, David N. Balaam and Michael Veseth, Introduction to International Political Economy, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2005). 2. A more comprehensive International Trade Organization (ITO) had been proposed in the late 1940s, but it was opposed by the U.S. Congress. The ITO was never submitted for ratication, and the less substantial GATT emerged by default. See Don Babai, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, in The Oxford Companion to
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4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
12.
Politics of the World, Joel Krieger, ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 342348. GATT remains, but essentially as an agreement for trade in goods. The WTO oversees trade rules in various treaties including GATT. Unlike GATT, the WTO also overseas the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), and the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs). Theodore H. Cohn, Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. (New York: Pearson-Longman, 2005), 237. World Trade Organization, Annual Report1998 (Geneva: WTO, 1998), 5. See also Robert OBrien and Marc Williams, International Trade, in Theodore H. Cohn, Global Political Economy: Evolution and Dynamics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 141. OBrien and Williams, ibid. International Sugar Trade, The Canadian Sugar Institute, http:// www.sugar.ca, July 10, 2004. Bloomberg News, United Tries Tough Love to Correct Boeing Issues, USA Today, October 26, 1998. OBrien and Williams, 141. Global Game: What Is an American Car, Consumer Reports, April 2007, 19. According to a Toyota advertisement in The Economist, March 3, 2007. The U.S. Super 301 provision of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1998 is viewed by many as an example of a managed trade tool that allows the United States to retaliate against countries that the United States deems to be trading unfairly. The budget, for example, was based on $17 per barrel, but prices eventually fell to as low as $9. This led to a budget shortfall of 46 percent. Agence France Press, Hit by Dwindling Oil Revenue, Nigeria Slashes Public Workers Pay, December 28, 1998. Joan E. Spero and Jeffrey A. Hart, The Politics of International Economic Relations, 5th ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1997), 66. U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services Highlights, U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics, October 14, 2004, http:// www.census.gov/indicator/www/ustrade.html. U.S. Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/ c0004.html#2006. Lost in translation, The Economist, May 19, 2007. Gerald M. Meier, The International Environment of Business (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 8485. Klaus Heidensohn, Europe and World Trade (London: Pinter, 1995), 3233. Basic trade theory helps explain these phenomena. The HeckscherOhlin theorem of factor price equalization posits that free trade will cause all factor prices (wages, in this case) to equalize across countries. In the case of the United States and Mexico, for example, the lower Mexican wages will eventually rise and the American wage level will eventually drop. Such a development, of course, is not appealing to American workers and labor unions. In addition, the Stolper-Samuelson model suggests that free trade will benet the abundant factor of production and harm the scarce one. In the case of NAFTA, the United States has an abundance of capital and is scarce in unskilled labor compared to Mexico. So, over time, one would expect unskilled American workers to be hurt most by the greater free trade between Mexico and the United States. Christopher Parkes, Mexicos Free Trade Zone May Be Victim of Its Own Success, Financial Times, May 14, 1999. Alan Beattie, Weight of expectation buries deal, Financial Times, July 25, 2007. European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/ countries/usa/index_en.htm, February 2006. Ibid. Martin Wolf, Wealth of Nations, Financial Times, May 19, 1998. WTO, http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/inbrief_e/ inbr02_e.htm, July 10, 2004. The Beef over Bananas, The Economist, March 6, 1999, p. 65. Frances Williams and Vanessa Houlder, WTO Defends Record on the Environment, Financial Times, October 15, 1999. Geoff Dyer, Ford to buy more parts from China, Financial Times, October 27, 2006.
29. Spero and Hart, 30. 30. International Monetary Fund, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ ft/exrp/what.htm#where, July 2004. 31. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), IMF, http://www.imf/org/external/ np/exr/facts/sdr.htm, May 29, 2007. 32. Raymond Colitt, Brazilian President Releases Loans for Sanitation Crisis Killing 50 People a Day, Financial Times, December 17, 2003. 33. World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/, August 1998. 34. Thomas Oatley, International Political Economy: Interests and Institutions in the Global Economy (New York: Pearson-Longman, 2004), 319320. 35. Bank Information Center, http://www.bicusa.org/bicusa/issues/ world_bank/index.php#resources, October 30, 2004. 36. Oatley. 37. World Bank Information Center and IDA Replenishments, http:// web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/IDA/ 0,,contentMDK:21021125~menuPK:2842661~pagePK:51236175 ~piPK:437394~theSitePK:73154,00.html, May 30, 2007. 38. Yukiko Omura, About MIGA, IMF, http://www.miga.org/sitelevel2/ level2.cfm?id-1069. 39. Jessica Einhorn, The World Banks Mission Creep, Foreign Affairs 80, no. 5 (September/October 2001): 2235. The vice president of the German Bundesbank has also complained about the IMF encroaching on World Bank responsibilities. See Jurgen Stark, The Fund Must Stick to Its Mandate, Financial Times, July 16, 2004. For another critical review of the World Bank, IMF, and other aid agencies, see William Easterly, The Cartel of Good Intentions, Foreign Policy (July/August 2002). 40. Oatley, 356357. 41. Nancy Dunne, World Bank Policies Boosting Poverty, Financial Times, August 14, 1998. 42. Kenneth Rogoff, A Final Grade for Wolfensohn, Newsweek International, January 17, 2007. 43. Theodore H.Cohn, Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. (New York: Pearson-Longman, 2005), 209.
Chapter 13
1. The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007. 2. Coralie Bryant and Christina Kappaz, Reducing Poverty, Balancing Peace (Bloomeld, Conn.: Kumarian Press, 2005); presentation at Centre for Peace and Human Security, April 2006. 3. UN, Millennium Development Goals Report, 2006, http://mdgs.un .org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2006/MDG Report2006.pdf 4. Carlos M. Vilas, Introduction, in Douglas A. Chalmers, Carlos M. Vilas, Katherine Hite, Scott B. Martin, Kerianne Piester, and Monique Segarra, eds., The New Politics of Inequality in Latin America: Rethinking Participation and Representation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). 5. Hobbes was actually referring to man in the state of nature, not to conditions in the developing countries. 6. Monte Palmer, Political Development: Dilemmas and Challenges (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock, 1997), 1415. 7. Ibid. 8. Robin Wright, Freedoms Formula, Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1992. 9. W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 10. Barbara Crossette, U.N. Says Bad Government Is Often the Cause of Poverty, New York Times, April 5, 2000. 11. David Sylvan, The Newest Mercantilism, International Organization 35 (Spring 1981): 375379. 12. Mahfoud Bennoune, The Making of Contemporary Algeria: 1830 1987 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 176195. 13. The Tale of Barbie and Li Mei, The Economist, May 5, 2007. 14. Joan E. Spero and Jeffrey A. Hart, The Politics of International Economic Relations, 5th ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1997), 154155. 15. David N. Balaam and Michael Veseth, Introduction to International Political Economy, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005), 337338. 16. Robert Gilpin, The Challenge of Global Capitalism (Princeton: Prince ton University Press, 2000), 300.
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17. Associated Press, Poor Countries Draft Proposal on Poverty, New York Times, April 12, 2000. 18. Spero and Hart, 151. 19. Gilpin, 172. 20. See Palmer, 4041. 21. Randal L. Cruikshanks and Earl D. Huff, Prospects for the Future, in Joseph N. Weatherby et al., The Other World: Issues and Politics of the Developing World (New York: Longman, 1997), 274275. 22. William A. Joseph, Mark Kesselman, and Joel Krieger, Third World Politics at the Crossroads (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1996), 11. 23. Nancy Birdsall, Life Is Unfair: Inequality in the World, Foreign Policy, no. 111 (Summer 1998): 7677. 24. Ibid. 25. The News (Mexico City), March 28, 2000, p. 12. 26. Cheryl W. Gray and Daniel Kaufmann, Corruption and Development, Finance and Development (March 1998): 710. 27. Joseph, Kesselman, and Krieger, 11. 28. Stephen Connely Benz, Guatemalan Journey (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), Part II. 29. For further discussion of this and related points, see Marina S. Ottoway, Democracy Challenged: The Rise of Semi-Authoritarianism (Wash ington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003). 30. Sumit Ganguly, Pakistans Never-Ending Story, Foreign Affairs 79, no. 2 (March/April 2000): 26. 31. Labouari Addi, Algerias Army, Algerias Agony, Foreign Affairs 77, no. 4 (July/August 1998): 4453. 32. This list is drawn from an article published by Lawrence E. Harrison in the journal The National Interest (Summer 2000). Harrison directed the United States Agency for International Development missions in ve Latin American countries between 1965 and 1981. He is a senior fellow at Harvard Universitys Academy for International and Area Studies and coeditor of Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress (Basic Books, 2000). 33. Blanca Heredia, Prosper or Perish? Development in the Age of Global Capital, Current History (November 1997): 383388. 34. Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (New York: Doubleday, 2003). 35. Ibid. 36. Samuel P. Huntington, The Many Faces of the Future, Utne Reader, no. 81 (May/June 1997): 7577, 102103. 37. Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester, N.Y.), September 21, 2004. 38. Donald J. Puchala, Some Non-Western Perspectives on International Relations, Journal of Peace Research 34, no. 2 (1997): 129134. 39. Ibid. 40. Carnegie Commission, Preventing Deadly Conict, Final Report, at http://wwics.si.edu/subsites/ccpdc/pubs/rept97/nfr.htm. 41. Ronald L. Tammen et al., Power Transitions: Strategies for the 21st Century (New York: Chatham House, 2000), 123. 42. Heredia. 43. Thomas Carothers, Democracy Without Illusions, Foreign Affairs 76, no. 1 (January/February 1997): 8599.
Chapter 14
1. IPCC, 2007, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers, p. 3, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assess ment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-spm.pdf. 2. IPCC, 2007, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Summary for Policymakers, p. 20, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment -report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-spm.pdf. 3. UN projection as reported in BBC News February 28, 2001, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1194030.stm. 4. Paraphrased from 2007 World Economic Indicators, The Environment, p. 121, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:21298138~pagePK:64133150 ~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html. 5. U.N. World Water Day 2007, Improving health through better access to water, p. 20 (http://www.unwater.org/wwd07/downloads/docu ments/escarcity.pdf ).
6. Perhaps the most serious toxic chemical incident was the 1984 explosion of toxic methyl isocyanate gas at a Union Carbide plant. The gas enveloped the Indian city of Bhopal, killing directly, according to the ofcial Indian government report, more than 3,000 people and permanently disabling over 11,000 more. The data are from a long-delayed ofcial report by the Indian government in 2004, as cited in T. V. Padma, Long-delayed Report on Bhopal Disaster Offers Little New Information, Nature Medicine, published online, 30 December 2004, http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041229/pf/ nm0105-5a_pf.html#top. Considerable uncertainty surrounds the actual number of deaths and long-term injuries, such as lung disease, that were caused directly by the accident. Union Carbides gures for deaths agree with the Indian governments 3,800, while it sets the permanent disabilities gures at 11,000 (http://www.bhopal .com/chrono.htm). According to Amnesty Internationals 2004 twenty-year report on the tragedy, 7,000 died the night of the accident, and another 15,000 died later, while 150,000 to 600,000 suffered debilitating illnesses as a result of the tragedy (Mohammed Owals, volunteer at Hamidia Hospital, Bhopal, India, Clouds of Injustice: Bhopal Disaster 20 Years On, http://web.amnesty.org/ pages/ec-bhopal-eng). Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, states that thousands were killed outright and the injured now number anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 (http://www.answers.com/topic/ bhopal-disaster). The BBC reports give the same gures. The Bhopal Medical Appeal and Sambhavna Trust, established to seek medical and legal remedies for the victims, states that 20,000 died from the accident: half a million were exposed to the gases, and 120,000 still suffer from health problems caused by the disaster (http://www .bhopal.org/whathappened.html). Since none of the larger gures are backed up with any statistical evidence, the ofcial Indian government gures seemed the most appropriate. 7. Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook 2007, World, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ print/xx.html. 8. UNFPA, Introduction, State of World Population 2004, http://www .unfpa.org/swp/2004/english/ch1/page7.htm#1. 9. Gerhard K. Heilig, World Population Prospects: Analyzing the 1996 UN Population Projections, Chapter 1, World Population: Major Trends, IIASA electronic working paper, http://www.iiasa.ac.at/ Research/LUC/Papers/gkh1/chap1.htm. 10. Data from International Organization of Migration, Global Estimates and Trends, 2005, http://www.iom.int/jahia/page254.html. 11. See the discussion of technology in Rudi Volti, Society and Technological Change, 3rd ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1995), 315. 12. Harvey Brooks, The Typology of Surprises in Technology, Institutions, and Development, in W. C. Clark and R. E. Munn, eds., Sustainable Development of the Biosphere (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 329. See also Stephen Schneider and B. L. Turner II, Summary: Anticipating Global Change Surprise, Summary remarks from a 1994 Conference on the Typology of Surprises in Technology, Institutions, and Development, held at the As pen Global Change Institute, Aspen, Colorado, and found at http:// www.agci.org/publications/eoc94/EOC2/EOC2-summary.html. 13. In June 2005, General Motors announced plans to purchase a small vehicle producer in Qingdao and to build a multi-million dollar engine plant in the Chinese southwestern city of Liuzhou. Earlier that year, GM opened a new plant in Shanghai. China has generated the bulk of GMs prots from the sale of cars over the past few years. It expects to make 1.3 million vehicles and 20 new models by 2007. These moves place GM in a strong position to replace Volkswagen as the automotive company with the largest vehicle market share in China. Reuters, GMN to build $387 million China engine plant as reported in ABC News Business, June 13, 2005. http://abcnews.go .com/Business/wireStory?id=811853. 14. CNN.com, Lung Association Ranks Most Polluted Cities, April 29, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/04/28/air.pollution/. For the last systematic data, see World Resources Institute, World Resources 19941995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 199, Table 11.2. 15. Price drives a lot of this. As long as gas prices are relatively low, people wont make the switch. Sustained high prices with the expectation of long term or permanent high prices will eventually force people to use smaller cars or alternative transportation.
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16. Hawaii provides an example of the consequences of human management of the environment that led to reduction in variability. Because of its nearly inaccessible location in the middle of the Pacic Ocean, Hawaii once had perhaps the most diverse plant and animal life of any place on Earth. Around a.d. 300500 (A Brief History of Hawaii, http://www.deephawaii.com/hawaiianhistory.htm), Polynesians from the South Pacic arrived in double-hulled boats, bringing plants, animals, and agricultural technology. These exotic or foreign species thrived in the Hawaiian climate, having left their natural competitors behind. By contrast, many of the weaker Hawaiian species became extinct. With the nineteenth-century arrival of Americans and Europeans, who brought their industrial enterprises and the practice of covering large amounts of land with only one crop, more plants became extinct. Today, very few native species of plant or animal survive in the entire Hawaiian archipelago. The rich ecosystem that took millions of years to evolve reacted in less than 2,000 years to human and industrial intrusion with a reduction in variability (see Edmund O. Wilson, The Future of Life [New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002], 4254). 17. World Resources Institute, Cholera Returns, World Resources 1998 1999 (New York: Oxford University Press 1999), 22. 18. U.S. Census Bureau, Historical Estimates of World Population and Total Midyear Population for the World, 19502050, http://k12science .ati.stevens-tech.edu/curriculum/popgrowthproj/worldpop.html. 19. World Resources Institute, World Resources 19941995, 270273. 20. For the full story of Darfur, turn to Stephan Faris, The Real Roots of Darfur, The Atlantic Monthly (April 2007): 6772, http://www.the atlantic.com/doc/200704/darfur-climate. 21. Demography and the West: Half a Billion Americans, The Economist, August 22, 2002, http://economist.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm ?Story_ID=1291056. 22. Danielle Hierenberg and Mia MacDonald, The Population Story ... So Far, World-Watch (September/October 2004): 1417. 23. About.com: Geography, Largest Cities in the WorldList Two, 2006, http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/ agglomerations2.htm. 24. Iowa-born Henry Wallace (18881960) was a former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture under President Franklin D. Roosevelt and a candidate for U.S. president in 1948. Wallace tried mating or cross-breeding different kinds of corn to produce more prolic plants. He kept exact records of his trials. When he thought he had good results, he took his hybrid corn seeds to the farmers. At rst there was reluctance to buy his seeds and apply his methods. But some farmers did try. They talked up their excellent results to friends and the green revolution was launched. For a laymans account of Wallaces contribution to the green revolution, see John C. Culver and John Hyde, American Dreamer: A Life of Henry Wallace (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 3108. 25. See, for example, Darrell A. Posey, IUCN Biodiversity Programme, Traditional Resource Rights: International Instruments for Protection and Compensation for Indigenous Peoples and Local Governments (Gland, Switzerland, and Oxford: IUCN, World Conservation Union, 1996). 26. For more information on the pros and cons of the green revolution see the following articles: Susette Biber-Klemm, Farmers Knowledge at Risk: Are Intellectual Property Rights the Solution? Infoagrar News (Switzerland, n.d.), pp. 67, http://www.infoagrar.ch/Informa tioncenter/mediadir.nsf/0/887fe2cca68b81a4c1256b91003f2616 ?OpenDocument. Bernice Wuethrich, The Changing Landscape of Knowledge, in Smithsonian Institution, Forces of Change: A New View of Nature (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000), 190191. John Henkel, Drugs of the Deep: Treasures of the Sea Yield Some Medical Answers and Hint at Others, http://www.fda .gov/fdac/features/1998/198_deep.html. 27. See Special Report, Non-Food GM: The Men in White Coats Are Winning, Slowly, The Economist 373, no. 8396 (October 9, 2004): 6366.
28. Ibid., 64. 29. World Meteorological Association, UN Environment Programme, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Executive Summary, Climate Change: The IPCC Scientic Assessment (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), xi. 30. The IPCC is backed up by the 2007 ndings of the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change commissioned by the British Treasury setting forth the case for action. The scientic evidence is now overwhelming: climate change is a serious global threat, and it demands an urgent global response (UK Government, HM Treasury, Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, January 2007), http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern _review_economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm. 31. Roy W. Spencer, How Do We Know the Temperature of the Earth? Global Warming and Global Temperatures, in Ronald Bailey, ed., Earth Report 2000: Revisiting the True State of the Planet (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 39. 32. Robert C. Fleagle, Global Environmental Change: Interactions of Science, Policy, and Politics in the United Nations (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 183185. 33. Info from the Ozone Hole Processing Team, NASA/GSFC Code 916, ftp://jwocky.gsfc.nasa.gov/pub/eptoms/images/qcplots/zmqchl _v8.png. 34. Hannah K. Strange, U.K. Frustration over U.S. Climate Deal, United Press International, June 13, 2005, http://www.climateark.org/articles/ reader.asp?linkid=42851. 35. Marvin Soroos, The Endangered Atmosphere (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 3. 36. John J. Fialka, Soot Storm: A Dirty Discovery over Indian Ocean Sets Off a Fight, Wall Street Journal, May 6, 2003, pp. A1, A6. 37. Jerry Taylor and Peter VanDoren, Soft Energy Versus Hard Facts: Powering the 21st Century, Earth Report 2000 (New York: McGrawHill, 2000), 135139. 38. See Oran Young, The Politics of International Regime Formation: Managing Natural Resources and the Environment, International Organization 43 (1989): 349376; and Oran R. Young and Gail Oshe renko, eds., Polar Politics: Creating Environmental Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993). 39. World Bank, Clear Water, Blue Skies: Chinas Environment in the New Century (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1997), 19, Table 2.1. 40. World Resources 19981999, 6465, Box 2.6. 41. World Watch Institute, Water: Critical Shortages Ahead, http:// www.wri.org./trends/water2.html. 42. World Summit on Sustainable Development, Freshwater, Global Challenge Global Opportunity: Trends in Sustainable Development, p. 10, http://www.johannes-burgsummit.org/index.html. 43. Lester R. Brown, Falling Water Tables in China May Soon Raise Food Prices Everywhere, message sent by [email protected], May 3, 2000. 44. In 1998, the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, experienced water poisoning, although the citys water treatment system met U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations. In May 2000, an E. coli outbreak in the water system in Walkerton, Canada, made 1,000 people sick and killed 17. 45. Regional Proles: Senegal, World Resources 19981999, 114. 46. For a sobering presentation of the issues surrounding the use of the waters of the Jordan River Basin, see Jad Isaac, Core Issues of the Palestinian-Israeli Water Dispute (Jerusalem: Applied Research Institute, 1995), http://www.arij.org/pub/corissues/. 47. Thomas Homer-Dixon, The Ingenuity Gap: Facing the Economic, Environmental and Other Challenges of an Increasingly Complex and Unpredictable World, 2nd edition (New York: Vintage Books, 2002). For a thoughtful and sobering analysis of the relationship between the environment, scarcity, and violence, see, by the same author, Environment, Scarcity and Violence (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001).
Photo Credits
Chapter 1 Page 2: NASA; p. 18: Deshakalyan Chowdhury/Getty Images; p. 20: Owen Franken/ CORBIS; p. 22: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 25: AP/Wide World Photos. Chapter 2 Page 30: Kuni Takahashi/Boston Herald/ReexNews; p. 35: Courtesy of the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs; p. 37: Patrick Robert/CORBIS; p. 40: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 46A: The Granger Collection, NY; p. 46B: Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p. 51: Dan Budnik/Woodn Camp [Associates]; p. 58: Danilo Krstanovic/Reuters/CORBIS. Chapter 3 Page 62: Attar Maher/CORBIS SYGMA; p. 69: Culver Pictures, Inc.; p. 78: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 81: Daniel Dempster/Dembinskey Photo Associates; p. 84: Wathiq Khuzaie/ Getty Images; p. 87A: Michael Kleinfeld-Pool; p. 87B: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 88: Courtesy of Dr. Robert T. Potter. Chapter 4 Page 96: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 99: Steve Starr/CORBIS; p. 101: Jagadeesh/ Reuters/CORBIS; p. 113: AP/Wide World Photos. Chapter 5 Page 130: Marcus Brandt/AFP/Getty Images; p. 136: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 137: Clive Brunskill/Getty Images; p. 148: AP/Wide World Photos; 149: Miguel Alvarez/AFP/Getty Images; p. 149: Lucas Jackson/Reuters/CORBIS; p. 151: Sayed Jan Sabawoon/EPA/Landov. Chapter 6 Page 160: AP Images; p. 166: Tyler Hicks/The New York Times; p. 174: Wally Santana/ AP Photo; p. 175: Reuters TV; p. 187: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 194: AP/Wide World Photos. Chapter 7 Page 200: Gleizes/Greenpeace: Gleizes/Greenpeace; p. 205: Olav A. Saltbones/ Norwegian Red Cross/Reuters/CORBIS; p. 215: Greenpeace/Andreas Schoelzel; p. 219: Scott Langley/www.langleycreations.com; p. 221: Oxfam America/http://www.oxfamamerica.org/ whatwedo/campaigns/coffee/starbucks/; p. 222: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 223: Paula Bronstein/Getty Images; p. 226: Vasquez/Greenpeace: Vasquez/Greenpeace. Chapter 8 Page 230: Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY; p. 242: Mikkel Ostergaard/Panos Pictures; p. 252: Sven Creuztmann/Zeitenspiegel. Chapter 9 Page 262: Patrik Stollarz/AFP/Getty Images; p. 265: AP Photo/Murad Sezer; p. 268: CORBIS/Created by J. Howard Miller. Modications Jone Lewis 2001; p. 270: CORBIS; p. 272: Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p. 277: Peter Turnley/CORBIS; p. 279: Yun Suk-Bong/ NewsCom; p. 284: Rodrigo Arangua/AFP/Getty Images; p. 286: Arcaid/ CORBIS. Chapter 10 Page 290: Department of Defense; p. 297: Boyes Kelvin/Gamma Press USA, Inc.; p. 304: Andrew England/Associated Press; p. 305: Getty Images; p. 306: Clea Koff/CORBIS; p. 307: AFP/Getty Images; p. 308: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 312: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 322: Reuters/CORBIS. Chapter 11 Page 328: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 335: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 344: The Granger Collection, New York; p. 351: Ian Fisher, The New York Times; p. 353: Nic Paget-Clarke/NPC Productions; p. 358: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 362: AP/Wide World Photos. Chapter 12 Page 368: Lester Lefkowitz/CORBIS; p. 379: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 386: AP/Wide World Photos; p. 387: Reuters/CORBIS; p 390: Premium Stock/CORBIS. Chapter 13 Page 400: Andrew Wong/Reuter/CORBIS; p. 406: Kim Ludbrook/EPA/Landov; p. 409: NewsCom; p. 423: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 430: Reuters/CORBIS. Chapter 14 Page 434: Stephen J. Kraseman/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 445: Alamy Images; p. 450: Reuters/CORBIS; p. 452: Rei OHara/Black Star; p. 454: Lindsay Hebberd/CORBIS; p. 458: Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2007, and Courtesy of Natural Resources Canada; p. 462: AP/Wide World Photos.
A11
Chapter 8
8.1 8.2 8.3 1. F 1. T 1. T 2. T 2. F 2. T 3. F 3. T 3. F 4. F 4. T 4. F 5. T 5. d 5. T 6. c 6. e 7. e 7. b
Chapter 2
2.1 2.2 2.3 1. F 8. c 1. F 1. F 2. T 2. T 2. F 3. T 3. T 3. T 4. F 4. T 4. T 5. F 5. T 5. b 6. e 6. e 7. b 7. c
Chapter 9
9.1 9.2 9.3 1. T 8. e 1. F 1. F 2. F 2. F 2. T 3. F 3. F 3. T 4. T 4. F 4. d 5. F 5. e 5. b 6. e 6. b 7. b
Chapter 3
3.1 3.2 3.3 1. F 1. T 8. d 1. F 2. F 2. T 2. T 3. T 3. F 3. F 4. T 4. F 4. T 5. F 5. F 5. F 6. d 6. e 7. c 7. a
Chapter 10
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 1. F 1. T 8. e 1. T 1. F 2. T 2. F 2. F 2. T 3. F 3. T 3. T 3. T 4. T 4. F 4. F 4. T 5. F 5. T 5. c 5. F 6. e 6. d 6. e 6. b 7. c 7. c 7. a 7. d
Chapter 4
4.1 4.2 4.3 1. F 1. T 1. T 2. T 2. T 2. F 3. F 3. F 3. F 4. T 4. F 4. F 5. a 5. F 5. T 6. c 6. b 6. c 7. c 7. a
Chapter 11
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 1. F 1. F 1. F 1. T 2. T 2. T 2. T 2. T 3. T 3. T 3. F 3. T 4. T 4. F 4. T 4. F 5. c 5. a 5. T 5. F 6. e 6. d 6. c 6. d
Chapter 5
5.1 5.2 5.3 1. T 1. F 1. T 2. F 2. T 2. F 3. F 3. F 3. F 4. F 4. T 4. T 5. F 5. T 5. e 6. e 6. e 7. a 7. c
7. e 7. d
Chapter 12
12.1 12.2 12.3 1. F 1. F 8. d 1. T 2. T 2. T 2. F 3. T 3. F 3. F 4. F 4. F 4. T 5. b 5. F 5. F 6. d 6. d 6. a 7. c 7. e
Chapter 6
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 1. F 1. F 1. F 8. e 1. F 2. T 2. F 2. F 2. T 3. F 3. T 3. T 3. T 4. F 4. T 4. F 4. F 5. d 5. F 5. T 5. F 6. a 6. c 6. e 6. b 7. e 7. a 7. c
Chapter 13
13.1 13.2 13.3 1. T 1. T 1. T 8. e 2. F 2. T 2. T 3. T 3. T 3. F 4. F 4. F 4. F 5. F 5. F 5. F 6. d 6. c 6. d 7. c 7. a
Chapter 7
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 1. F 1. F 1. T 1. F 2. T 2. T 2. T 2. F 3. F 3. F 3. F 3. T 4. F 4. a 4. F 4. F 5. b 5. e 5. e 5. F
Chapter 14
14.1 14.2 14.3 1. F 1. T 1. F 2. T 2. T 2. T 3. T 3. F 3. T 4. T 4. T 4. T 5. c 5. T 5. c 6. a 6. d
6. e
7. e
7. e
A12
Index
abolitionism, 343 abortion, sex-selective, 452 absolute location, 232233, 234, 249250 Abu Ghraib Prison, 101, 103 active negative presidents, 147 active positive presidents, 147 activism, 2526, 5253 ad hoc tribunals, 361, 362 adjudication, 322 Afghanistan applying levels of analysis to, 9091 foreign policy in, 138139, 150151 war on terrorism in, 153 women in, 331332 Africa AIDS in, 8, 12, 29, 79 aid to, 432 conict diamonds in, 209 ethnic and religious conict in, 23 health and development in, 421 nationalism in, 271 natural resources in, 452 population growth in, 451 wars in, 294, 424, 425 womens rights and, 345 African Union, 164 agribusiness, 455 agriculture in China, 128 environmental impact of, 437438 free trade and, 375 green revolution in, 454455 megacities and, 454 political geography and, 244245 water scarcity and, 437, 464466 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 148 aid programs, 137138, 205, 416, 417, 432 AIDS (acquired immune deciency syndrome) in Africa, 8, 12, 29, 79 in China, 128 macroinvestment and, 359360 research on, 448449 security and, 110111 women and, 345 air law, international, 242243, 251 air travel, 3 Al Jazeera, 142 alliances, 118, 212 al-Maliki, Nuri, 153 al Qaeda Afghanistan and, 9091 arms smuggling by, 316317 geostrategy of, 236 ideology of, 295296 Internet and, 142 media use by, 18 morale in, 113 objectives of, 312313 in Pakistan, 150 power and, 9899 rise of, 124 sovereignty and, 7677 stopping, 315 U.S. training of, 9091 altruism, 3738, 48 Amazon rainforest, 215 American Sovereignty Restoration Act, 196 Amnesty International, 162, 207, 209 210, 223, 224 political opposition to, 218220 analysis, 6295 individual level of, 8488 levels of, 7189 regional level of, 7778 the state in, 6471 state level of, 7879 substate level of, 8084 system level of, 7177 analytic skills, 15 Anderson, Benedict, 264 Annan, Ko, 180, 181, 197, 363 anthrax, 303, 311 anthropogenic impact, 40 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 308 Aral Sea, 465466 arbitration, 322, 323324 Aristotle, 5 arms control, 306310 arms smuggling, 316317 at-risk states, 72 attitudes, changing, 223224 Audubon, John James, 20 authoritarianism decentralization and, 12 liberalism on, 48 nongovernmental organizations and, 205 power and, 113 authority, absence of world, 4 automobile industry, 376377, 378, 380 381, 444446, 461462 autonomy, 275 balance of payments, 392 balance of power, 4243, 117121 Bismarck on, 35 Bush Doctrine and, 154 challenges to, 117 collective security and, 125 denition of, 9, 76 in Europe, 910 balance of trade, 380 Balkanization, 238 bandwagoning, 118 Barber, James David, 147 Barbie doll, 415 Barker, Ernest, 265 Basques, 280281, 311 Batista, Fulgencio, 284 Beattie, Alan, 383 Beijing Conference on Women, 346 Benenson, Peter, 209 Berg, Nicholas, 103 bin Laden, Osama, 18, 24, 59, 139, 143. See also al Qaeda biodiversity, 207, 455 biofuels, 238, 459 biological weapons, 300, 301302, 313, 316 biomass, 460461 biotechnology, 4 biotech revolution, 454, 455 bipolar systems, 76, 118, 123, 299 bird u, 449 birthrates, 452453 Bismarck, Otto von, 35 Blair, Tony, 132 Blake, William, 20 bombings, 313 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 9, 6970 Bosnia, 330 ethnic conict in, 57, 363364 United Nations in, 362363 boundaries, 82 conict over, 250251 porous, 83, 103 Brazil, 220 breakaway movements. See self-determination Brent Spar, 218 Bretton Woods system, 373375, 385, 389 British Petroleum, 222 Brooks, Stephen G., 237 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 51, 353 Buckley, William, 297 buck passing, 118 buffer states, 238 burden sharing, 118 Burdick, Eugene, 155 bureaucratic-politics model, 146147 Bush, George W. religious beliefs of, 143 war in Iraq, 16, 9798, 132 war on terrorism of, 153156 Bush Doctrine, 153156, 236, 265, 297 298 business alliances, 212 Campbell, David, 57 Canada, NAFTA and, 163164 capabilities, 105. See also power cap and trade systems, 459 capital cultural, 39 formation of, 420 human, 39 human-created, 39 natures, 39 social, 39 social overhead, 420 capitalism ecofeminism on, 5253 imperialism and, 4647 Marxism on, 46 Cardozo, Henrique, 418 careers, world politics and, 14 carrying capacity, 40 Cashman, Greg, 295 Castro, Fidel, 284 Catalonia, 280281 Centers for Disease Control, 448 Central America, deforestation in, 39 centralization conict and, 292 consequences of, 11 denition of, 5 forced vs. voluntary, 11 foreign policy in, 131132 information technology and, 1820 international organizations and, 162 163 nongovernmental organizations and, 203206 certications, 221222 chain ganging, 118 change, 34, 122124 charisma, 87 Chavez, Hugo, 148 checks and balances, 16 chemical weapons, 300, 301302, 313, 316 Chicago Council on Foreign Affairs, 182 child labor, 243 child soldiers, 330 China, 73 Amnesty International and, 218219 economic development in, 430 energy consumption in, 461462 foreign policy in, 137, 142 girl babies in, 88, 331, 345, 355 imperialism and, 47 nationalism in, 285 national morale in, 112 nongovernmental organizations in, 204, 224 nuclear power in, 309 substates in, 81 as superpower, 126128 Three Gorges Dam, 53 China Garment Manufacturers, 214 Chirac, Jacques, 132, 217 chlorouorocarbons (CFCs), 458, 459, 463 choke points, 238 Christianity. See also religion civilization clashes with, 255 religious conict and, 8384 Chua, Amy, 426427 Churchill, Winston, 85 city-states, 6768 civic national identity, 264267, 287288 civil rights, 410 civil war, 424 ethnicity and religion in, 2225 in Iraq, 150, 424 in Sudan, 164, 219, 254255, 282, 363, 452 clans, 279 Clark, John, 218 class struggle, 4546, 47, 56, 343344 Clausewitz, Karl von, 42 Cleon, 34 climate, 439 political geography and, 234, 245246 power and, 108 climate change, 55, 435436 conict due to, 254255 ecojustice and, 54 foreign policy and, 142 Greenpeace and, 208 international responses to, 457462 as transnational problem, 21 Clinton, Bill, 85 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 346 cloning, 455 Coca-Cola, 214 coffee, 221 cognitive dissonance, 86, 253 Cold War as bipolar system, 76 denition of, 16 diplomacy in, 115 foreign policy in, 138 realism on, 35 collective security, 10, 49, 124125 NATO and, 167 United Nations and, 170171 colonialism, 415416 boundaries set in, 82 dependency theories and, 47 development and, 420421 identity and, 255 nationalism and, 270271 state creation in, 70 United Nations and, 177178 Commission of Jurists, 205 Common Responsibility in the 1990s: The Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance, 27 communication infrastructure, 252 communism, 4546, 72, 185, 313 compact states, 247, 248 comparative advantage, 376 comparative government, 15 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 326 conditionality, 395 conict. See also terrorism; war change and, 123 climate change and, 254255 in multinational states, 254 nationalism and, 269, 274275, 286 over boundaries, 250251 over natural resources, 246247 realism on, 35 struggle for power and, 910 substate level, 8184 conict diamonds, 209 consensus, 190 constructivism, 5657, 58, 235 consumption, 440441, 453, 460462 containment, 138 contraception, 452453 Convention Against Genocide, 329 Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 339 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 355 Convention on the Status of Refugees, 329 conventions, 329
I1
I2
InDEX
cooperation development and, 417418 European Union, 185187 peace building and, 3738 supranational organizations and, 168 United Nations and, 174175 Copeland, Dale, 103 core countries, 415416 core objectives, 135137 corporate actors, 211214. See also multinational corporations (MNCs) corruption, 14, 114, 189190, 294, 421, 422 Council of Ministers, 187, 188 Council of the European Union, 187, 188 countries in transition, 72, 73 Cox, Larry, 210 crimes against humanity, 322323, 360 364 critical theory, 56 Cuba, 220, 257, 284 Cuban missile crisis, 8586, 145146, 249250 cultural capital, 39 cultural exchanges, 137138 cultural resources, 8 culture automobile, 444445 development and, 424426 foreign policy and, 142143 as power, 112 states and, 68 women in, 347 currency, 389391. See also monetary systems cyberterrorism, 317 Daly, Herman, 38 death penalty, 209, 218219, 224, 339 debt relief, 206, 215, 416, 417 decentralization conict and, 292 consequences of, 12 denition of, 5 information technology and, 1820 international organizations and, 162 163 nongovernmental organizations and, 203 substate level analysis and, 8081 decision making foreign-policy, 132133, 144151 geography and, 234, 235 leadership typologies and, 86 organization perspective of, 146147 system level approach to, 144147 Declaration of Independence, 334 deep ecology, 52 deforestation, 447, 460461 Greenpeace and, 208 natural disasters and, 39 as transnational problem, 21 Dehaene, Jean-Luc, 191 democracy development and, 429431 European Union, 193 foreign policy and, 144 liberalism on, 4850 nationalism and, 274 nongovernmental organizations and, 204 stability and, 113114 sustainability and, 39 United Nations and, 176 democratic peace theory, 4849, 295 demographics, 79, 110. See also population dependency theories, 47, 413, 414417 deregulation, 50 desertication, 437 deterrence, 117, 318321 devaluation, 389390 developed countries, 72 birthrates in, 452453 energy use by, 440441 United Nations and, 177178 developing countries, 72 dependency theory and, 47 free trade and, 383
gross national income in, 403 nongovernmental organizations and, 220222 United Nations and, 177178 development, 400433. See also economic development cooperation and, 417418 denition of, 403404, 407 democracy and, 429431 factors affecting, 419429 globalization and, 426427 health and, 421422 indexes of, 356357 political, 407 social/cultural, 407 theoretical approaches in, 412417 underdevelopment and, 406408 devolution, 275, 281 Diamond, Jared, 235, 244 diasporas, 75 diplomacy, 9, 114115 climate of, 134135 coercive, 135 denition of, 134 foreign policy and, 134135 new, 135 nongovernmental organizations and, 222 old, 135 secret, 48 disarmament, 207, 309 dispute resolution, 385386 diversionary theory of war, 295 Doha Round, 382383, 386, 417 domestic policy, 3536 domino theory, 255 Drezner, Daniel, 182 droughts, 458 drug trafcking, 21, 105, 150151, 176, 243 due process, 335336, 343, 344 Easton, David, 5 East Timor, 363, 364 East-West axis, 244245 ecofeminism, 5253, 353354 ecojustice, 5354, 335 ecological footprint, 453 ecological integrity, 39 ecological paradigm, 33, 3841, 5054, 80. See also environment Economic and Social Counsil (ECOSOC), 178 economic blockades, 134 economic development, 409 Chinese, 127128 nationalism and, 274 political geography and, 245246 as power, 101, 107 United Nations in, 178179, 182, 197 women in, 202, 342, 356357 World Bank in, 393394 economic imperialism, 47 economic inequity, 20, 207, 405406, 421422 economic liberalism, 371, 372, 374376, 412413 economic policy, 184 economic resources, 78 economics, 368399 feminist theory on, 352353 foreign policy and, 139140 of intergovernmental organization membership, 165166 neoliberal, 4950 nongovernmental organizations and, 205 sustainable development and, 51 war and, 294 women in, 347, 352353 economic security, 39 economic vitality, 139 economies of scale, 185 ecosystems, 436 carrying capacity of, 40 denition of, 38 technology and, 444447 variability in, 446447 education, 101, 202
Edwards, Michael, 203204, 218 Eisenhower, Dwight, 155 elongated states, 247, 248 embargoes, 134 empowerment, citizen, 25 energy consumption, 440441, 460462 energy resources, 8 nonrenewable, 460462 renewable, 462 wars over, 462463 Engels, Friedrich, 414415 Enron, 14 environment, 434473. See also climate change development and, 404, 409, 435 ecological paradigm and, 3841 international law on, 243 international responses on, 456468 outsourcing and, 382, 386 population and, 441443 the state and, 22 surprise in, 446, 447 sustainable development and, 435, 438443 as transnational problem, 2021 water scarcity and, 464467 World Bank and, 395 environmental organizations, 74, 202, 207209, 221222 environmental regime, 463 environmental security, 353354, 467 environmental terrorism, 313 epidemics AIDS, 8, 110111 macroinvestment and, 359360 SARS, 3 science and, 447450 equality, 354, 404. See also justice espionage, 134 ethanol, 459 ethnic groups, 279 denition of, 24, 264 nation-states and, 65 substate level analysis and, 80 ethnicity colonialism and, 421 development and, 428 genocides and, 125 identity and, 254 legitimacy and, 422 multiethnic states, 6566 national identity and, 264265 nationalism and, 17, 2225, 272273 political geography and, 235 as social/cultural resource, 8 states and, 6770 substate conict and, 8283 war and, 298 ethnic nationalism, 17, 2225, 24, 125, 279281 Etzioni, Amitai, 203 euro, 184, 390391 Eurocrats, 193 Europe centralization in, 11 diplomacy in, 134135 origins and development of states in, 6770 struggle for power in, 910 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 185186 European Commission, 187, 188189 European Council, 187, 190 European Court of Justice, 187, 190 European Monetary System, 391 European Parliament, 187, 188, 189190 European Union (EU), 11, 184195 balance of power and, 119121 benets of membership in, 166 centralization and, 163 counterterrorism in, 315 currency of, 184, 390391 denition of, 77 expansion of, 186187 future of, 192194 institutions of, 187190 as intergovernmental organization, 162 nationalism and, 267
nuclear power in, 109 origins of, 185 rationale for, 185187 regional NGOs and, 78 substate level analysis and, 80 trade with the U.S., 383 voting in, 190192 Europol, 315 exchange rates, 389390 expulsion, 275 extinction, 208 ExxonMobil, 208, 397 failed/failing states, 66, 73, 114, 294295 fairness, 335336, 338 federalism, 275 feminist theories, 5758 ecofeminism and, 5253 on free trade, 376 on human rights, 347354 on IMF and the World Bank, 395 on war, 298 Ferguson, Niall, 12, 47 Festinger, Leon, 86 feudalism, 68 Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 124 nancial markets, 1819 First World, 410 scal barriers to trade, 381 oods, 447, 458, 466 food supplies, 405 genetically modied food and, 217, 438, 455 terrorism and, 317 foreign direct investment (FDI), 358, 424 foreign policy. See also political geography Bush Doctrine in, 153156 as centralizing force, 131132 decision making in, 132133, 144151 European Union, 184, 193194 formation and execution of, 130159 formulation of, 141151 globalization and, 156158 goals in, 135 individual perspective in, 147 input-output model of, 144145 maps in, 257 nationalism in, 283286 organization perspective on, 146147 as power, 114115 power relationships and, 116126, 133135 rational-actor perspective on, 145146 realism on, 3536 terrorism and, 152156 United States, 278279 Forward-Looking Strategy for Women, 356 Fourth World, 410411 fragmentation. See decentralization fragmented states, 248, 249 France, nuclear testing in, 217, 223 Frankfurt School, 5657 free riding, 118 free trade, 373377 economic benets of, 165166 European Union, 185 liberalism and, 48 NAFTA and, 163164 political economy and, 370 French Revolution, 6869, 271, 273, 286 Friedman, George, 310 Friedman, Thomas, 122, 238, 259260, 427 Gaddis, John Lewis, 122 Gaia principle, 446447 Galicia, 280281 Gandhi, Indira, 345 Gandhi, Mohandas, 207 Garrett, Laurie, 216 GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT) gender, 347, 349 gender-based war, 298 Gender Development Index (GDI), 357
InDEX
I3
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), 357 gender-neutral theory of international relations, 347354 gender rights, 410 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT), 36, 374, 381, 384385 General Assembly, UN, 175, 177178 General Motors, 445 genetically modied (GM) foods, 217, 438, 455 Geneva Convention, 305, 362 genocide, 125, 267, 275, 330 conventions on, 361 in Darfur, 164, 219, 254255, 282, 363, 452 Holocaust, 10, 330 international law and, 322323 United Nations on, 360364 geography. See geopolitics; political geography Geo-Green strategy, 238 geopolitics, 42, 108, 234, 236. See also political geography geostrategy, 236 geothermal power, 462 Ginsburg, Roy H., 168 Glaspie, April, 297 global biochemical cycles, 436, 446447 global civil society, 9293, 203 global commons, 21, 459460 global interconnectedness, 4 globalization balance of power and, 117 cultural, 122 denition of, 3, 121 development and, 408, 426427 economic, 122 foreign policy and, 142 geography and, 259260 homogenization and, 112 identity and, 202 movement against, 50, 216 nongovernmental organizations and, 204 political, 122 power shifts and, 121123 pros and cons of, 11, 122 state problemsolving and, 22 women in, 347 Globalization Index, 259 global justice, 335336 global positioning systems (GPS), 256257 gold standard, 374, 377, 389 good will, 309 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 39, 115 Gore, Al, 463 government. See also world government comparative, 15 development and, 422423 individual actors in, 8488 power and, 113114 Grameen Bank, 26, 358359 Great Lakes, 252 greenhouse gases, 457458 green paradigm, 452 Greenpeace, 162, 207209, 215, 224 certication programs, 222 nuclear testing and, 223 political opposition to, 216218 whaling and, 226228 green revolution, 454455 green technologies, 459 gross domestic product (GDP), 73, 192, 405 gross national income (GNI), 403 gross national product (GNP), 107 Group of 77, 417 groupthink, 8586 Guantanamo Bay detainees, 216 Gutenberg, Johannes, 68 Habermas, Jrgen, 56 Haiti, 361, 362363 Hamas, 124 Hammarskjld, Dag, 182 Hardin, Garrett, 459 hard power, 100
Harper, Caroline, 218 health, 110111 in China, 128 development and, 404, 409, 421422 macroinvestments in, 359360 nongovernmental organizations and, 216, 222 population growth and, 450454 science and, 447450 United Nations and, 197 health care, 314 hegemonic stability theory, 43 hegemons, 43 hegemony, 237 hierarchy, 135 Hierenberg, Danielle, 453 Higgins, William, 297 hijackings, 313 Hitler, Adolf, 67, 143, 265, 268, 270, 296, 330 HIV. See AIDS (acquired immune deciency syndrome) Hobbes, Thomas, 3435, 44, 334, 406 Hobsbawm, Eric, 269 Hoffmann, Stanley, 122123 Holocaust, 10, 330 home countries, 211 homogenization, 112 host countries, 211, 397 human capital, 39 human-created capital, 39 Human Development Index (HDI), 357, 410 humanitarian law, 339 humanitarian organizations, 88, 202, 204 human rights, 328367 Amnesty International and, 209210, 218220, 224 conventions on, 338341 denition of, 329 feminist theories on, 347354 global justice and, 335336 group, 339 international law on, 243, 322324 nongovernmental organizations and, 216 organizations for, 202 origin of concept of, 333335 responses to violations in, 355364 United Nations and, 175176, 197, 360364 womens rights and, 342346, 365366 Human Rights Watch, 221 hunger, 405 Huntington, Samuel, 255, 427 Hussein, Saddam, 59, 82, 97, 99, 118, 181 Kuwait invasion by, 125, 296297 hydroelectricity, 466 Iceland, whaling in, 226227 idealism, 7, 33, 3638, 45 identity. See also nationalism civic national, 264 deep ecology and, 52 ethnic national, 264265, 269 foreign policy and, 141, 143 globalization and, 202 national, 254255, 264267 overlapping, 57 perception and, 253 political geography and, 235236, 254256 of products, 376377 regional, 255 religious, 255256 transnational, 204 ideology, 68 denition of, 143 foreign policy and, 143 wars and, 295298 IGOs. See intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) Ikenberry, G. John, 237 IMF. See International Monetary Fund (IMF) immigration, illegal, 148149 imperialism, 4647, 70, 428 import-substitution industrialization, 416
income, 403 independence, wars for, 294 India boundary clashes in, 82 ethnic/religious conict in, 24 nationalism in, 270271 nuclear weapons in, 118, 320 tsunami in, 39 womens rights in, 344345 indigenous peoples, 330, 336, 410411 individuals as actors, 6 foreign policy and, 143, 147 individual level of analysis and, 8488 inuence of, 201203 Indonesia, 39, 88, 150 industrialization ecojustice and, 5354 energy use and, 440441 fairness and, 336, 338 import-substitution, 416 sustainable development and, 443454 inequality, 207 infant industry, 378 inuence, 100, 102. See also power information technology, 1820 cybercrime and, 105 as power, 101 power shift and, 103 infrastructure in China, 128 colonialism and, 420 political geography and, 252 as power, 107 terrorism against, 317 integrationist nationalist ideology, 275 intellectual property rights, 385 intelligence, 115, 133 interdependence balance of power and, 117 foreign policy and, 142 of states, 67 interest groups, 168 intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), 74, 160199 benets of joining, 165170 denition of, 6, 162 European Union, 184195 foreign policy and, 142 global, 163 limited purpose, 163 political geography and, 242243 regional, 163 in regional level analysis, 7778 structure and functions of, 162164 supranationality/reciprocity in, 167 169 United Nations, 170183 voting in, 190192 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 457 intermestic issues, 16, 38, 140 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 197 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. See World Bank International Bill of Rights for Women, 355 International Campaign to Ban Land Mines, 206 International Court of Justice (IJC), 137, 178, 321322 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 338339 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 338339 International Criminal Court (ICC), 164, 169, 178, 322323 International Criminal Tribunal, 362 International Finance Corporation, 394 internationalization, 1011 international law applicability of, 324 European Court of Justice in, 187, 190 humanitarian, 339 limitations of, 323324 nongovernmental organizations and, 204205 political geography and, 242243
on states, 70 supranational organizations and, 168 violence and, 318325 war and, 321324 on women, 355356 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 178179 classication of states by, 72 denition of, 370 idealism and, 36 monetary system management by, 392393, 394396 neoliberalism and, 50 in political economy, 374 political economy and, 370 poverty-reduction strategies of, 332 international relations. See also foreign policy ecological paradigm on, 3841, 5054 feminist theories in, 5758 feminist theories on, 347354 foreign policy and, 148151 gender bias in, 349354 idealism on, 3638 realism on, 3436 theories/paradigms in, 3133 understanding, 8992 international system denition of, 67 development of states and, 6770 lead actors in, 73 relations between actors in, 7577 system level analysis and, 7177 wars and, 298299 International Telegraph Union, 163 International Whaling Commission, 209, 224, 226228 Internet, 1820 citizen activism and, 25 foreign policy and, 142 globalization and, 259 power shift and, 103 social justice movements and, 352353 Interpol, 315 Iran citizen activism in, 25 foreign policy of, 138139 hostages in, 323 women in, 331 Iraq beheadings in, 103, 134 civil war in, 150, 424 creation of, 421 ethnic conict in, 240241 Kuwait invasion by, 294 oil in, 234, 235 state sovereignty and, 6667 UN intervention in, 173, 181 Iraq War, 1011, 16, 5960 Bush Doctrine and, 153155, 297298 collective security and, 125 conict over, 132 foreign-policy decision making and, 146147 oil and, 234, 235 as preventive war, 9798 terrorism and, 153, 316 the UN and, 14 weapons of mass destruction and, 118 Ireland, 83, 311, 313314 irrendentism, 82 Islam. See also al Qaeda; religion Afghanistan and, 9091 civilization clashes with, 255 foreign policy goals of, 138139 fundamentalism in, 2425 identity and, 255256 ideological wars and, 295296 nationalism and, 272, 283284 political thought in, 427428 religious conict and, 2425, 8384 socialism and, 143 womens rights and, 345 Israel Bush Doctrine and, 155 human rights violations by, 220 nuclear weapons in, 325 Palestinian conict with, 2324, 84, 423
I4
InDEX
Israel (continued) preemptive war by, 98 terrorism in, 311 wall built by, 137, 323 Ivory Coast, 363, 364 Janis, Irving, 86 Japan foreign policy in, 142143, 150 national morale in, 112 whaling in, 208209, 226227 womens rights in, 345 Jefferson, Thomas, 334 Jervis, Robert, 8586 jihad, 296 Jubilee 2000, 206, 215 justice Amnesty International and, 209210 as due process, 335336 ecojustice, 5354 as equal shares, 335 as fairness, 336, 338 global, 335336 women and, 343, 352353 Karzai, Hamid, 20, 150151 Kautilya, 34 Kennedy, John F., 8586, 145146 Kennedy, Paul, 121 Keohane, Robert, 168 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 138 Khrushchev, Nikita, 145146 kinetic power, 100 kleptocracies, 413 Korean War, 295 Kosovo, 84, 135, 216, 363 Kuhn, Thomas, 32 Kurdistan, 280 Kurds, 82, 254, 424 Kyoto Protocol, 54, 131132, 208, 458 459, 463 labor issues, 386387 landlocked states, 108, 250 land mines, 206, 305307 language, 69, 8283 Lansing, Robert, 273 laser weapons, 304 Lasswell, Harold, 5, 6, 7 Latin America development in, 425426 foreign policy in, 148149 political geography and, 252 socialism in, 143 Law of the Sea, 242 leadership typologies, 86 League of Nations, 10, 36, 124125, 171 Lederer, William, 155 legitimacy, 65, 81, 193, 422 nationalism and, 283284, 285 Lenin, Vladimir Ilych, 4647, 70, 415 less developed countries (LDCs), 402 liberalism, 4850 economic, 371, 372, 374376, 412413 feminist theory and, 348 feminist theory on, 351352 as idealism, 36, 45 Libya, weapons of mass destruction in, 102, 103, 131132 Lieven, Anaton, 265 life expectancy, 401, 405 literacy, 79, 357, 401, 404, 405, 409 living standards, 51, 408, 444. See also development Locke, John, 334 Lugar, Richard, 303 Maathai, Wangari, 456 MacDonald, Mia, 453 Machiavelli, Niccol, 34 MacKinder, Halford, 42 macroinvestment, 357360 Mafart, Alain, 217 Magna Carta, 333334 Mahan, Alfred, 42 majority voting, 172, 191 Malaysia, 284 Mallaby, Sebastian, 216
Malthus, Thomas, 343, 450 managed trade, 414 Mao Zedong, 218, 350 maps, 256257 maquiladora, 382 Marcuse, Herbert, 56 market imperfections, 413 markets, 372. See also political economy Marshall Plan, 185 Martens, Kerstin, 215 Marx, Karl, 5, 36, 45, 338, 343344, 414 415 Marxism, 4547 denition of, 45 diplomacy and, 135 as idealism, 36, 45 neo-, 371, 372 nongovernmental organizations and, 205 in peace movements, 37 Mearsheimer, John, 44, 236 media critical theory and, 56 information revolution and, 1820 Islamic, 142 nationalism and, 267268, 271 nongovernmental organizations and, 206 as non-state actor, 25, 75 mediation, 322 medical research, 448450 Medicis, 34 megacities, 453454 Meloy, Francis C., 297 mercantilism, 377, 413 mergers, 397 messianism, 274 Mexico illegal immigration from, 148149 NAFTA and, 163164 nationalism in, 284, 285 outsourcing in, 382 microcredit, 26, 357360 Middle East, foreign policy in, 150 migration, 21, 75, 442, 449450 military elites, 424 military power, 9899, 100, 105106 balance of power and, 118 Chinese, 127, 128 foreign policy and, 134 human rights and, 362364 technology and, 103 United Nations, 171175, 174, 181182 Millennium Development Goals, 404, 427 Milosevic, Slobodan, 114115, 216, 283, 296 misperception, 8586, 296297 modernization school, 412 monetary systems, 373375, 385, 388396 Montreal Protocol, 37, 463 Moon, Ban Ki, 178 Moore, Patrick, 217 morale, 112113 Morgenthau, Hans, 35, 101, 114 most-favored-nation (MFN) principle, 385 Mubarak, Hosni, 150 Mukhtaran, Bibi, 351 multiethnic states, 6566, 273 multilateral agreements, 384 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, 394 multinational corporations (MNCs), 25, 201 development and, 418 economic power of, 213, 214 impact of, 224 inuence of, 211214 other nongovernmental organizations and, 220222 political economy and, 397 multinational states, 6566 conict in, 254 denition of, 24 multi-state nations vs., 280 nationalism and, 275 multipolar systems, 7576, 77, 118, 119, 123, 299 multi-state nations, 24, 280
mutually assured destruction (MAD), 3536, 320 Myanmar, 220, 222 Naess, Arne, 52 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) national champions, 397 national culture, 112 national interests, 136, 139 nationalism, 262289 denition of, 266 development and, 428 economic, 48, 413, 414 ethnic, 17, 2225, 125, 279281 foreign policy and, 142143, 283286 liberal, 274 location and, 276282 national identity and, 264267 pros and cons of, 273275 psychology of, 267268 religious, 16, 2225, 281282 self-determination movements and, 285 states and, 6770 national self-determination, 268269, 273 nations, 24, 240. See also states states vs., 240, 263264 nation-states, 65. See also states Native Americans, 84, 334 NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) natural disasters, 3940, 249, 447, 458 natural resources, 39 foreign policy and, 142 nonrenewable, 439441 political geography and, 234, 246247 as power, 108109 renewable, 438439 sustainable development and, 438441 nature, state of, 334 natures capital, 39 Nazis, 270 neoliberal institutionalists, 49 neoliberalism, 4950, 413414 neo-Marxism, 371, 372, 413, 414417 neo-mercantilism, 371, 372, 377378, 379, 414, 418 neorealism, 44, 236 New International Economic Order (NIEO), 416, 417, 418 newly industrializing countries (NICs), 185, 411 NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) Nigeria, 221, 222, 283 nondiscrimination, 385 Nongovernmental International Business Leaders Forum, 220221 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 2526 complaints against, 215220 corporate, 211214 denition of, 25 economic factors and, 205 foreign policy and, 142 goals, strategies, tactics of, 207211 IGOs compared with, 162 inuence of, 201203 political climate and, 204205 political geography and, 242243 political opposition to, 220222 regional, 7778 rise of, 203206 states relationships with, 215225 technology and, 206 types of, 7475 Nonproliferation Treaty, 301 nonrenewable energy sources, 460462 non-state actors (NSAs), 7475, 200229 citizen activism and, 2526 corporate, 211214 denition of, 6 global civil society and, 9293 rise of, 12 sovereignty and, 7677 supranational, 168
nontariff barriers (NTBs), 381382 North, the, 177 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 148149, 163166 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 10, 77, 162 benets of membership in, 166167 Bosnia and, 57 human rights violations by, 219 Kosovo and, 216 North-South axes, 244245 Norway, 226227, 353 NSAs. See non-state actors (NSAs) Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 37 nuclear power, 109, 197, 460 environmental impact of, 437 Greenpeace and, 208209 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 316 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 309 nuclear testing, 217, 223 nuclear weapons, 300302, 305, 307308 balance of power and, 117 deterrence and, 319321 dropped on Japan, 37 mutually assured destruction and, 3536 proliferation of, 325326 structural arms control and, 307309 terrorism and, 124, 316, 317 war and, 291292 in zero-sum game, 3536 Nye, Joseph, 122 oceans, 251 offensive realism, 44, 236 oil, 441, 461462 nationalization of, 416 political geography and, 238 as power, 108109 oil companies, 221 operational arms control, 309 opium, 150151 organizational perspective of decision making, 146147 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, 167 Organization of American States, 162 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 162, 417418 organized crime, 74, 105 Ottaway, Marina, 222 Our Global Neighborhood, 2728 Outer Space Treaty, 242243 outsourcing, 382 Oxfam America, 221 ozone layer, 209, 458, 459, 463 Pakistan boundary clashes in, 82 ethnic/religious conict in, 24 foreign policy in, 150 human rights violations by, 220 military elites in, 424426 nuclear weapons in, 118, 320, 325 Wahhabi Islam in, 139 paleoclimatology, 457 Palestine Bush Doctrine and, 155 Israeli conict with, 2324, 84, 423 national morale in, 113 terrorism in, 311 PAL International, 397 Panama Canal, 252 Pandoras box effect, 451 paradigms, 3133, 32 paramilitary groups, 74 patriarchy, 57 Paul, Ron, 196 peace, 3738, 4245, 4849 peace building, 172173 peacekeeping, 172173, 182183 The Peloponnesian Wars (Thucydides), 34 perceptions denition of, 253 maps and, 256257 nationalism and, 269 political geography and, 235236, 253258
InDEX
I5
perceptions (continued) power and, 102103 wars and, 295298 Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 217 perforated states, 248, 249 periphery, 415416 Persian Gulf Wars, 108, 293, 296297 pesticides and herbicides, 437438, 466 Peterson, V. Spike, 348 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 155 physical barriers to trade, 381 Pirages, Dennis, 38, 39 Polar Bear Treaty, 49 polio, 197 political development, 407 political economy, 368399 denition of, 370373 free trade and, 373377 monetary system and, 388396 multinational corporations and, 397 protectionism and, 377384 trading blocs and, 382 World Trade Organization and, 384387 political geography, 230261 absolute location in, 232233 denition of, 234 foreign policy and, 142 issues and perspectives in, 234238 maps and, 256257 nationalism and, 276282 perceptions and, 253258 players in, 239243 as power, 108, 244249 relative location in, 232233 security and, 249252 political inuence, 165166 political psychology, 8586 politics actors in, 67 as allocation of values, 58 current trends in, 1012 denition of, 5, 97 high vs. low, 347, 349350 interactions among actors in, 67 nongovernmental organizations and, 204205 non-Western thought on, 427428 patterns in, 1517 pollution air, 459462 from cars, 445446 ecojustice and, 5354 international responses to, 459464 technology and, 444447 as transnational problem, 2021 water, 466 popular sovereignty, 273 population aging, 110, 128, 442 development and, 401402 environment and, 441443 health and, 450454 Malthus on, 343 as power, 109111 in state level analysis, 79 populism, 425426 positive-sum game, 376 postcolonialism feminist theory, 348349 postindustrial technologies, 18 postmodern feminism, 349 poverty, 404406 ecojustice and, 5354 reducing, 394 violence and, 403 women and, 332 Powell, Colin, 154 power, 96129 culture as, 112 denition of, 98101 dynamics of, 101104 elements of, 105116 foreign policy and, 133135, 141 foreign relations as, 114115 geography as, 108, 233, 235, 244249 government and stability as, 113114 hard, 100 of individual actors, 8588 infrastructure as, 107
kinetic, 100 military, 105106 morale as, 112113 natural resources as, 108109 nature of, 99101 neorealism on, 44 perceptions and, 253 in politics, 58 population as, 109111 realism on, 3436 relationship patterns and, 116126 relativity of, 103104 shifts/realignments in, 121124 situational, 104 soft, 100101 states and, 79 struggle for, 67, 8, 910 subjective, 111115 Power, Samantha, 182 predictions, 32 preemptive war, 98, 297298 presidential character, 147 prestige, 79 preventive war, 9798, 297298 Prieur, Dominique, 217 printing press, 68, 271 prisoners of conscience, 209210, 218 prisoners of war, 339 producer services, 385 proliferation, 307 property rights, 356, 385 protectionism, 370, 377384, 414 protruded states, 248, 249 psychology of group identity, 266268 psychology of war, 296 public choice. See rational choice purchasing power parities, 357, 402 Putin, Vladimir, 131132, 138, 142, 277 278, 285, 431 Qadda, Muammar al-, 132 qualied majority voting (QMV), 191192 quotas, 381 quota subscriptions, 392 race denition of, 24 ecojustice and, 5354 substate conict and, 8283 radiological bombs, 301, 316 Rainbow Warrior, 217, 223 Rand Corporation, 173 rape, 351, 352 rational-actor perspective, 145146 rational choice, 48, 371372, 378380 Reagan, Ronald, 115 realism, 7, 3436 balance of power and, 4243 defensive, 44 denition of, 33 feminist theory on, 349350, 351352 hegemonic stability theory and, 43 offensive, 44, 236 power relationships and, 117121 self-interest and, 5960 realms, 232 realpolitik, 35, 4243 reason, 5657 reciprocity, 169, 321, 385 refugees, 21, 254255, 330331 conventions on, 329 international law on, 243 rights of, 336 regimes, 463 denition of, 38 idealism and, 3738 regime theory, 49, 463 regional hegemony, 237 regional identity, 255 regionalization, 204 regional level analysis, 7778 Regional Seas Programs, 466467 regional trading blocs, 382 relative location, 232233, 234, 249250 religion colonialism and, 421 development and, 428 extremism and, 16
foreign policy and, 143 identity and, 255256 nationalism and, 16, 2225, 68, 281 282 nongovernmental organizations and, 202 as non-state actor, 12 as social/cultural resource, 8 substate conict and, 8384 war and, 298 women in, 347 remote sensing, 256257 renewable energy sources, 462 The Report of the 9/11 Commission of the U.S. Senate and New Forces Shaping the Planet, 5, 133 reputation, 309 resources. See also natural resources allocation of in politics, 58 conict over, 451452 denition of, 7 economic, 78 energy, 8 foreign policy and, 141 political, 7 renewable, 438439, 462 scarce, 7 social and cultural, 8 Ricardo, David, 376 Rice, Condoleezza, 135, 146, 153, 154 right of interference, 215216 rivers, 109 Robinson, Leonard C., 295 rogue states, 124 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 334 Rosenau, James, 67, 75 Rostow, W. W., 51, 412 Runyan, Anne Sisson, 348 Russia chemical/biological weapons in, 303 ecojustice in, 53, 54 economic development in, 430431 foreign policy in, 137138, 141 national identity in, 277278 nationalism in, 285 natural resources in, 440 power of, 142 womens rights in, 344 Rwanda genocide in, 125, 330, 362 resources in, 451452 United Nations in, 321, 361 weapons in, 304, 306 sabotage, 134, 313 Sachs, Jeffrey, 432 Sagan, Scott, D., 325 sanitation, 448, 449 satellites, 256257 Saudi Arabia, 108 Save the Children, 218 Schrder, Gerhard, 132 scientic organizations, 202 scientic revolution, sustainable development and, 443454 Scott, Shirley, 205 second-strike capability, 319 Second World, 410 Secretariat, UN, 178, 180 secretariats, 168 secretary-general, UN, 178 secular, 143 security collective, 10, 49, 124125 economic, 39 environmental, 353354, 467 European Union, 184 gender bias in, 349352 health and, 110111 international organization membership and, 166167 neorealism on, 44 political geography and, 249252 realism on, 3436, 4245 territorial, 135136, 139 wars for, 294 Security Council, UN, 171175, 179, 181 182
security dilemma, 44 self-determination, 82, 268269, 273, 274, 285 separation of powers, 16 separatist movements, 272273 Serbs, 255256, 283 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), 3, 449 in China, 128 sex, 349 sex trade, 21, 331 Sharia, 2425, 150 shatter belt, 238 Shell, 221, 222 Shiva, Vandana, 353, 456 smallpox, 448 Smith, Adam, 343, 412 Smith, Anthony D., 266 social and cultural development, 407 social capital, 39 socialism, 47, 143, 348. See also Marxism social justice movements, 352353 social overhead capital, 420 social resources, 8 social status, 342343, 421 social sustainability, 52 soft power, 100101 solar power, 462 Somalia, UN intervention in, 173 South, the, 177 sovereignty, 45 conventions and, 341 denition of, 4 European Union and, 193 feminist theory on, 350351 globalization and, 156158 intergovernmental groups and, 169 international law on, 70 nongovernmental organizations and, 215216, 225 non-state actors and, 7677, 202 popular, 273 of states, 65 substate actors and, 81 United Nations and, 174175 weakening of, 6667 Soviet Union Afghanistan and, 90 collapse of, 123124 Cuban missile crisis, 8586, 145146 imperialism and, 4647 nationalism in, 267 sustainable development in, 39 Spain ethnic nationalism in, 280281 terrorism in, 12, 101102, 320 Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), 392 sports, nationalism and, 268 Sri Lanka, 24, 39, 345 stability, 113114, 197 Stalin, Joseph, 143 Stanton, Elizabeth Dacy, 343 Starbucks, 221 state level analysis, 7879, 90, 142143 state of nature, 334 states in analysis of the international system, 6471 characteristics of, 6467 core objectives of, 135137 decline of, 259260 denition of, 24, 65 failed, 66 globalization and, 156158 inability of to solve problems, 2122 interdependence of, 67 markets and, 372 multinational, 6566 nation-, 65 nations vs., 240, 263264 nongovernmental organizations and, 215225 origins and development of, 6770 political geography and, 239242 primacy of, 116 realism on, 3536 in system level analysis, 7177 vulnerability of, 6667
I6
InDEX
statism, 414 status, 79 Stoessinger, John, 296 Strait of Hormuz, 252, 256 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), 308 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 308 Streeten, Paul, 51 structural adjustment programs, 394 395 structural arms control, 307309 struggle for power, 67, 8, 910 subjective approaches, 5560 substate level analysis, 8084, 90 Sudanese civil war, 164, 219, 254255, 282, 363, 452 suffrage movement, 343344 suicide bombings, 316 superpowers, 70, 73, 126128 supply and demand, 306307 supranationality, 167169 supranational organizations, 168 surprise, environmental, 446, 447 sustainable development, 3839, 5152, 409, 438443 challenges in, 443456 denition of, 435 as transnational problem, 21 symbiosis, 52 system level analysis, 7177, 9091, 141 142, 144147 Szasz, Andrew, 54 Taliban, 138139, 150 tariff-rate quotas (TRQs), 381 tariffs, 380381 technical barriers to trade, 381 technological monocultures, 445446 technology critical theory and, 56 environmental impact of, 437 green, 459 nationalism and, 6869 natural resources and, 439441 nongovernmental organizations and, 206 sustainable development and, 443454 temperate zone, 108 temperate zone theory, 245246 territoriality, 235 territorial waters, 242 terrorism, 3, 310318 balance of power and, 117 Bush Doctrine and, 153156 centralization/decentralization and, 17 denition of, 10 deterrence and, 320321 domestic, 311 feminist theory on, 352 foreign policy and, 152156 future threats in, 316 goals and tactics of, 311313 information technology and, 1819 international, 311 international efforts against, 315316 as power, 101102 preventive measures against, 314 religious fundamentalism and, 2425 rise of, 124 struggle for power and, 10 as transnational problem, 21 types of, 310311 understanding, 14 war on, 1011, 152156, 236 support for, 155 weapons of mass destruction and, 304 terrorists, 6, 66, 74, 224225 Thatcher, Margaret, 298 Third World, 410. See also developing countries Thirty Years War, 9, 64 Thoreau, Henry, 20 Thucydides, 34
Tibet, 218, 222 Tickner, J. Ann, 350, 352 timing of action, 6 TNCs. See transnational corporations (TNCs) topography, political geography and, 234, 247 torture, 209, 218, 223, 339 trade decits, 380 trade surpluses, 380 trading blocs, 382 transit states, 250 transnational corporations (TNCs), 20, 212214 economic imperialism and, 47 multinational corporations vs., 212 213 as non-state actors, 7475 transnational issues, 2021 denition of, 20 environmental, 54 the state and, 2122 transparency, 215, 216 transportation, 252 treaties Bush Doctrine and, 155 denition of, 4 idealism and, 3738 multinational, 37 Treehuggers, 353 tribalism, 90, 150151, 279 Triple Alliance, 6970 Triple Entente, 70 Truman, Harry, 143 tsunamis, 39 tuberculosis, 359, 448449 Tudjman, Franjo, 283, 296 Turkey, 266, 272 Ukraine, 325, 330 unanimity voting, 172, 191 UNICEF, 197 unipolar systems, 7677, 119, 237, 299 United Kingdom, 132, 152153, 275 United Nations, 170183 authority of, 1011 benets of membership in, 166 Bill of Rights, 338339 budget of, 105106, 179180 bureaucracy in, 180181, 196 Bush Doctrine and, 155 collective security and, 125 Commission on Global Governance, 2728 convention adoption in, 339 Declaration of Human Rights, 209 Development Programme, 197, 427 diplomacy and, 135 economic/social issues and, 175179 effectiveness of, 182183 formation of, 10, 170171 General Assembly, 175, 177178 health programs of, 222 High Commission for Refugees, 331 human rights and, 360364 idealism and, 36 as intergovernmental organization, 162 International Monetary Fund and, 178179 international system and, 70 Kyoto protocol, 54 limitations of, 174175 military forces of, 137, 172174 NGO standing in, 26, 77 peacekeeping by, 172173 pros and cons of, 196197 Regional Seas Programs, 466467 Register of Conventional Arms, 309 Secretariat, 178 secretary-general of, 178 Security Council, 171175, 181182 substates in, 80 voting in, 171172
war and, 321324 women and, 176, 202 World Bank and, 178179 World Commission on Environment and Development, 51 as world government, 2728 United States Bush Doctrine, 153156, 236, 265, 297298 core objectives of, 135136 Cuban missile crisis, 8586, 145146 decision making in, 146147 decline of, 42 diplomacy in, 135 due process in, 335336 European Union trade with, 383 human rights violations in, 219 Hurricane Katrina in, 39 illegal immigration in, 148149 imperialism and, 47 international perceptions of, 155156 Marshall Plan, 185 military power of, 105106 NAFTA and, 163164 national identity in, 278279 nationalism in, 269, 287288 nuclear weapons in, 326 political geography and, 237 presidential character and, 147 resentment of, 122123 soft power of, 100101 as superpower, 70 United Nations and, 179, 180, 196197 Vietnam War and, 112113 war in Iraq, 1011, 16, 5960, 132 war on terrorism and, 9899, 152153 Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 323, 329, 334335, 337, 361362 on justice, 335336 womens rights and, 345, 346 urbanization, 453454 Uruguay Round, 385 utopianism, 36, 45, 50 values development and, 425426 national culture and, 112 politics as allocation of, 58 Western, 427 variability, 446447 Versailles Peace Conference, 10 Vieira de Mello, Sergio, 125 Vietnam War, 112113, 297 violence, 290327. See also terrorism controlling, 318325 deterrence and, 318319 development and, 423426 idealism and, 38 poverty and, 403 Volcker, Paul, 181 volunteerism, 88 voting rules, 168, 171172, 190192 Wahhabi fundamentalism, 139 Wal-Mart, 213, 214 Waltz, Kenneth N., 44, 67 war causes of, 291300 child soldiers in, 330 diversionary theory of, 295 energy-based, 462463 environmental, 451452 failed/failing states and, 294295 liberalism on, 48, 49 nationalism and, 269 over water, 466 perceptions and ideas in, 295298 preemptive, 98, 297298 preventive, 9798, 297298 realism on, 35, 4245 structural causes of, 298299 weapons of, 300310 war crimes, 322323 Warkentin, Craig, 224
water, 405, 464467 agriculture and, 437, 464466 health and, 449 as power, 109 as security, 250 stopping power of, 237238 water stress, 439, 464 wealth, 79 inequality in, 405406, 421422 as power, 107 weapons, 306310 weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), 102, 103, 300302, 319321. See also nuclear weapons Weber, Max, 5, 65 weighted voting, 172, 392393 Westernization, 312313, 427 Westphalia, Treaty of, 4, 9, 6465 whaling, 208209, 224, 226228 White, Theodore, 87 Wilson, Woodrow, 36, 124, 171, 273 wind power, 462 Wohlforth, William C., 237 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 57 women development and, 410 environmental issues and, 456457 feminist theory and, 5758 international law on, 243 international response on, 355360 Marxism and, 338 in Pakistan, 220 rape and, 351, 352 rights of, 331, 342346, 365366, 410 United Nations and, 176, 202 womens movement, 343344 Wood, Denis, 257 Wordsworth, William, 20 World Bank, 50, 178179, 370, 393396 world government, 11, 15, 2728, 3061 World Health Organization (WHO), 175, 359 world politics analysis tools in, 3341 analyzing, 6295 denition of, 58 importance of, 229 intermestic issues and, 16 new forces in, 1826 overview of, 810 power and, 96129 reasons to study, 1317 subjective approaches to, 5560 World Trade Organization (WTO), 178 179, 374, 384387 Doha Round, 382383, 386, 417 economic benets of, 166 neoliberalism and, 50 protests against, 25, 417 worldviews, 138 World War I balance of power after, 910 causes of, 293 European states and, 70 League of Nations and, 171 nationalism and, 272 World War II, 10 causes of, 293 crimes during, 361 European Union and, 185 idealism and, 36 nationalism in, 270 World Wildlife Fund, 222, 227, 386 WTO. See World Trade Organization (WTO) xenophobia, 270, 274 Yeltsin, Boris, 277 Young, Oran, 38 Yugoslavia, 114115, 283, 361 Yunus, Muhammad, 26, 358359 zero-sum game, 3536, 376
Hey, You!
Yes, you.
Not your professor, not your roommate, but you. How many textbooks do you actually find that are written for you? One? Two? Perhaps none? So why read them? But what if a textbook was written for you? Would you read it then? OK, youd probably wait for a professor to assign it so you HAD to. But still, wouldnt it be more fun? Thats the idea behind the Student Choice Edition of World Politics in the 21st Century. Its a book written with input from students like you. I know, youre thinking
(big deal)
Over the past two years students in focus groups from across the country were asked what they wanted in a textbook. Maybe you werent in those groups, but the consensus was overwhelming. What was it students wanted? A book that Reads the way you study Is quick, concise, and easy to understand (shorter chapters!) Reinforces key concepts Offers a truly usable website for online testing and study help HELPS YOU GET A BETTER GRADE!
What Happened
So what happened next? Well, the authors took all this information and created the first book that fully reflects what students want. How did they do this? Well, they created a book that Presents more concepts in quick, bulleted points (like these) Uses highlighting and bolding to make key concepts stand out Puts information in smaller, easier-to-manage chunks Constantly reinforces information so you arent flipping back and forth
For Students
BetweenNations.org. Each copy of this book includes passkey access to the valuable resources of BetweenNations.org, a dynamic and user-friendly website providing an array of multi media content and web-based assignments for students. With a narrative approach featuring real people in real-world political environments, the sites video clips and interactive resources bring concepts to life and directly complement the textbook chapters. Students complete assignments on the website and submit their work to instructors with the click of a button. Students will also have access to ashcards to check their comprehension of key terms, practice tests, audio concept study tools for download, and the news feeds from BBC World News and the United Nations.