Rivers and coasts

General erosional processes

Hydraulic action

These processes erode material at the coast and in a river.

Corrasion/Abrasion

The force of the water breaks rock particles away from the river channel/ cliff.

Eroded rocks rub against the channel/ thrown against the cliff wearing it away.

Corrosion/Solution

River/sea dissolves some types of rock such as chalk and limestone.

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Coastal erosion is affected by: ! The point at which the wave breaks ! Steepness of the wave. ! Rock type and structure - (hard rock such as granite is far more resistant to erosion than soft rocks, such as clay).

Attrition

Eroded rocks picked up by the river/waves smash into each other.

General transportation processes

Small particles are carried along by the water.

These processes move material at the coast and in a river.

Soluble materials dissolve in water and are carried along.

Large particles like boulders are pushed along the bottom of the river bed/sea by the force of the water.

Pebble sized particles are bounced along the river bed/sea by the force of the water.

Types of waves

The size and energy of a wave is influenced by: ! how long the wind has been blowing ! the strength of the wind ! how far the wave has travelled (the fetch)

! Destroys (takes away) ! Strong backwash ! Weak swash

Destructive !
beach

! Creates (put sand on the beach) ! Strong swash ! Weak backwash

Constructive !

Coastal erosional landforms

Wave cut platform
Weather weakens the top of the cliff.

The sea attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave cut notch.

The notch increases in size causing the cliff to collapse.

The backwash carries the rubble back to the sea forming a wave cut platform.

The process repeats itself and the cliff continues to retreat.

Coastal erosional landforms

Hydraulic action creates cracks in the headland.

Overtime the hydraulic action causes the crack to become deeper.

Headland erosion
This creates a cave. This may eventually break through.

This creates an arch. The arch will eventually become bigger and collapse.

This leaves a stack. Forces of erosion turn the stack into a stump.

Coastal erosional landforms

The sea attacks an area of coast with alternating bands of hard and soft rock.

The soft rock (sand or clay) are eroding more quickly.

Headlands and bays

This creates a bay.

The hard rock is more resistant and takes longer to erode.

This leaves a headland jutting out to sea.

Coastal depositional landforms

Beaches
Constructive waves help to build up beaches.

The soft rock (sand or clay) are eroding more quickly.

This creates a bay.

The hard rock is more resistant and takes longer to erode.

Coastal depositional landforms

Spits
Longshore drift moves material along the coastline.

A spit forms when the material is deposited.

Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes further out.

Bars

Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is deposited and mud flats or salt marshes form. A bar forms when a spit joins to two headlands.

Coastal depositional landforms Case study: Hurst Castle spit

Coastal management
Hard engineering
Breakwater
! Long-term ! Beaches remain natural ! Expensive ! Unattractive ! Build up the beach ! Cheap

Groynes
! Easily destroyed ! South beaches a deprived of sediment

Gabions
! Cages rust ! Short lifespan

! Cheap ! Efficient

Rip-rap
! The boulders are good at absorbing wave energy ! Can easily be moved ! They need to be replaced

Revetment

Sea wall
! Prevents erosion. ! Acts as a flood barrier ! Expensive ! Need maintaining ! Creates a strong backwash ! They absorb the wave energy ! Expensive Creates a strong backwash which erodes under the barrier.

Coastal management
Soft engineering
Beach replenishment
! Creates wider beaches. ! Protects from erosion and flooding ! Looks natural ! Taking material can kill organisms ! It is very expensive ! It has to be repeated ! Could affect tourism

The purpose of soft engineering is to work with the natural processes of the coast.

Beach replenishment Adding sand and sediment to the beach from the sea floor.

Managed retreat Managed retreat Allowing a section of land to flood in order for plants to grow and therefore become a natural wave and flood barrier.
! Creates new marshland habitats ! Fairly cheap ! Flooding is reduced

! May cause conflict due to lost land. ! Could affect peoples lives.

Why protect the coast?

Loss of housing Deaths

Social

Water supplies affected Businesses on the edge

Loss of jobs SSIs are threatened by erosion

Damage to infrastructure Loss of tourism

Economic

House prices fall

Environmental
Ecosystems are affected as sea water has high salt content

Floods damage farm land

Managed Retreat & conflict Happisburgh, Norfolk

By 2055, loss of 20 more properties Loss of caravan park and farmland

Eroding 12metres each year

-A small village with a pub , tea shop, lighthouse, church and homes -850 population -Mainly farmland -No main roads -Historic records indicate that over 250 m of land were lost between 1600 and 1850.
-The cliffs are soft clay, so erode very quickly. Weathering increases the erosion rate. The location of Happisburgh causes increasing problems with powerful waves from the North sea, which creates landslides from eroding the base of the cliff.

Management case study

Old Management (all 40 years old) -Revetments now damaged (from a storm) and not effective -Groynes were placed to stop the rate of erosion, however they are not helping enough. -Rock Armour now little effectiveness Increasing climate change and sea level rise are impacting and increasing erosion

Conflict from managed retreat -To repair revetment cost 5 million, not cost effective -Farmers lose land and livelihood -Insurance companies wont pay out -Increasing protest from locals to central government but gment has said no. -Defences would cost more than the land and homes are worth. -Locals want compensation for the lack of management and for their homes collapsing into the sea.

-The historical lighthouse has had to be moved further back from the edge of the
cliff. -local campaign buy a rock for Happisburgh to raise money for private defences.

Managed Retreat- monitor but no management

Hydrological cycle
Stores- Water stored. Outputs- Water leaving.

Inputs- Water coming in.

Flows- Water moving.

Interception

Drainage basin

The area of land a river gets its water from. It is defined by the watershed.

An imaginary line marking out the drainage basin.

Where the river starts, usually in an upland area.

Small rivers which join the main river.

The point where two rivers join.

Where the river ends and flows into a sea/lake.

Upper course
Interlocking spurs

Created when the river flows over an area of hard rock followed by soft rock.

The soft rock is eroded more quickly creating a step.

As the water goes over the step it eroded more and more of the softer rock.
The river eroded vertically downwards creating V-shaped valleys. The rivers are not powerful enough to erode laterally as they have to wind around the hillsides.

A steep drop is created which is called a waterfall.

The hard rock is undercut by the erosion and collapses. The collapsed rock is swilled around and helps to erode the softer rock in the plunge pool. Overtime more collapses occur and the waterfall retreats creating a gorge.

Waterfalls

Middle course

Meanders Ox-bow lake

Erosion causes the outside bends to become closer and the river breaks through. Deposition cuts off the meander forming an ox-bow lake. The current if faster on the outside of the bend because the channel is deeper.

Therefore more erosion takes place on the river bend forming a river cliff.

The current is slower on the inside of the bend because the channel is shallower.

So eroded material is deposited on the inside forming a slip-off slope.

Lower course

Levees

Deltas

Flood plain

Levees are natural embankments. During a flood eroded material is deposited over the flood plain.

River are forced to slow down when they meet the sea or a lake.

When a river floods onto the flood plain the water slows down and deposits the eroded material. This builds it up.

The heaviest material is deposited nearest the river channel.

If the sea does not wash away the material it builds up and the channel gets blocked and is forced to split up.

Meanders migrate across the flood plain making it wider.

Overtime the deposited material builds up creating levees along the channel edge.

Eventually the material builds up so much that low lying areas called deltas are formed. There are three types.

The deposition that happens on the slip off slopes of meanders also helps to build up the flood plain.

Long Profile of a river River Tees - North East England

85 miles in length It drains an area of 710 square miles

River Management
-Long history of flash flooding -Cow green reservoir, controls water supply for industries along the river -Straighten the river for easier navigation during the industrial revolution Flood protection schemes in Yarn

Industry located in the Lower course so need for management

Upper Course
-Source high in the Pennines (893m above sea level) -High run off as steep V shaped valleys of impermeable rock -High rainfall good water supply -Many tributaries -Famous high fall waterfall tallest in England 21 metres high -Gorges, rapids and potholes at Low force

River flows east ward

Middle Course -Clear widening and
meandering -Meanders cut off in the 19th century -Sides become less steep -Lateral erosion

Lower Course
-Very urbanised and large populations. Eg Yarn -Important wildlife seals & migratory birds also SSSI -Ox bow lakes -Large oil, gas and petrochemical industries (as flat land) -Natural Levees formed due to silt build up -Mouth is in the North sea -Wide Mudflat estuary (tidal) -Huge water sports complex Tees Barrage

Causes of flooding
Physical

Human

Snow melt

When a lot of snow or ice melts it means a lot of water goes into the river in a short space of time.

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Urbanisation
Urban areas have impermeable surfaces tarmac. This means the off the surface quickly river. lots of such as water runs and to the

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Geology
If the rock is impermeable water cannot infiltrate and goes to the river.!

Relief
If the valley is steep the rain just not have a chance to infiltrate and it runs off quickly.

Deforestation
Trees intercept the rainwater. They also take up water. Cutting down the trees increases surface-runoff and therefore the volume of water in the river.

Prolonged rainfall
After a period of long rainfall the soil becomes saturated, it cant allow any more infiltration.

Heavy rainfall
Heavy rainfall means that there is a lot of runoff This increases the volume of water in the river.

A flood hydrograph
The time it takes for the water to reach the river.

A flood hydrograph shows whether a river has flooded. The lag time shows how quickly the water reached the river.

When the river has reached its capacity.

When the river flow increases.

When the river flow decreases.

When the rainfall is at its highest.

The normal flow of the river.

Flood management
Dams and reservoirs
! Store water ! Hydroelectric power ! Flow control ! Very expensive ! Flooding downstream ! Impact of flooding reduced ! Evacuation

Soft engineering
Flood warnings
! Dont stop the flood ! LEDC lack of access to radio etc

Channel straightening
! Water moves more quickly ! Flooding may happen downstream as water gets there faster ! Impact of flood reduced ! People know what to do

Preparation
! Does not mean safety ! Expensive to modify buildings

Man-made levees

Hard engineering
! Catastrophic flooding if levees break

Flood plain zoning

! Risk of flooding reduced ! Impermeable surfaces not created ! Urban expansion is limited ! No help in places already built on

! River can hold more water

6cm (2ins) of rain fell in two hours

MEDC Flood Boscastle 2004

Largely economical impacts

Very Short Lag Time

Reasons for the flooding PHYSICAL -A very wet August (2 times average rain) SO the ground was already saturated -Impermeable rocks & thin soils -Steep slopes rapid runoff -Confluence of Rivers Valency & Jordan is just above the village -A very high tide made it difficult for water to flow out to sea HUMAN -Bridges were low so acted a a dam - debris such as tree trunks caught on them water piled up until it burst through in a great wave -Many buildings & roads were positioned close to the river so more property damage

New Management & defence -4.6m scheme includes: raise car park to safer level; move & raise bridge; widen & lower the river bed to increase the amount of water it can Clear rescue and relief hold -Removing of dead vegetation to stop blocking of the river Primary Impacts -At risk properties encouraged to use more - 50+ cars, and caravans were flood resistant material, raise height of electrical swept out to sea wiring etc a wall of water swept -Environment Agency flood warning system + through the village destroying information everything in its path -Council runs special advice days, encouraging - 6 buildings were swept away people to have an emergency evacuation -Many other houses, shops etc pack & to take out insurance. Council has an were flooded, with mud + emergency action plan. sewage as well as water; possessions also ruined - Roads under 2.75m of water Since 2004 flooding again, still damage but not as damaging as this event No deaths, few serious injuries

Secondary Impacts

- 90% of economy dependent on tourism > lost money >20 accommodation providers & tourist attractions/shops forced to shut Insurance companies pay out 20 million

LEDC Flood Bangladesh 2004

Characteristics of Bangladesh
-Lays mainly on floodplains, so flat land Most of the land lies 6metres below sea -3 main rivers- The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna. -Monsoon season evey year high concentrated rainfall in a few months (June to September). -1,800mm and 2,600mm rain a year. -Poverty is a huge issue in Bangladesh-low literacy rate -Flooding occurs naturally in Bangladesh -Snow from the Himalayas melts each year and increase river discharge -Sediment blocks up the river and causes flooding -Deforestation in the forest increases run off and reduces lag time -Cyclones occur in the Bay of Benegal and causes coastal flooding -Densely populated areas meaning increase in deaths

60% of Dhaka flooded

Social impacts -36 million people were made homeless -People died as a result of disease because they had no access to clean water." -Impacted on rural farmers and urban slum dwellers the most. -Over 800 died with many more from disease Environmental impacts During July and August approximately 38% of the total land area was flooded including 800,000 ha of agricultural land and Dhaka" Floods caused river bank erosion especially on embankment areas close to the main channels, soil erosion, water-logging, water contamination" "

Economic impacts -serious damage to infrastructure roads, bridges, embankments, railway lines, irrigation systems" -All domestic and internal flights had to be suspended during July" -Value of damage was assessed as being in region of $2.2 billion of 4% of total GDP for 2004" " Response and management -Reliance on Ngo support financial and emergency supplies UN disaster management support -Self help schemes promoted -local community early warning system implemented, plus shelters -Increasing use of levees to protect field and villages -Increasing monitoring to reduce the impact as happens every year. -encourage farmers to build homes on stilts.

! The 2004 floods ! lasted from July to

September and covered 50% of the country at their peak.