Mailto: Aalar@

1.
mailto: [email protected]
2001
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2
“ . 1.”
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3
“ . 1.”
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4
“ . 1.”
. m×n, m- , n- ,
, .
.
, .
aij, i- , j- .
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

 
a a 22 ... a 2 n 
=  21
... ... ... ... 
 
a ... a mn 
 m1 am3
, .
, .
. (m=n),
.
. :
1 0 ... 0
 
0 1 ... 0
 ... = E,
... ... ...
 
0 1 
 0 ...
.
. amn = anm , .
2 1 5
 
. 1 3 6 -
 5 6 4
 
 a11 0 ... 0 
 
 0 a 22 ... 0 
.  ... ... ... 0 
 
 0 ... a nn 
 0
.
5
“ . 1.”
. ,
. ,
:
. ( ) ,
( ) .
cij = aij ± bij
= + = + .
( )
( ) .
 αa11 αa12 ... αa1n 
 
 αa 21 αa 22 ... αa 2 n 
αA = 
... ... ... ... 
 
 αa αa m 2 ... αa mn 
 m1
α( ) =α ± α
(α±β) = α ± β
1 2 3 1 3 4
   
. =  2 1 4 ; B = 5 7 8 , 2 + .
 3 2 3 1 2 4
   
 2 4 6  3 7 10 
   
= 4 2 8 , 2 + =  9 9 16  .
 6 4 6  7 6 10 
   
: ,
:
A⋅B = C;
n
ij = ∑ aik ⋅ bkj .
k =1
,
,
.
1) , . ≠
. , –
, .
6
“ . 1.”
,
.
.
⋅ = ⋅ =
, :
A⋅O = O; O⋅A = O,
– .
2) , .
( , ), :
).
3) , .
) ( , :
+ )= +
+ = + .
4) , α
:
α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB).
5) ,
:
) = ,
.
6) , det (AB) = detA⋅detB.

det .
. ,
,
.
 11 a12 ... a1n   a11 a 21 ... a m1 
   
a a 22 ... a 2n  a a 22 ... a m 2 
=  21 ; = =  12 ;
... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ... 
   
a ... a mn  a ... a mn 
 m1 am 2  1n a 2n
, bji = aij.
(5) , :
(ABC)T = CTBTAT,
, .
 1 0 3 1  − 1
     
. =  2 4 1 , =  3 , = 2 α = 2.
 1 − 4 2  2 1
     
+α .
7
“ . 1.”
1 2 1   1 2 1   1   1⋅1 + 2 ⋅ 3 + 1⋅ 2   9 
         
A = 0 4 − 4 ;
T
A B =  0 4 − 4  ⋅  3  =  0 ⋅1 + 4 ⋅ 3 − 4 ⋅ 2  =  4  ;
T
3 1 2   3 1 2   2   3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 3 + 2 ⋅ 2  10 
         
 − 2  9   − 2  7 
       
αC =  4  ; +α =  4  +  4  =  8  .
 2  10   2  12 
       
1
 
. =  4 = (2 4 1) .
 3
 
1  1⋅ 2 1⋅ 4 1⋅1   2 4 1 
     
=  4  ⋅ (2 4 1) =  4 ⋅ 2 4 ⋅ 4 4 ⋅ 1 =  8 16 4  .
 3  3 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 4 3 ⋅ 1   6 12 3 
     
1
 
= (2 4 1) ⋅  4  = 2⋅1 + 4⋅4 + 1⋅3 = 2 + 16 + 3 = 21.
 3
 
3 4
. = (1 2) , =  
5 6
3 4
= (1 2) ⋅   = (3 + 10 4 + 12 ) = (13 16) .
5 6
.( ).
 11 a12 ... a1n 
 
a a 22 ... a 2 n 
. =  21
... ... ... ... 
 
a ... a nn 
 n1 an 2
, :
n
det A = ∑ (−1)
k =1
k +1
a1k M 1k , (1)
– ,
k – . ,
, . , .
(1) ,
:
n
det A = ∑ (−1)
k =1
k +1
a k1 M k1 (2)
8
“ . 1.”
,
, . :
n
detA = ∑ (−1)
k =1
k +i
aik M ik , i = 1,2,…,n. (3)
, .
1.
a1k. , ,
.
.
.
aij , i-
j- .
1.
:
det A = det AT;
2. det ( A ± B) = det A ± det B.
3. det (AB) = detA⋅detB
4.
( ), ,
.
5. ( )
.
6. ,
.
: ( ) ,
, , (
) .
7. ,
. ( , .
.)
8. ,
) ) ),
, .
9. -
: d = d1 ± d2 , e = e1 ± e2 , f = f1 ± f2 , :
9
“ . 1.”
a b c a b c a b c
d e f = d1 e1 f1 ± d 2 e2 f2
k l m k l m k l m
1 2 1
 
. =  0 − 2 3
 3 1 1
 
1 2 1
−2 3 0 3 0 −2
0 − 2 3 = 1⋅ − 2⋅ + 1⋅ = (−2 ⋅ 1 − 1 ⋅ 3) − 2(0 ⋅ 1 − 3 ⋅ 3) + (0 ⋅ 1 + 3 ⋅ 2) =
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 1 1
= -5 + 18 + 6 = 19.
1 2 5 2
:. =   , =   . det (AB).
 3 4   1 3 
1- : det A = 4 – 6 = -2; det B = 15 – 2 = 13; det (AB) = det A ⋅det B = -26.
 1⋅ 5 + 2 ⋅1 1⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 3   7 8 
2- : AB =   =   , det (AB) = 7⋅18 - 8⋅19 = 126 –
 3 ⋅ 5 + 4 ⋅ 1 3 ⋅ 2 + 4 ⋅ 3  19 18 
– 152 = -26.
.
:
1) , ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) ( ) ( );
5) ;
, ,
.
( ).
.
.
.
, , ,
10
“ . 1.”
. s ,
s.
, ,
.
,
.
.
, (-1) ,
.
,
, , ,
, , .
. s i1, … ,is,
,
.
, .
. ,
:
XA = AX = E,
- ,
-1
.
,
.
.
, :
n
AX = E ⇒ ∑ aik ⋅ x kj = eij , i=(1,n), j=(1,n),
k =1
eij = 0, i ≠ j,
eij = 1, i=j.
, :
a11 x1 j + a12 x2 j +...+a1n xnj = 0

................................................

a j1 x1 j + a j 2 x 2 j +...+a jn x nj = 1 ,

................................................
a n1 x1 j + an 2 x 2 j +...+a nn x nj = 0

11
“ . 1.”
, .
 1 2
. = ,
-1
.
 3 4
 a11 a12   x11 x12   1 0
  ⋅  = .
 a 21 a 22   x21 x22   0 1
a11 x11 + a12 x 21 = e11 = 1  x11 + 2 x 21 = 1  x11 = −2

a x + a x = e = 0 x + 2 x = 0 
 11 12 12 22 12  12 22  x12 = 1
  
a
 21 11x + a x
22 21 = e 21 = 0 3
 11x + 4 x 21 = 0  x 21 = 3 / 2
a 21 x12 + a 22 x 22 = e 22 = 1 3 x12 + 4 x 22 = 1  x 22 = −1 / 2
 −2 1 
, -1
= .
 3 / 2 −1 / 2
,
, :
(−1)i + j M ji
xij = ,
det A
ji - ji .
 1 2
. = ,
-1
.
 3 4
det A = 4 - 6 = -2.
M11=4; M12= 3; M21= 2; M22=1

x11= -2; x12= 1; x21= 3/2; x22= -1/2
 −2 1 
, -1
= .
 3 / 2 −1 / 2
1) (A-1)-1 = A;
2) (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
3) (AT)-1 = (A-1)T.
12
“ . 1.”
“ ”
,
3 3.
Enter.
:
Maple ( Waterloo Maple Inc.) , MapleV
Release 4.
3 2
. =   , 3
.
 1 4 
 3 2  3 2   11 14   3 2  11 14   47 78 
2
= =     =   ; A3 =     =   .
 1 4   1 4   7 18   1 4  7 18   39 86 
3 2 11 14 
,     .
1 4  7 18 
−1 0 3 4
2 −1 1 2
. .
0 3 2 1
2 1 4 3
−1 0 3 4
−1 1 2 2 −1 2 2 −1 1
2 −1 1 2
= -1 3 2 1 + 3 ⋅ 0 3 1 − 4 ⋅ 0 3 2
0 3 2 1
1 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 4
2 1 4 3
−1 1 2
3 2 1 = -1(6 – 4) – 1(9 – 1) + 2(12 – 2) = -2 – 8 + 20 = 10.
1 4 3
2 −1 2 0 − 2 −1
0 3 1 = 0 3 1 = 2(0 – 2) – 1(0 – 6) = 2.
2 1 3 2 1 3
2 −1 1 0 −2 −3
0 3 2= 0 3 2 = 2(-4) – 3(-6) = -8 + 18 = 10.
2 1 4 2 1 4
: -10 + 6 – 40 = -44.
13
“ . 1.”
, s
, ,
- s s .
. m×n r ,
, r+1 ,
, .r m n.
, ,
.
,
.
.
Rg .
,
.
. ,
, .
, -
.
.
.
. ,
.
. .
1 0 0 0 5 
  1 0 0 0 5  1 5  1 5
 0 0 0 0 0  ∼   ∼   , = 11 − 10 = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ RgA = 2.
 2 0 0 0 11  2 0 0 0 11  2 11 2 11
 
: .
3 5 7  4 8 12  1 2 3 
      1 2 3  1 2
1 2 3 ∼  1 2 3  ∼ 1 2 3  ∼   , = 3 − 2 = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ Rg = 2.
1 3 5  1 3 5  1 3 5   1 3 5  1 3
     
14
“ . 1.”
. .
1 2 1 3 4
  1 2 1 3 4 1 2
 3 4 2 6 8  ∼   , = 4 − 6 = −2 ≠ 0. ⇒ Rg = 2.
1 2 1 3 4  3 4 2 6 8  3 4
 
,
, ,
.
– 3.
, .
. ( )
( ), .
,
( ) .
- detA = 0, –
. .
,
.
.
.
:
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n = b1
a x + a x + ... + a x = b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2

...............................................
a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n = bn
 a11 a12 ... a1n   b1   x1 
     
 a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n  b  x 
: A=   ; B =  2; X=  2.
... ... ... ... ... ...
     
a  b  x 
 n1 a n 2 ... a nn   n  n
:
A⋅X = B.
15
“ . 1.”
: A-1⋅A⋅X = A-1⋅B,
. -1
⋅ = , ⋅ = -1
⋅
= -1
⋅
,
. :
5 x − y − z = 0

 x + 2 y + 3 z = 14
4 x + 3 y + 2 z = 16

 x 0  5 − 1 − 1
     
=  y , B = 14  , A = 1 2 3
z 16  4 3 2 
    
-1
.
5 −1 −1
∆ = det A = 1 2 3 = 5(4-9) + 1(2 – 12) – 1(3 – 8) = -25 – 10 +5 = -30.
4 3 2
2 3 −1 −1 −1 −1
M11 = = -5; M21 = = 1; M31 = = -1;
3 2 3 2 2 3
1 3 5 −1 5 −1
M12 = = −10; M22 = = 14; M32 = = 16;
4 2 4 2 1 3
1 2 5 −1 5 −1
M13 = = −5; M23 = = 19; M33 = = 11;
4 3 4 3 1 2
5 1 1  1 1 
a11−1 = ; a12−1 = ; a13−1 = ; 
1

30 30 30
 6 30 30 
A-1 =  −
−1 10 −1 14 −1 16 1 7 8 
a 21 =− ; a 22 =− ; a 23 = ; − ;
30 30 30  3 15 15 
 1 19 11 
a31−1
5
= ;
19
a32−1 = ; a33−1 = − ;
11  − 
30 30 30  6 30 30 
:
 5 1 1 
 
 5 − 1 − 1 30 30 30   25 + 10 − 5 5 + 14 − 19 5 − 16 + 11 
  10 16  1  
3  −
14
A⋅A-1 =  1 2 − =  5 − 20 + 15 1 − 28 + 57 1 + 32 − 33  =E.
 30  30 
4 3  30 30 
 2  5 19 11   20 − 30 + 10 4 − 42 + 38 4 + 48 − 22 
 − 
 30 30 30 
16
“ . 1.”
 1 1 1   1 14 16 
   0+ + 
 x  6 30 30   0   6 30 30   1 
  -1
= −
1
−
7 8   
⋅ 14  =  − 1 0 − 98 + 128  =  2  .
=  y =
 3  
z 15 15     3 15 15   
   1 19 11  16  1 266 176   3 
 −   0+ − 
 6 30 30  6 30 30 
: x =1; y = 2; z = 3.
,
, .
.
(1704-1752) )
,
. ,
. ,
, .
.
, 0.
det A ≠ 0;
, -
, - ,
- ,
. .
.( ):
. n n
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n = b1
a x + a x + ... + a x = b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2

 ...............................................
a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n = bn
, ,
:
xi = ∆i/∆,
∆ = det A, ∆i – ,
i bi.
a11 ...a1i −1 b1 a1i +1 ...a1n
a ...a b2 a 2i +1 ...a 2 n
∆i = 21 2i −i
... ... ...
a n1 ...a ni −1 bn a ni +1 ...a nn
17
“ . 1.”
.
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x 3 = b1

a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + a 23 x3 = b2
a x + a x + a x = b
 31 1 32 2 33 3 3
 a11 a12 a13  b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

 
A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  ; ∆1= b2 a 22 a 23 ; ∆2= a 21 b2 a 23 ; ∆3= a 21 a 22 b2 ;
a a 33 
 31 a32 b3 a32 a 33 a31 b3 a 33 a31 a 32 b3
x1 = ∆1/detA; x2 = ∆2/detA; x3 = ∆3/detA;
. :
5 x − y − z = 0

 x + 2 y + 3 z = 14
4 x + 3 y + 2 z = 16

5 −1 −1
∆=1 2 3 = 5(4 – 9) + (2 – 12) – (3 – 8) = -25 – 10 + 5 = -30;
4 3 2
0 −1 −1
∆1 = 14 2 3 = (28 – 48) – (42 – 32) = -20 – 10 = -30.
16 3 2
x1 = ∆1/∆ = 1;
5 0 −1
∆2 = 1 14 3 = 5(28 – 48) – (16 – 56) = -100 + 40 = -60.
4 16 2
x2 = ∆2/∆ = 2;
5 −1 0
∆3 = 1 2 14 = 5( 32 – 42) + (16 – 56) = -50 – 40 = -90.
4 3 16
x3 = ∆3/∆ = 3.
, ,
.
, . bi = 0, ∆≠0
x1 = x2 = … = xn = 0.
∆=0 .
18
“ . 1.”
 x + 3 y − 6 z = 12

3 x + 2 y + 5 z = −10 ; : x = 0; y = 0; z = -2.
2 x + 5 y − 3 z = 6

,
,
. .
. m n
:
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n = b1
a x + a x + ... + a x = b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2
 , (1)
...............................................
a m1 x1 + a m 2 x 2 + ... + a mn x n = bm
aij – , bi – . n ,
.
. ,
. ,
.
. ,
, .
. (1)
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

 
a a 22 ... a 2n 
=  21 ,
... ... ... ... 
 
a ... a mn 
 m1 am 2
 a11 a12 ... a1n b1 

 
*  a 21 a 22 ... a 2n b2 
=
... ... ... ... ... 
 
a bm 
 m1 am 2 ... a mn
. b1, b2, …,bm = 0, .

.
19
“ . 1.”
1)
, , .
2) .
3) , .
– .
)
(1823-1891) )
: ( )
, .
*
RgA = RgA .
, (1) :
 a11   a12   a1n   b1 
       
 a 21   a 22   a 2 n   b2 
x1 + x2  + … + xn  =
 ...  ...  ...   ... 
       
a  a  a  b 
 m1   m2   mn   m 
1) ,
, , .
→ *
.
2) RgA = RgA*, ,
. –
, , .
. :
 x1 + 3 x 2 + 5 x3 + 7 x 4 + 9 x5 = 1

 x1 − 2 x 2 + 3 x3 − 4 x 4 + 5 x5 = 2
2 x + 11x + 12 x + 25 x + 22 x = 4
 1 2 3 4 5
1 3 5 7 9  1 3 5 7 9  1 3 5 7 9 
     
A =  1 − 2 3 − 4 5  ~  3 9 15 21 27  ~  1 3 5 7 9  ~
 2 11 12 25 22   2 11 12 25 22   2 11 12 25 22 
     
1 3 5 7 9  1 3
~   . = 1 − 6 = 5 ≠ 0 RgA = 2.
 2 11 12 25 22  2 11
20
“ . 1.”
1 3 5 7 9 1 1 3 5 7 9 1
   
A* =  1 − 2 3 − 4 5 2  ~  0 0 0 0 0 1  RgA* = 3.
 2 11 12 25 22 4   2 11 12 25 22 4 
   
.
. .
 x1 − 4 x 2 = −1 1 − 4 
3 x + 2 x = 4  
 1 3 2 
1 −4
2
7 x1 + 10 x 2 = 12 =  7 10  ; = 2 + 12 = 14 ≠ 0; RgA = 2;
  3 2
5 x + 6 x = 8 5 6 
 1 2
 
3 x1 − 16 x 2 = −5  3 − 16 
 1 − 4 − 1   1 − 4 − 1   1 − 4 − 1
     
3 2 4   0 14 7   0 2 1
 1 − 4 − 1
A* =  7 10 12  ~  0 38 19  ~  0 2 1  ~  
      0 2 1 
5 6 8   0 26 13   0 2 1
     
 3 − 16 − 5   0 − 4 − 2   0 2 1
1 −4
= 2 ≠ 0. RgA* = 2.
0 2
. : x1 = 1; x2 =1/2.
.
(1777-1855) )
. .
:
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n = b1

a x + a x + ... + a x = b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2

...............................................
a m1 x1 + a m 2 x 2 + ... + a mn x n = bm
1– a11 ≠ 0, :
1) 21
2) 31
.
21
“ . 1.”
 x1 + d12 x 2 + ... + d1n x n = d1

d x + d x + ... + d x = d
 22 2 23 3 2n n 2
 , d1j = a1j/a11, j = 2, 3, …, n+1.
..............................................
d m 2 x 2 + d m3 + ... + d mn x n = d m
dij = aij – ai1d1j i = 2, 3, … , n; j = 2, 3, … , n+1.
, –
.
. .
2 x1 + x 2 − x3 = 5

 x1 − 2 x 2 + 3 x3 = −3
7 x + x − x = 10
 1 2 3
 2 1 − 1 5   1 − 2 3 − 3  1 − 2 3 − 3 1 − 2 3 − 3 
       
* =  1 − 2 3 − 3 ~  2 1 − 1 5  ~  0 5 − 7 11  ~  0 5 − 7 11 
 7 1 − 1 10   7 1 − 1 10   0 15 − 22 31   0 0 − 1 − 2 
       
, :
 x1 − 2 x 2 + 3 x3 = −3

5 x 2 − 7 x3 = 11 , : x3 = 2; x2 = 5; x1 = 1.
− x = −2
 3
. .
5 x − y − z = 0

 x + 2 y + 3 z = 14
4 x + 3 y + 2 z = 16

5 −1 −1 0  1 2 3 14   1 2 3 14   1 2 3 14 
       
1 2 3 14  ~  4 3 2 16  ~  0 − 5 − 10 − 40  ~  0 − 5 − 10 − 40 
4 3
 2 16   5 − 1 − 1 0   0 − 11 − 16 − 70   0 0 6 18 
, :
 x + 2 y + 3 z = 14

− 5 y − 10 z = 40 , : z = 3; y = 2; x = 1.
6 z = 18

22
“ . 1.”
,
.
:
 x1 + x 2 − x3 + x 4 = 4

2 x1 − x 2 + 3 x3 − 2 x 4 = 1
 : {1, 2, 3, 4}.
 x1 − x 3 + 2 x 4 = 6
3 x1 − x 2 + x3 − x 4 = 0
“ ”
, 3-
4 –
. .
.
:
.
:
Release 4.
. (
). ,
.
. ( )
.
=
. ,
. .
. ,
, .
,
.
. , ,
.
23
“ . 1.”
, . ,
.
, , .
.
.
r r r
- c = a+b
r r r r
- b = α a; b =α a , a b.
r r r r
a b ( a ↑↑ b ), α > 0.
r r r r
a b ( a ↑↓ b ), α < 0.
.
r r r r
1) a + b = b + a - .
r r r r r r
2) a + ( b + ) = ( a + b )+
r r r
3) a + 0 = a
r r r
4) a +(-1) a = 0
r r
5) (α⋅β) a = α(β a ) –
r r r
6) (α+β) a = α a + β a -
r r r r
7) α( a + b ) = α a + α b
r r
8) 1⋅ a = a
.
1) 3 ,
.
2) 2 ,
.
3) .
. e1 , e2 , e3 - a = α e1 + β e 2 + γ e3 ,
r
α, β γ - a
.
- ,
- ,
λ a = λ (α e1 + β e2 + γ e3 ) = (λα )e1 + (λβ ) e 2 + (λγ ) e3 .
- .
a = α1 e1 + α 2 e2 + α 3 e3 ; b = β 1 e1 + β 2 e2 + β 3 e3 ;
24
“ . 1.”
r r
a + b = (α 1 + β 1 )e1 + (α 2 + β 2 )e2 + (α 3 + β 3 )e3 .
. a1 ,..., a n ,
α 1 a1 + α 2 a 2 + ... + α n a n = 0 ,
αi , . α 12 + α 22 + ... + α n2 ≠ 0 .
αi = 0 α 1 a1 + α 2 a 2 + ... + α n a n = 0 ,
.
1. ai ,
.
2.
, .
3. ,
.
4. 2 , ,
2 .
5. 3 , ,
3 .
6. 4 .
. -
.
( )
. ,
.
, .
.
.
- .
, –
- .
25
“ . 1.”
.
. . ,
.
1- –
2- –
3- –
.
(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2), = (x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1).
. ,
.
. ,
.
r r r
. a (1; 2; 3), b (-1; 0; 3), (2; 1; -1) d (3; 2; 2)
r r r
. , a, b
d .
, , ,
, :
α − β + 2γ = 0

2α + 0 ⋅ β + γ = 0 .
3α + 3β − γ = 0

d = αa + βb + γ c .
, .
1 −1 2
2 0 1 ≠0
3 3 −1
1 −1 2
0 1 2 1 2 0
2 0 1 = + +2 = −3 + (−2 − 3) + 12 = 4 ≠ 0
1 −1 3 −1 3 3
3 3 −1
αa1 + βb1 + γc1 = d 1

αa 2 + βb2 + γc 2 = d 2 .
αa + βb + γc = d
 3 3 3 3
d1 b1 c1 3 −1 2
0 1 2 1 2 0
∆1 = d 2 b2 c2 = 2 0 1 =3 + +2 = 3(−3) + (−2 − 2) + 12 = −1.
3 −1 2 −1 2 3
d3 b3 c3 2 3 −1
∆1
α= = −1 / 4 ;
∆
26
“ . 1.”
a1 d1 c1 1 3 2
∆2 = a 2 d2 c2 = 2 2 1 = (−2 − 2) − 3(−2 − 3) + 2(4 − 6) = −4 + 15 − 4 = 7;
a3 d3 c3 3 2 −1
∆2
β= = 7 / 4;
∆
a1 b1 d1 1 −1 3
a2 b2 d2 = 2 0 2 = −6 + (4 − 6) + 18 = 10;
∆3 =
a3 b3 d3 3 3 2
∆3
γ = = 5 / 2;
∆
r r r
, d a , b , : d { -1/4, 7/4, 5/2}.
“ ”
,
r r r
, . d , a, b , .
:
Enter.
:
Release 4.
. 1 , y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2),

AB = ( x 2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 ) .
2 2 2
, , z) λ/µ,
:
µx + λx 2 µy1 + λy 2 µz + λz 2
x= 1 ; y= ; z= 1 .
µ+λ µ+λ µ+λ
:
x = (x1 + x2)/2; y = (y1 + y2)/2; z = (z1 + z2)/2.
a( x A , y A , z A ); b( x B , y B , z B ),
a + b = c ( x A + x B ; y A + y B ; z A + z B ); α ⋅ a = (αx A ;αy A ;αz A )
27
“ . 1.”
.
r r
. a b ,
.
r r r r
a ⋅ b =  a  b cosϕ
:
r r r
1) a ⋅ a =  a 2 ;
r r r r r r
2) a ⋅ b = 0, a ⊥b a= 0 b = 0.
r r r r
3) a ⋅b = b ⋅ a ;
r r r r r
4) a ⋅( b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c ;
r r r r r r
5) (m a )⋅ b = a ⋅(m b ) = m( a ⋅ b );
a( x a , y a , z a ); b( x b , y b , z b )
,
r r
a ⋅ b = xa xb + ya yb + za zb;
,
:
x a xb + y a y b + z a z b
cos ϕ = r r ;
a⋅b
r r r r r r r r
. (5 a + 3 b )(2 a - b ), a = 2, b = 3, a ⊥b .
r r r r r r r r r2 r2
10 a ⋅ a - 5 a ⋅ b + 6 a ⋅ b - 3 b ⋅ b = 10 a − 3 b = 40 − 27 = 13 ,
r r r2 r r r2 r r
. a ⋅ a = a = 4, b ⋅ b = b = 9, a ⋅ b = 0 .
r r r r r r
. a b, a = i + 2 j + 3k ,
r r r r
b = 6i + 4 j − 2 k .
r r
. a = (1, 2, 3), b = (6, 4, -2)
r r
a ⋅ b = 6 + 8 – 6 = 8:
r r
a = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14; b = 36 + 16 + 4 = 56 .
8 8 4 2 2
cosϕ = = = = ; ϕ = arccos .
14 56 2 14 14 14 7 7
r r r r
. (3 a - 2 b )⋅(5 a - 6 b ),
r r r r
a = 4, b = 6, ^ b = π / 3.
28
“ . 1.”
r r r r r r r r r2 r r π r2 1
15 a ⋅ a - 18 a ⋅ b - 10 a ⋅ b + 12 b ⋅ b = 15 a − 28 a b cos + 12 b = 15 ⋅ 16 − 28 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ +
3 2
+ 12⋅36 = 240 – 336 + 432 = 672 – 336 = 336.
r r r r r r
. a b, a = 3i + 4 j + 5k ,
r r r r
b = 4i + 5 j − 3k .
r r
. a = (3, 4, 5), b = (4, 5, -3)
r r
a ⋅ b = 12 + 20 - 15 =17 :
r r
a = 9 + 16 + 25 = 50; b = 16 + 25 + 9 = 50 .
17 17 17
cosϕ = = ; ϕ = arccos .
50 50 50 50
r r r r r r r
. m a = mi + j b = 3i − 3 j − 4k .
r r
a = (m, 1, 0); b = (3, -3, -4)
r r
a ⋅ b = 3m − 3 = 0; ⇒ m = 1 .
r r r r r r
. 2a + 3b + 4c 5a + 6b + 7c ,
r r r r r r r r r π
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, a ^ b = a ^ c = b ^ c = .
3
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
( 2a + 3b + 4c )( 5a + 6b + 7c ) = 10a ⋅ a + 12a ⋅ b + 14a ⋅ c + 15a ⋅ b + 18b ⋅ b + 21b ⋅ c +
+ 20c ⋅ a + 24b ⋅ c + 28c ⋅ c = 10 a ⋅ a + 27 a ⋅ b + 34a ⋅ c + 45b ⋅ c + 18b ⋅ b + 28c ⋅ c = 10 +
+ 27 + 51 + 135 + 72 + 252 = 547.
.
r r
. a b
r
c, :
r r r r r
1) c = a ⋅ b sin ϕ , ϕ- a b,
sin ϕ ≥ 0; 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π
r r r
2) c a b
r r r
3) a , b c .
r r r r r r
: c = a ×b c = [a , b ] .
r
c
r
b
ϕ
r
a
29
“ . 1.”
:
r r r r
1) b × a = −a × b ;
r r r r r r
2) a × b = 0 , a  b a= 0 b = 0;
r r r r r r
3) (m a )× b = a ×(m b ) = m( a × b );
r r r r r r r
4) a ×( b + ) = a × b + a × ;
r r
5) a (xa, ya, za) b (xb, yb, zb)
r r r
i , j,k ,
r r r
i j k
r r
a × b = xa ya za
xb yb zb
6)
r r
, a b.
r r r r
. a = 2i + 5 j + k
r r r r
b = i + 2 j − 3k .
r r
a = (2, 5, 1); b = (1, 2, -3)
r r r
i j k
r r r5 1 r2 1 r2 5 r r r
a ×b = 2 5 1 = i −j +k = −17i + 7 j − k .
2 −3 1 −3 1 2
1 2 −3
“ ”
,
. :
Enter.
Enter –
.
:
Release 4.
. (2, 2, 2), (4, 0, 3),

(0, 1, 0).
AC = (0 − 2;1 − 2;0 − 2) = (−2;−1;−2)
AB = (4 − 2;0 − 2;3 − 2) = (2;−2;1)
30
“ . 1.”
r r r
i j k
r −1 − 2 r − 2 − 2 r − 2 −1 r r
AC × AB = − 2 −1 − 2 = i −j +k = i (−1 − 4) − j (−2 + 4) +
−2 1 2 1 2 −2
2 −2 1
r r r r
+ k (4 + 2) = −5i − 2 j + 6k .
65
AC × AB = 25 + 4 + 36 = 65. S∆ = 2
).
2
r r r r r r r r r r r r
. , a = 7i − 3 j + 2k , b = 3i − 7 j + 8k c =i − j +k
.
1 −1 1 1 −1 1 
   
3 − 7 8 ~ 0 − 4 5  , . ,
 7 − 3 2   0 4 − 5
   
.
. ,
r r r r r r r r
a + 3b ; 3a + b , a = b = 1; a ^ b = 30 . 0
(a + 3b ) × (3a + b ) = 3a × a + a × b + 9b × a + 3b × b = −b × a + 9b × a = 8b × a
r
S = 8 b a sin 30 0 = 4 2).
.
r r r
. a, b c
r
, a ,
r r
b c.
r r r r r r
a ⋅b ⋅c ( a , b , c ).
r r r
a ⋅b ⋅c ,
r r r
a, b c.
r r
b×c
r
a
r
c
r
b
31
“ . 1.”
1) , :
;
;
.
r r r r r r
2) (a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c )
3) (a , b , c ) = (b , c , a ) = (c , a , b ) = −(b , a , c ) = −(c , b , a ) = − (a , c , b )
r r r r r r r r r r
4) (λa1 + µa 2 , b , c ) = λ (a1 , b , c ) + µ (a 2 , b , c )
r r r
5) , a, b c,
(
1 r r r
6
a, b , c )
r r r
6) a = ( x1, y1 , z1 ) , b = ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ), c = ( x3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ,
x1 y1 z1
r r r
(a , b , c ) = x 2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3
. , (5; 7; 2), B(3; 1; -1), C(9; 4; -4), D(1; 5; 0)

.
AB = (−2;−6;1)
: AC = (4;−3;−2)
AD = (−4;−2;2)
:
−2 −6 1 −2 −6 1 0 −6 1
AB ⋅ AC ⋅ AD = 4 − 3 − 2 = 0 − 15 0 = 0 − 15 0 = 0 ,
−4 −2 2 0 10 0 0 10 0
, , A, B, C
D .
. , BCD,
A(0; 0; 1), B(2; 3; 5), C(6; 2; 3), D(3; 7; 2).
BA = (−2;−3;−4)
: BD = (1;4;−3)
BC = (4;−1;−2)
−2 −3 −4
1 1
V = = 1 4 − 3 = (−2(−8 − 3) + 3(−2 + 12) − 4(−1 − 16)) =
6 6
4 −1 − 2
1
= (22 + 30 + 68) = 20( 3
)
6
BCD.
32
“ . 1.”
r r
i j k
r r r r r r
BD × BC = 1 4 − 3 = i (−8 − 3) − j (−2 + 12) + k (−1 − 16) = −11i − 10 j − 17 k .
4 −1 − 2
BD × BC = 112 + 10 2 + 17 2 = 121 + 100 + 289 = 510
S = 510 / 2 2)
S ⋅h 3V 120 4 510
.V= ; h= = = . )
3 S 510 17
. , x, y, z
.
. ,
:
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,
r r r
, , – N = Ai + Bj + Ck .
=0–
=0–
=0– z
D=0–
= =0–
= =0– z
= =0– yOz
=D=0–
=D=0–
=D=0– Oz
= =D=0–
= =D=0– xOz
= =D=0– yOz
, .
, -
, ,
.
1 (x1, y1, z1), M2(x2, y2, z2), M3(x3, y3, z3)
.
33
“ . 1.”
, (x, y, z)
1 , 2 , 3 , M 1M 2 , M 1M 3 , M 1M
.
( M 1M 2 , M 1M 3 , M 1M ) = 0
M 1 M = {x − x1 ; y − y1 ; z − z1}
, M 1 M 2 = {x 2 − x1 ; y 2 − y1 ; z 2 − z1}
M 1 M 3 = {x3 − x1 ; y3 − y1 ; z 3 − z1}
, :
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y 3 − y1 z 3 − z1
, .
r
a = (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) .
1(x1, y1, z1), M2(x2, y2, z2)
, 1 2
r
, , z) a.
M 1 M = {x − x1 ; y − y1 ; z − z1} r
a = (a1 , a 2 , a3 )
M 1 M 2 = {x 2 − x1 ; y 2 − y1 ; z 2 − z1}
, .
r
( M 1M , M 1M 2 , a ) = 0
:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0
a1 a2 a3
,
.
r r
a = (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) b = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
,
. , , z), ,
r r
a , b , MM 1 .
:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 a2 a3 =0
b1 b2 b3
34
“ . 1.”
. 0 0 , 0 , z0),
, 0 N (A, B, C)
:
A(x – x0) + B(y – y0) + C(z – z0) = 0.
. , , z),
, M 0 M = ( x − x0 , y − y 0 , z − z 0 ) . . N -
, , , ,
M 0M .
M 0M ⋅ N = 0
,
A( x − x 0 ) + B( y − y 0 ) + C ( z − z 0 ) = 0
.
+ z+D=0 + -D
A B C
− x − y − z −1 = 0 ,
D D D
D D D
− = a, − = b, − = c , :
A B C
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
a, b, c
, , z.
.
r r
r ⋅ n = p,
r r r r
r = xi + yj + zk - - , , z),
r r r r
n = i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ - , ,
, .
α, β γ - , , , z.
p– .
:
xcosα + ycosβ + zcosγ - p = 0.
35
“ . 1.”
0 0 , 0 , z0) z+D=0
:
Ax0 + By 0 + Cz 0 + D
d=
A2 + B2 + C 2
. , , (4; -3; 12) –

, .
OP = (4;−3;12); OP = 16 + 9 + 144 = 169 = 13

4 3 12
N =( ;− ; )
13 13 13
, A = 4/13; B = -3/13; C = 12/13, :
A(x – x0) + B(y – y0) + C(z – z0) = 0.
4 3 12
( x − 4) − ( y + 3) + ( z − 12) = 0
13 13 13
4 16 3 9 12 144
x− − y− + z− =0
13 13 13 13 13 13
4 3 12 169
x− y+ z− =0
13 13 13 13
4 x − 3 y + 12 z − 169 = 0.
. , P(2; 0; -1)
Q(1; -1; 3) 3 + 2 – z + 5 = 0.
3 + 2 – z + 5 = 0 N = (3;2;−1)
.
:
x − 2 y − 0 z +1
1 − 2 −1 − 0 3 +1 = 0
3 2 −1
x − 2 y z +1
−1 −1 4 = 0
3 2 −1
( x − 2)(1 − 8) − y (1 − 12) + ( z + 1)(−2 + 3) = 0
− 7( x − 2) + 11 y + ( z + 1) = 0
− 7 x + 14 + 11 y + z + 1 = 0
− 7 x + 11 y + z + 15 = 0
36
“ . 1.”
. , (2, -1, 4)
(3, 2, -1) + + 2z – 3 = 0.
: Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,
n1 (A, B, C). AB (1, 3, -5) .
, n2 (1, 1, 2). .
, ,
r r r
i j k
r 3 − 5 r1 − 5 r1 3 r r r
n1 = AB × n2 = 1 3 − 5 = i −j +k = 11i − 7 j − 2k .
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 1 2
, n1 (11, -7, -2). .
,
, . 11⋅2 + 7⋅1 - 2⋅4 + D = 0; D = -21.
, : 11x - 7y – 2z – 21 = 0.
. , , (4, -3, 12) –

, .
OP = (4, -3, 12).

: 4x – 3y + 12z + D = 0. D
:
16 + 9 + 144 + D = 0
D = -169
, : 4x – 3y + 12z – 169 = 0
. 1 (1; 0; 3), A2(2; -1; 3), A3(2; 1; 1),

A4(1; 2; 5).
1) 1 2 .
A1 A2 = {2 − 1;−1 − 0;3 − 3} = {1;−1;0}; A1 A2 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 2 ( ).
2) 1 2 1 4 .
A1 A4 = {1 − 1;2 − 0;5 − 3} = {0;2;2}
A1 A4 = 2 2 ( )
A1 A2 ⋅ A1 A4 = (1;−1;0)(0;2;2) = −2
A1 A2 ⋅ A1 A4 = A1 A 2 A1 A4 cos α = 2 2 2 cos α = 4 cosα
A1 A2 ⋅ A1 A4 2 1
cos α = =− =− ; α = 120 0
A1 A2 A1 A4 4 2
37
“ . 1.”
3) 1 4 1 2 3 .
r
1 2 3 N
A1 A3 A1 A2 .
A1 A3 = (2-1; 1-0; 1-3) = (1; 1; -2);
r r r
i j k
r r r r r r r r
N = 1 1 − 2 = i (0 − 2) − j (0 + 2) + k (−1 − 1) = −2i − 2 j − 2k ; N = (−2;−2;−2)
1 −1 0
r
N =2 3
A1 A4 .
r
N ⋅ A1 A4 = N ⋅ A1 A4 cos β = 2 3 ⋅ 2 2 cos β
N ⋅ A1 A4 = -4 – 4 = -8.
γ γ = 900 - β.
−8 2 6 6
sin γ = cos β = = = . γ = arcsin
4 6 6 3 3
4) 1 2 3 .
1 1 r
S= A1 A2 × A1 A3 = N = 3 ( 2
)
2 2
5) .
1 1 r 4
V = (( A1 A2 × A1 A3 ) ⋅ A1 A4 ) = N ⋅ A1 A4 = ( 3
).
6 6 3
6) 1 2 3 .
, .
x −1 y − 0 z − 3 x −1 y z − 3
2 −1 −1− 0 3 − 3 = 1 −1 0 = ( x − 1) ⋅ 2 − y (−2) + ( z − 3)(1 + 1) =
2 −1 1− 0 1− 3 1 1 −2
= 2x − 2 + 2 y + 2z − 6 = 0
2x + 2y + 2z – 8 = 0
x + y + z – 4 = 0;
38
“ . 1.”
“ ”
,
.
:
,
Enter. ,
.
:
Release 4.
,
- .
.
. y = f(x)
, .
,
,
t.
– .
.
+ + = 0,
, , . 2
+ 2
≠ 0.
.
:
- C = 0, ≠ 0, ≠ 0 –
- = 0, ≠ 0, ≠ 0 { By + C = 0}-
- = 0, ≠ 0, ≠ 0 { Ax + C = 0} –
- = = 0, ≠ 0 –
- = = 0, ≠ 0 –
39
“ . 1.”
– .
.
( , ) , + + = 0.
. , (1, 2)
r
n (3, -1).
= 3 = -1 : 3 – + = 0.
.
: 3 – 2 + C = 0, = -1.
: : 3 – – 1 = 0.
, .
M1(x1, y1, z1) M2(x2, y2, z2),

, :
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
- ,
.
:
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
x 2 − x1
1 ≠ 2 = 1, 1 = 2 .
y 2 − y1
=k .
x 2 − x1
. , (1, 2) (3, 4).
, :
4−2
y−2 = ( x − 1)
3 −1
y − 2 = x −1
x − y +1 = 0
+ + =0 :
A C
y=− x−
B B
40
“ . 1.”
A C
− = k ; − = b; . . y = kx + b ,
B B
k.
,
.
r
. (α1, α2),
α1 + α2 = 0
+ + = 0.
r
. (1, -1)
(1, 2).
: Ax + By + C = 0.
, :
1⋅A + (-1)⋅B = 0, . = .
: Ax + Ay + C = 0, x + y + C/A = 0.
= 1, = 2 /A = -3, . :
+ -3=0
+ + =0 ≠ 0, , – ,
:− − =1
x y
+ = 1,
a b
C C
a=− ; b=−
A B
,
, b –
.
. – + 1 = 0.
.
= 1, − + = 1, = -1, b = 1.
1 1
41
“ . 1.”
1
+ + =0 µ =± ,
A + B2
2
,
xcosϕ + ysinϕ - p = 0 –
.
± , µ⋅ < 0.
– , , ϕ - ,
.
. 12 – 5 – 65 = 0.
.
12 5
− =1
65 65
:
y
+ =1
(65 / 12) (−13)
:( 5)
12 65 12
y = x− = x − 13.
5 5 5
:
1 1 12 5
µ= = − − 5 = 0; cosϕ = 12/13; sinϕ = -5/13; p = 5.
12 + (−5)
2 2 13 13 13
C ,
, , ,
.
.
. , ,
2
8 .
x y
: + = 1, a = b = 1; ab/2 = 8; a = 4; -4.
a b
a = -4 .
x y
: + =1 + – 4 = 0.
4 4
. , (-2, -3)
.
x − x1 y − y1
: = , 1 = 1 = 0; x2 = -2; y2 = -3.
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1
x−0 y−0 x y
= ; = ; 3 x − 2 y = 0.
− 2 −0 −3− 0 −2 −3
: ,
(-3, -4) .
42
“ . 1.”
: { x + 3 = 0; y + 4 = 0}.
. y = k1x + b1, y = k2x + b2,
k 2 − k1
tgα = .
1 + k1k 2
, k1 = k2.
, k1 = -1/k2.
. + + = 0 1+ 1 + 1 = 0 ,
1 =λ , 1 =λ . 1 =λ ,
.
, .
. , 1 1 , 1 )
= kx + b :
1
y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
k
. 0 , 0 ), + + =0
Ax0 + By 0 + C
d= .
A +B2 2
. 1 1, 1 ) – ,
.
1 :
d = ( x1 − x 0 ) 2 + ( y1 − y 0 ) 2 (1)
x1 1 :
 Ax + By + = 0

 A( y − y 0 ) − B ( x − x 0 ) = 0
– ,
0 .
:
43
“ . 1.”
A(x – x0) + B(y – y0) + Ax0 + By0 + C = 0,

, , :
A
x − x0 = − ( Ax0 + By0 + C ),
A + B2
2
B
y − y0 = − 2 ( Ax0 + By 0 + C )
A + B2
(1), :
Ax0 + By 0 + C
d= .
A2 + B2
. : y = -3x + 7; y = 2x + 1.
2 − (−3)
K1 = -3; k2 = 2 tgϕ = = 1 ; ϕ = π/4.
1 − (−3)2
. , 3 – 5 + 7 = 0 10 + 6 – 3 = 0
.
: k1 = 3/5, k2 = -5/3, k1k2 = -1, ,

.
. (0; 1), B(6; 5), C(12; -1).

, .
x − 0 y −1 x y −1
: = ; = ; 4x = 6y – 6;
6 − 0 5 −1 6 4
2
2x – 3y + 3 = 0; y = x + 1.
3
: Ax + By + C = 0 y = kx + b.
3 3
k= − . y= − x+b. . ,
2 2
3 3
: − 1 = − 12 + b, b = 17. : y = − x + 17 .
2 2
: 3x + 2y – 34 = 0.
: x + y – 6 = 0,
3x – 5y + 15 = 0, 5x – 3y – 14 = 0. .
: ,
, ,
.
: { x – y = 0; 5x + 3y – 26 = 0; 3x + 5y – 26 = 0}.
44
“ . 1.”
2 2
+2 + + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0.
( ),
,
.
x2 y2
1) + =1 - .
a2 b2
x2 y2
2) + = −1 - “ ” .
a2 b2
x2 y2
3) − =1 - .
a2 b2
4) a2x2 – c2y2 = 0 – .
5) y2 = 2px – .
6) y2 – a2 = 0 – .
7) y2 + a2 = 0 – “ ” .
8) y2 = 0 – .
9) (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = R2 – .
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = R2 (a; b).
. ,
:
2x2 + 2y2 – 8x + 5y – 4 = 0.
, .9.
:
x2 + y2 – 4x + 2,5y – 2 = 0
x – 4x + 4 –4 + y2 + 2,5y + 25/16 – 25/16 – 2 = 0
2
(x – 2)2 + (y + 5/4)2 – 25/16 – 6 = 0

(x – 2)2 + (y + 5/4)2 = 121/16
(2; -5/4); R = 11/4.
.
x2 y2
. , + = 1.
a2 b2
45
“ . 1.”
. ,
.
r1
r2
F1 O F2
F1, F2 – . F1 = (c; 0); F2(-c; 0)

– ;
a– ;
b– .
. :
2 2 2
a =b +c.
: ,
, r1 + r2 = 2 b + c 2 2
). ,
, r1 + r2 = a – c + a + c. .
r1 + r2 – , , , :
a2 = b2 + c2
r1 + r2 = 2a.
. ,
.
= /a.
. < a, < 1.
. k = b/a ,
1 – k = (a – b)/a .
: k2 = 1 – e2.
a = b (c = 0, e = 0, ),
.
x12 y12
1, 1) : + < 1,
a2 b2
x12 y12
, + > 1, .
a2 b2
. , ),
:
r1 = a – ex, r2 = a + ex.
. , r1 + r2 = 2a. ,
:
46
“ . 1.”
r1 = ( x − c) 2 + y 2
r2 = ( x + c ) 2 + y 2
( x − c ) 2 + y 2 + ( x + c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a
:
( x + c ) + y = 4a − 4a ( x − c) + y + ( x − c) 2 + y 2
2 2 2 2 2
4cx = 4a 2 − 4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2
c
( x − c ) 2 + y = a − x = a − ex.
a
, r2 = a + ex. .
, . :
x = a/e; x = -a/e.
. , ,
,
.
. ,
x2 y2
, : + = 1.
25 16
1) : x = 0; y2 = 16; y = -4.
2) : c2 = a2 – b2 = 25 – 16 = 9; c = 3; F2(-3; 0).
3) , :
x−0 y+4 x y+4
= ; = ; 4 x = −3 y − 12; 4 x + 3 y + 12 = 0
−3− 0 0 + 4 −3 4
. , F1(0; 0), F2(1; 1),

2.
x2 y2
: 2 + 2 = 1. :
a b
2c = (1 − 0) 2 + (1 − 0) 2 = 2 , , a2 – b2 = c2 = ½
2 = 2, = 1, b = a 2 − c 2 = 1 − 1 / 2 = 2 / 2.
2
x y2
: 2 + = 1.
1 1/ 2
. ,
,
, .
47
“ . 1.”
M(x, y)
b
r1
r2
x
F1 a F2
r1 – r2= 2a. F1, F2 – . F1F2 = 2c.

, ). :
r1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2
r2 = ( x − c ) 2 + y 2
( x + c ) 2 + y 2 − ( x − c) 2 + y 2 = 2a
( x + c ) 2 + y 2 = 4a 2 + 4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c ) 2 + y 2
4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2 = −4a 2 + 4 xc
a 2 ( x − c ) 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 4 − 2a 2 xc + x 2 c 2
a 2 x 2 − 2a 2 xc + a 2 c 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 4 − 2a 2 xc + x 2 c 2
a 2 x 2 + a 2c 2 + a 2 y 2 − a 4 − x 2c 2 = 0
− x 2 (c 2 − a 2 ) + a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) + a 2 y 2 = 0
x 2 (c 2 − a 2 ) − a 2 y 2 = a 2 (c 2 − a 2 )
2
– 2 = b2 ( – )
a b =b x −a y
2 2 2 2 2 2
x2 y2
− =1
a2 b2
.
,
.
2 .
2b .
b
, y=± x.
a
c
. e= >1 ,
a
– , – .
2 2
, – = b2:
c2 a2 + b2 b2
e2 = = = 2
a2 a2 a
48
“ . 1.”
b
= e2 −1
a
= b, e = 2, ( ).
. ,
a/e ,
a
. : x=± .
e
. r– -
, d–
, r/d – , .
. .
y
a/e d
M(x, y)
r1
0 a F1 x
OF1 = c
:
a/e + d = x, d = x – a/e.
(x – c)2 + y2 = r2
x2b2
: y2 =
− b2, b2 = c2 – a2:
a2
x 2b 2
r 2 = x 2 − 2 xc + c 2 + 2 − b 2 =
a
2
c 
2 2
c x
= x − 2 xc + c + 2 − x − c + a =  x − a 
2 2 2 2 2
a a 
c
r = x−a
a
. /a = e, r = ex – a.
r ex − a
: = = e.
d a
x−
e
. .
49
“ . 1.”
. ,
x2 y2
+ = 1.
8 5
: c2 = a2 – b2.
: c2 = a2 + b2.
3
8 8
2 2
x y
: − = 1.
3 5
. , 2,
2 2
x y
+ = 1.
25 9
c2 = 25 – 9 = 16.
2 2 2
: c = a + b = 16, e = c/a = 2; c = 2a; c2 = 4a2; a2 = 4;
b2 = 16 – 4 = 12.
x2 y2
: − =1 - .
4 12
. ,
, ,
, .
50
“ . 1.”
, )
F x
p/2 p/2
( )
. .
: AM = MF; AM = x + p/2;
MF2 = y2 + (x – p/2)2
(x + p/2)2 = y2 + (x – p/2)2
x2 +xp + p2/4 = y2 + x2 – xp + p2/4
y2 = 2px
: x = -p/2.
2
. =8 ,
4.
, = 4.
r = x + p/2 = 4; :
x = 2; y2 = 16; y = ±4. : M1(2; 4), M2(2; -4).
,
. –
.
, . ,
.
.
51
“ . 1.”
. , l– .
- ,
,
.
– . ϕ .
r
r=
ϕ
0
l
,
, .
x = rcosϕ; y = rsinϕ; x2 + y2 = r2
. :
4
r= .
3 − cosϕ
, , .
.
x
: r = x2 + y2 ; cos ϕ = ;
x2 + y2
4
x2 + y2 =
x
3−
x2 + y2
3 x2 + y2 − x = 4
3 x2 + y2 = x + 4
9 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 16 + 8 x + x 2
8 x 2 − 8 x + 9 y 2 − 16 = 0
52
“ . 1.”
8( x 2 − x + 1 / 4) − 8 ⋅ 1 / 4 + 9 y 2 − 16 = 0
8( x − 1 / 2) 2 − 2 + 9 y 2 − 16 = 0
8( x − 1 / 2) 2 + 9 y 2 = 18
( x − 1 / 2) 2 y 2
+ =1
9/ 4 2
. ,
1/2 , a 3/2,
b 2, = a 2 − b 2 = 1/2.
= /a = 1/3. F1(0; 0) F2(1; 0).
F1 F2
-1 0 ½ 1 2 x
- 2
. :
9
r= .
4 − 5 cos ϕ
, , .
.
,
.
9
x2 + y2 =
5x
4−
x2 + y2
4 x2 + y 2 − 5x = 9
4 x 2 + y 2 = 5x + 9
16 x 2 + 16 y 2 = 81 + 90 x + 25 x 2
9 x 2 + 90 x − 16 y 2 + 81 = 0
9( x 2 + 10 x + 25 − 25) − 16 y 2 + 81 = 0
9( x + 5) 2 − 225 − 16 y 2 + 81 = 0
9( x + 5) 2 − 16 y 2 = 144
( x + 5) 2 y 2
− =1
16 9
53
“ . 1.”
. ,
5 , 4,
b 3, c2 = a2 + b2 ; c = 5; e = c/a = 5/4.
F1(-10; 0), F2(0; 0).
F1 -9 -5 -1 0 F2 x
-3
, ,
,
:
F(x, y, z) = 0.
.
, .
,
- .
F(x, y, z) = 0 (x, y, z) = 0 – ,
L.
54
“ . 1.”
 F ( x, y , z ) = 0

 ( x, y , z ) = 0
.
.
r
S (m, n, p),
r
. S .
0 (x0, y0, z0) M(x, y, z).
z
r
S M1
M0
r
r0 r
0 y
r r
- r0 r, , r - r0 = 0 .
r r
. 0 S , 0 = S t, t –
.
r r
, : r = r0 + S t.
. ,
– .
:
 x = x 0 + mt

 y = y 0 + nt
 z = z + pt
 0
t,
:
x − x0 y − y 0 z − z 0
= = .
m n p
.
r
S, :
m n p
cos α = ; cos β = ; cos γ = .
m2 + n2 + p 2 m2 + n2 + p2 m2 + n2 + p2
: m : n : p = cosα : cosβ : cosγ.
55
“ . 1.”
r
m, n, p . . S-
, m, n p ,
.
.
, .
M1(x1, y1, z1)

M2(x2, y2, z2),
:
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
= = .
m n p
, 1 :
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
m n p
, :
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
, .
.
,
:
r r
N ⋅ r + D = 0,
r r
N- ; r- - .
r r
: N 1 ⋅ r + D1 = 0 N 2 ⋅ r + D2 = 0,
r
: N 1 (A1, B1, C1), N 2 (A2, B2, C2); r (x, y, z).
 N 1 ⋅ rr + D1 = 0
 r
 N 2 ⋅ r + D2 = 0
:
 A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0

 A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0
.
m, n, p.
56
“ . 1.”
.
r r r
i j k
r rB C1 r A1 C1 r A1 B1 r r r
S = N 1 × N 2 = A1 B1 C1 = i 1 −j +k = i m + j n + k p.
B2 C2 A2 C2 A2 B2
A2 B2 C2
. , :
 2 x − y + 3 z − 1= 0

5 x + 4 y − z − 7 = 0
, = 0,
.
 y = 3z − 1  y = 3z − 1  y = 3z − 1  y = 2
    , . (0, 2, 1).
4 y − z − 7 = 0 12 z − 4 − z − 7 = 0  z = 1 z = 1
.
B1 C1 −1 3 A1 C1 2 3 A1 B1 2 −1
m= = = −11; n = − =− = 17; p= = = 13.
B2 C2 4 −1 A2 C2 5 −1 A2 B2 5 4
:
x y − 2 z −1
− = = .
11 17 13
. , :
2 x + 3 y − 16 z − 7 = 0

3 x + y − 17 z = 0
,
, z = 0. :
2 x + 3 y − 16 z − 7 = 0
 ; y = −3 x ;
3 x + y − 17 z = 0
2x – 9x – 7 = 0;
x = -1; y = 3;
: A(-1; 3; 0).
r r r
i j k
r r r r
: S = n1 × n2 = 2 3 − 16 = −35i − 14 j − 7k .
3 1 − 17
x +1 y − 3 z x +1 y − 3 z
: = = ; = = ;
− 35 − 14 − 7 5 2 1
57
“ . 1.”
N2
ϕ1
ϕ 0
N1
ϕ
ϕ1 : ϕ = ϕ1 ϕ = 1800 - ϕ1, .
cosϕ = ±cosϕ1.
ϕ 1. ,
:
 N 1 ⋅ rr + D1 = 0
 r ,
 N 2 ⋅ r + D2 = 0
N 1 (A1, B1, C1), N 2 (A2, B2, C2).
:
N1 ⋅ N 2
cos ϕ 1 = .
N1 N 2
, :
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C 2
cos ϕ = ±
A12 + B12 + C12 A22 + B22 + C 22
,
– , .
, ,
. ,
:
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C 2 = 0 .
58
“ . 1.”
, : N 1  N 2
A B C
, : 1 = 1 = 1 .
A2 B2 C 2
. :
r
l1: r = r1 + S1t
r
l2: r = r2 + S 2 t
r
r = ( x, y , z ); r1 = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ); r2 = ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ); S1 = (m1 , n1 , p1 ); S 2 = (m2 , n 2 , p 2 ).
ϕ ϕ
: ϕ = ϕ1 ϕ = 1800 - ϕ1.
. :
S1 ⋅ S 2 m1m 2 + n1 n2 + p1 p 2
cos ϕ = ± =± .
S1 S 2 m12 + n12 + p12 m 22 + n22 + p 22
,
, .
.
m1 n1 p
= = 1
m2 n 2 p 2
,
, .
.
m1m 2 + n1 n2 + p1 p 2 = 0
.
.
59
“ . 1.”
r r
N S
α
α
ϕ
r r r r
N ⋅r + D = 0, - r = r0 + St .
( . .) , α = 900 - ϕ, α-
r r
N S. r r
:
N ⋅S
cosα = r r
N S
r r
N ⋅S
sin ϕ = ± cosα = ± r r
N S
Am + Bn + Cp
: sin ϕ = ±
A + B2 + C 2 m2 + n2 + p2
2
, ,
,
. ,
.
r r r r
N⊥S , N ⋅ S = 0, sin ϕ = 0, Am + Bn + Cp = 0.
, ,
,
. ,
.
r r A B C
N × S = 0; = =
m n p
60
“ . 1.”
. – ,
.
. ,
, - .
, z, .
z. OY (
)
.
:
x2 y2
1) + = 1- .
a2 b2
x2 y2
2) − =1 - .
a2 b2
61
“ . 1.”
2) x2 = 2py – .
. , ,
d,
d.
:
2 2
F(x + y , z) = 0, – z.
: F(x2 + z2, y) = 0 – ,
F(z2 + y2, x) = 0 – .
x2 + y2 z2
1) + 2 =1 -
a2 c
x2 + y2 z2
2) − 2 =1 -
a2 c
x2 + y2 z2
3) − 2 = −1 -
a2 c
x2 + y2
4) = 2z -
p
62
“ . 1.”
, .
,
,
:
: ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 + ( z − c) 2 = r 2
x2 y2 z2
: + + =1
a 2 b 2 c2
, ,
.
63
“ . 1.”
x2 y2 z2
: + − =1
a2 b2 c2
x2 y2 z 2
: 2 + 2 − 2 = −1
a b c
64
“ . 1.”
x2 y2
: + = 2 z, p > 0, q > 0
p q
x2 y2
: − = 2z
p q
65
“ . 1.”
x2 y2 z 2
: + − =0
a2 b2 c2
,
,
.
,
.
l, ,
r r
n ⊥l , n = 1. ,
r
n.
,
, l – ,
– z.
,
,
.
, .
66
“ . 1.”
ρ
ϕ h
0 θ x
r
M1
OM = ρ; 1 = r; MM1 = h;
1 , 1
(r, θ).
.
(r, θ, h), .
.
(r,ϕ,θ), ϕ- ρ .
,
.
:
x y
h = z; x = rcosθ; y = rsinθ; cosθ = ; sinθ = .
x +y 2 2
x + y2
2
z = ρ cos ϕ; y = ρ sin θ sin ϕ; x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ; ρ = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ;
y x2 + y2 z x2 + y2
θ = arctg ; ϕ = arctg ; cos ϕ = ; sin ϕ = ;
x z x2 + y2 + z 2 x2 + y2 + z 2
( ) .
67
“ . 1.”
, ( , , )
( , ,
, ). , .
, ( ,
.).
, ( )
L ,
.
:
1) x +y = y+x
2) (x +y) + z = x + (y+z )
3) O, O +x =x ∀x ∈ L
4) ∀x ∈L y =-x , , x + y =O
5)1⋅ x = x
6) α(β x ) = (αβ) x
7) (α + β) x = α x + β x
8) α( x + y ) = α x + α y
: L ( )
, .
,
.
( )
. ( ) – .
,
, .
, ( )
, –
.
1) .
2) .
3) x∈L 0⋅ x = 0
4) α∈R O ∈L α⋅ O = O
5) α⋅ x = O , α = 0 x =O
6) (-1) x = - x
.
: , L
, x∈ L
x ∈ L.
68
“ . 1.”
: ,
x∈L y∈L α :
A( x + y ) = A x +A y
A(α x ) = αA x
: ,
.
x = x
. . x = x + x 0 ; x 0 ≠ 0.
- y. y = y + x0
,
( x + y ) = y + x + x 0 ; A( x ) + A( y ) = x + x 0 + y + x 0 , x 0 = 0, .
.
: L
a1 , a 2 ,..., a n , b = α a1 + β a 2 + ... + λ a n
ai .
: α a1 + β a 2 + ... + λ a n = 0 α = β = … = λ = 0,
ai .
: L n
, n+1 , L
n- ,
L.
:
.
n- e1 , e2 ,…, en
. e1 e2 ,…, en -
:
A e1 = a11 e1 + a21 e2 +…+ an1 en

A e2 = a12 e1 + a22 e2 +…+ an2 en
……………………………….
A en = an1 e1 + an2 e2 +…+ ann en
69
“ . 1.”
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n 
=  ... ... ... ... 
 
a ... a nn 
 n1 an 2
.
L x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 +…+ xn en , A ∈ L.
Ax = x1′ e1 + x 2′ e2 + ... + x n′ e n ,
x1′ = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n
x ′2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n
……………………………..
x ′n = a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n
e1 , e2 ,…, en .
:
 x1   x1   x1′ 
     
 x   x′ 
( )
 x2 
x = e1 , e2 ,..., en ⋅   ,
...
⋅ 2  =  2 ,
... ...
A ⋅ x = x′
     
x   x   x′ 
 n  n  n
. , :
x′ = x + y
y′ = y + z
z′ = z + x
x′ = 1⋅x + 1⋅y + 0⋅z
y′ = 0⋅x + 1⋅y + 1⋅z
z′ = 1⋅x + 0⋅y + 1⋅z
1 1 0
 
A = 0 1 1
1 0 1
 
:
, z
,
, z
).
= ⋅
. ,
, z.
, x z.
70
“ . 1.”
 y1 = 2 x1 − x 2 + 5 x 3  z1 = y1 + 4 y 2 + 3 y 3
 
 y 2 = x1 + 4 x 2 − x 3  z 2 = 5 y1 − y 2 − y 3
 y = 3x − 5 x + 2 x z = 3 y + 6 y + 7 y
 3 1 2 3  3 1 2 3
x→
A
y →
B
z
x → z
C
= ⋅
2 −1 5  1 4 3
   
A =  1 4 − 1 B =  5 − 1 − 1
3 − 5 2  3 6 7 
  
 2 + 4 + 9 − 1 + 16 − 15 5 − 4 + 6   15 0 7
   
C =  10 − 1 − 3 −5− 4+5 25 + 1 − 2  =  6 − 4 24 .
 6 + 6 + 21 − 3 + 24 − 35 15 − 6 + 14   33 − 14 23 
   
 z1 = 15 x1 + 7 x3

.  z 2 = 6 x1 − 4 x 2 + 24 x3
 z = 33 x − 14 x + 23 x
 3 1 2 3
:  = 0, , ., ,
, .
: L– n- .
∈L ,
λ, :
A =λ .
λ (
) , .
:
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
 
a a 22 ... a 2 n 
e1 , e2 ,…, en =  21 ,
... ... ... ... 
 
a ... a nn 
 n1 an 2
λ1, λ2, … ,λn :
a11 − λ a12 ... a1n

a 21 a 22 − λ ... a 2n
=0
... ... ... ...
a n1 an2 ... a nn − λ
, -
.
71
“ . 1.”
,
.
. –
 a11 a12 
,  .
 a 21 a 22 
:
 a11 a12   x1   x1′   x1′ = a11 x1 + a12 x 2

    =   ; 
 a 21 a 22   x 2   x ′2   x ′2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2
e1 , e2 .
λ,
=λ .
 x1′ = λx1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 (a11 − λ ) x1 + a12 x 2 = 0
 
 x ′2 = λx 2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 a 21 x1 + (a 22 − λ ) x 2 = 0
. x , 1 2 .
. , , ,
.
– , .
a11 − λ a12
∆= = (a11 − λ )(a 22 − λ ) − a12 a 21 = λ2 − (a11 + a 22 )λ + (a11 a 22 − a12 a 21 )
a 21 a 22
, 1 , 2 )
λ, λ -
, 1 2 – λ.
,
, .
, - ,
–
λ.
, A(kx ) = kAx = kλx = λ (kx ) . ,
,
.
.
λ1 λ2,
. ( . ).
.
λ1 = λ2 = λ,
, ,
72
“ . 1.”
0 ⋅ 1 + 0⋅ 2 =0
:  .
0 ⋅ 1 + 0⋅ 2 =0
1 2 . ,
.
.
 5 4
=   .
 2 3
x1′ = λx1 = 5 x1 + 4 x 2
:
x 2′ = λx 2 = 2 x1 + 3 x 2
:
5−λ 4
= (5 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 8 = 15 − 3λ − 5λ + λ2 − 8 = 0
2 3−λ
λ2 - 8λ + 7 = 0;
: λ1 = 7; λ2 = 1;
(5 − 7) x1 + 4 x 2 = 0 − 2 x1 + 4 x 2 = 0
λ1 = 7:  
2 x1 + (3 − 7) x 2 = 0 2 x1 − 4 x 2 = 0
: x1 – 2x2 = 0.
: (t; 0,5t) t- .
(5 − 1) x1 + 4 x 2 = 0 4 x1 + 4 x 2 = 0
λ2 = 1:  
2 x1 + (3 − 1) x 2 = 0 2 x1 + 2 x 2 = 0
: x1 + x2 = 0.
: (t; -t) t- .
:
u1 = t (e1 + 0,5e2 ); u 2 = t (e1 − e2 ).
.
 6 − 4
=   .
 4 − 2
x1′ = λx1 = 6 x1 − 4 x 2
:
x 2′ = λx 2 = 4 x1 − 2 x 2
(6 − λ ) x1 − 4 x 2 = 0

4 x1 − (2 + λ ) x 2 = 0
:
6−λ −4
= −(6 − λ )(2 + λ ) + 16 = −12 − 6λ + 2λ + λ 2 + 16 = 0
4 −2−λ
λ2 - 4λ + 4 = 0;
73
“ . 1.”
: λ1 = λ2 = 2;
(6 − 2) x1 − 4 x 2 = 0
: 
4 x1 − 4 x 2 = 0
: x1 – x2 = 0.
: (t; t) t- .
r
: u = (e1 + e2 )t .
. -
, , 1 , 2 , 3 –
, 2, 3 ,
1
x1′ = λx1 ; x ′2 = λx 2 ; x3′ = λx3 ,

λ- ( ) .
 a11 a12 a13  λx1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3

  
A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  , λx 2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + a 23 x3
a a33  λx = a x + a x + a x
 31 a 32  3 31 1 32 2 33 3
a11 − λ a12 a13

: a 21 a 22 − λ a 23 =0
a31 a 32 a33 − λ
, λ.
,
.
.
 1 1 3
 
, = 1 5 1 .
3 1 1
 
 x1′ = λx1 = 1 ⋅ x1 + 1 ⋅ x 2 + 3 ⋅ x 3

 x ′2 = λx 2 = 1 ⋅ x1 + 5 ⋅ x 2 + 1 ⋅ x3
 x′ = λx = 3 ⋅ x + 1 ⋅ x + 1 ⋅ x
 3 3 1 2 3
74
“ . 1.”
1− λ 1 3
1 5−λ 1 =0
3 1 1− λ
(1 - λ)((5 - λ)(1 - λ) - 1) - (1 - λ - 3) + 3(1 - 15 + 3λ) = 0

(1 - λ)(5 - 5λ - λ + λ2 - 1) + 2 + λ - 42 + 9λ = 0
(1 - λ)(4 - 6λ + λ2) + 10λ - 40 = 0
4 - 6λ + λ2 - 4λ + 6λ2 - λ3 + 10λ - 40 = 0
-λ3 + 7λ2 – 36 = 0
-λ + 9λ2 - 2λ2 – 36 = 0
3
-λ2(λ + 2) + 9(λ2 – 4) = 0
(λ + 2)(-λ2 + 9λ - 18) = 0
: λ1 = -2; λ2 = 3; λ3 = 6;
(1 + 2) x1 + x 2 + 3x3 = 0
  x1 + 7 x 2 + x3 = 0
1) λ1 = -2:  x1 + 7 x 2 + x3 = 0 
3 x + x + 3x = 0 3x1 + x 2 + 3x3 = 0
 1 2 3
7 x 2 + x 3 = −1
1 = 1,  ⇒ 2 = 0; x3 = -1;
 x 2 + 3 x 3 = −3
: u1 = (e1 − e3 ) ⋅ t.
− 2 x1 + x 2 + 3x3 = 0
  x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 = 0
2) λ2 = 3:  x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 = 0 
3 x + x − 2 x = 0 3 x1 + x 2 − 2 x3 = 0
 1 2 3
2 x 2 + x3 = −1
1 = 1,  ⇒ 2 = -1; x3 = 1;
 x 2 − 2 x 3 = −3
: u 2 = (e1 − e2 + 3 ) ⋅ t.
− 5 x1 + x 2 + 3 x3 = 0
  x1 − x 2 + x3 = 0
3) λ3 = 6:  x1 − x 2 + x 3 = 0 
3 x + x − 5 x = 0 3x1 + x 2 − 5 x3 = 0
 1 2 3
− x 2 + x 3 = − 1
1 = 1,  ⇒ 2 = 2; x3 = 1;
 x 2 − 5 x 3 = −3
: u 3 = (e1 + 2e2 + 3 ) ⋅ t.
75
“ . 1.”
.
 − 3 − 2 − 4
 
, = 2 1 2 .
 1 2 
 1
−3− λ −2 −4
2 1− λ 2 =0
1 1 2−λ
-(3 + λ)((1 - λ)(2 - λ) – 2) + 2(4 - 2λ - 2) - 4(2 - 1 + λ) = 0

-(3 + λ)(2 - λ - 2λ + λ2 - 2) + 2(2 - 2λ) - 4(1 + λ) = 0
-(3 + λ)(λ2 - 3λ) + 4 - 4λ - 4 - 4λ = 0
-3λ2 + 9λ - λ3 + 3λ2 - 8λ = 0
-λ3 + λ = 0
λ1 = 0; λ2 = 1; λ3 = -1;
− 3x1 − 2 x 2 − 4 x3 = 0
 2 x1 + x 2 = −2 x 3
λ1 = 0: 2 x1 + x 2 + 2 x3 = 0 
x + x + 2x = 0  x1 + x 2 = −2 x3
 1 2 3
3 = 1, = 0, 2 = -2
1
u1 = (0 ⋅ e1 − 2 ⋅ e2 + 1 ⋅ e3 ) ⋅t, t– .
: u2 u3 λ2 λ3.
:
1 2
1 , 2 )= 11 x12 + 2a12 x1 x 2 + a 22 x 22
1 2 .
:
1, 2 3
( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) = a11 x12 + a 22 x 22 + a 33 x32 + 2a12 x1 x 2 + 2a 23 x 2 x3 + 2a13 x1 x 3
76
“ . 1.”
1 , 2 3 .
.
 
=  11 12
 .
 12 22 
1 , 2 .
1 , 2 .
1 , 2 )= 11 x12 + 2a12 x1 x 2 + a 22 x 22 ,
1 2.
 
=   .
11 12
 12 22 
:
y1 = a11x1 + a12x2
y2 = a12x1 + a22x2
1 2 – 1, 2 .
,
1 , 2 )= 1 1 + 2 2 .
,
1 2 – ⋅ = .
,
,
. ,
,
, .
, :
λ 0
′ =  1 .
0 λ 2 
1 2
′
1
′
2. :
= 1′ 1′ + ′2 ′2
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
1 = 11 1 + 12 2
′ = 12
2
′ 1′ + 22
′ 2′
′ = λ1 1′ ,
1
′ = λ 2 ′2 .
2
77
“ . 1.”
( 1′ , 2′ ) = λ1 ( 1′ ) 2 + λ 2 ( 2′ ) 2
.
.
.
1 , 2 ) = 27 2
1 − 10 1 2 +3 2
2 .
: 11 = 27, 12 = 5, 22 = 3.
27 − λ 5
: = 0;
5 3−λ
(27 - λ)(3 - λ) – 25 = 0
λ2 - 30λ + 56 = 0
λ1 = 2; λ2 = 28;
( 1′ , 2′ ) = 2 1′ 2 + 28 2′ 2
. :
2 2
17x + 12xy + 8y – 20 = 0.
17 6 
11 = 17, 12 = 6, =  
22 = 8.
 6 8
17 − λ 6
: =0
6 8−λ
(17 - λ)(8 - λ) - 36 = 0
136 - 8λ - 17λ + λ2 – 36 = 0
λ2 - 25λ + 100 = 0
λ1 = 5, λ2 = 20.
x′ 2 y ′ 2
: 5( ′) 2 + 20( ′) 2 − 20 = 0; + =1 - .
4 1
. ,
. .
5 x + 2 3 xy + 3 y − 6 = 0
2 2
:
5 x + 2 3 xy + 3 y 2 :
2
a11 = 5, a12 = 3 , a 22 = 3.
a11 − λ a12 5−λ 3
= = 15 − 3λ − 5λ + λ 2 − 3 = λ 2 − 8λ + 12 = 0
a12 a 22 − λ 3 3−λ
, λ1 = 2, λ2 = 6.
:
(a11 − λ 1 )m1 + a12 n1 = 0 3m1 + 3n1 = 0
  m1 = 1, n1 = − 3
a12 m1 + (a 22 − λ 1 )n1 = 0  3m1 + n1 = 0
78
“ . 1.”
(a11 − λ 2 )m2 + a12 n 2 = 0 − m2 + 3n 2 = 0 1

  m2 = 1, n2 =
a12 m2 + (a 22 − λ 2 )n2 = 0  3m2 − 3n2 = 0 3
1
: u1 (1; − 3 ) u 2 (1; )
3
1 2
u1 = 1 + 3 = 2; u2 = 1 + =
3 3
.
1 3  3 1
e1′ =  ;− 
 e2′ =  ; 
 2 2   2 2 
:
2( x ′) + 6( y ′) = 6
2 2
:
( x ′) 2
( y ′)
2
+ =1
( 3) 2
2
12
1. 5
0. 5
-2 -1 1 2
- 0. 5
-1
- 1. 5
-2
. ,
. .
5 x + 4 6 xy + 7 y 2 − 22 = 0
2
:
5 x + 4 6 xy + 7 y 2 :
2
a11 = 5, a12 = 2 6 , a 22 = 7.
a11 − λ a12 5−λ 2 6
= = 35 − 7λ − 5λ + λ 2 − 24 = λ 2 − 12λ + 11 = 0
a12 a 22 − λ 2 6 7−λ
, λ1 = 1, λ2 = 11.
:
(a11 − λ 1 )m1 + a12 n1 = 0 2m1 + 6n1 = 0 2
  m1 = 1, n1 = −
a12 m1 + (a 22 − λ 1 )n1 = 0  6m1 + 3n1 = 0 6
(a11 − λ 2 )m2 + a12 n 2 = 0 − 3m 2 + 6n 2 = 0 3
  m2 = 1, n2 =
a12 m2 + (a 22 − λ 2 )n2 = 0  6m 2 − 2n 2 = 0 6
79
“ . 1.”
2 3
: u1 (1; − ) u 2 (1; )
3 2
2 5 3 5
u1 = 1 + = ; u2 = 1 + =
3 3 2 2
.
 3 2  2 3
e1′ =  ;− 
 e2
′ = 
 5; 5 
 5 5   
:
( x ′) 2 + 11( y ′) 2 = 22
:
( x ′) 2
( y ′) 2
+ =1
( 22 ) ( 2 ) 2 2
-4 -2 2 4
-2
-4
. ,
. .
2
+3 + 16 = 0
: a11 = 0; a12 = 2; a22 = 3.

0−λ 2
: = −3λ + λ 2 − 4 = 0
2 3−λ
: λ1 = -1, λ2 = 4.
λ1 = -1 λ2 = 4
1 ⋅ m1 + 2n1 = 0 − 4 m 2 + 2 n 2 = 0
 
2m1 + 4n1 = 0  2m 2 − n 2 = 0
m1 = 1; n1 = -0,5; m2 = 1; n2 = 2;
80
“ . 1.”
u1 = (1; -0,5) u 2 = (1; 2)

5
u1 = u2 = 5
2
u1 2 1 u2 1 2
e1′ = =( ;− ) e′2 = =( ; )
u1 5 5 u2 5 5
x′ 2 y ′ 2
: − x ′ + 4 y ′ = −16;
2 2
− =1 - .
16 4
10
- 15 - 10 -5 5 10 15
-5
- 10
“ ”
,
.
Enter.
:
Release 4.
81
“ . 1.”
. n
n, ,
x1, 2, …, n = {xn}
n.
xn = f(n)
.
– ,
.
. {xn} = {(-1)n} {xn} = -1; 1; -1; 1; …

{xn} = {sinπn/2} {xn} = 1; 0; 1; 0; …
1) m: m{xn} = {mxn}, . mx1, mx2, …

2) ( ) : {xn} ± {yn} = {xn ± yn}.
3) : {xn}⋅{yn} = {xn⋅yn}.
{x }  x 
4) : n = n {yn} ≠ 0.
{y n }  y n 
. {xn} ,
>0, n :
xn < M
. (- ; M).
. {xn ,
n ,
xn ≤ M.
. {xn ,
n ,
xn ≥ M
. {xn} = n – {1, 2, 3, … }.
. {xn},
ε>0 N, n > N
:
82
“ . 1.”
a −xn < ε.
: lim xn = a.
, {xn} n→∞.
: - ,
, ,
.
(−1) n
. , lim = 0.
n
(−1) n 1 1
n>N 0− <ε , . <ε . n> , ,
n n ε
1
N , , , .
ε
1 1 1 1
. , n→∞ 3, 2 , 2 , 2 ,..., 2 +
2 3 4 n
2.
: {xn}= 2 + 1/n; 1/n = xn – 2

1
, n, xn − 2 = <ε , . lim {xn} = 2.
n
. .
. , {xn
a b, .
xn → a; xn → b; a ≠ b.
ε >0,
ε
a − xn <
2
ε
b − xn <
2
ε ε
: a − b = ( a − x n ) + ( x n − b) ≤ a − x n + x n − b < + =ε
2 2
. ε- , a −b = 0, . a = b. .
. xn → a, xn → a .
. xn → a , xn − a < ε . :
xn − a ≤ xn − a , . xn − a < ε , . xn → a . .
83
“ . 1.”
. xn → a, {xn} .
, , .
.
 1
1 + n , n
, xn =  ,
2 − 1 , n
 n
x n ≤ 2.
. 1) xn+1 > xn n, .
2) xn+1 ≥ xn n, .
3) xn+1 < xn n, .
4) xn+1 ≤ xn n,
.
.
. {xn} = 1/n –
{xn} = n – .
n
. , {xn}=
2n + 1
.
n +1 n +1
=
{xn+1}=
2n + 2 + 1 2n + 3
n n + 1 2n 2 + 3n − 2n 2 − 2n − n − 1
: {xn}-{xn+1}= − = =
2n + 1 2n + 3 (2n + 1)(2n + 3)
−1
= < 0 , . n∈N, n.
(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
, xn+1 > xn. , .
.
n
{xn} = .
5n
n +1 n + 1 n n + 1 − 5n
x n+1 = . x n+1 − x n = − = =
5 n+1 5 ⋅ 5n 5n 5 ⋅ 5n
1 − 4n
= , . n∈N, 1 – 4n <0, . n+1 < xn. .
5 ⋅ 5n
,
.
84
“ . 1.”
. .
1 ≤ 2 ≤ 3 ≤…≤ n ≤ xn+1 ≤ …
: xn ≤ M, – .
. , ,
, ε>0 N, xN > a - ε, –
.
. {xn}- , N>n - ε < xN ≤ xn,
xn > a - ε.
a - ε < xn < a + ε
-ε < xn – a < ε xn - a< ε, . lim xn = a.
.
.
n
 1
{xn} = 1 +  .
 n
{xn} ,
.
:
n 1 n(n − 1)  1  n(n − 1)(n − 2)  1  n(n − 1)(n − 2)...[n − (n − 1)]  1 
n 2 3 n
 1
1 +  = 1 + ⋅ + ⋅  +   + ... +  
 n 1 n 1⋅ 2  n  1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3  n 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ n n
,
1  1 1  1  2   k − 1  1  1  2   n − 1 
x n = 1 + 1 + 1 −  + ... + 1 − 1 − ...1 −  + ... + 1 − 1 − ...1 − 
2!  n  k!  n  n   n  n!  n  n   n 
, {xn} – . ,
xn+1 xn:
1 1  1 1  2   k −1 1 1  2 
x n+1 = 1 + 1 + 1 −  + ... + 1 − 1 − ...1 −  + ... + 1 − 1 − ...
2!  n + 1  k!  n + 1  n + 1   n + 1  n!  n + 1  n + 1 
 n −1 1  1   n 
...1 − + 1 − ...1 − .
 n + 1  (n + 1)!  n + 1   n + 1 
xn+1 xn, ,
, xn+1 . ,
{xn} .
, n : xn < 3.
85
“ . 1.”
1
1−
1 1 1 1 1 1 2n < 1 + 1 = 3
x n < 1 + 1 + + + ... + < 1 + 1 + + 2 + ... + n +1 = 1 +
2! 3! n! 2 2 2 1 1
1− 1−
2 2
.
 1  n 
, 1 +   -
 n  
, . . .
n
 1
lim 1 +  = e
n →∞
 n
n
 1
1 +  < 3 , ≤ 3. {xn}
 n
, , :
n
 1 1 1
1 +  > 2 + 1 − 
 n 2 n
,
1
e ≥ 2+ = 2,5
2
, 2,5 3.
, .
, 2,71828…
x
 1
, lim 1 +  = e ,
x →∞
 x
:
: n ≤ x ≤ n +1
1 1 1
≥ ≥
n x n +1
1 1 1
1+ ≥ 1+ ≥ 1+
n x n +1
n +1 x n
 1  1  1 
1 +  > 1 +  > 1 + 
 n  x  n + 1
n +1 n x
 1  1  e  1
lim 1 +  = e ⋅ 1 = e; lim 1 +  = = e; ⇒ lim 1 +  = e
n →∞
 n n→∞
 n + 1 1 x → ∞
 x
.
log e x = ln x = y, . . e = x.
y
86
“ . 1.”
G r ahpi c s
y = lnx.
= 10 , lnx = ln10y , lnx = yln10

ln x 1
= lg x = = M ln x; ln x = lg x , = 1/ln10 ≈ 0,43429…- .
ln 10 M
.
y f(x)
A+ε
A
A-ε
0 a-∆ a a+∆ x
f(x) = ( .
= )
. f(x) → ,
ε>0 ∆>0, ,
0 < x - a < ∆
f(x) - A< ε.
:
- ∆ < x < a + ∆, x ≠ a, - ε < f(x) < A + ε.
: lim f ( x) = A
x →a
. f(x) → A1 → x < a, lim f ( x) = A1 -

x →a −0
f(x) = , f(x) → A2 →
x > a, lim f ( x) = A2 f(x) =
x →a +0
f(x)
87
“ . 1.”
0 a x
, f(x)
= ,
.
1 2 f(x)
= . , – f(x).
. f(x) →∞,
ε>0 >0, ,  >M
A − f (x ) < ε
, f(x) .
: lim f ( x ) = A.
x →∞
y y
A A
0 0
x x
y y
A A
88
“ . 1.”
0 0
x x
lim f ( x ) = A >M
x → +∞
lim f ( x ) = A <M.
x → −∞
1. lim C = C , = const.
x →a
, f(x) g(x)
→ .
2. lim ( f ( x) ± g ( x )) = lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x)

x →a x →a x→a
3. lim[ f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x→a
. lim C ⋅ f ( x ) = C ⋅ lim f ( x )
x →a x→ a
f ( x) lim f ( x)
4. lim = x→a lim g ( x) ≠ 0
x →a g ( x) lim g ( x ) x →a
x→a
5. f(x)>0 = lim f ( x) = A , >0.

x →a
f(x) < 0, f(x) ≥ 0, f(x) ≤ 0.
6. g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ u(x) = lim g ( x) = lim u ( x ) = A ,

x →a x →a
lim = A .
x →a
. f(x) = ,
>0, f(x)<M = .
7. f(x) → ,
= .
. lim f ( x) = A , . f ( x) − A < ε ,
x →a
f ( x ) = f ( x) − A + A ≤ f ( x) − A + A
f ( x) < ε + A , .
89
“ . 1.”
f ( x) < M , =ε+ 
.
. f(x) → ,
∞, +∞ -∞, lim f ( x) = 0 .
x →a
.
.
. f(x) = xn →0
→1, . lim f ( x) = 1 .
x →1
. , f(x) → , ,
, =
f(x) = A + α(x),
α )– → (α )→0 → ).
1) →
→ .
2) →
→ .
3) ,
= → .
4) ,
.
,
, .
2. f(x) = A + α(x), g(x) = B + β(x),

A = lim f ( x ), B = lim g ( x ) ,
x→a x→a
f(x) ± g(x) = (A + B) + α(x) + β(x)

A + B = const, α ) + β ) – ,
lim ( f ( x ) ± g ( x )) = A + B = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x)
x →a x→a x →a
3. f(x) = A + α(x), g(x) = B + β(x),

90
“ . 1.”
A = lim f ( x ), B = lim g ( x ) ,
x→a x→a
f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = A ⋅ B + Aβ ( x ) + α ( x ) B + α ( x ) β ( x )
A⋅B = const, α ) β ) – ,
lim[ f ( x ) g ( x )] = lim A ⋅ B + 0 = A ⋅ B = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x )
x →a x→a x →a x→a
. f(x) → , - ,
, >0 ∆>0,
f(x)>M
,
0 < x - a < ∆
lim f ( x) = ∞ .
x →a
, f(x)>M
f(x)>M, :
lim f ( x) = +∞,
x →a
f(x)<M, :
lim f ( x) = −∞.
x →a
a x a x a x
. → , –
∞, +∞ -∞, lim f ( x) = A , –
x →a
∞, +∞ -∞.
. f(x)→0 → ( →∞ ) ,
1
y= →∞
f ( x)
91
“ . 1.”
α ), β ) γ ) – → .
α, β γ .
, . .
10
, f(x) = x , f(x) = x.
α
. lim = 0, α
x →a β
, β.
α
. lim = A, A ≠ 0, A = const , α β
x →a β
α
. lim = 1, α β
x →a β
. α ~ β.
. →0 f(x) = x10 f(x) = x.

10
x
lim = lim x 9 = 0
x →a x x→ a
10
. f(x) = x – , f(x) = x.
. α
α
k β, lim
x →a βk
.
,
α
. , ,
β
.
α x sin x
. α = x sin x, β = x , →0 lim = lim = 1, .
x→0 β 2 x → 0 x2
α- 2 β.
1 α
. α = x sin , β = x, →0 lim , .
x x→0 β
α β .
92
“ . 1.”
 α 
1) α ~ α,  lim = 1
x→a α
 
 α α β  
2) α~β β ~ γ, α ~ γ,  lim = lim  ⋅  = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1
 x→a γ x→ a β γ
   
 
 
3) α ~ β, β ~ α,  lim β = lim 1 = 1
 x→a α x→a α 
 
 β 
α α1 α α
4) α ~ α1 β ~ β1 lim =k, lim =k lim = lim 1 .
x →a β x →a β1 x →a β x → a β1
α α α
: ) α ~ α1 lim =k, lim = lim 1
β
x →a β
x →a x → a β
α α α
) β ~ β1 lim = k , lim = lim
x →a β x →a β x →a β
1
4 , . ,
.
,
.
tg 5 x
. lim
x→0 sin 7 x
tg5x ~ 5x sin7x ~ 7x → 0, ,
, :
tg 5 x 5x 5
lim = lim =
x→0 sin 7 x x → 0 7x 7
x3
. .lim
x → 0 1 − cos x
2
2 x x x3 x3
1 – cosx = 2 sin ~ 2  →0, lim = lim 2 = lim 2 x = 0 .
x → 0 1 − cos x
2  2 x→0 x x →0
tgx x
. lim 2
= lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 sin x x → 0 x
α β - → , β-
, α, γ=α+β- , α.
γ  β
lim = lim 1 +  = 1 .
x →a α x →a
 α
, α- γ.
93
“ . 1.”
. 2
+ – →0, –
. , α = 2, β = ,
x2 x2 + x
lim = 0, lim = lim ( x + 1) = 1 .
x→0 x x →0 x x→0
P( x)
. lim , P(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 +…+an,
x →∞ Q ( x )
Q(x) = b0xm + b1xm-1 +…+bm - .

a a a1 a
x n (a 0 + 1 + ... + nn ) a0 + + ... + nn
P ( x) x x = x n −m x x
=
Q ( x) b b b1 bm
x m (b0 + 1 + .... + mm ) b0 + + ... + m
x x x x
a a
a 0 + 1 + ... + nn
x x = a0
lim
x →∞ b1 bm b0
b0 + + ... + m
x x
0, n<m

P( x)  a 0
: lim = , n=m
x →∞ Q ( x )
 b0
∞, n>m
sin x
. lim =1
x→0 x
x
 1
. lim 1 +  = e
x →∞
 x
–
,
.
, ,
:
ln(1 + x) a x −1 (1 + x) m − 1
lim = 1; lim = ln a; lim = m.
x→0 x x →0 x x →0 x
. .
tgmx mx m
lim = lim =
x → 0 sin nx x → 0 nx n
. .
94
“ . 1.”
tgx − tgx0 sin( x − x 0 ) sin( x − x 0 ) 1 1 1

lim = lim = lim ⋅ lim = 1⋅ =
x → x0 x − x0 x → x 0 ( x − x ) cos x cos x
0 0
x → x 0 x − x0 x → x 0 cos x cos x
0 cos x 0 cos 2 x 0
2
. .
2
− sin(π / 4 − x)
sin x − cos x 2 − sin(π / 4 − x) 1
lim = lim = lim =−
x →π / 4 π − 4x x →π / 4 π − 4x x →π / 4
2 2 (π / 4 − x) 2 2
. .
y = π / 2 − x 
cos x   cos(π / 2 − y ) sin y 1
lim = x = π / 2 − y  = lim = lim =
x →π / 2 π − 2 x y →0 2 y → y 2
π − 2 x = π − π + 2 y 
y 0
 
. .
x +3 x +3  y = x − 1 y +4 y 4
 x + 3  x −1+ 4     y + 4  4  4
lim   = lim   =  x → ∞  = lim   = lim 1 +  ⋅ lim 1 +  =
x →∞ x − 1
  x→∞
 x −1  y → ∞ 
y →∞
 y  y →∞
 y  y → ∞ y
 
4
 y  1
4z
  1 z 
=  z =  = lim 1 +  =  lim 1 +   = e 4
 4  z → ∞ z  z →∞  z  

x 2 − 6x + 8
. lim 2 .
x → 2 x − 8 x + 12
x2 – 6x + 8 = 0; x2 – 8x + 12 = 0;
D = 36 – 32 = 4; D = 64 – 48 = 16;
x1 = (6 + 2)/2 = 4; x1 = (8 + 4)/2 = 6;
x2 = (6 – 2)/2 = 2 ; x2 = (8 – 4)/2 = 2;
( x − 2)( x − 4) x−4 2 1
lim = lim = =
x → 2 ( x − 2)( x − 6) x→ 2 x − 6 4 2
. .
95
“ . 1.”
1+ x + x2 − 1− x + x2
lim
x→0 x2 − x
:
1 + x + x −1+ x − x2
2
2x
lim = lim =
x→0 x →0
x( x − 1)( 1 + x + x 2 + 1 − x + x 2 ) x( x − 1)( 1 + x + x 2 + 1 − x + x 2 )
2
= = −1 .
− 1 ⋅ (1 + 1)
. .
x 2 − 5x + 6 ( x − 2)( x − 3) 3 − 2 1
lim
x →3 x −9
2
{
= x 2 − 5 x + 6 = ( x − 2)( x − 3) = lim }
x →3 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
= =
3+ 3 6
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6
. lim .
x →1 x 2 − 3x + 2
.
x2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 1)(x – 2)
x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3), .
x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 x-1

x3 – x2 x2 – 5x + 6
- 5x2 + 11x
- 5x2 + 5x
6x - 6
6x - 6
0
x2 – 5x + 6 = (x – 2)(x – 3)
( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3)
lim = −2
x →1 ( x − 1)( x − 2)
. .
2a + 2h 2h
2 sin cos − 2 sin( a + h)
sin( a + 2h) − 2 sin( a + h) + sin a 2 2 2 sin( a + h)(cosh− 1)
lim = lim = lim =
h→ 0 h2 h →0 h 2 h →0 h2
− 2 sin (h / 2)
2
= 2 lim sin( a + h) ⋅ lim = 2 sin a ⋅ (−1 / 2) = − sin a
h→0 h→ 0 4(h / 2) 2
2x 4 + 2 x2 + 5x − 6
1) lim =∞
x →∞ x 3 + 2 x 2 + 7 x − 1
96
“ . 1.”
(2 x 3 + 4 x + 5)( x 2 + x + 1)
2) lim =2
x →∞ ( x + 2)( x 4 + 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 + x − 1)
x 2 − 7 x + 10 3
3) lim =
x → 2 x 2 − 8 x + 12 4
4+ x+ x −22
1
4) lim =−
x → −1 x +1 4
1 + x sin x − 1 1
5) lim =
x→0 x2 2
x
6) lim 3 =3
x→0
1+ x −1
1+ x + x2 − 7 + 2x − x2 7
7) lim =
x→2 x − 2x
2
4
x3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8
8) lim - .
x → 2 3 x 4 − 16 x 3 + 24 x 2 − 16
. f(x), 0 ,
0 ,
, .
lim f ( x) = f ( x 0 )
x → x0
: lim f ( x) = f ( lim x )
x → x0 x → x0
. f(x) 0 ,
0 , ,
0 – .
f(x0)+ε
f(x0)
f(x0)-ε
0 x0-∆ x0 x0+∆ x
:
97
“ . 1.”
f(x0)+ε
f(x0)
f(x0)-ε
x0 x
. f(x) 0 ,
ε>0 ∆>0, ,
x − x0 < ∆
f ( x) − f ( x0 ) < ε .
. f(x) = 0 ,
0 .
f(x) = f(x0) + α(x)

α )– → 0.
1) , 0 –
, 0 .
f ( x)
2) –
g ( x)
, g(x) 0 .
3) – .
:
u = f(x), v = g(x) – = 0 , v = g(f(x)) –
.
,
.
1) f(x) = C, C = const –
.
98
“ . 1.”
a0 x n + a1 x n−1 + ... + a n
2) f ( x) =
b0 x m + b1 x m −1 + ... + bm
, , . ,
.
3) .
3 y = sinx.
∆y = sin(x + ∆x) – sinx, :
 ∆x  ∆x
∆y = 2 cos x +  sin
 2  2
  ∆x  ∆x 
lim ∆y = 2 lim  cos x +  sin =0
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0
  2  2 
 ∆x  ∆x
, cos x +  sin .
 2  2
 ∆x 
– ∆ →0 cos x +  ≤ 1, .
 2 
∆x
lim sin =0, ∆ →0.
∆x → 0 2
,
, , . ∆ – .
, = sinx –
= 0 , .
– .
.
,
.
f(x), 0 ,
.
, = 0 , ,
.
,
. .
( . ) lim f ( x) = f ( x0 ) ,
x→x+0
99
“ . 1.”
( . ) lim f ( x ) = f ( x 0 ) ,
x → x −0
. 0 f(x), f(x)
0 .
. 0 1- ,
f(x) , .
lim f ( x) ≠ lim f ( x)
x → x0 + 0 x → x0 − 0
,
= 0 , , .
, 1–
. 1–
,
.
. 0 2 – ,
f(x)
.
. ( (1805-1859) –
, - 1837 )
1, x −
f ( x) = 
0, x −
0.
1
. f(x) = 0 =0 2– , .
lim f ( x) = +∞; lim f ( x ) = −∞ .

x →0 + 0 x →0 − 0
7.5
5
2.5
-10 -5 5 10
-2.5
-5
-7.5
G r ahpi c s
100
“ . 1.”
sin x
. f(x) =
x
= 0, lim f ( x) = 1 , .
x→0
= 0 1 – . –
, . :
 sin x
 , x≠0
f ( x) =  x
1, x=0
:
1
0. 8
0. 6
0. 4
0. 2
- 20 - 10 10 20
- 0. 2
x 1, x>0
. f(x) = =
x − 1, x<0
0 x
-1
sign(x) – . = 0
. . , –1–
. = 0, f(0) = 1,
, f(0) = -1, ,
f(x) - , 1 –1,
, ,
= 0 1 – . 1 –
.
, , 1 – ,
, ,
.
101
“ . 1.”
. f(x) ( ),
( ).
,
.
, .
1: ( ( (1815-1897)-
)). , , ,
. [a, b] –M ≤ f(x) ≤ M.
, ,
0 , , [a, b]
, “ ” 0 ,
0.
2: , [a, b],
.
. 1 , 2 f(x1) = m, f(x2) = M,
m ≤ f(x) ≤ M
( – f(x) = sinx).
3: ( – ). ,
[a, b],
.
4: f(x) = 0 ,
0 , .
5: ( (1781-1848) – ). f(x)-
[a, b]
, , f(x) = 0.
. sign(f(a)) ≠ sign(f(b)), ∃ 0 : f(x0) = 0.
. f(x)
[a, b], ε>0 ∆>0 , 1 ∈[a,b]
x2∈[a,b] ,
102
“ . 1.”
 2 – 1< ∆
f(x2) – f(x1) < ε
“ ” , ε
∆, , “ ” ∆ ε
.
6: ( (1845-1918)-
). , , .
,
.)
1
. y = sin
x
0. 5
- 3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3
- 0. 5
- 1
1
y = sin (0, ),
x
, . ∆>0 ,
1 2 , f(x1) – f(x2)>ε, ε - , 1 2
.
7: f(x) ,
, = g(y) ,
.
.
, .
 x + 4, x < −1

f ( x ) =  x 2 + 2, − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 x , x ≥1

lim f ( x) = 3 lim f ( x) = 3
x → −1− 0 x →1− 0
lim f ( x ) = 3 lim f ( x ) = 2
x → −1+ 0 x →1+ 0
= -1 =1 1–
103
“ . 1.”
-4 -1 0 1
.
, .
cos x, x ≤ 0

f ( x) =  x 2 + 1, 0 < x < 1
 x, x ≥1

lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 2
x →0 − 0 x →1− 0
lim f ( x) = 1 lim f ( x) = 1
x →0 + 0 x →1+ 0
=0 =1 1–
-π -π/2 0 1 x
104
“ . 1.”
. z z = a + ib , a
b– ,i– , :
i = −1;
2
i = − 1.
a z (a = Re z), b-
(b = Im z).
a =Re z =0, z , b = Im z = 0, z
.
. z = a + ib z = a − ib –
.
. z1 = a1 + ib1 z 2 = a 2 + ib2
, :
a1 = a 2 ; b1 = b2 ;
. ,
.
a = b = 0.
.
, . , , ,
, , ,
.
,
,
.
, - .
A(a, b)
105
“ . 1.”
r b
ϕ
0 a x
, , Y–
.
, a = r cos ϕ; b = r sin ϕ .
:
z = a + ib = r cos ϕ + ir sin ϕ = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ)
.
r , ϕ
- .
r = z; ϕ = Arg z .
b
r = a + ib = a 2 + b 2 ; ϕ = Arg z = arctg ;
a
, –
.
z = z; Arg z = − Arg z .
1) .
z = z1 ± z 2 = (a1 + ib1 ) ± (a 2 + ib2 ) = (a1 ± a 2 ) + i (b1 ± b2 )
z = (a1 ± a 2 ) 2 + (b1 ± b2 ) 2
2) .
z = z1 z 2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a 2 + ib2 ) = a1a 2 + ia1b2 + ib1a 2 + i 2 b1b2
106
“ . 1.”
z = z1 z 2 = (a1 a 2 − b1b2 ) + i (a1b2 + b1a 2 )
:
z1 = r1 (cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 ) , z 2 = r2 (cos ϕ 2 + i sin ϕ 2 ).
z = z1 z 2 = r1r2 (cos(ϕ1 + ϕ 2 ) + i sin( ϕ1 + ϕ 2 ))
– :
2 2
zz = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a 2 + b 2 = z = z .
3) .
z1 a1 + ib1
= z== x + iy
z 2 a 2 + ib2
(a + ib1 )(a 2 − ib2 ) (a1a 2 + b1b2 ) + i(a 2 b1 − a1b2 )
z= 1 =
(a 2 + ib2 )(a 2 − ib2 ) a 22 + b22
a1 a 2 + b1b2 a b − a1b2
z= + i 2 21
a 2 + b2
2 2
a 2 + b22
:
z1 r1
z= = (cos(ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ) + i sin( ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ))
z 2 r2
4) .
,
z = zz = r (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ)
2 2
z n = r n (cos nϕ + i sin nϕ) ,
n– .
.
(1667 – 1754) – )
, . .
. sin2ϕ cos2ϕ.
z = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ).

z = r (cos ϕ + 2i cos ϕ sin ϕ − sin 2 ϕ) .
2 2 2
: z 2 = r 2 (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ)

, cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ = cos 2 ϕ − sin 2 ϕ + 2i cos ϕ sin ϕ
107
“ . 1.”
. , ,
cos 2ϕ = cos 2 ϕ − sin 2 ϕ
sin 2ϕ = 2 sin ϕ cos ϕ
.
5) .
n
z = n r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) = ρ(cos ψ + i sin ψ )
, :
ρ (cos nψ + i sin nψ ) = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ)
n
: ρ = n r; nψ = ϕ + 2πk ; k ∈ Z.
 ϕ + 2πk ϕ + 2πk 
n
z = n r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) = n r  cos + i sin 
 n n 
, n – n
.
w = ez; z = x + iy.
, w :
w = e x +iy = e x (cos y + i sin y )
.
.( . ).
:
1) e z1 + z2 = e z1 e z2 ;
e z1
2) e z1 − z 2 = ;
e z2
3) (e z ) m = e mz ; m– .
( =0), :
e iy = cos y + i sin y
– :
− iy
e = cos y − i sin y
108
“ . 1.”
 e iy + e − iy
 cos y =
2
 −iy
sin y = e − e
iy
 2i
:
z = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ)
: e iϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ
z = re iϕ
. f(x) = A0 x n + A1 x n −1 + ... + An
.
.( (1730 – 1783) – )
f(x) x–a , f(a).
. f(x) x–a
f1(x) , f(x), –
R.
f ( x) = f1 ( x )( x − a) + R
→ a, f(a) = R.
. , – , . f(a) = 0, f(x)
( – ) .
. ) = 0, )–
n, n.
.( ) f(x)
, , , .
. n – n
n
(x – a) , x.
. ,
.
,
:
f ( x) = A0 ( x − a1 ) k1 ( x − a 2 ) k2 ...( x − a m ) k m .
109
“ . 1.”
k1 + k 2 + ... + k m = n
ki - .
, n – n
).
,
.
7
. z1 = 1 − i; z 2 = −7 − 2i . )
2
−4
 7 
 1− i 
 2  , )
 − 7 − 2i 
 
 
z = 2 − 2 3i , z20,
w 3 + z = 0.
a) , :
−4
 7 
 1− i  −4
 2 − 7i   − 14 − 4i   − 7 − 2i 
4 4
 2  =  =  = 16 
 − 7 − 2i   − 14 − 4i   2 − 7i   2 − 7i 
 
 
− 7 − 2i (−7 − 2i )(2 + 7i) − 14 − 49i − 4i + 14 − 53i

= = = = −i.
2 − 7i (2 − 7i )(2 + 7i) 4 + 49 53
: 16(-i)4 = 16i4 =16.
) z = 2 − 2 3i z = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) ,
r = z = 4 + 12 = 4; ϕ = arctg
b
a
(
= arctg − 3 = −60 0 )
z = 4(cos 60 0 − i sin 60 0 ) .
z 20 .
z 20 = 4 20 (cos1200 0 − i sin 1200 0 ) = 4 20 (cos(3 ⋅ 2π + 120 0 ) − i sin( 3 ⋅ 2π + 120 0 )) =

1 3 
= 4 20 (cos120 0 − i sin 120 0 ) = −4 20  + i .
 2 2 
110
“ . 1.”
w3 + z = 0 , w=3 z
 ϕ + 2πk ϕ + 2πk  3  − 60 0 + 2πk − 60 0 + 2πk 

3
z = r  cos
3
+ i sin = 
4  cos + i sin ; k ∈ Z .
 3 3   3 3 
.
, .
∈
, – ,
.
, , ∅.
.
, , ( ) .
. ⊆ ,
, ≠ ,
⊂ .
, , .
A ⊆ A; A ⊄ A;
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C → A ⊆ C;
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊂ C → A ⊂ C;
:
A = B ↔ A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A.
∧ “ ”).
111
“ . 1.”
. ,
.
= ∪ .
– .
. ,
.
= ∩ .
, :
∩ = ∪ = ; A ∪ B = B ∪ A; A ∩ B = B ∩ A;
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C); (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C);
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C); A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C);
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A; A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A;
A∪∅ = ; A ∩ ∅ = ∅;
. ,
, .
= \ .
112
“ . 1.”
.
,
.
∆ .
∆ = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)
A B
.
, ⊆ C = \ A.
A E
, :
A \ B ⊆ A; A \ A = ∅; A \ (A \ B) = A ∩ B;
A ∆ B = B ∆ A; A ∆ B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B);
A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C); A \ (B ∩ C) = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C);
(A ∪ B) \ C = (A \ C) ∪ (B \ C); (A ∩ B) \ C = (A \ C) ∩ (B \ C);
A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B) ∪ (A ∩ C); (A \ B) \ C = A \ (B ∪ C);
(A ∆ B) ∆ C = A ∆ (B ∆ C); A ∩ (B ∆ C) = (A ∩ B) ∆ (A ∩ C);
A ∪ CEA = E; A ∩ CEA = ∅; CEE = ∅; CE∅ = E; CECEA = A;
CE(A ∪ B) = CEA ∩ CEB; CE(A ∩ B) = CEA ∪ CEB;
113
“ . 1.”
.
, -
.
A \ B = A \ ( A ∩ B)
A \ ( A ∩ B) = ( A \ A) ∪ ( A \ B) = ∅ ∪ ( A \ B) = A \
.
–
A∩B
.
, .
A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C)
∈ \ ( ∪ ), ,
, .
\ ,
.
\ ,
.
(A \ B) ∩ (A \ C) ,
, , .
, .
. (a, b) a b
{{a},{a, b}}.
a, b, c, d :
(a, b) = (c, d ) ↔ a = c ∧ b = d ;
.
(a, b), ∈ , b∈B.
A × B = {( a, b) a ∈ A; b ∈ B}
114
“ . 1.”
–
n
.
. n R
n
. R – n –
( 1 2 ,… n)∈R, , R 1 2 ,… n
R 1 2 n . n = 2, .
Ra1a2 1 Ra2.
. R S,
,
{( x, y) ∃z( z ∈ A) ∧ ( x, z ) ∈ R ∧ ( z , y) ∈ S }
| .
. ( ) R,
-1
, R , :
R −1
= {( x, y ) ( y, x ) ∈ R}
R, S T – ,
:
( R ⋅ S ) ⋅ T = R ⋅ ( S ⋅ T ); ( R ∪ S ) ⋅ T = ( R ⋅ T ) ∪ ( S ⋅ T );
( R ∩ S ) ⋅ T = ( R ⋅ T ) ∩ ( S ⋅ T ); ( R ⋅ S ) −1 = S −1 ⋅ R −1 ;
( R ∪ S ) −1 = R −1 ∪ S −1 ; ( R ∩ S ) −1 = R −1 ∩ S −1 ;
. ,
, ,
, , ,
, .
,
, . ,
, .
.
, ) , :
115
“ . 1.”
1) a, b, c ∈ A
:
a(bc) = (ab)c
2) ,
:
ae = ea = a
3) ’
,
aa ′ = a ′a = e
-
.
.
. M N
,
N,
.
. M N ,
,
a, b∈ M a’, b’∈ N
= ab c’ = a’b’.
N .
. , , ( .
a b ab=ba),
.
. R
, , ,
,
, . a, b ∈R :
a(b + c ) = ab + ac; (b + c)a = ba + ca;
, ,
.
. ,
a≠ 0 b
, ax = b.
116
“ . 1.”
, ,
, ,
– .
:
1) .
. a1 , a 2 ,..., a m
, ,
.
m Pm
:
Pm = m!
2) .
. n
, .
.
m!
Amn = m(m − 1)(m − 2)...(m − (n − 1)) =
(m − n)!
, .
3) .
.
, ,
.
Pm m!
C mn = =
Pn Pm − n n!(m − n)!
.
1 , 2
.,
,
:
Pm m!
=
Pm1 Pm2 ...Pmk m1!m 2 !...mk !
117
“ . 1.”
. .
, 10 30 .
, 10 4
10.000.
30 2
30 = 30 ⋅ 29 = 870 .
, ,
30 ( ). ,
900.
30 ,
30 , . 27.000 .
, .
,
270.000.000.
.( )
.
– , (a + b)n
. :
n
(a + b) n = a n + C n1 a n−1b + C n2 a n −2 b 2 + ... + b n = ∑ C ni a n −i b i
i =0
C nk - k.
n!
C nk =
k!(n − k )!
, , .
,
,
.( (1623 – 1662) – ).
:
1
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
…………………
118
“ . 1.”
n!
(a1 + a 2 + ... + a k ) n = ∑ a1n1 a 2n2 ...a knk
n1!n2 !...nk !
n1 + n2 + ... + n k = n
, 0! 1.
. (x k
+ yp )
n
, α
, k=3, p=2,
n=8, α=9.
( ) = ∑ C (x ) (y )
n
n k n −i p i
: xk + y p i
n
i=0
C :
(x ) = ∑C x
8
8 3( 8− i )
3
+ y2 i
8 y 2i
i =0
, ,
,
), , , .
9
, .
i, : 3(8 − i) = 9; i = 5.
8! 9 10 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 9 10
: 5
x 9 y 10 = x y = x y = 56 x 9 y 10
5!⋅3! 3⋅2
8
. ( x + y + z + w) m , xγ. =9, γ=6.
:
9!
( x + y + z + w) 9 = ∑ x n1 y n2 z n3 w n4
n1!n2 !n3 !n 4 !
ni, , . , .
6
, , n1 = 6, 9.
, 2 + 3 + 4 = 3.
n2 0 0 3 1 1 0 2 0 2 1
n3 0 3 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1
n4 3 0 0 0 2 2 0 1 1 1
84 x 6 w 3 ; 84 x 6 y 3 ; 84 x 6 z 3 ; 252 x 6 yz 2 ; 252 x 6 yw 2 ;
119
“ . 1.”
252 x 6 zw 2 ; 252 x 6 y 2 z; 252 x 6 z 2 w; 252 x 6 y 2 w; 504 x 6 yzw;
– , . ,
.
. ,
.
,
,
.
,
. ,
“ ”, “ ”.
,
.
( )
1) . ,
, .
¬ P.
.
:
P ¬
2) . P Q
, , .
P&Q ∧Q.
P Q P&Q
3) . P Q
, , .
P∨Q.
P Q P∨Q
120
“ . 1.”
4) . P Q
, , , Q–
.
P⊃Q ( ⇒Q).
, Q– .
P Q P⇒Q
5) . P Q
, ,
.
∼Q ⇔Q.
P Q P∼Q
. ,
ϕ ψ.
ϕ = p ⇒ ( p ∧ r)
ψ = p ⇒ (p ∨ r)
:
p r p (p∧r) p ⇒ ( p ∧ r)
p r p r ( p ∨ r) p ⇒ (p ∨ r)
121
“ . 1.”
. ,
ϕ ψ.
ϕ = ( p ⇔ q) ∨ r
ψ = ( p ⇒ q ) ∨ ( q ⇒ p) ∨ r
p q r p⇔q (p⇔q)∨r
p q r p⇒q q⇒p (p⇒q)∨(q⇒p) (p⇒q)∨(q⇒p)∨r
, .
, :
A & B ≡ B & A; A & A ≡ A; A & (B & C) ≡ (A & B) & C;
A ∨ B ≡ B ∨ A; A ∨ A ≡ A; A ∨ (B ∨ C) ≡ (A ∨ B) ∨ C;
A ∨ (B & C) ≡ (A ∨ B) & (A ∨ C); A & (B ∨ C) ≡ (A & B) ∨ (A & C);
A & (A ∨ B) ≡ A; A ∨ (A & B) ≡ A; ¬¬A ≡ A; ¬(A & B) ≡ ¬A ∨ ¬B;
122
“ . 1.”
A ≡ (A & B) ∨ (A & ¬B); A ≡ (A ∨ B) & (A ∨ ¬B);
. f(X1, X2, …, Xn)

n – ,
{0, 1}.
,
.
,
0 1.
,
.
X1 X2 ¬X1 X1&X2 X1∨X2 X1⇒X2 X1⇔X2

1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
. P(x1, x2, …, xn) ,

,
: ( ) ( ), .
P ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) : M n → { , }
– .
– .
,
.
, .
:
1) . (∀ ) ).
, ) ,
– .
2) . (∃ ) ).
, , ,
) , .
123
“ . 1.”
. ,
:
1) .
¬(∀x)A(x) ≡ (∃x)¬A(x); ¬(∃x)A(x) ≡ (∀x)¬A(x);
2) .
(∃ )( ( ) & B) ≡ (∃x)A(x) & B; (∀x)(A(x) & B) ≡ (∀x)A(x) & B;
(∃ )( ( ) ∨ B) ≡ (∃x)A(x) ∨ B; (∀x)(A(x) ∨ B) ≡ (∀x)A(x) ∨ B;
3) .
(∀y)(∀x)A(x,y) ≡ (∀x)(∀y)A(x,y); (∃y)(∃x)A(x,y) ≡ (∃x)(∃y)A(x,y);
4) .
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4) (∀xi)A(xi) ⇒ A(xj), ( i) xi.
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125
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126
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: R=
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127
“ . 1.”
x4
x5
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C =
0 0 0 0 0 1 −1 1 −1 ±1 ±1 −1 1 0 0 0 0
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131
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1.

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

cij = aij ± bij

6) , det (AB) = detA⋅detB.

2. det ( A ± B) = det A ± det B.

3. det (AB) = detA⋅detB

a11 x11 + a12 x 21 = e11 = 1  x11 + 2 x 21 = 1  x11 = −2

M11=4; M12= 3; M21= 2; M22=1

 a11 a12 a13  b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

x1 = ∆1/detA; x2 = ∆2/detA; x3 = ∆3/detA;

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

 a11 a12 ... a1n b1 

. b1, b2, …,bm = 0, .

a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n = b1

 x1 + d12 x 2 + ... + d1n x n = d1

dij = aij – ai1d1j i = 2, 3, … , n; j = 2, 3, … , n+1.

λ a = λ (α e1 + β e2 + γ e3 ) = (λα )e1 + (λβ ) e 2 + (λγ ) e3 .

. 1 , y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2),

+ 27 + 51 + 135 + 72 + 252 = 547.

. (2, 2, 2), (4, 0, 3),

. , (5; 7; 2), B(3; 1; -1), C(9; 4; -4), D(1; 5; 0)

BD × BC = 112 + 10 2 + 17 2 = 121 + 100 + 289 = 510

xcosα + ycosβ + zcosγ - p = 0.

. , , (4; -3; 12) –

OP = (4;−3;12); OP = 16 + 9 + 144 = 169 = 13

, A = 4/13; B = -3/13; C = 12/13, :

A(x – x0) + B(y – y0) + C(z – z0) = 0.

. , , (4, -3, 12) –

OP = (4, -3, 12).

. 1 (1; 0; 3), A2(2; -1; 3), A3(2; 1; 1),

A1 A3 = (2-1; 1-0; 1-3) = (1; 1; -2);

M1(x1, y1, z1) M2(x2, y2, z2),

. , (1, 2) (3, 4).

. y = k1x + b1, y = k2x + b2,

A(x – x0) + B(y – y0) + Ax0 + By0 + C = 0,

: k1 = 3/5, k2 = -5/3, k1k2 = -1, ,

. (0; 1), B(6; 5), C(12; -1).

(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = R2 (a; b).

(x – 2)2 + (y + 5/4)2 – 25/16 – 6 = 0

(2; -5/4); R = 11/4.

F1, F2 – . F1 = (c; 0); F2(-c; 0)

. , F1(0; 0), F2(1; 1),

r1 – r2= 2a. F1, F2 – . F1F2 = 2c.

: m : n : p = cosα : cosβ : cosγ.

M1(x1, y1, z1)

z = ρ cos ϕ; y = ρ sin θ sin ϕ; x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ; ρ = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ;

A e1 = a11 e1 + a21 e2 +…+ an1 en

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a11 − λ a12 ... a1n

 a11 a12   x1   x1′   x1′ = a11 x1 + a12 x 2

x1′ = λx1 ; x ′2 = λx 2 ; x3′ = λx3 ,

 a11 a12 a13  λx1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3

a11 − λ a12 a13

(1 - λ)((5 - λ)(1 - λ) - 1) - (1 - λ - 3) + 3(1 - 15 + 3λ) = 0

-(3 + λ)((1 - λ)(2 - λ) – 2) + 2(4 - 2λ - 2) - 4(2 - 1 + λ) = 0

( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) = a11 x12 + a 22 x 22 + a 33 x32 + 2a12 x1 x 2 + 2a 23 x 2 x3 + 2a13 x1 x 3

(a11 − λ 2 )m2 + a12 n 2 = 0 − m2 + 3n 2 = 0 1

: a11 = 0; a12 = 2; a22 = 3.