OS C501 Composites
OS C501 Composites
DNV-OS-C501
COMPOSITE COMPONENTS
JANUARY 2003
FOREWORD
DET NORSKE VERITAS (DNV) is an autonomous and independent foundation with the objectives of safeguarding life, property and the environment, at sea and onshore. DNV undertakes classification, certification, and other verification and consultancy
services relating to quality of ships, offshore units and installations, and onshore industries worldwide, and carries out research
in relation to these functions.
DNV Offshore Codes consist of a three level hierarchy of documents:
Offshore Service Specifications. Provide principles and procedures of DNV classification, certification, verification and consultancy services.
Offshore Standards. Provide technical provisions and acceptance criteria for general use by the offshore industry as well as
the technical basis for DNV offshore services.
Recommended Practices. Provide proven technology and sound engineering practice as well as guidance for the higher level
Offshore Service Specifications and Offshore Standards.
DNV Offshore Codes are offered within the following areas:
A) Qualification, Quality and Safety Methodology
B) Materials Technology
C) Structures
D) Systems
E) Special Facilities
F) Pipelines and Risers
G) Asset Operation
Motives
No design code for Fibre Reinforced Plastic, often called composite structures, exists today except for some special applications
like FRP pipes, pressure vessels and ships.
The realization of even simple designs of FRP structures tends to become a major undertaking due to the lack of applicable design
standards. It is DNV's impression that the lack of a good FRP guideline is one of the major obstacles to utilize FRP structurally
in a reliable and economical way.
For this reason DNV started a JIP to develop a general standard for the design of load carrying structures and components fabricated from fibre-reinforced plastics and sandwich structures.
Upon termination of the JIP, the members participating i.e. Advanced Research Partnership, ABB Offshore Technology, Ahlstrm Glassfibre, AMOCO, Akzo Nobel Faser AG, Baltek, Devold AMT, FiReCo, MMS, Norsk Hydro, Reichold, Saga Petroleum,
Tenax Fibers, Umoe Shat Harding agreed that DNV shall transform the resulting project report into a DNV Offshore Standard.
The new DNV Offshore Standard is indexed: DNV-OS-C501 Composite Components, and has a contents layout as shown overleaf.
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Norske Veritas.
CONTENTS
Sec. 1
General................................................................... 9
A. Objectives ............................................................................... 9
A 100
Objectives ......................................................................... 9
General............................................................................ 18
Loads and environment................................................... 19
Obtaining loads from the exposure from
the surroundings.............................................................. 19
General.............................................................................. 9
100
200
300
400
500
600
Sec. 2
I. Loads.....................................................................................19
I
I
I
I
I
I
100
200
300
400
500
600
General............................................................................ 19
Probabilistic representation of load effects..................... 20
Simplified representation of load effects........................ 20
Characteristic load effect ................................................ 20
The sustained load effect ................................................ 21
The fatigue load effects .................................................. 22
J. Environment .........................................................................23
J
J
100
200
General............................................................................ 23
Effects of the environment on the material properties ... 24
Objective......................................................................... 12
K 400
K 500
General............................................................................ 24
Load effect and environmental conditions for ultimate
limit state ....................................................................... 24
Load effect and environmental conditions for timedependent material properties......................................... 25
Load effect and environmental conditions for fatigue
analysis ........................................................................... 25
Direct combination of loads............................................ 25
B 100
B 200
B 300
Sec. 4
K 300
A. General.................................................................................. 12
A 100
General............................................................................ 12
Risk assessment .............................................................. 12
Quality Assurance........................................................... 12
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
100
200
300
400
Approaches ..................................................................... 15
Analytical approach ........................................................ 15
Component testing .......................................................... 15
Analyses combined with updating.................................. 15
Sec. 3
A. Introduction .......................................................................... 17
A 100
........................................................................................ 17
B. Product specifications........................................................... 17
B 100
........................................................................................ 17
D. Phases ................................................................................... 17
D 100
Phases.............................................................................. 17
A. General..................................................................................26
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Introduction..................................................................... 26
Laminate specification.................................................... 26
Lay-up specification ....................................................... 26
Orthotropic plies ............................................................. 26
Mechanical properties..................................................... 27
Characteristic values of mechanical properties .............. 27
Properties of laminates with damage .............................. 27
100
200
300
400
500
B 600
General............................................................................ 27
Static properties .............................................................. 28
Relationship between strength and strain to failure........ 29
Characteristic values ....................................................... 29
Experimental measurement of matrix and
fibre dominated strain to failure ..................................... 30
Experimental measurement of ply shear properties........ 30
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Introduction..................................................................... 30
Creep............................................................................... 31
Stress rupture .................................................................. 31
Static strength reduction due to permanent static loads.. 32
Stress relaxation.............................................................. 32
Change of Modulus of elasticity under cyclic fatigue .... 32
Cycles to failure under cyclic fatigue loads.................... 33
Cycles to failure under fatigue loads for
matrix dominated strengths............................................. 34
C 900 Static strength reduction due to cyclic loads .................. 34
C 1000 Effect of high loading rates - shock loads - impact ........ 35
C 1100 Characteristic values ....................................................... 35
100
200
300
400
500
600
........................................................................................ 18
General............................................................................ 18
Failure modes.................................................................. 18
Identification of the type of limit states .......................... 18
E
E
E
E
100
200
300
400
Introduction..................................................................... 37
Effect of temperature ...................................................... 37
Effect of water ................................................................ 38
Effect of chemicals ......................................................... 39
E 500
E 600
E 700
Effect of UV radiation.....................................................39
Electrolytic Corrosion .....................................................39
Combination of environmental effects............................39
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Introduction .....................................................................39
Change of production method.........................................39
Change of processing temperature and pressure.............39
Change of post cure procedure........................................40
Change of void content ...................................................40
Correction for change in fibre volume fraction ..............40
Control of fibre orientation: ............................................40
Control of fibre tension: ..................................................40
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Introduction.....................................................................56
Effect of temperature ......................................................57
Effect of water.................................................................57
Effect of chemicals..........................................................57
Effect of UV radiation.....................................................58
Electrolytic corrosion......................................................58
Combination of environmental effects............................58
Core production...............................................................58
Sandwich production.......................................................58
Influence of core density.................................................58
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
100
200
300
400
500
Introduction .....................................................................40
Fire reaction ....................................................................41
Fire resistance .................................................................41
Insulation.........................................................................41
Properties after the fire....................................................41
100
200
300
400
500
Introduction.....................................................................58
Fire reaction ....................................................................58
Fire resistance .................................................................58
Insulation.........................................................................58
Properties after the fire....................................................59
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Introduction .....................................................................41
General test requirements................................................41
Selection of material qualification method .....................41
Direct measurement ........................................................41
Representative data .........................................................41
Qualification against representative data ........................42
Confirmation testing for static data.................................44
Confirmation testing for long term data high safety class ..............................................................44
H 900 Confirmation testing for long term data normal safety class ..........................................................45
H 1000 Use of manufacturers data or data from
the literature as representative data .................................45
H 1100 Confirming material data by component testing.............45
H 1200 Comparing results from different processes and
lay-ups .............................................................................45
100
200
300
Introduction .....................................................................46
Default values .................................................................46
Experimental approach ...................................................46
Sec. 5
A. General.................................................................................. 48
A
A
A
A
A
A
100
200
300
400
500
600
Introduction .....................................................................48
Sandwich specification ...................................................48
Lay-up specification........................................................48
Isotropic/orthotropic core layers .....................................48
Mechanical and physical properties ................................49
Characteristic values of mechanical properties...............49
100
200
300
400
500
600
General ............................................................................49
Static properties...............................................................49
Relationship between strength and strain to failure ........52
Characteristic values .......................................................52
Shear properties...............................................................52
Core skin interface properties .........................................53
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
General ............................................................................54
Creep ...............................................................................54
Stress rupture under permanent static loads....................54
Static strength reduction due to permanent static loads ..54
Stress relaxation ..............................................................54
Change of modulus of elasticity under cyclic fatigue.....55
Cycles to failure under fatigue loads...............................55
Static strength reduction due to cyclic loading ...............55
Effect of high loading rates - shock loads - impact.........56
Characteristic values .......................................................56
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Introduction.....................................................................59
General test requirements................................................59
Selection of material qualification method .....................59
Direct measurement ........................................................59
Representative data .........................................................59
Qualification against representative data ........................60
Confirmation testing for static data.................................61
Confirmation testing for long term data..........................61
Use of manufacturers data or data from
the literature as representative data.................................61
H 1000 Confirming material data by component testing.............61
Sec. 6
General ............................................................................62
FRP laminates - failure mechanisms and failure type.....64
Sandwich structures - failure mechanisms and
failure type ......................................................................65
Displacements and long term failure mechanisms and
failure type ......................................................................65
Link between failure modes and failure mechanisms.....66
100
200
300
400
General ............................................................................67
Design criteria for single loads ......................................67
Design criteria for combined loads .................................67
Time dependency and influence of the environment ......68
100
200
300
400
C 500
C 600
General ............................................................................68
Fibre failure at the ply level ............................................68
Fibre failure check using a modified Tsai-Wu criterion .69
Special considerations for fibre failure under inplane
compressive loads ...........................................................70
Fibre failure checked by component testing ...................70
Fracture mechanics approach..........................................70
D. Matrix cracking.....................................................................71
D
D
D
D
D
D
100
200
300
400
500
600
General ............................................................................71
Matrix failure based on simple stress criterion ...............71
Matrix failure based on Puck's criterion .........................72
Obtaining orientation of the failure surface ....................73
Matrix cracking caused only by shear.............................73
Matrix failure checked by component testing.................73
E. Delamination.........................................................................74
E 100
E 200
E 300
General ............................................................................74
Onset of delamination .....................................................74
Delamination growth.......................................................74
F. Yielding ................................................................................74
F 100
General ............................................................................74
General ............................................................................74
H. Buckling................................................................................75
H 100
H 200
H 300
H 400
General requirements...................................................... 76
Requirements when buckling resistance is
determined by testing...................................................... 76
Requirements when buckling is assessed by analysis .... 76
100
200
300
400
I. Displacements....................................................................... 77
I
100
General............................................................................ 77
B 500
B 600
100
200
300
400
General............................................................................ 77
Creep............................................................................... 77
Stress relaxation.............................................................. 78
Stress rupture - stress corrosion ...................................... 78
100
200
300
400
General............................................................................ 79
Change of elastic properties............................................ 79
Initiation of fatigue damage............................................ 79
Growth of fatigue damage .............................................. 80
L. Impact ................................................................................... 80
L 100
L 200
L 300
General............................................................................ 80
Impact testing.................................................................. 80
Evaluation after impact testing ....................................... 80
M. Wear...................................................................................... 80
M 100
M 200
M 300
General............................................................................ 80
Calculation of the wear depth ......................................... 81
Component testing .......................................................... 81
General............................................................................ 81
Materials ......................................................................... 81
Interfaces......................................................................... 81
100
200
300
400
500
General............................................................................ 81
Failure of sandwich faces ............................................... 81
Failure of the sandwich core........................................... 81
Failure of the sandwich skin-core interface.................... 81
Buckling of sandwich structures..................................... 82
B 700
General............................................................................ 86
How to select the partial safety factors........................... 86
Simplified set of partial safety factors (general)............. 86
Simplified set of partial safety factors (for known
maximum load effect)..................................................... 87
Full set of partial safety factors ...................................... 87
Partial safety factors for functional and
environmental loads as typically defined for risers ........ 87
Partial safety factors for functional and
environmental loads as typically defined for TLPs ........ 87
General............................................................................ 88
Load model factors ......................................................... 88
Resistance model factors ................................................ 88
General............................................................................ 88
........................................................................................ 88
Sec. 9
Structural Analysis............................................. 89
A. General..................................................................................89
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Objective......................................................................... 89
Input data ........................................................................ 89
Analysis types................................................................. 89
Transfer function ............................................................ 89
Global and local analysis ................................................ 89
Material levels ................................................................ 89
Non-linear analysis ......................................................... 90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
General............................................................................ 90
In-plane 2-D progressive failure analysis ....................... 91
3-D progressive failure analysis ..................................... 91
Linear failure analysis with non-degraded properties .... 91
Linear failure analysis with degraded properties............ 92
Two-step non-linear failure analysis method ................. 92
Through thickness 2-D analysis...................................... 93
General............................................................................ 82
C 100
C 200
C 300
General............................................................................ 93
Modification of failure criteria ....................................... 93
Creep, stress relaxation and
stress rupture-stress relaxation........................................ 94
Fatigue ............................................................................ 94
R 100
General............................................................................ 82
C 400
Sec. 7
A. General.................................................................................. 83
A
A
A
A
A
100
200
300
400
500
Introduction..................................................................... 83
Joints ............................................................................... 83
Interfaces......................................................................... 83
Thermal properties.......................................................... 83
Examples......................................................................... 83
B. Joints..................................................................................... 83
B 100
B 200
B 300
B 400
100
200
300
400
D 100
D 200
D 300
General............................................................................ 94
Assumptions and limitations........................................... 94
Link to numerical methods ............................................. 94
100
200
300
400
500
600
General............................................................................ 94
Modelling of structures general ................................... 94
Software requirements .................................................... 95
Execution of analysis...................................................... 95
Evaluation of results ....................................................... 96
Validation and verification ............................................. 96
General............................................................................ 96
Dynamics and finite element analysis ............................ 96
Testing ............................................................................ 96
H. Thermal stresses....................................................................96
H 100
General............................................................................ 96
D. Interfaces .............................................................................. 84
D 100
General............................................................................ 84
Sec. 8
General............................................................................ 86
J
J
J
100
100
200
300
General............................................................................ 97
General............................................................................ 97
Elastic constants.............................................................. 97
2-D non-linear failure analysis ....................................... 97
J
J
400
500
K. Buckling................................................................................ 98
K 100
K 200
K 300
K 400
K 500
General ............................................................................98
Buckling analysis of isolated components ......................98
Buckling analysis of more complex elements or entire
structures .........................................................................99
Buckling analysis of stiffened plates and shells..............99
Buckling analysis for sandwich structures......................99
General ............................................................................99
Connection between partial load-model factor and
analytical analysis ...........................................................99
Connection between partial load-model factor and
finite element analysis.....................................................99
Connection between partial load-model factor and
dynamic response analysis ............................................100
Connection between partial load-model factor and
transfer function ............................................................100
E
E
E
E
200
300
400
500
F. Installation ..........................................................................110
F 100
.......................................................................................110
.......................................................................................110
Objective .......................................................................111
B. Inspection............................................................................111
B 100
B 200
General ..........................................................................111
Inspection methods .......................................................111
C. Reassessment ......................................................................111
C 100
A. General................................................................................ 101
D. Repair..................................................................................111
A 100
A 200
A 300
D 100
D 200
D 300
Introduction ...................................................................101
Failure mode analysis....................................................101
Representative samples .................................................101
General ..........................................................................111
Repair procedure ...........................................................111
Requirements for a repair..............................................111
Qualification of a repair ................................................111
E. Maintenance........................................................................ 112
B 100
B 200
B 300
E 100
General ..........................................................................101
Short term properties.....................................................101
Long term properties .....................................................102
F. Retirement...........................................................................112
F 100
100
200
300
400
C 500
100
200
300
400
General ..........................................................................105
Static tests .....................................................................105
Long term tests..............................................................105
Example of multiple failure mechanisms......................105
General ..........................................................................112
General ..........................................................................112
General ..........................................................................113
Terms ............................................................................113
A. Objective.............................................................................117
E 100
A 100
.......................................................................................106
Objective .......................................................................107
Quality system...............................................................107
100
200
300
400
B 500
B 100
B 200
B 300
B
B
B
B
Introduction ...................................................................107
Process parameters ........................................................107
Production machine parameters ....................................107
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
General ..........................................................................107
Raw materials................................................................107
Storage of materials ......................................................107
Mould construction .......................................................107
Resin..............................................................................108
Producing laminates and sandwich panels....................108
Producing joints ............................................................108
Injection of resin and cure.............................................108
Evaluation of the final product......................................109
.......................................................................................109
General ..........................................................................109
General ..........................................................................117
600
700
800
900
Overview.......................................................................117
General function (ref. section 3 B100)..........................117
Product specifications (ref. section 3 B200) .................117
Division of the product into components
(ref. section 3 C)............................................................117
Phases and safety class definitions
(ref. section 3 D and E) .................................................117
Functional requirements (ref. section 3 F) ....................118
Failure modes (ref. section 3 G)....................................118
Loads (ref. section 3 I) ..................................................119
Environment (ref. section 3 J).......................................119
D. Material properties..............................................................121
D
D
D
D
D
D
100
200
300
400
500
600
D 700
D 800
100
200
300
400
General.......................................................................... 124
Analysis procedure (ref. section 9) ............................... 124
Fibre failure - short-term (ref. section 6 C) .................. 125
Fibre dominated ply failure due to
static long-term loads (ref. section 6 J)......................... 125
E 500 Fibre dominated ply failure due to
cyclic fatigue loads (ref. section 6 K) ........................... 126
E 600 Matrix cracking (ref. section 6 D) ................................ 126
E 700 Unacceptably large displacement (ref. section 6 I)....... 126
E 800 Impact resistance (ref. section 6 L)............................... 127
E 900 Explosive decompression (ref. section 6 O) ................. 127
E 1000 Chemical decomposition (ref. section 6 Q) .................. 127
E 1100 Summary evaluation ..................................................... 127
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
General.......................................................................... 127
Analysis procedure (ref. section 9 B) ........................... 127
Matrix cracking (short term) at 1.48 MPa pressure
(ref. section 6 D) ........................................................... 128
Matrix cracking under long-term static loads
(ref. section 4 C400) ..................................................... 128
Matrix cracking under long-term cyclic fatigue loads
(ref. section 4 C900) ..................................................... 128
Fibre failure - short term (ref. section 6 C)................... 128
Fibre dominated ply failure due to
static long term loads (ref. section 6 J) ......................... 129
Fibre dominated ply failure due to
cyclic fatigue loads (ref. section 6 K) ........................... 129
Unacceptably large displacement (ref. section 6 I)....... 129
Impact resistance (ref. section 6 L)............................... 129
Explosive decompression (ref. section 6 O) ................. 129
Chemical decomposition (ref. section 6 Q) .................. 129
Component testing (ref. section 10).............................. 129
Summary evaluation ..................................................... 130
100
200
300
400
G 500
G 600
G 700
G 800
G
G
G
G
G
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
General.......................................................................... 130
Analysis procedure (ref. section 9 B) ........................... 130
Matrix cracking (short term) (ref. section 6 D) ............ 130
Matrix cracking under long-term static loads
(ref. section 4 C400) ..................................................... 130
Matrix cracking under long-term cyclic fatigue loads
(ref. section 4 C900) ..................................................... 130
Fibre failure short-term (ref. section 6 C).................. 130
Fibre dominated ply failure due to
static long-term loads (ref. section 6 J)......................... 131
Fibre dominated ply failure due to
cyclic fatigue loads (ref. section 6 K) ........................... 131
Unacceptably large displacement ................................. 131
Impact resistance........................................................... 131
Explosive decompression ............................................. 131
Chemical decomposition............................................... 132
Summary evaluation ..................................................... 132
D. Environments...................................................................... 135
E. Distribution types of basic variables .................................. 135
Introduction................................................................... 137
General testing information .......................................... 137
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
...................................................................................... 138
...................................................................................... 138
...................................................................................... 138
Introduction................................................................... 140
General testing information .......................................... 140
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
400
500
...................................................................................... 136
General.......................................................................... 141
Tensile tests .................................................................. 141
Flatwise tensile tests ..................................................... 141
Shear tests ..................................................................... 141
Tests to obtain properties under long term static and
cyclic loads ................................................................... 141
100
200
300
400
500
600
General.......................................................................... 143
.......................................................................................147
100
200
300
400
Test environment...........................................................156
Fibre dominated ply properties .....................................157
Matrix dominated ply properties...................................157
Through thickness ply properties..................................157
.......................................................................................157
Test environment...........................................................147
Fibre dominated ply properties .....................................148
Matrix dominated ply properties...................................148
Through thickness ply properties ..................................149
A. General................................................................................158
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
D 800
D 900
Test environment...........................................................149
Fibre dominated tensile properties ................................149
Fibre dominated compressive properties ......................152
Matrix dominated inplane tensile properties.................154
Matrix dominated inplane compressive properties .......154
Matrix dominated inplane shear properties...................154
Matrix dominated through thickness
tensile properties ...........................................................154
Matrix dominated through thickness compressive
properties.......................................................................154
Matrix dominated through thickness shear properties ..154
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
E 800
E 900
Test environment...........................................................154
Fibre dominated tensile properties ................................154
Fibre dominated compressive properties ......................155
Matrix dominated inplane tensile properties.................155
Matrix dominated inplane compressive properties .......155
Matrix dominated inplane shear properties...................155
Matrix dominated through thickness
tensile properties ...........................................................155
Matrix dominated through thickness compressive
properties.......................................................................155
Matrix dominated through thickness shear properties ..155
A 100
.......................................................................................158
100
200
300
400
Test environment...........................................................159
Fibre dominated ply Properties .....................................159
Matrix dominated ply Properties...................................159
Through thickness ply Properties..................................159
General ..........................................................................159
.......................................................................................160
C
C
C
C
A. General................................................................................ 156
A 100
D 100
.......................................................................................156
100
200
300
400
Test environment...........................................................160
Fibre dominated ply properties .....................................161
Matrix dominated ply properties...................................161
Through thickness ply properties..................................161
.......................................................................................161
SECTION 1
GENERAL
A. Objectives
A 100 Objectives
101 The main objectives of this standard is to:
serve as a basic philosophy and standard
provide an internationally acceptable standard for safe design with respect to strength and performance by defining
minimum requirements for design, materials, fabrication
and installation of load-carrying Fibre Reinforced Plastic
(FRP) laminates and sandwich structures and components
serve as a technical reference document in contractual
matters between client and contractor and or supplier
provide cost-effective solutions based on complete limit
state design with reliability based calibration of safety factors
reflect the state-of-the-art and consensus on accepted industry practice
to provide guidance and requirements for efficient global
analyses and introduce a consistent link between design
checks (failure modes), load conditions and load effect assessment in the course of the global analyses.
101 The client is understood to be the party ultimately responsible for the system as installed and its intended use in accordance with the prevailing laws, statutory rules and
regulations.
102 The authorities are the national or international regulatory bodies.
103 The contractor is understood to be the party contracted
by the client to perform all or part of the necessary work needed to bring the system to an installed and operable condition.
B. Application - Scope
B 100 General
101 This standard provides requirements and recommendations for structural design and structural analysis procedures
for composite components. Emphasis with respect to loads and
environmental conditions is put on applications in the offshore
and processing industry. The materials description and calculation methods can be applied to any applications. Aspects related to documentation, verification, inspection, materials,
fabrication, testing and quality control are also addressed.
102 The standard is applicable to all products and parts made
of composite material and may be applied to modifications,
operation and upgrading made to existing ones. It is intended
C 200
SECTION 2
DESIGN
START
DESIGN
GENERAL
PHILOSOPHY
SECTION 3
DESIGN INPUT
DESIGN
PREMISES
SECTION 4
MATERIALS LAMINATES
SECTION 5
M ATERIALS SANDWICH
SECTION 6
Failure
mechanisms
SECTION 7
JOINTS &
INTERFACES
DESIGN
ANALYSIS
SECTION 8
SAFETY
FACTORS
SECTION 9
STRUCTURAL
SECTION 10
COMPONENT
ANALYSIS
TESTING
SECTION 11
FABRICATION
FABRICATION
INSPECTION &
REPAIR
SECTION 12
INSPECTION
SECTION 13
SECTION 14
D EFINITIONS
GENERAL
EXAMPLES
Figure 1
Flow chart of the standard
C 300
301 All users should go through section 1 and section 2 describing the scope of the standard and the design principles.
302 The client and contractor(s) should specify the Design
Premises according to section 3.
303 The design analysis should be performed by the designer according to section 6, section 7, section 8, section 9 and
section 10. The main input for the Design Report should come
out of these sections.
304 The contractor(s) and manufacturer(s) should specify
the fabrication according to section 11.
305 The client and contractor(s) should specify the installation and repair procedures according to section 12.
306 The third party verifier should verify that the design
documentation is according to the requirements of section 2E.
D. Normative References
D 500
Offshore Standards
DNV CN 1.2
DNV CN 7
DNV CN 30.2
DNV CN 30.4
DNV CN 30.5
DNV CN 30.6
D 600
Other references
API RP1111
Recommended Practices
DNV RP B401
DNV RP-C203
DNV RP-F101
DNV RP-F104
DNV RP-F105
DNV RP-F106
Rules
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SECTION 2
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND DESIGN PRINCIPLES
A. General
A 100 Objective
101 The purpose of this section is to identify and address key
issues which need to be considered for the design, fabrication,
and operation of FRP components and structures. Furthermore, the purpose is to present the safety philosophy and corresponding design format applied throughout this Standard.
B. Safety philosophy
B 100 General
101 An overall safety objective is to be established, planned
and implemented covering all phases from conceptual development until abandonment of the structure.
102 This Standard gives the possibility to design structures
or structural components with different structural safety requirements, depending on the Safety Class to which the structure or part of the structure belongs. Safety classes are based on
the consequence of failures related to the Ultimate Limit State
(ULS).
103 Structural reliability of the structure is ensured by the
use of partial safety factors that are specified in this Standard.
Partial safety factors are calibrated to meet given target structural reliability levels. Note that gross errors are not accounted
for. Gross errors have to be prevented by a quality system. The
quality system shall set requirements to the organisation of the
work, and require minimum standards of competence for personnel performing the work. Quality assurance shall be applicable in all phases of the project, like design, design
verification, operation, etc.
B 200 Risk assessment
201 To the extent it is practically feasible, all work associated with the design, construction and operation shall ensure that
no single failure is to lead to life-threatening situations for any
persons, or to unacceptable damage to material or to environment.
202 A systematic review or analysis shall be carried out at all
phases to identify and evaluate the consequences of single failures and series of failure in the structure such that necessary remedial measures may be taken. The extent of such a review is
to reflect the criticality of the structure, the criticality of
planned operations, and previous experience with similar
structures or operations.
Guidance note:
A methodology for such a systematic review is the Quantitative
Risk Analysis (QRA) which may provide an estimation of the
overall risk to human health and safety, environment and assets
and comprises (i) hazard identification, (ii) assessment of probability of failure events, (iii) accident development and (iv) consequence and risk assessment. It should be noted that legislation in
some countries requires risk analysis to be performed, at least at
an overall level to identify critical scenarios, which may jeopardise the safety and reliability of the structure. Other methodologies for identification of potential hazards are Failure Mode
Effect Analysis (FMEA) and Hazardous Operations studies
(HAZOP).
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C. Design format
C 100 General principles
101 The basic approach of the Limit State Design method
consists in recognising the different failure modes related to
each functional requirement and associating to each mode of
failure a specific limit state beyond which the structure no
longer satisfies the functional requirement. Different limit
states are defined, each limit state being related to the kind of
failure mode and its anticipated consequences.
102 The design analysis consists in associating each failure
mode to all the possible failure mechanisms (i.e. the mechanisms at the material level). A design equation or a failure criterion is defined for each failure mechanism, and failure
becomes interpreted as synonymous to the design equation no
longer being satisfied.
103 The design equations are formulated in the so-called
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) format, where
partial safety factors (load factors and resistance factors) are
applied to the load effects (characteristic load values) and to
the resistance variables (characteristic resistance values) that
enter the design equations.
104 The partial safety factors, which are recommended in
this Standard, have been established such that acceptable and
consistent reliability levels are achieved over a wide range of
structure configurations and applications.
105 This section discusses the limit states that have been
considered relevant for the design of structures made of FRP
materials, presents the underlying safety considerations for the
recommended safety factors and finally introduces the adopted
LRFD format.
106 As an alternative to the LRFD format a recognised
Structural Reliability Analysis (SRA) may be applied. The
conditions for application of an SRA are discussed at the end
of this section.
C 200 Limit states
201 The following two limit state categories shall be considered in the design of the structure:
Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
202 The Ultimate Limit State shall be related to modes of
failure for which safety is an issue. The ULS generally corresponds to the maximum load carrying capacity and is related to
structural failure modes. Safety Classes are defined in accordance with the consequences of these failure modes on safety,
environment and economy. The ULS is not reversible.
203 The Serviceability Limit State should be related to failure modes for which human risks or environmental risks are
not an issue. The SLS is usually related to failure modes leading to service interruptions or restrictions. Service Classes are
defined in accordance with the frequency of service interruptions due these modes of failure. The SLS is usually reversible,
i.e. after repair or after modification of the operating conditions (e.g. interruption of operation, reduction of pressure or
speed) the structure will again be able to meet its functional requirements in all specified design conditions.
Guidance note:
Ultimate Limit States correspond to, for example:
- loss of static equilibrium of the structure, or part of the structure, considered as a rigid body
- rupture of critical sections of the structure caused by exceeding the ultimate strength or the ultimate deformation of the
material
- transformation of the structure into a mechanism (collapse).
- loss of stability (buckling, etc)
Serviceability Limit States corresponds to, for example:
- deformations which affect the efficient use or appearance of
structural or non-structural elements
- excessive vibrations producing discomfort or affecting nonstructural elements or equipment
- local damage (including cracking) which reduces the durability of the structure or affects the efficiency or appearance of
structural or non-structural elements.
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501 Partial safety factors depend on the safety class and the
failure type. The partial factors are available for five different
levels and are listed in Section 8.
502 The selection of the levels is given in the table C1 for the
ultimate limit state.
Table C1 Target reliability levels for ULS
SAFETY CLASS
FAILURE TYPE
Ductile/Plastic
Brittle
Low
A
B
Normal
B
C
High
C
D
503 The recommended selection of the levels for the serviceability limit state is given in the table C2.
Table C2 Target reliability levels for SLS
SERVICE CLASS
SERVICE FAILURES
Normal
A
High
B
C 600
601 The Partial Safety Factor format (or Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD) separates the influence of uncertainties and variability originating from different causes.
Partial safety factors are assigned to variables such as load effect and resistance variables. They are applied as factors on
specified characteristic values of these load and resistance variables, thereby defining design values of these variables for use
in design calculations, and thereby accounting for possible unfavourable deviations of the basic variables from their characteristic values. The characteristic values of the variables are
selected representative values of the variables, usually specified as specific quantiles in their respective probability distributions, e.g. an upper-tail quantile for load and a lower-tail
quantile for resistance. The values of the partial safety factors
are calibrated, e.g. by means of a probabilistic analysis, such
that the specified target reliability is achieved whenever the
partial safety factors are used for design. Note that characteristic values and their associated partial safety factors are closely
linked. If the characteristic values are changed, relative to the
ones determined according to procedures described elsewhere
in this document, then the requirements to the partial safety
factors will also change in order to maintain the intended target
reliability level.
Guidance note:
The following uncertainties are usually considered:
- Uncertainties in the loads, caused by natural variability,
which is usually a temporal variability
- Uncertainties in the material properties, caused by natural
variability, which is usually a spatial variability
- Uncertainties in the geometrical parameters, caused by
- deviations of the geometrical parameters from their characteristic (normal) value
- tolerance limits
- cumulative effects of a simultaneous occurrence of several geometrical variation
- Uncertainties in the applied engineering models
F . Sd .S k
where,
F . Sd .S k ,
Rk
1
M . Rd
where,
k
F . Sd . k ,
M
Rd
Guidance note:
- Partial load effect factors F are applicable to the characteristic values of the local response of the structure. They account
for uncertainties associated with the variability of the local responses of the structure (local stresses or strains). The uncertainties in the local response are linked to the uncertainties on
the loads applied to the structure through the transfer function.
- Partial resistance factors M account for uncertainties associated with the variability of the strength.
- Load model factors Sd account for inaccuracies, idealisations, and biases in the engineering model used for representation of the real response of the structure, e.g. simplifications
in the transfer function (see section 9). For example, wind
characterised by a defined wind speed will induce wind loads
on the structure, and those loads will induce local stresses and
strains in the structure. The load model factor account for the
inaccuracies all the way from wind speed to local response in
the material.
- Resistance model factors Rd account for differences between
true and predicted resistance values, e.g. differences between
test and in-situ materials properties (size effects), differences
associated with the capability of the manufacturing processes
(e.g. deviations of the geometrical parameters from the characteristic value, tolerance limits on the geometrical parameters), and differences owing to temporal degradation
processes.
- Uncertainties or biases in a failure criterion are accounted for
by the resistance model factor.
Rk
M . Rd
where,
Rk characteristic resistance
607 The load model factor shall be applied on the characteristic local stresses or strains. The resistance model factors apply on the characteristic resistance of the material used at the
location on the structure where the design rule is to be applied.
608 The characteristic values for load effects and resistance
variables are specified as quantiles of their respective probability distributions.
609 The characteristic load effect, Sk, is a value that should
rarely be exceeded. For time dependent processes, it is generally given in terms of return values for occurrence, e.g., once
in a given reference time period (return period). See section 3
I400 for characteristic loads.
610 The characteristic resistance, Rk, is a value corresponding to a high probability of exceedance, also accounting for its
variation with time when relevant. See section 4 A600 and section 5 A600 for characteristic resistance.
611 The partial safety factors are calibrated against the target
reliabilities indicated in Tables C1 and C2. See also Section 8.
612 The partial safety factors defined in this Standard apply
to all failure mechanisms and all safety- and service classes.
They depend on the target reliability, the load distribution type
(or the local response distribution type when applicable) and
its associated coefficient of variation, and on the coefficient of
variation associated with the resistance. When several loads
are combined, a combination factor shall be used with the same
set of partial factors. The combination of several loads is described in section 3 K.
613 The load model factors depend on the method used for
the structural analysis. See section 8 C and section 9 L.
614 The resistance model factors depend on the uncertainties
in the material strength properties caused by manufacturing,
installation and degradation. See section 8 B.
C 700
701 As an alternative to design according to the LRFD format specified and used in this Standard, a recognised Structural Reliability Analysis (SRA) based design method in
compliance with Classification Note No. 30.6 "Structural Reliability Analysis of Marine Structures" or ISO 2394 may be
applied provided it can be documented that the approach provides adequate safety for familiar cases as indicated in this
Standard.
702 The Structural Reliability Analysis is to be performed by
suitably qualified personnel.
703 As far as possible, target reliabilities are to be calibrated
against identical or similar designs that are known to have adequate safety. If this is not feasible, the target reliability is to
be based on the limit state category, the failure type and the
Safety or Service Class as given in Table C3 and Table C4.
Table C3 Target annual failure probabilities PFT
Failure type
LOW
SAFETY
CLASS
Failure consequence
NORMAL
HIGH SAFETY
SAFETY
CLASS
CLASS
PF = 10-3
PF = 10-4
PF = 10-5
PF = 10-4
PF = 10-5
PF = 10-6
D. Design approach
D 100
Approaches
FEM-analyses, see section 9) and compared with the relevant data on the mechanical strength.
Design by component testing only, i.e. full scale or scaled
down samples of the structure or parts of the structure are
tested under relevant conditions (see section 10) such that
the characteristic strength of the complete structure can be
determined.
A combination of an analytical approach and testing, i.e.
the same approach specified in section 10 for updating in
combination with full scale component testing.
102 The structure shall be designed such that none of the failure mechanisms, identified in the design analysis (see section
3 and 6), will occur for any of the design cases specified in section 3. The design against each individual failure mechanism
can be checked with the help of one of the three approaches
mentioned in 101.
D 200 Analytical approach
201 The level of all stress (strain) components in all relevant
areas of the structure, including stress concentrations, shall be
determined according to section 9.
202 Failure criteria and safety factors are applied to the load
effects, i.e., the local stresses or strains.
203 The analysis provides the link between load and load effect. If non-linear effects change the mean, distribution type
and COV of the load effect relative to the load itself, the properties of the load effect shall be used to determine safety factors.
204 The partial factors in Section 8 shall be used.
D 300 Component testing
301 The purpose of this approach is to define the characteristic strength of the finished and complete structure under relevant load conditions. If deemed relevant, the resistance may
be found by testing scaled models or parts of the finished structure.
302 Details about component testing are given in Section 10
and 7.
303 A sufficiently large number of tests shall be carried out
in order to be able to define the characteristic strength of the
structure with a confidence level at least as large as required
for the data used with the analytical approach.
304 The failure mode(s), failure mechanism(s) and location(s) of failure shall be verified during and or after the tests.
D 400 Analyses combined with updating
401 Analyses of the structure may be complicated and a conservative bias may have to be introduced in the analyses. The
reasons for such biases may be:
Scaling effects.
Uncertainties in the relevance of the design rules, e.g. in
areas with large stress gradients.
The analytical models for analysing the stress level in the
structure.
The effect of the environment on the mechanical properties.
Etc.
402 In such cases the analyses that have been carried out may
be combined with the procedure for updating given in Section
10C. The purpose of this approach is to update the predicted resistance of the structure with the results from a limited number
of tests in a manner consistent with the reliability approach of
the standard.
403 It is a basic assumption that that all biases are handled in
a conservative way, i.e. that the bias lead to a conservative prediction of the resistance of the structure.
E. Requirements to documentation
E 100 Design Drawings and Tolerances
101 Design drawings shall be provided according to general
standards.
102 Tolerances shall be indicated.
E 200 Guidelines for the design report
201 The design Report should contain the following as a
minimum:
Description of the entire structure and of its components.
Design input as described in Section 3, including design
life, environmental conditions.
Relevant design assumptions and conditions including applicable limitations.
Description of analysis from design phase, evaluation of
problem areas, highly utilised and critical areas of the
structure and highlighting points that require special attention during subsequent phases.
Reference to accepted calculations and other documents
verifying compliance with governing technical requirements for all phases.
Fabrication procedures giving a concentrated description
of the manufacturing/ fabrication history, reference to
specifications, drawings etc., discussion of problem areas,
deviations from specifications and drawings, of importance for the operational phase identification of areas
deemed to require special attention during normal operation and maintenance.
Reference to documentation needed for repair and modification.
202 All failure modes and failure mechanisms shall be clearly identified and listed in a systematic way, preferably in a
table. It shall be shown that each combination of identified failure modes and mechanisms was addressed in the design.
SECTION 3
DESIGN INPUT
A. Introduction
A 100
101 This section identifies the input needed for the analysis
of the structure. The material properties are addressed separately in section 4 for laminates and section 5 for sandwich
structures.
102 The Design Input of this section (Section 3) and sections
4 and 5 for Material Properties, form the basis of the Design
Premises.
B. Product specifications
B 100
structure / product
sub-structure / sub-product
components
parts
details.
D. Phases
D 100 Phases
101 The design life of the product shall be divided into phases, i.e. well defined periods within the life span of the product.
102 All phases that could have an influence on the design of
the product shall be considered.
Guidance note:
E.g. For some products, the transportation phase is critical and is
actually driving the design.
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F. Functional requirements
F 100
101 A functional requirement is defined as a requirement
that the product and or a component has to fulfil. The functional requirements shall be checked for every component of the
product.
102 The structure or product can be divided into components
corresponding to the same safety class but may be subject to
different functional requirements.
103 The functional requirements shall be defined for each
phase during the design life.
104 A list of functional requirements that should be considered as a minimum is given in Appendix A.
Guidance note:
Functional requirements may be related to structural or nonstructural performances. This standard is orientated towards
structural performances. However, it should be noted that nonstructural functional requirements might lead to safety issues
(e.g. static electricity properties). Moreover, some structural failures may affect non-structural performances, e.g. matrix cracking might influence acoustic performances.
203 Failure shall be considered for all locations of the product taking into account all levels of detail, as defined in C.
204 The potential failure modes shall be listed for each location of the product. A list of failure modes that should be considered as a minimum is given in Appendix A.
205 Some products may fail by other failure modes than
those listed above. Such failure modes shall be identified and
documented.
206 For each location a link between possible failure modes
and functional requirements shall be established. A table describing links that should be considered as a minimum is given
in Appendix A.
207 If a number of failure modes can cause a violation of a
functional requirement all possible failure modes shall be indicated.
208 If any of the indicated failure modes occurs for a single
functional requirement the structure shall be considered as
failed. Each failure mode shall be evaluated with respect to the
type of limit state it is associated with (see G300).
209 In some cases several failure modes may interact to violate a certain functional requirement. That interaction shall be
specified if relevant.
210 If a failure mode is not associated with any functional requirement it should be evaluated carefully that this failure
mode is not critical in any sense.
G 300 Identification of the type of limit states
301 For each phase and each part of the product the consequence of a failure (violation of one of the functional requirements) shall be evaluated and it shall be decided whether the
mode of failure is related to the ultimate limit state or to the
serviceability limit state.
Guidance note:
Note: the client and/or authorities should make this decision.
This defines the level of severity of each failure.
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G. Failure modes
G 100 General
101 A complete list of all failure modes shall be established
for every component of the product.
102 Subsequent failure scenarios shall be taken into consideration. For example, rupture of a protective coating may in itself not be a severe event. However, subsequent corrosion of
the material behind the coating may cause serious damage.
G 200 Failure modes
201 A failure is defined as a state of inability to perform a
normal function, or an event causing an undesirable or adverse
condition, e.g. violation of functional requirement, loss of
component or system function, or deterioration of functional
capability to such an extent that the safety of the unit, personnel or environment is significantly reduced.
202 A failure mode is a symptom or condition that leads to
failure, in general the fashion in which the structure fails.
Guidance note:
A failure mode is the manner in which one or several functional
requirements fail. The importance of all failure modes shall be
agreed between the designer and the contractor, i.e. the associated type of limit state shall be identified for each failure mode (see
G300 below and section 2 C200 for the definition of the type of
limit states).
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loads
environment.
202 The term loads designates in this standard the direct and
indirect loads on the product, e.g. wave load on a structure, or
thermal expansion loads. Both direct and indirect loads impose
load effects, like stresses or strains on the product. Loads can
be different in nature: functional loads, environmental loads or
accidental loads. The loads on the product shall be specified
according to I.
203 Calculations of the load effects on the product to the various environmental phenomena, i.e. environmental loads, are
made by a transfer function. Specific transfer functions are not
described in this standard (e.g. calculation of the load effect on
a structure due to wind, with a specified wind speed). The load
effects should be determined according to relevant standards
or guidelines. As guidance for calculation of characteristic environmental loads on a structure the principles given in DNV
Classification Note No. 30.5 Environmental conditions and
environmental loads may be used.
204 The term environment designates in this standard the
surroundings that impose no direct load on the product, e.g.
ambient temperature or moisture. The environment shall be
specified according to the requirements of J.
I. Loads
I 100
General
101 This standard does not specify specific load conditions
and characteristic load effects, since these are dependent on the
applications.
Guidance note:
A non-exhaustive list of the most common loads to be considered
in design is given as guidance in Appendix A of this section. This
list is organised according to a classical classification into functional, environmental and accidental loads. This classical classification is only used in this standard as a checklist. The load
factors are dependent on the probabilistic representation of the
loads.
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102 A load is defined as an assembly of one or more concentrated or distributed forces acting on the structure (direct
loads), or the cause of imposed or constrained deformations in
the structure (indirect loads).
Guidance note:
The environment may impose indirect loads on the structure, e.g.
thermal stresses or swelling due to moisture uptake. This should
be considered as a load effect, and calculated according to the relevant parts of section 9. However, the environment is generally
considered for its effect on the degradation of material strength.
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103 All the load cases shall be described separately for each
phase during the design life of the structure.
104 All loads have to be represented as appropriate with due
consideration of:
105 A representative time history of all loads should be documented for the entire life of the structure. This includes a
probabilistic representation as specified in I200.
106 Different load values are defined in this standard:
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To be used for
Check of Ultimate
Limit States
Long-term degradation of material properties
Check of Fatigue Limit States
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107 The notion of accidental value is not used in this standard. It shall be decided whether the product should be designed
for a given accidental event (e.g. fire, impact) or whether it
should not be designed for it and instead protected against it by
other means (e.g. impact protection structure around the product).
108 Different types of loads and environments shall be combined. Depending on which load and environment values are
combined, different load and environmental conditions are defined. These different load and environmental conditions define the different design cases to be considered. These design
cases are described in K.
I 200
208 For some load variables, sufficient knowledge and or experience is available to provide a basis for recommendation of
distribution types. A list of variables with their recommended
distribution types is given in Appendix A.
209 The coefficient of variation of each load variable and the
corresponding load effect shall be specified. If insufficient data
are available the simplified probabilistic representation of load
effects presented in I300 should be used.
I 300
the mean value of the effects over the time interval. The sustained value Ss during the time interval to is determined such
that the corresponding total duration above Ss is a portion =
0,5 of the exposure period ts. See Figure 1:
.t s
Load effect S
t1
t2
t3
Sustained
value Ss
Guidance note:
In general, it would be very conservative to determine the time
dependent degradation of material properties under long-term
loads by using the characteristic load effect value (i.e. extreme
load effect value). The sustained value is defined in this standard
as a kind of average load effect value over the lifetime of the
product.
time
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exposure period ts
Figure 1
Sustained value of a variable load effect
Sustained value
Ss
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Guidance note:
Examples of division into time intervals and definition of the sustained values Ssi for different load effect cases are shown in the
figure 2 below:
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Ss
Ss1
Ss2
Ss1
Ss
Ss2
t
t1
t2
Ss1
t
Ss2
t1
t2
Figure 2
Examples of division into time intervals and definition of the sustained values Ssi for different load effects.
I 600
601 All load effect fluctuations, e.g. stress or strain fluctuations, imposed during the entire design life, shall be taken into
account when determining the long-term distribution of stress
or strain ranges. All phases shall be included and both low-cycle fatigue and high-cycle fatigue shall be considered.
602 Fatigue may be analysed for load effects in terms of either stress or strain. Strain is preferred for composite laminates.
603 The characteristic distribution of load effect amplitudes
shall be taken as the expected distribution of amplitudes determined from available data representative for all relevant loads.
This is a long-term distribution with a total number of stress/
strain cycles equal to the expected number of stress/strain cy-
cles over a reference period such as the design life of the structure.
604 For fatigue analysis the mean and amplitude of the stress
or strain fluctuations shall be specified. Basically a table of the
following form given in Table I3 should be established.
Table I3 Definition of fatigue loads
Number of cycles
Mean load
Amplitude
104 The time history of all quantities that characterise environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity) shall be
documented for each phase during the design life of the structure.
Figure 3
Presentation of fatigue loads
Guidance note:
- The history of mean and amplitude of stress shall be established on discretised form by a rainflow analysis.
- A minimum resolution of the discretisation of stresses has to
be defined before the stress history is established.
- Note that for the fatigue analysis the history of mean stress/
strain and amplitude is needed. In a non-linear analysis, the
mean may shift relative to the amplitude during the transfer
from applied load to load response.
- If the time duration of some cycles is long or if the mean value
is applied over a long time, these loads may have to be considered for sustained load cases (stress rupture) as well.
- Degradation is a non-linear, history-dependent process. If different load and environmental conditions can cause different
degradation histories, all relevant load combinations shall be
considered.
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J. Environment
J 100 General
101 The term environment designates in this standard the
surroundings that impose no direct load on the product, e.g.
ambient temperature, moisture or chemicals.
102 The environment may impose indirect loads on the
structure, e.g. thermal stresses or swelling due to moisture uptake. This should be considered as a load effect and should be
calculated according to the relevant parts of section 9. However, the environment is generally considered for its effect on the
degradation of material strength or change of elastic properties.
103 The following aspects shall be considered when evaluating the effect of the environment on local volume elements in
a structure:
direct exposure
possible exposure if protective system fails
exposure after time
exposure after diffusion through a protective layer
105 The time history of all environments has to be documented for the entire life of the product. Time histories and
characteristic values shall be established according to the same
principles as described for load in section I.
106 Different environmental values are defined in this standard:
the characteristic value
the sustained value.
Guidance note:
The definition of the different load values is summarised in
Table J1. The detailed definition presented in the relevant chapters shall be used.
Table J1 Definition of the different load values
Designation
Definition
To be used for
Characteristic Extreme value with re- Check of Ultimate
value
turn period of 100
Limit States
years
Sustained val- Average value over a Long-term degradaue
long period
tion of material properties
Fatigue value Only for loads
Accidental
Same as characteristic
value
value
For example: when considering temperature as an environment,
the following values can be defined:
- Sustained environmental value corresponding to the average
temperature
- Extreme environmental value corresponding to the maximum
temperature
- Accidental environmental value corresponding to a fire situation
- Fatigue environmental values corresponding temperature
fluctuations imposing thermal stress fluctuations in the material
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Guidance note:
The following interactions should be considered:
- temperature: variation of the mechanical properties (stiffness,
strength)
- exposure to water (salinity / corrosion, marine fouling)
- exposure to humidity
- exposure to chemicals
- exposure to UV
- exposure to other radiation
- erosion.
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202 The degradation of material properties caused by the environmental conditions is described in section 4E (laminate)
and section 5E (sandwich structures).
203 The environmental conditions that shall be used for the
determination of time-dependent material properties are described in K300.
Table K1 Combinations of load and environmental conditions to be considered for the determination of material degradation and for
design checks
Loads
Characteristic value
Sustained value
Fatigue value
Environment
Characteristic value
ULS check
ULS check
Fully correlated only
Not fully correlated
See K202
See K206
Sustained value
ULS check
Material degradation
Fatigue analysis
Not fully correlated
See K300
See K400
See K206
Guidance note:
A method to determine the 100-years combined effect of several
load effects and environments is described in this chapter. It is
based on the so-called Turkstras rule.
all characteristic load effect values combined with all sustained environmental values
all sustained load effect values combined with all characteristic environmental values.
204 When several stochastic load effect and/or environmental conditions occur simultaneously, the extreme combined effects of the associated stochastic processes are required for
design against the ultimate limit state. Each process is characterised by a characteristic value. The characteristic values are
to be factored and combined to produce a design effect. For
this purpose, a (limited) number of possible load effect and/or
environmental condition combinations are considered. The
most unfavourable combination among these shall be found
and will govern the design.
205 The most unfavourable relevant combinations shall be
defined for every point in time during the design life.
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Guidance note:
In most cases the most unfavourable relevant combinations are
the same over the entire design life. However, in some cases con-
ditions may change with time, which may in turn cause changes
in the relevant combinations.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
A .S A + B .S B . B
S d = Sd . max FA kA AF k B B
F .S k . + F .S k
Where:
Sd Design load effect
Sd Load effect model factor
SAk Characteristic value of load effect A
AF Partial load effect factor for load effect A
A Load effect combination factor for load effect A
SBk Characteristic value of load effect B
BF Partial load effect factor for load effect B
B Load effect combination factor for load effect B.
208 The design load effect corresponding to the combination
of a number of N independent load effect processes should be
determined by the maximum of the following N combinations:
= Sd . max Fj .S kj
j =1
Sd
+ .S .
i
F
i j
i
k
Where:
Sd Design load effect
Sd Load effect model factor
Sik Characteristic value of load effect i
iF Partial load effect factor for load effect i
i Combination factor for load effect i.
209 The load effect combination factor = 0.7 should be
used for independent load effect processes, unless a detailed
probabilistic analysis can justify a different value. For permanent load effects and permanent environmental conditions =
1.0 .
210 Some load effect processes are correlated such that the
value of the one load effect process to some degree depends on
501 The combination of load effects and environments as described above should be used to obtain the load effects, i.e., local stresses and strains.
502 If transfer functions and structural analysis are linear,
loads or moments can be combined by the procedures given
above instead of the load effects.
SECTION 4
MATERIALS - LAMINATES
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 This section describes the mechanical material properties needed for design. It describes how to obtain all strength
properties used in the failure criteria and all elastic properties
needed for stress calculations.
102 The basic material properties used in these rules are orthotropic ply properties.
103 All properties shall be obtained directly by measurements or shall be traced back to measurements. The qualification of material properties is described in this section. Under
certain conditions, typical values from databases can be used.
Strength and stiffness values should be documented as characteristic values.
104 It is only necessary to obtain properties that are used in
the design calculations and failure criteria.
A 200 Laminate specification
201 A composite laminate is made of many constituent materials arranged and produced in a specific way. Laminates
used in a component shall be clearly specified and all materials
shall be traceable.
202 A minimum set of process parameters and constituent
material characterisations is given in Table A1. All these items
shall be specified.
Table A1 Basic information to identify a laminate
Constituent materials:
Generic Fibre type
Type of weave
Generic resin type (e.g. epoxy, polyester)
Specific resin type (trade name)
Process parameters:
Processing method
Processing temperature
Processing pressure
Process atmosphere (e.g. vacuum)
Post curing (temperature and time)
Control of fibre orientation
Fibre volume fraction
Void content
Conditioning parameters:
Temperature
Water content of the laminate (wet, dry)
Chemical environment
Loading rate
Measure values
Guaranteed minimum value
Standard deviation
Number of specimens
symmetric UD-ply sequences to represent helical winding sequences of the same fibre angles in order to prevent unrealistic
warping effects. If bending of the laminate has to be described
accurately the influence of swapping the surface ply with the
ply underneath shall be evaluated. If more plies are needed to
model the component probably should be evaluated on an individual basis.
Guidance note:
A pipe made of a 55 filament wound material with 6 winding
sequences and a total thickness of 6 mm shall be modelled.
If the pipe is just loaded under internal pressure it should be described as a (+55/-55)3S laminate, i.e. a sequence of 6 alternating
UD-plies oriented in 55 and -55 direction. Each ply has a thickness of 0.5 mm.
If the same pipe is exposed to bending loads it shall be evaluate
whether a (-55/+55)3S laminate would give different results in
the analysis compared to a (+55/-55)3S laminate.
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Guidance note:
A pipe is made of a 80 filament wound material with 8 winding
sequences and 10 filament wound material with 4 winding sequences (from inside to outside). The thickness per sequence is 1
mm, giving a total thickness of 12 mm. The pipe may be modelled in the following way:
If the pipe is just loaded under internal pressure it may be described as a (+80/-80)8S (+10/-10)4S laminate, i.e. a sequence of
16 alternating UD-plies oriented in 80 and -80 direction and 8 alternating UD-plies oriented in 10 and -10 direction. Each ply has
a thickness of 0.5 mm. It may be possible to reduce the number
of layers in the analysis. As a minimum a laminate (+80/-80)2S
(+10/-10)2S should be used for modelling where the 80 and -80
plies are each 4mm thick and the 10 and -10 plies are each 2 mm
thick.
If the same pipe is exposed to bending loads it shall be evaluate
whether a (+80/-80)8S (+10/-10)4S laminate would give different
results in the analysis compared to a (-80/+80)8S (-10/+10)4S
laminate.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
504 Fibre dominated properties shall be determined for all fibre types in the laminate. Fibres processed by a different method, e.g. woven, knitted, different sizing, different fibre
material etc. shall be treated as different types.
B. Static properties
B 100 General
101 All material properties shall be given with full traceability of materials and conditions. Test results are only valid if the
information given in Table A1 is available. Tests shall be reported as mean, standard deviation, and number of tests.
102 For many applications the static properties after exposure to long term loads and environments are more important
than the static properties of a new material. This fact should be
Unit
Char.
[GPa]
[GPa]
F
M
Reference Appendix C
for measurement method
B100
B100
E1 linear cross-ply
[GPa]
M, F
B100
E2 linear cross-ply
M, F
B100
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B300
G12 non-linear
[GPa]
B300
12
F, M
B100
21
F, M
B100
B100
F, M
B200
matrix
B100
matrix
B200
B300
In-plain
Strain to Fail
1t
fibre
1c Fibre
2t
2c
12 matrix
In-plane Strength
N/mm2 (MPa) F
B100
N/mm2 (MPa) F, M
B200
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B100
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B200
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B300
E3
GPa
B400 or B500
G13
Shear modulus normal to the fibre plane, including the fibre di- GPa
rection
Shear modulus normal to the fibre plane, including the direction GPa
normal to the fibres.
B600
B600
1t Fibre
1c Fibre
2t
matrix
2c matrix
12 shear
Through -thickness
G23
Reference Appendix C
for measurement method
B100 or B600
B100 or B600
B400
B500
Shear strain at failure normal to the fibre plane, including the fibre direction.
B600
B600
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B400
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B500
Shear stress at failure normal to the fibre plane, including the fi- N/mm2 (MPa) M
bre direction.
B600
N/mm2 (MPa) M
B600
Critical length
mm
F/ M
B700
G1c
N/m
B800
G2c
Critical strain energy release rate in the fibre plane (Mode II).
N/m
B800
G3c
Not used
23
3t
3c
13
23
3t
3c
13
23
Char.
Fracture toughness
203 If only one sub index is given in the Table B1, it is identical to two indices of the same kind, e.g. 11 = 1 .
204 The index fibre indicates ply properties in fibre direction. Failure stresses and strains with the index fibre describe
ply failure in fibre direction. It does not mean that a single fibre
has failed, usually a number of fibres fail before the ply breaks.
205 The index matrix indicates matrix dominated ply properties perpendicular to the fibre direction. Failure stresses and
strains with the index matrix describe matrix cracking inside
the ply. This is usually the initiation of matrix cracks.
B 300
ure
=E
302 Strain to failures shall be calculated from strength measurements based on the above equation and using the non-linear
secant moduli at failure if relevant.
x=
1 n
xi
n i =1
2 =
405
1 n
( xi x ) 2
n 1 i =1
COV =
x
406
xC = x k m
with
Table B2 Values of km
km
Definition of characteristic value
2.5% quantile in distribution of arbitrary
strength
9.0
6.0
4.9
4.3
3.4
3.0
2.8
2.7
2.0
Guidance note:
Tabulated values are estimates with 95% confidence. Other values can be found in e.g. DIN 55303
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407 The characteristic values of Young's moduli and Poisson's ratios are mean values.
408 Characteristic values of strains to failure shall be based
on strength measurements (see B300)
F A IL U R E
12
Shear
S tr e s s
G
12
a t fa ilu re
1 2 a t 9 0 % o f fa ilu re lo a d
0
0 .0
S h e a r s t r a in
Figure 2
Example of a shear stress strain curve
200
FAILURE
E
0 + 90
E
II
S
T
R
E
S
S
0 + PARTIALLY DAMAGED 90
0 + TOTALLY DAMAGED 90
STRAIN AT ONSETT
OF MATRIX CRACKING
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
STRAIN
Figure 1
Example of a stress strain curve of a 0/90 laminate
C 100 Introduction
101 For all mechanical data three types of properties are relevant. These are static properties, properties under constant
permanent static loads or deformations, and properties under
cyclic loads or deformations.
102 Long term properties, like all properties are effected by
exposure conditions. Long term data should be obtained for the
environment and exposure conditions the material is used in.
Some aspects related to changes due to exposure conditions are
given in section E.
103 Permanent static loads may have the following effects:
DET NORSKE VERITAS
elastic
+ plastic
or
elastic
plastic
with
the elastic modulus obtained from the quasi static
data, typically for the duration of about 1 minute
the time dependent plastic modulus obtained from
plastic creep data.
212 The time dependent plastic modulus is given by:
E
E
elastic
plastic
where:
t
creep
elastic
plastic
e)
403 The long term strains to failure may have an elastic and
a plastic component. Strains shall be calculated based on C200.
404 Static strength reduction of matrix dominated strength
properties can be ignored if the conditions of C310 are fulfilled.
C 500 Stress relaxation
501 Permanent static deformations may have the following
effects:
E2 non-linear
cross-ply
G12 linear
In plane shear
modulus in the linear range
In plane shear
slight drop (unknown)
modulus at the
failure point
Ply major Poisslight drop (unknown)
sons ratio
Ply minor Pois21 = 12 E2 / E1
sons ratio
G12 non-linear
12
21
Is a combined effect of
changes to fibre properties
and matrix properties.
Roughly a weighted average
of the effects to E1 fibre and
E2 matrix.
slight drop (unknown)
603 Experimental results may be used to demonstrate different changes of the elastic parameters during cyclic fatigue for
specific laminates or loading conditions.
604 The structure shall be analysed for the values of the elastic parameters before fatigue damage has taken place and for
the values of the elastic parameters after fatigue damage has
taken place.
605 If the structure is exposed to through-thickness cyclic
loads a degradation of the through-thickness properties shall
be considered. Experimental evidence shall be provided.
606 The in-plane matrix dominated modulus does not
change if the conditions in C805 are fulfilled.
C 700 Cycles to failure under cyclic fatigue loads
701 The number of cycles N to failure under a cyclic stress
is described by an S-N curve for a specified R-ratio.
702 The R-ratio is defined as the minimum stress divided by
the maximum stress.
703 For calculation of the R-ratio, note that tensile stresses
are defined as positive, while compressive stresses are defined
as negative.
704 The material curve of fibre dominated properties for the
lifetime strength analysis should be described as:
log = log 0 fatigue - log N
or
log = log 0 fatigue - log N
705 The strain representation is simpler, because it is applicable to a wider group of materials and fatigue data are less effected by volume fraction changes. The strain representation
can be obtained from the stress representation by using the relationship = E .
706 The double logarithmic representation of fatigue data
shall be chosen.
707 All fatigue curves shall be obtained from load controlled
tests, unless the structure is clearly only exposed to deformation controlled fatigue.
708 S-N curves should be preferably obtained for R ratios
relevant for the application. Minimum requirements are given
in 709-711.
709 If the structure is exposed to tensile and compressive fa-
Draw the point P in the constant amplitude life diagram representing the given strain amplitude and mean .
2) Draw a line a from the origin of the constant amplitude life
diagram (0 mean, 0 amplitude) through and beyond the
point P.
3) Identify the two closest constant life lines nearest to P, n1
and n2, where n2 is the line with the higher number of cycles
to failure.
4) Measure the length a1 on line a between the two constant life
lines n1 and n2 nearest to P.
5) Measure the length a2 on line a between point P and the constant life line n2 with the higher number of cycles nearest to
P.
6) Find the line b nearest to P representing fatigue life of a
measured R-ratio, e.g. R=10, or R=-1, or R=0.1.
7) Measure the length b1 on b between n1 and n2.
8) Calculate b2 = b1 a2 / a1
9) Find the strain amplitude eCAL corresponding to point Q that
lies on b at a distance b2 away from the intersection of b and
n2.
10) Obtain the characteristic value of the expected number of
cycles Nexp for Cal using the measured characteristic S-N
curve.
This geometrical description can be fairly easily put into a computer program.
R= -1
Sector 3
a
b1
Q
b2
R=0.1
a1
shall be a certain level of matrix crack density or a relevant indirect criterion, like weepage of water through a pipe.
805 If the component cannot tolerate matrix cracking, effects
of long term cyclic loads can be ignored if the following three
conditions are fulfilled:
P
n1
a2
n2
Guidance note:
Matrix cracks develop very easily during fatigue. A design
should be avoided where the structural integrity or any critical
performance requirement relies on matrix cracking not occurring
under fatigue conditions.
Sector 3
Sector 2
2.00
R=10
b1
0.00
-2.50
b2
Q
Sector 1
1.00
R=0.1
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-1.50
-0.50
Sector 4
P
a
a2 1 n n1
2
0.50
1.50
2.50
Figure 3
Schematic of a constant amplitude life diagram. The drawing illustrates the description above how the fatigue life for a strain
amplitude at mean (described by point P as an example) can
be found
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714 Ideally fatigue should be measured on the actual laminate for the relevant loading condition and environment.
715 For fibre dominated strength values, fatigue data from
tests on the same fibre type may be used to estimate fatigue.
716 For short fibre composites fatigue of the matrix due to
shear in the matrix shall be considered in addition to fatigue of
the fibres.
717 S-N curves may also be measured for specific load sequences if relevant. This may be beneficial, because Miner
sum calculations would not be needed for that load sequence.
The validity of the data for other load sequences would have to
be demonstrated.
C 800 Cycles to failure under fatigue loads for matrix
dominated strengths
801 There is a considerable lack of data for the performance
of composites under matrix dominated fatigue.
802 S-N curves for materials, whose fatigue behaviour is
matrix-dominated, seem to be non-linear in a double logarithmic representation. Fatigue lifetime calculations shall be made
in a way to take account of this effect.
803 If the component is subjected to in-plane fatigue and matrix cracking can be accepted, and if it can fulfil all static
strength requirements with the reduced fatigue moduli given in
this section 600, then matrix dominated fatigue does not have
to be considered.
804 If the component is subjected to in-plane fatigue and matrix cracking cannot be accepted, testing on the actual laminate
or component testing shall be carried out. The failure condition
e)
Expose the test sample to a fatigue load for 90% of the cycles to failure expected according to the S-N curve.
Measure the remaining strength after this exposure time.
Repeat step a and b for at least one more stress level.
If the remaining strength of the tests is the same, it can be
assumed that the remaining strength is also the same up to
90% of the lifetime for lower load levels, provided no
changes in failure modes are expected. The possible change
of failure modes should be analysed
Measurements could be made for other test periods than
90% of the lifetime.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
905 The reduction of strength of matrix dominated properties may be ignored if the conditions of C805 are met.
n (# of tests)
10
15
20
50
100
Infinite
Case 1
3.9
3.4
3.1
2.6
2.4
2.0
Case 2
4.7
4.0
3.7
3.0
2.6
2.0
k
with X as time.
0
1103 This section is applicable for estimating the characteristic (and subsequently the design) time to failure under a specified load for a laminate exposed to static or cyclic load,
provided the plot of log stress vs. log time is linear.
1105 Values shall be based on data that are fairly evenly distributed over the plot of log time to failure vs. log load, or log
number of cycles vs. log load. Load is usually expressed as
stress or strain. At least 15 data points should be used.
k=
or log X 0 =
or k =
and =
1
with X0 as
k
log X 0
1
with X0 as time.
k
log X 0
Fatigue curve: log 0 fatigue =
and
and =
1
k
log X 0 =
1111 When a fixed time span T is considered, the characteristic value of the logarithm of the residual strength after the
time T has elapsed can be taken as:
log X 0
log 0 fatigue
where log0stress rupture and can be obtained from a linear regression analysis of log on log t, and where is the standard
deviation of the variations in log about the mean. The factor
x is to be taken from Table C2 depending on the number n of
available data pairs (log t , log ) from tests.
Guidance note:
Usually, estimates of and log0stressrupture (or log0fatigue) can
be obtained from linear regression analysis of log on log t, and
the standard deviation of the residuals in log results as a byproduct of the regression analysis. Note that this standard deviation is different from the standard deviation of 1107.
Guidance note:
Usually, estimates of k and log0stressrupture (or log0fatigue) can
be obtained from linear regression analysis of log X on log .
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---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
D. Other properties
D 100
101 Thermal expansion coefficient of the plies in the relevant temperature range should be measured in the fibre direction and transverse to the fibre direction.
102 Stresses due to thermal deformation should be considered. The stresses should be added to stresses from other loads
like a combination of load cases as described in section 3K.
always present and, unlike the others, cannot be eliminated. Friction is not involved in adhesive wear.
Abrasive wear occurs especially when the surface of a material is loaded by hard and sharp mineral particles. In addition, abrasion can be effective when relatively soft
materials slide against rough metallic counterparts. In that
case, the abrasive wear is usually highest for the softest
material. Abrasive wear is the most destructive wear
mechanism and produce the highest material loss in the
shortest time. Abrasive wear may be the result of a two
body abrasion (e.g. a surface against sandpaper) or a three
body abrasion (e.g. sand particles between two moving
surfaces).
Fatigue wear arises from cyclic loading of surface layers
with repetitive compressive and tangential stresses. Material is removed after fatigue crack growth in and below the
surface by producing spalled particles. Fatigue wear is extremely small compared with adhesion or abrasion.
605 The following wear properties are defined to characterise the properties of a wear system:
The length related wear rate w designates the ratio between the wear depth dy (thickness of removed material)
and the sliding distance dx. It is dimensionless.
602 The wear resistance is a property of the entire wear system and shall be measured for the entire system.
603 Friction is the force that tends to prevent the relative motion of two surfaces in contact. The term lubrication stands for
the interposing of a surface between the two interacting surfaces for the purpose of reducing friction.
Guidance note:
In general, the frictional force is associated with the expenditure
of energy in the contact region, and it is the process of energy dissipation that may lead to destruction of the surface layers and to
the eventual wearing of the material. While both friction and
wear are the result of surface interaction, there is often no absolute correlation between the two. Especially the rate of wear may
change by several orders of magnitude by varying certain factor
of the wear systems and the material properties, yet the friction
force remains nearly constant. However, frictional forces are a
prerequisite for wear of materials.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
w=
dy
dx
(m/m)
w
wS =
p
(m3/Nm)
The time related wear rate wt designates the ratio between the wear depth dy (thickness of removed material)
and the sliding time dt. It has the dimension of a speed.
wt =
dy
(m/s)
dt
w w
k * = wS = = t
p pv
when the fibres are orientated parallel to the sliding surface, the differences between anti-parallel and parallel orientation are less clear.
613 The presence of fillers usually helps to reduce wear.
However, the wear reducing action of fillers is dependent on
factors such as shape and size, as well as the composition of the
filler material.
614 Internal lubricant such as PTFE or silicone can be used
to improve the wear resistance of a material. The two materials
combine at the wear surface and form a high lubricate film,
which acts in addition as a protecting layer for the fibres.
Log p
Log v
Figure 4
Wear rate (plotted against log pv)
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608 Wear properties usually degrade at elevated temperatures. The effects of ambient temperature and of frictional
heating should be considered.
609 The presence of water between the two surfaces in contact usually has a lubricating effect, i.e. the wear properties of
the wear system are better than those of the same system without presence of water.
610 Frictional coefficients and wear rates of materials are
strongly influenced by the roughness of the counter-face
against which they are sliding. In the steady state wear condition abrasive wear can become the dominant mechanism if the
surface of the wearing material has been modified during previous passages. Typically, the wear mechanism changes from
adhesion in the range of very smooth surfaces to abrasion for
rough surfaces, leading to an increase of the wear rate.
611 The presence of fibres usually improves the wear resistance of a polymer matrix. The fibres are exposed at the sliding
surface and support part of the applied loads. Moreover, the fibres smooth the surface of the counter-face to reduce the localised stresses at the asperity contacts.
Guidance note:
Carbon fibres are usually superior to glass fibres in reducing the
wear rate and the frictional coefficient. Especially at high sliding
speeds and high loads, they clearly improve the wear properties
of the base polymer. For practical application of composites
where friction becomes an important problem ,the use of a hybrid
material (glass and carbon fibres) can be recommended.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
E 100 Introduction
101 The environment can effect composites. Properties
change usually gradually with time and long exposure times (a
year and longer) are needed before properties change significantly.
102 Fibres and matrix are effected in different ways due to
their different chemical nature.
103 The fibre matrix interface can have an important influence on the environmental resistance. The interface properties
are influenced by the type of fibre, the sizing, the matrix, and
the processing conditions.
104 Void content and the presence of matrix cracks can also
influence the environmental resistance.
105 The local environmental conditions shall be taken into
account for the documentation of all properties under static and
fatigue loads, see also section C.
106 Possible degradation of unloaded structures shall also be
documented, e.g. liners.
107 Cyclic environmental conditions shall be considered.
108 It shall be documented that the combined effects of cyclic loads, static load, and the environment are not worse than
the separate effects considered in the sections above.
109 The following conditions are considered:
temperature
water
chemicals
UV radiation.
110 The tables in this section are ONLY valid for thermoset
resins, like epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester with glass transition temperature below 150C. They are also ONLY valid for
E-glass, Aramid, and carbon fibres, unless stated otherwise.
Behaviour of other materials may be similar but shall be documented by test results.
E 200
Effect of temperature
E 300
None up to Tg - 20 C of matrix
Unknown
Accelerates with increasing temperature
Accelerates with increasing temperature
Gets shorter with increasing temperature
Gets shorter with increasing temperature
no effect
test if outside the range
test
Measure, may use time temperature superposition
Measure, may use time temperature superposition
Measure, may use time temperature superposition
Measure, may use time temperature superposition
Unknown,
Probably the same as for static strength
May drop more quickly with increasing temper- Adhesive type behaviour.
ature.
May drop more quickly with increasing temperature.
May drop more quickly with increasing temperature.
Gets slightly shorter with increasing temperature
Gets shorter with increasing temperature
Unknown,
Probably the same as for static strength
Unknown
Effect of water
Fracture toughness
Creep / Stress relaxation
fibre dominated
Creep / Stress relaxation
matrix dominated
Time to stress rupture
fibre dominated
Time to stress rupture
matrix dominated
Change of static strength under permanent
load
fibre dominated
Change of static strength under permanent
load
matrix dominated
Change of modulus under fatigue - fibre
dominated
Change of modulus under fatigue - matrix
dominated
measure
measure
measure
Unknown,
Probably the same as for static strength
Unknown,
Probably the same as for static strength
Unknown, probably small effect
Unknown
slight reduction
hand-lay-up
spray-lay-up
pre-preg lay-up
autoclave curing (in combination with one of the other
processes
resin injection processes
resin transfer moulding
centrifugal moulding
filament winding
tape winding.
1 V f0
1 Vf
1 V f0
1Vf
Tensile strength in fibre direction
X 1 = X 10
Vf
V f0
X 1* = X 1*0 if V f > V f0
formulas given above and within the limits given in 602. In addition, fibre strength data shall only be corrected for fibre volume fractions up to 35%. If the fibre volume fractions are
higher than 35%, considerable reductions in fatigue performance have been observed in the past, and fatigue data shall be
re-established.
604 If the fibre fractions change by more than the validity
range given in 602, the properties shall be re-established.
605 Laminates with dry fibres (due to too high volume fractions or bad processing) have poor properties and shall not be
accepted.
G 100 Introduction
101 The performance of composites in a fire is a complex
process, because the various constituent materials respond differently to a fire.
102 The requirements under fire conditions can usually be
found in the fire codes for a particular application.
103 Fire codes may implicitly assume that the structure is
built of steel or metal. The relevance of a fire code to composite materials shall be checked carefully.
104 Since most composites are flammable and temperature
sensitive most applications use protective measures to reduce
the impact of fire. In this case the fire performance of the complete system, i.e. a composite structure with fire protection
shall be evaluated.
105 An advantage of composite laminates is their low thermal conductivity and the usually long times required to reach
burn through conditions.
106 Some aspects of fire performance can be modelled, but
Fire reaction
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Fire resistance
G 400
Insulation
401 The properties of the insulation with respect to fire reaction and fire resistance shall be evaluated.
402 Special consideration shall be given to the joints of the
insulation and the method the insulation is attached to the component. Attachment points and joints may create hot spots in
the component.
403 All large scale testing shall be done with jointed insulation and the same attachments as used in the real application.
G 500
Guidance note:
If laminates are used on pipes, it is recommended to obtain material data from tubular specimens.
Introduction
101 All material properties needed to describe the performance of a component shall be documented.
102 As a general principal, material properties should be obtained form test results of laminates that represent the laminates of the component as closely as possible.
direct measurements
qualification against representative data
qualification against manufacturers data
qualification against data from the open literature
qualification by component testing.
should be based on at least 15 measurements per property. Other materials can be compared against the representative data as
described in H600.
502 Representative data are most useful if they can be used
for a fairly wide range of materials. This will also allow to pool
data of different properties that were obtained from slightly
different materials. Requirements for to the individual materials that can be put into one group of representative data are given in Table H1:
Table H1 Processing characteristics of the set of representative
data
Constituent materials:
Requirements to group measurements from different laminates
Generic Fibre type
same for all tests
Bundle type
same trade name*
Fibre trade name
same trade name*
Type of weave
same trade name*
Type of sizing
same trade name*
Fibre Manufacturer
same for all tests
Weaver
same for all tests
Fabric trade name and batch
same trade name
number
Generic resin type (e.g. epoxy,
same for all tests
polyester)
Specific resin type (trade name, same trade name*
batch number)
Catalyst (trade name and batch
same trade name*
number)
Accelerator (trade name and
same trade name*
batch number)
Fillers (trade name and batch
same trade name*
number)
Additives (trade name and batch same trade name*
number)
Process parameters:
Laminator (company)
Processing method
Processing temperature
Processing pressure
Process atmosphere (e.g. vacuum)
Post curing (temperature and
time)
Control of fibre orientation
Fibre volume fraction
Void content
Conditioning parametersto be
given with exposure time:
Temperature
Water content of the laminate
(wet, dry)
Chemical environment
Loading rate
not relevant
same for all tests
maximum from all tests
maximum from all tests
minimum from all tests
maximum from all tests
best from all tests
maximum from all tests
minimum from all tests
dominated
ply strength ( 1t fibre and 1c fibre) fulfil the similarity
requirements given in H700. This requirement may be
tested with a UD or 0/90 laminate.
The fibre-dominated modulus is within 5% of the reference ply.
605 Laminates with different arrangements of the fibres
(weave or fabric type or bundle size) type may be considered
similar if the test requirements in 604 and 606 are fulfilled.
606 Laminates with larger fibre bundles relative to the reference laminate have usually lower strength and do not pass the
similarity requirement.
607 A matrix can be considered to be similar under the following conditions:
the matrix is of the same generic type, e.g. iso-polyester,
vinylester, phenolic
fillers and curing agents may be different
the tensile and compressive characteristic matrix dominat
ed ply
strength ( 2t matrix and 2c matrix) fulfil the similarity
requirements given in H700. This requirement may be
tested with a UD or 0/90 laminate
it can be documented that the matrix-dominated modulus
is within 5% of the reference ply.
608 A sizing can be considered to be similar under the following conditions:
the sizing is of the same generic type, e.g. glass-epoxy
compatible
the tensile and compressive characteristic matrix
610 If the above basic similarity requirements are met, individual static ply properties shall be qualified as described in
Table H2. Some properties can be based directly on represented data or an equation to modify them is given. Other properties shall be confirmed by experiment (see H700-H900).
Number of specimens
H 600
a wider range may be chosen if data are the minimum of a wide variety
of products.
611 Instead of confirming all material parameters individually component testing may be used to qualify an analysis, as
described in 1100.
Through Thickness
E3
G13
G23
13
23
3t
rep * 1
Rep * 0.8
confirm
1t , 1c ,2t
Others: confirm if
critical
confirm
Rep or
= E2
rep or
= G12
rep or
= G12
confirm
confirm
rep or
= G12
rep or
= G12
rep * 1
rep * 1
rep * 1
rep * 1
rep * 0.9 or
confirm if critical
for design
2t * 0.9
fibre plane.
= 2c *0.9
confirm if critical
for design
rep * 0.9 or
confirm if critical
for design
rep * 0.9 or
confirm if critical
for design
rep or
calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate
rep or
calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate
In-plane
rep * 0.8
Critical strain energy release rate in the fi- rep * 0.8
bre direction.
Critical strain energy release rate in the fi- rep * 0.8
bre plane, normal to the fibre direction.
confirm
confirm
confirm
confirm
confirm
confirm
confirm
3c
13
23
3t
3c
13
23
Fracture Toughness
Critical length
G1c
G2c
12 *0.9
12 *0.9
rep
Stress rupture
rep
rep
confirm if critical
for design
confirm if critical
for design
rep
rep
rep
rep
confirm if critical
for design
confirm
confirm if critical for design
confirm if critical for design
confirm
Cycles to failure
matrix dominated
Fibre dominated static strength
reduction under fatigue load
Matrix dominated static strength
reduction under fatigue load
rep
rep
rep
701 If a material is similar to a material for which representative data exist (as described above) two methods can be used
to demonstrate that the similar material is at least as good as the
typical material. One is a simplified method, the other is similar data hypothesis testing.
702 At least three measurements of the property in question
shall be made in all cases. It is recommended to test five or
more specimens.
703 For the simplified method the following requirements
shall be fulfilled:
the standard deviation estimated from at least three measurements shall not be larger than the standard deviation of
the corresponding typical data
at least 50% of the measured values shall be larger than the
mean of the typical data
at least 84% of the measured values shall be larger than the
mean - 1 standard deviation of the typical data
at least 97.7% of the measured values shall be larger than
the mean - 2 standard deviations of the typical data.
704 If a material is similar to a material for which representative data exist (as described above) the hypothesis testing can
be used to determine whether test data can be considered to belong to the same population.
705
confirm if critical
for design
rep
Let 0 denote the mean value of the typical data, and let
confirm if critical
for design
confirm
confirm if critical for design
confirm if critical for design
where x is the mean value of the n measurements of the material to be checked for similarity.
T=
t()
Confidence 1- = 0.75
1.000
0.741
0.703
0.692
0.688
0.685
0.677
0.675
N
2
5
10
15
20
25
100
Infinity
706 Calculate
C2 =
(n 1) 2
02
N
2
5
10
15
20
25
50
2()
Confidence 1- = 0.75
1.323
5.385
11.389
17.117
22.718
28.241
55.265
707 If all of the above conditions are fulfilled the typical data
may be used to represent the similar material.
708 If neither the simplified similarity test nor the hypothesis
test is passed, the material property has to be measured directly
(see H400).
H 800 Confirmation testing for long term data - high
safety class
801 At least 9 tests shall be carried out.
802 Test data shall be evenly distributed over the logarithmic
time or number of cycles scale.
803 At least two test results shall fall within 90% of the anticipated lifetime or the anticipated number of cycles.
804 If the anticipated lifetime exceeds 10000 hours testing
up to 10000 hours is sufficient. The strain levels should be chosen such that failure occurs after about 102, 103 and 104 hours,
respectively.
805 If the anticipated lifetime exceeds 106 cycles testing up
902 Tests shall be carried out at strain levels where the anticipated mean lifetime or number of cycles is 1000 hours or 104
cycles respectively. If the expected lifetime or fatigue cycles of
the structure are less, tests shall be carried out up to the expected values.
903 Tested specimens shall not fail before the testing time or
number of cycles has exceeded the characteristic long test term
curve. The characteristic long term test curve shall be based on
the representative data's mean curve minus two standard deviations. Details to obtain such a curve are given in C1100. (It
shall be assumed that the representative data are based on infinite measurements in C1107, even if that was not the case in
reality.)
H 1000 Use of manufacturers data or data from the literature as representative data
1001 There is a vast amount of data available, but unfortunately data are often not well documented and essential information tends to be missing.
1002 This section describes under which conditions such
data may be used.
1003 It shall be documented that the data come from a reputable source. This can be done in the following way:
all data were taken from calibrated test equipment
data were witnessed by an independent third party or data
were published and reviewed by at least two independent
research teams.
1004 If these requirements are not met data can still be used
as representative data, but all new materials data have to be
confirmed against these data, even if the requirements in H600
do not require a confirmation.
1005 If information about processing and conditioning is
missing, it shall always be assumed that the best possible laminate has been tested under the most favourable conditions.
The conservative assumptions in Table H5 should be made.
Table H5 Use of manufacturers data or data from the literature
as representative data
Constituent materials:
Generic Fibre type
as stated
Type of weave
lay-up of UD-plies
Generic resin type (e.g. epoxy, as stated
polyester)
Specific resin type (trade name) high performance resin for the
application
Process parameters:
Processing method
Processing temperature
Processing pressure
Process atmosphere (e.g. vacuum)
Autoclave
high
high
vacuum
yes
to less than 1o
60% volume
less than 1%
room temperature
dry
none
high
mean values
mean - 2 standard deviations
(must be confirmed)
15%
3
I 300
Experimental approach
301 Instead of the default values given in I200, gradual degradation of the material properties at ply levels can be used,
provided experiments document the validity of values larger
than 0 for the type of laminate used.
302 The change of E2 due to matrix cracking or non-linear
deformation of the matrix may be determined from tests on 0/
90 laminates. The Young's modulus of the laminate can be calculated with laminate theory from the ply properties. The initial modulus of the test E0+90 should be consistent with the
calculated modulus based on undamaged ply properties. The
secant modulus at failure of the test E0 + partially damaged 90
should be consistent with the calculated modulus based on an
unchanged ply modulus in fibre direction and a modified modulus E2* representing the matrix with cracks. An example of
experimental data is given in Figure 5.
.
200
E
FAILURE
0 + 90
E
II
Introduction
S
T
R
E
S
S
0 + PARTIALLY DAMAGED 90
100
Default values
201 Setting the matrix dominated Young's moduli of a damaged matrix to 0 is usually a conservative estimate. This approach is described here as a default. A better method that
requires some testing is described in I300.
202 If matrix failure occurs in a ply (according to the failure
criteria in section 6 D), the ply properties should be locally degraded to the values given in Table I1.
Table I1 Default changes of ply properties with matrix damage
Matrix cracking due to stress(see fail- Change ply properties
ure criteria in Section 6D)
to(see also 203)
stress 2 transverse to the fibre direction E2 = 12 = 0
G12 = 12 = 0
shear stress 12
stress 3 transverse to the fibre direction E3 = 31 = 0
G13 = 13 = 0
shear stress 13
G23 = 23 = 0
shear stress 23
0 + TOTALLY DAMAGED 90
STRAIN AT ONSETT
OF MATRIX CRACKING
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
STRAIN
Figure 5
Example of axial stress vs. strain curve of a 0/90 laminate to obtain magnitude of the matrix ply modulus of a laminate with matrix cracks.
304 Similar procedures may be used on other laminate configurations to obtain ply properties of laminates with matrix
cracks or with a non-linear deformed matrix.
F A IL U R E
G
12
Shear
S tre s s
G
G
12
a t fa ilu re
1 2 a t 9 0 % o f f a ilu r e lo a d
0
0 .0
S h e a r s t r a in
Figure 6
Example of axial stress vs. strain curve of a 45 laminate to obtain
magnitude of the matrix shear modulus of a laminate with matrix
cracks.
SECTION 5
MATERIALS SANDWICH STRUCTURES
A. General
A 100
Introduction
101 This section describes the mechanical material properties needed for design. It describes how to obtain all strength
properties used in the failure criteria and all elastic properties
needed for stress calculations.
102 A sandwich structure is considered here as a light weight
core embedded between two faces (or skins). Faces are typically made of FRP laminates. The properties of laminates are described in section 4. This section concentrates on properties of
cores and the core skin interface.
103 All properties shall be obtained directly by measurements or shall be traced back to measurements. The qualification of material properties is described in this section. Under
certain conditions, typical values from databases can be used.
Strength and stiffness values should be documented as characteristic values.
104 It is only necessary to obtain properties that are used in
the design calculations and failure criteria.
105 General aspects that were already described in section 4
are not repeated here but only referred to.
A 200
Sandwich specification
201 A sandwich structure is made of many constituent material arranged and produced in a specific way. Laminate, core
materials and adhesives used in a sandwich component shall be
clearly specified and all materials shall be traceable. Laminate
specification shall be organised as described in section 4.
202 For the core material and the adhesive, a minimum set of
process parameters and constituent material characterisations
is given in Table A1 and Table A2. All these items shall be
specified.
Table A1 Core specifications, process parameters and
conditioning parameters
B. Static properties
B 100 General
101 All material properties shall be given with full traceability of materials and conditions. Test results are only valid if the
information given in Table A1 and A2 is be available. Tests
shall be reported as mean, standard deviation, and number of
tests.
102 For many applications the static properties after exposure to long term loads and environments are more important
than the static properties of a new material. This fact should be
kept in mind when selecting materials and developing a test
programme. Long term properties are described in the following sections.
B 200 Static properties
201 The complete list of orthotropic data for core and adhesive materials is shown in the following tables. Recommendations for test methods to obtain the properties are given in
appendix D.
202 Laminate faces elastic constants, strains, strengths and
other mechanical properties are described in section 4.
203 When different adhesives are used to bond faces and
core together, or core layers together, a distinction shall be
made between adhesive(s) and matrix properties. In some cases, matrix and adhesive materials properties are significantly
dissimilar.
204 Static properties are assumed to be identical to quasistatic properties. Accordingly, strain rate should not exceed a
value of about 1% per minute.
205 The yield point for ductile core materials is defined as
the 2% offset point.
206 The orthotropic static data for core materials are the following (note that other co-ordinate systems may be chosen to
describe the orthotropic behaviour, e.g. cylindrical co-ordinates):
Unit
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
[GPa]
B300
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
B300
[-]
[-]
B100 or B200
B100 or B200
B100
B200
yt
yc
xy
core linear
B100
core linear
B200
core linear
B100
B200
B100
yt
yc
xy
core non-linear
B200
core non-linear
In-plane strength (to yield point or to the end of the proportional range)
xt
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
xc
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
yt
yc
xy
xt
xc
yt
yc
xy
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
B300
[GPa]
B300
[GPa]
B100
[GPa]
B200
[GPa]
B300
[GPa]
B300
[-]
[-]
B100 or B200
B100 or B200
zt
core linear
B100
zc
core linear
B200
core linear
core linear
xz
yz
B100
B200
zt
zc
core non-linear
core non-linear
[-strain]
(or %)
core non-linear
[-strain]
(or %)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
xz
yz
Through thickness strength (to yield point or to the end of the proportional range)
zt
zc
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B100
xz
yz
zt
zc
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
B200
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
core non-linear
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
xz
yz
Fracture toughness
GIc core
GII core
207
B500
B500
xy adhesive
Unit
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
[-]
C200 or C300
C200 or C300
C400
C400
C200 or C300
adhesive
In-plane strength
C200
adhesive
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
C300
adhesive
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
C200
[N/mm2]
(or MPa)
C400
xy
adhesive
Fracture toughness
GIc adhesive
GIIc adhesive
B 300
ure
Characteristic values
Shear properties
501 Shear properties of core materials are difficult to measure. Suitable test methods should be used for the determination
of shear design properties, see Section 5 B200 and Appendix
D. When using data from the literature, it should be checked
that the proper test methods are used.
Guidance note:
Using the block shear tests data to obtain the shear strength of
balsa beams and panels will in many relevant cases overestimates
the shear strength by a factor of 2 to 4. Block shear test, such as
the one used in ASTM C 273-00 or ISO 1922, should not be used
to obtain design shear strength of balsa cored sandwich beams
and panels. The flexural test method used in ASTM C 393-00 can
be used instead, see appendix D.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
502
B500 or D200
B500 or D200
corrected = ref . f tc f i f b
and for sandwich panels as correcetd = ref . f tc f ip f b , where,
For sandwich beams as
=
tc
beam
ref
t
c
fi is a correction factor for
the in-plane width w of a
l sl w ref
sandwich beam
f = corrected = ref
ref
corrected b ref
=
ref
b
2b 2
= corrected = ref
ref
ab
fb is a correction factor
accounting for the effect
of bending
fb =
ref
mi
ref = 1.52
l sl w
f ip ,square =
the core, , remains between 0.37 and 1.1 , the following correction factors may be used:
f tc =
m ip
m ip
Gc
a1 + a 2
f ip =
+
=1
C C
where C and C are empirical constants. These empirical constant C and C are determined by fitting the previous equation
to measured data.
ref
Gc
a1 + a 2
Guidance note:
The coefficients are based on Weibull theory. The theory states
that
1 V2
=
2 V1
510
3.7
fi
17600
l w
sl
7.9
17600
l sl w
7 .9
104
fb =
22
+ 89
l sl G c t c
=
t f Ef d
d = tc + tf
where,
Guidance note:
When using data from the literature, it shall be checked that the
geometrical, physical and loading characteristics are proper for
the structure under consideration.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
and
ref is the mean value of the shear strengths measured from the
fb =
50
t
c
General
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
106
C 200
Creep
Guidance note:
Time-temperature superposition principle (TTSP) can be used
for the long-term prediction of creep of some polymeric foam.
The principle applied to some type of foams but not all; the fundament application is indeed dependant on the chemical nature of
the polymer. So far, it has been showed that the TTSP is applicable to linear PVC foam but not to cross linked PVC foam. For
the latter curve fitting functions may be used to determine longterm properties.
505 Ideally, stress relaxation should be measured on the actual core for the relevant loading condition.
506 In some cases, tensile stress relaxation data may be used
to estimate stress relaxation in compression and vice-versa, as
long as it can be shown to be an equivalent or conservative approach.
507 For FRP faces, the same paragraphs apply as in section
4.
C 600 Change of modulus of elasticity under cyclic
fatigue
601 The reduction of stiffness or stability properties of sandwich structures due to cyclic fatigue should be considered.
This reduction may be caused by:
a reduction in modulus of elasticity in the facings materials and/or in the core(s) materials due to various types of
damage, e.g. micro cracks
a local debonding between faces and core at the interface.
602 The proportion of the contributions in the modulus reduction of the facings and core varies according to the geometrical, mechanical and loading specifications of the sandwich
structure.
603 The change of modulus of elasticity of FRP facings and
adhesives is described in section 4.
604 There can be a decrease of the value of the core elasticity
modulus.
605 The reduction in core elasticity modulus differs according to materials and is dependant on loading conditions, i.e.
stress nature, stress level, load ratio, strain rate, exposure time.
Guidance note:
Creep can be induced under cyclic fatigue, especially for R ratio
different from 1.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
606 Experimental results may be used to demonstrate different changes of the elastic constants during cyclic for specific
cores or adhesives or loading conditions.
Guidance note:
For polymeric foam - Elasticity modulus of polymeric foam
cores typically varies less than 10% until short before failure for
high cycle fatigue and maximum stress levels pertaining to the
linear range. For low cycle fatigue and maximum stress levels
close to ultimate values, elasticity modulus varies as much as
100% through the entire life.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Gyz core
xy core
yx core
xz core
803 Static strains to failure shall be obtained from the reduced static strength and the cycle dependent stiffness value.
804 If the S-N curve is used and is not linear in a log presentation, the static strength cannot be calculated by the above
Guidance note:
The static strength for a given stress amplitude may be higher
than the value on the S/N curve, if the specimen is exposed to less
cycles than given on the S/N curve. For some PVC foams, 90%
of the static strength is preserved up to almost the end of fatigue
life. At the end of the cyclic life, static strength decreases very
significantly.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
increase in strength
increase in modulus
decrease of strain to failure
change of failure mode from ductile or plastic to brittle.
Guidance note:
The effect of high strain rate is more pronounced for polymeric
materials than for wooden or metallic materials.
For polymeric materials, such as polymeric foam, strain rate effects are significant for values superior to 5% per second at room
temperature
For balsa wood core materials, strain rate effect is negligible for
temperature range belonging to 20 +40C and for strain due to
slamming of waves in marine applications.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
904 Decrease of strain to failure under high strain rate regime may be critical at stress concentration areas, for example,
area of load introduction, joints, inserts.
905 When strain rates effects are unknown, strength and
elasticity modulus for quasi-static conditions should be used
together with strain to failure at high strain rate - as a conservative approach.
C 1000 Characteristic values
1001 Characteristic values shall be used for all stress rupture
and S-N curves in this standard. The procedure to obtain these
values is the same as given in section 4 C1100.
D. Other properties
D 100 Thermal expansion coefficient
101 Thermal expansion coefficient of the cores in the relevant temperature range shall be measured in the main material
directions.
102 Stresses due to thermal deformation shall be considered.
temperature
water
chemicals
UV radiation.
E 200
Effect of temperature
Change of
static
strength
under permanent
load
Change of
modulus
under fatigue
Time to fatigue failure
Change of
static
strength
under fatigue load
(unknown)
test
(unknown)
test
(unknown)
test
(unknown)
test
205 In the case of recently-manufactured foam core materials used in sandwich structures, the effect of out-gassing under
elevated temperature may induce subsequent delamination at
the core-facing interface.
E 300 Effect of water
301 The effect of water on adhesive and core materials can
be insignificant when the time of exposure is short.
302 If the laminate of the sandwich protect the entire core
and the adhesive from the exposure, the resistance to water
may be less critical. However, water diffuses through laminates and may degrade core properties.
303 Some core materials are specially treated or sealed to reduce any effects of water. The advantageous effect of the treatment shall be documented. If the treated core material is used
in a component a quality procedure shall ensure that no untreated core material is used.
304 The effect of water on cellular core materials is typically
severe for open-cell micro-structure and much less severe for
closed-cell materials.
305 Moisture content has an important influence on the mechanical properties of wooden core materials.
306 Balsa and other wood core materials are very susceptible
to water penetration and consequent swelling, debonding and
rot, unless properly sealed and laminated.
Guidance note:
Flat-grain balsa (in which the grain lies parallel to the panel surface) has greater susceptibility to water permeation and is generally less satisfactory as a core material than 'End-grain balsa'.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
G 400 Insulation
401 The properties of the insulation with respect to fire reaction and fire resistance shall be evaluated.
402 Special consideration shall be given to the joints of the
insulation and the method the insulation is attached to the component. Attachment points and joints may create hot spots in
the component.
403 All large scale testing shall be done with jointed insulation and the same attachments as used in the real application.
direct measurements
qualification against representative data
qualification against manufacturers data
qualification against data from the open literature
qualification by component testing.
Not relevant
Same for all tests*
Same for all tests*
Same for all tests*
Same for all tests*
Same for all tests*
Conditioning parameters:
Temperature
Water content of the core (wet, dry)
Chemical environment
Loading rate
Number of specimens:
*
a wider range may be chosen if data are the minimum of a wide variety
of products.
rep * 0.9
Safety class
Normal
confirm Ext or Exc
and Gxc
others: rep * 1
confirm if critical
High
confirm Moduli,
Poisson's ratios confirm
if critical
confirm
rep * 0.8
rep * 0.8
confirm
confirm
confirm
confirm
Low
Elastic constants
all
rep * 1
rep * 0.8
confirm
confirm
rep.
confirm
Stress rupture
rep.
rep.
rep.
rep.
rep.
rep.
confirm
confirm if critical for
design
confirm if critical for
design
confirm
confirm if critical for
design
nately data are often not well documented and essential information tends to be missing.
902 This section describes under which conditions such data
may be used.
903 It shall be documented that the data come from a reputable source. This can be done in the following way:
all data were taken from calibrated test equipment
data were witnessed by an independent third party or data
were published and reviewed by at least two independent
research teams.
904 If these requirements are not met data can still be used as
representative data, but all new materials data have to be confirmed against these data, even if the requirements in H600 do
not require a confirmation.
SECTION 6
FAILURE MECHANISMS & DESIGN CRITERIA
A. Mechanisms of failure
A 100 General
101 A mechanism of failure is the underlying phenomenon
at the material level that determines the mode of failure. Depending on its level of severity a mechanism of failure can lead
to various failure modes. For example, matrix cracking can
lead to seepage of a fluid through the laminate or lead to fracture depending on the severity of the cracks. Failure mechanism can be regarded as the cause of failure and failure mode
as the effect. The failure terminology used in this standard is
shown in Figure 1.
Guidance note:
Local and global failure shall be distinguished. On a material level, failure tends to be local, i.e. over an area of a few cm2, or even
less. This local failure may have global consequences immediately, or after some growth with time. In some cases, the local
failure does not grow and does not have any global consequences
and does not effect any of the design requirements of the structure. In such a case local failure may be acceptable.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
102 Only failure mechanisms that are related to critical failure modes, as identified in section 3 should be considered.
SAFETY ISSUES
Safety
class
FAILURE TERMINOLOGY
Structure
or
product
Functional
requirements
Limit states
Failure
modes
Failure types
Failure
mechanisms
Underlying phenomenon at
the material level that
determines the failure mode.
Depending on its level of
severity a failure
mechanism can lead to
several failure modes.
Example: Pipeline
A) fibre failure
(brittle)
B) matrix cracking &
delamination
(ductile)
Failure
criteria
Figure 1
Failure terminology
Example: Pipeline
A) maximum strain in
the fibre direction
B) maximum stress
transverse to the
fibres combined
with shear stress
103 For the material in consideration, all the relevant mechanisms of failure shall be listed. A minimum list of failure
mechanisms is given in Table A1. The failure mechanisms are
linked to typical material types.
Table A1 Failure mechanisms for different materials
Failure Mechanisms
Material Type
Fibre Failure
Laminates and Sandwich Skins
Matrix Cracking
Laminates
Delamination
Laminates and Sandwich Core/Skin Interface
Yielding
Core materials, liners, resin rich areas
Core materials
Ultimate failure of isotropic or anisotropic homogenous materials
Elastic buckling
All materials
Unacceptably large dis- All materials
placements
Stress Rupture
All materials, all failure mechanisms.
Fatigue
All materials, all failure mechanisms.
Wear
All materials
Fire*
All materials
Explosive decompresAll materials
sion*
Impact*
All materials
Chemical decomposition All materials
*
these items are load conditions, but are treated here as failure
mechanisms to simplify the approach in the standard.
Guidance note:
The mechanisms of failure of composites can be discussed at different material levels. Failure can be considered to happen in the
matrix or in the fibre. On a larger scale, it can happen to the individual ply (or core). Eventually, one can consider the whole
thickness of the structure as one quantity, i.e. the laminate or the
sandwich structure.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
104 In some cases, a critical sequence of mechanisms of failure may be required for a failure mode to occur. That sequence
should be specified (considering the domino effect), if relevant.
Guidance note:
Different sequences may lead to the same failure mode. In this
case, the structure shall only be considered as failed, if the whole
sequence of mechanisms of failure modes has happened.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
105 The type of failure corresponding to each failure mechanism shall be determined. See section 2 C400 for the definition of the three types of failure. Failure types for typical
failure mechanisms are indicated in the following chapters.
Guidance note:
The type of failure determines the partial safety factors (see Section 2). The determination of the type of failure is a critical step
in the design process and can lead to significant differences in the
magnitude of the partial safety factors.
202 In some cases a failure mechanisms is linked in a conservative way to a failure mode. If the failure mechanisms is
only linked to that failure mode in a conservative way, a different failure type than stated in 201 may be used based on the criteria in section 2 C400.
Guidance note:
For example: onset of matrix cracking may be linked to leakage,
even though it is known that a fairly large number of matrix
cracks must be present to cause leakage in most laminates. If matrix cracking is not linked to any other failure modes than leakage, the failure type "ductile" may be chosen.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Guidance note:
For elastic buckling the failure type is determined by the postbuckling behaviour. For elastic buckling of most simple, symmetrical columns and struts the failure type may be considered
plastic. For plates supported on all edges the behaviour is often
ductile. For some shell and optimised stiffened plate structures
the behaviour may be brittle.
Note that deformations associated with elastic buckling may trigger other failure mechanisms such as fibre failure, with consequent change of failure type.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Rupture
(1)
Global
buckling
Local
buckling
Laminate
creep
Laminate
fatigue
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Laminate
mechanism cannot be well described it may be sufficient to design the component in a way that the preceding failure mechanism will not occur.
Typical sequences are:
matrix cracking
debonding and matrix cracking
delamination
=> delamination
=> fibre buckling
=> crack propagation due to fatigue
a) face/core yielding/fracture
b) core shear
c) buckling - face wrinkling
d) delamination
e) general buckling
f)
Guidance note:
The types and directions of loading shown in figure 2 are indicative, and are characteristic of loading associated with the elementary failure mechanisms. However, in real structures, a failure
mechanism can occur under various loading conditions.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
A 500
nisms
Fibre Failure
Matrix Cracking
Matrix Crack Growth
Delamination
Leakage
Yielding
Buckling
Unacceptably large displacement
Sandwich core failure
Sandwich core yield
Sandwich buckling
Stress Rupture
Fatigue
Impact
Wear
Fire
Explosive Decompression
Chemical decomposition / galvanic corrosion
Buckling
Buckling (local or glo- Sandwich buckling
bal)
Unacceptably large displacement
Blast/Burst
Impact
Impact
Unacceptably large displaceExcessive deformament
tion,
Ovalisation,
Excessive displacement
Wear
Wear
Chemical decomposition / galvanic corrosion
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
General
204 The characteristic value of the resistance shall be determined according to the sections 4 A600 and section 5 A600.
205 The load and environmental conditions for time-dependent design checks shall be selected in accordance with section
3K.
B 300
it may be possible to perform a component test that evaluates the relevant design criteria without the need of a detailed knowledge of the failure mechanisms. This should
be documented. See section 10
a design criterion may be proposed. It should be documented by experiments and/or experience that the proposed design criterion is applicable for the component.
Details are given under R.
301 The general design criterion, in the case of a combination of loads, for the Load and Resistance Factor design format
is:
B 200
where,
F . Sd .S k <
where,
h =1
ih
i j
S d = Sd . Fj .S kj + Fi .S ki . i <
Sd
Sik
iF
i
jF , jM
Rk
M . Rd
S d = Sd . max Fh .S kh + Fi .S ki . i = Sd . Fj .S kj + Fi .S ki . i
i j
Rk
. Rd
j
M
Sd, Rd
302 All explanations of B200 apply also to these criteria for
combined loads.
303 The load combination factors Y shall be determined according to section 3 K209.
Guidance note:
In the equation above, it is important to see that the partial resistance factor jM , corresponding to the load j alone, is used as the
common partial resistance factor.
For example, when combining a wave load and a snow load one
should determine first the maximum of the following two load
combinations. For clarity, the load model factor is not shown in
the equations below. It should however be considered in real
problems.
S d = max
wave
F
wave
F
wave
k
wave
k
.S
.S
+
.
snow
F
wave
.S
+
. (1)
.S ksnow (2)
snow
k
snow
F
snow
Rk
. Rd
wave
M
Rk
. Rd
snow
M
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
F . Sd . nk
k fiber
<
M . Rd
where:
enk
C. Fibre failure
C 100 General
101 Fibre failure is defined here as the failure of a ply by
fracture of fibres. The fibre strength or strain to failure is based
on test results from plies or laminates as described in section 4.
Ply failures are measured as rupture of the ply in fibre direction.
102 The maximum strain criterion should be used to check
fibre failures.
103 Other design criteria may be used if it can be shown that
they are equal or conservative compared to the maximum
strain criterion given here. See for example C300.
104 Fibre failure should be checked at the ply level, not at the
laminate level.
105 If laminates have a lay-up with fibre orientation seen
through the entire thickness that are more than 45o apart, matrix cracking or deformation due to in plane ply shear stresses
may cause rupture of the laminate. In this case matrix cracking
due to ply shear should also be checked to avoid fracture, burst
or leakage (see also D500 and C300), unless it can be shown
that matrix cracks or deformations can be tolerated by the laminate under the relevant loading conditions.
Guidance note:
A pipe made of 55 laminate with a liner can tolerate matrix
cracks and shear deformations, as long as the pipe sees only internal pressure. If the pipe must carry axial loads or bending moments in addition to the pressure, fibres would want to reorient
themselves to a different angle, a complicated condition. This is
only avoided as long as the shear properties of the pipe are intact.
Characteristic value of the local response of the structure (strain) in the fibre direction n
kfibre Characteristic value of the axial strain to fibre failure
F
Partial load effect factor
Sd,
Partial load-model factor
M
Partial resistance factor
Rd,
Partial resistance-model factor, given in 202 (below).
202 The selection of the resistance model factor gRd depends
on the choice of structural analysis method:
if a linear analysis with non-degraded properties is chosen
according to Section 9 B400, then Rd = A, as described
in section 9 C203
in all other cases Rd = 1.0.
203 The maximum strain criterion shall be checked in all n
directions parallel to the fibres, and for tensile and compressive strains.
204 kfibre is the time dependent characteristic strength of
the ply in fibre direction. It shall be determined according to
section 4C. One value for one fibre and weave type.
205 For N combined loads, with combination j being the
worst combination (see section 3 K200) the maximum strain
design criterion is given by:
M . Rd
i j
fiber
k
where,
eink
Partial load effect factor for load - i Combination factor for load - i Partial load effect and resistance factors for load - j Partial resistance factor
Partial resistance-model factor, given in 202
jF ,
M
Rd
(
+ R (F
+ R 2 2 H 12 1 2 + 2 H 13 1 3 + 2 H 23 2 3
1
in 2-D:
with
R = F Sd m Rd
F11 =
1t 1c
F12 =
F1 =
, F13 =
12 2
1
1t
H 12* =
F22 =
1c
H 12
F11 F22
2t 2c
13 2
F2 =
, H 13* =
, F23 =
, F33 =
2t
2c
H 13
F11 F33
3t 3 c
23 2
, F3 =
*
, H 23
=
*
*
*
304 The interaction parameters H 12
, H 13
, H 23
should
be determined experimentally for each material. In that case
Rd = 1.0. Alternatively values between 0 and -0.5 may be chosen as a default, in that case Rd = 1.15.
305 Since Tsai-Wu criterion is here only used to check for
fracture of the laminate (see C105) and small matrix cracks are
acceptable, strength properties should be taken as described
below. Characteristic strengths as described in section 4 B 400
should always be used.
1c
2t =
2c =
E2
1t
E1
E2
1c
E1
ply
) 3t
+ F2 2 + F3 3 < 1
1t
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
F
Sd,
M
Rd
section 4.
inplane shear strength, as defined in sec 12
tion 4.
nk
3t
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
3c
H 23
F22 F33
or
COVcomb = maxn (COVn )
where,
where,
n
nt
nc
nk
n
the co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system,
where n refers to the directions 1, 2, 3, 12, 13 and 23
characteristic value of the local load effect of the structure (stress) in the direction n
characteristic tensile strength in the direction n
characteristic compressive strength in the direction n
characteristic shear strength in the direction nk
j
j
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
n
n
x (0, y ) <
y = R + d0
or
COVcomb. = maxn (COVn )
Guidance note:
This approach is conservative compared to the approach of Tukstras rule as used for the fibre design criteria. This approach has
been chosen for simplification. In the case of fibre failure, only
the strains parallel to the fibre directions have to be considered,
whereas for matrix cracking all stress directions may interact.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
0
R
d0
Figure 3
Point Stress Criterion.
cut-outs
discontinuous linear and smooth geometry (including
rough edges)
joints which include bolted joints, bonded joints, and other
mechanical joints
mismatch of elastic properties between two adjacent components or materials
voids and damage due to material fabrication.
8
R 6
R
7
3 5
y
y
= 1 + 2
E
x
y
0 .5
xy
Ex
+ 0 .5
G xy
0 .5
x
x
y
2R
605 The suggested design criterion is the point stress criterion: Failure occurs when the stress or strain at a distance d0
away from the tip of the stress concentration point is equal to
2
4
R
R
+ 3
K
2 +
y
y
where
x
Figure 4
Infinite plate with a circular hole
For an infinite orthotropic plate, with a crack, subjected to a uniform stress, x , applied parallel to the x-axis at infinity, the nor-
mal stress, x, along the y-axis ahead of the crack tip, see the
Figure 5, can be expressed as:
x y
x (0, y ) =
y2 c2
See A102 and A103 for relevance of matrix cracking for a particular application.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
for y > c
x
x
x
2c
F . Sd . nk
Figure 5
Infinite plate with sharp crack
nk matrix
<
M . Rd
where,
The equations above are valid for infinite plates. For finite plates,
it is necessary to add a Finite Width Correction (FWC) factor.
There are several analysis methods, including finite element
methods, to determine the FWC factor.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
608 If certain damage is expected to be present in the structure at various points that can cause stress concentrations, the
structure shall be analysed by modelling the presence of this
damage. The damage shall be placed into the structure in a representative and conservative way.
609 As an alternative to analysing the structure with various
points of damage the structure can be analysed with a reduced
strength that represents the damage. All strength values used in
the design criteria shall be based on measurements from damaged laminates (see section 4 A700).
matrix
characteristic value of the stress components to ma nk
trix cracking in direction n
F
partial load effect factor
Sd
partial load-model factor
M
partial resistance factor
Rd
partial resistance-model factor, Rd = 1.0
The co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system.
nk
Guidance note:
The stress to matrix cracking is in general direction-dependent.
This is due to the presence of fibres that concentrate the stresses,
such that the matrix stress to failure in the direction parallel to the
fibres is in generally larger than in the perpendicular direction.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
D. Matrix cracking
D 100 General
101 Matrix design criteria apply to a matrix in a ply where
the deformation of the matrix is restrained by the fibres of the
ply or the surrounding laminate.
Guidance note:
Matrix cracking is a simple concept at first sight but quite involved in details.
Some laminates have already matrix cracks after manufacturing.
These cracks can be introduced by thermal stresses or by shrinkage of the matrix during cure.
Laminates without matrix cracks have an initial ply stress when
the first cracks start to form.
Once cracks are formed they start to propagate at higher ply
stresses and additional cracks are formed.
Crack formation will eventually lead to a change in stiffness.
This point is usually referred to as the matrix crack point or first
ply failure etc., because this is what can easily be measured.
Eventually laminates show crack saturation and no further cracks
form when loaded more. The change of modulus has been related
to matrix crack density in some publications.
202 The combination between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration when the criterion below is satisfied. In that case, there is no dominating
stress and the combination cannot be disregarded.
maxi
ik
ik
ni
matrix
nk
nk
10
matrix
F .
where,
Sd
Rd
nk
matrix
nk
n
<1
the co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system, where n refers to the directions 22, 33, 12, 13
and 23
characteristic value of the local load effect of the
structure (stress) in the direction n
characteristic value of the stress components to matrix cracking in direction n
partial load effect factor
partial load-model factor
partial resistance factor
partial resistance-model factor, Rd = 1.15.
Guidance note:
A resistance-model factor Rd = 1.15 should be used with this design rule. The model factor shall ensure a conservative result
with respect to the simplifications made regarding the treatment
of combined loads.
nk
nk matrix
F
Sd,
M
Rd
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Guidance note:
This design criterion is often not available in finite element codes
or other commercial software. The Tsai-Wu criterion can be used
instead to check for matrix cracking, if the following modifications are made to the strength parameters:
- the ply strengths in fibre direction may be chosen to be much
(1000 times) higher than the actual values
- the interaction parameter f12=0 shall be set to 0.
It is, however, recommended to use the Puck criterion to predict
matrix cracking, see D300).
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e--
nk
.COVn /
nk
302 The criterion evaluates the stress state over all possible
failure surfaces. The orientation of the failure surface is described by the angle . The stress state n, nt, nl in the co-ordinates of the failure surface described by is obtained from
the ply stresses by:
n
nt =
n1
Sd
Rd
c2
. sc
0
s2
sc
2 sc
(c 2 s 2 )
0
0
2
0 3
0 23
c 31
21
(c = cos ; s = sin )
In addition, the stress component II in fibre direction is needed.
II = f Sd M Rd 1
Failure is evaluated based on the stress state n, nt, nl for all
angles q between - 90 and + 90 degrees. The design criterion is:
if n () 0
or
COVcomb = maxn (COVn )
where:
n
the co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system, where n refers to the directions 22, 33, 12, 13
and 23
COVn
COV for stress component n
COVcomb COV for the combined stress components.
206 When two or more loads are combined, each stress component nk in direction n can be the result of several combined
loads. In that case each stress component nkj, which is the local load effect of the structure in direction n due to load j, shall
be considered separately as an individual stress component to
determine the COV.
j
j
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
n
n
or
1, 2, 3, 12, 13, 23
characteristic values of the local load effect of the structure (stress) in the co-ordinates of the ply.
partial load effect factor (see 307)
partial load-model factor (from structural
analysis see section 9)
partial resistance factor (see 307)
partial resistance-model factor (see 308)
strength factors (see 303).
F
Sd,
M
Rd
Fik
parameters
2t matrix , 2c matrix, 12 shear, 1t fibre ,
Guidance note:
This approach is conservative compared to the approach of Tukstras rule as used for the fibre design criteria. This approach has
been chosen for simplification. In the case of fibre failure, only
the strains parallel to the fibre directions have to be considered,
whereas for matrix cracking all stress directions may interact.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Ff =
1
At 1fibre
t
, if
II 0 and
Ff =
, if II < 0
Ac 1fibre
c
1 p(+)
F = z A
R R
+
nn
p(+)
+
n
F =
Fnt =
RA
1
A
R
p()
Fnn =
F =
Fnl =
p()
RA
1
R||
with,
D 400
At = Ac = 1.6
nl
= tan
nt
(+)
( +)
(+)
p ||
sin 2
402 The orientation of the failure surface should be determined with the Puck design criterion by finding the angle q at
which the matrix design criterion in 302 reaches its maximum.
)
p (||)
p ()
p (
2
=
cos +
sin 2
R A R A
R ||
403 If the laminate may have matrix cracks with an orientation of 30o to 60o relative to the plane of the laminate the compressive fibre strength shall be measured on laminates with the
presence of such cracks and this value shall be used in the fibre
design criterion (see this section under C). In this case the tested laminate should be equal to the one used in the component.
A
R
A
R
=
A
R
cos 2 +
R ||
Rd
( )
2(1 + p
)
Guidance note:
Matrix cracks with an orientation of 30o to 60o occur mainly
when the ply is exposed to high inplane shear stresses or compressive stresses normal to the fibre direction.
+ ) ( )
p (+||) , p (||) , p (
, p
R = 2t
z
304
matrix , Rd =
matrix, R =
||
2c
12
shear.
components 2t matrix , 2c matrix, 12 shear and the corresponding coefficients of variation COVn are defined as specified in section 4 A600. The combined COVcomb is defined as:
COVcomb = maxn (COVn )
305 When two or more loads are combined, each stress component nk in direction n can be the result of several combined
loads. In that case each stress component nkj, which is the local load effect of the structure in direction n due to load j, shall
be considered separately as an individual stress component to
determine the COV.
F . Sd . 12
12 matrix
<
M . Rd
where,
12 matrix
or
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
D 500
12
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
j
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
F
Sd
M
Rd
The co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system.
D 600
601
E. Delamination
E 100 General
101 Delamination is a separation of plies. Delaminations are
debonded areas that can grow gradually, once they are initiated.
102 Delaminations can also be debonding between core materials and skins.
E 200 Onset of delamination
201 The onset of delamination due to inplane stresses or
strains is difficult to predict. It is known that delaminations
will not initiate before matrix cracks have formed. It is, therefore, a conservative choice to model the onset of delamination
with the matrix cracking criteria from D.
E 300 Delamination growth
301 Growth of interlaminar cracks can be analysed with a
fracture mechanics approach. The crack will propagate when
the strain energy release rate G will reach the critical strain energy release rate Gcritical. The design criterion is then given by:
F . Sd .G <
G critical
M . Rd
F. Yielding
F 100 General
101 Yielding design criteria apply to most polymer core materials of sandwich structures.
102 Yielding design criteria may apply to a matrix material
with plastic characteristics if the matrix is located in a region
where it is not restrained between fibres, e.g. in the case of resin rich layers.
103 Yielding applies also to typical liner materials, like thermoplastics or resin rich layers.
104 The von Mises' yield criterion shall be used to describe
materials that yield. The stresses used in this criterion are the
principal stresses.
F . Sd . M . Rd . ( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 < y
where,
n
y
F
Sd,
M
Rd
F . Sd . nk
nk
<
M . Rd
where,
n
nk
nk
F
Sd
M
Rd
Local response and strength must be given in the same co-ordinate system.
Guidance note:
A typical example for core materials in a sandwich would be to
check that the through thickness shear stress does not exceed the
shear strength. In many cases the shear stress is the dominating
stress component, however, this shall be checked with the criterion in 104.
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104 The interaction between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration when the following criterion is satisfied. In that case, there is no dominating
stress and the interaction can not be disregarded.
maxi
ik
ik
nk
ni
10
where i and n refer to the directions: 11, 22, 33, 12, 13, 23.
For isotropic materials the directions shall be either the principal normal stresses or the principal shear stresses. For orthotropic materials the directions shall be the material axes.
The same co-ordinate systems shall be used in 103 and 104.
105 When the interaction between the stress components in
several directions shall be taken into consideration, the design
criterion below shall be applied. The criterion shall be applied
for tensile and compressive stresses.
Sd
Rd
nk
nk
nk
nk
F
Sd,
M
Rd
<1
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
or
COVcomb. = maxn (COVn )
The design criterion has then the form:
F .
where,
n
j
j
COVcomb = nk .COVn / nk
n
n
nk
or
COVcomb = maxn (COVn )
where,
n
refers to the directions 11, 22, 33, 12, 13, 23
COV for stress component n
COVn
COVcomb COV for the combined stress components.
108 When two or several loads are combined, each characteristic stress component nk in direction n can be the result of
several combined loads. In that case each stress component
Sd
Rd
nkj
j
nk
<1
H. Buckling
H 100 Concepts and definitions
101 Elastic buckling phenomena are commonly considered
in two main categories:
Bifurcation buckling: Increasing the applied loading induces at first deformations that are entirely (or predominantly) axial or in-plane deformations. At a critical value
of applied load (elastic critical load) a new mode of deformation involving bending is initiated. This may develop
in an unstable, uncontrolled fashion without further increase of load (unstable post-buckling behaviour, brittle
type of failure), or grow to large values with little or no increase of load (neutral post-buckling behaviour, plastic
type of failure) or develop gradually in a stable manner as
the load is increased further (stable post-buckling behaviour, ductile type of failure).
Limit point buckling: As the applied load is increased the
structure becomes less stiff until the relationship between
load and deflection reaches a smooth maximum (elastic
critical load) at which the deformations increase in an uncontrolled way (brittle type of failure).
102 Determination of the elastic critical load of a structure or
member that experiences bifurcation buckling corresponds to
the solution of an 'eigenvalue' problem in which the elastic
buckling load is an 'eigenvalue' and the corresponding mode of
buckling deformation is described by the corresponding 'eigenvector'.
103 Elastic buckling may occur at different levels:
global level for the structure; this involves deformation of
the structure as a whole.
global level for a structural member; this is confined mainly to one structural member or element but involves the
whole of that member or element.
local level for a structural member; only a part of a structural member or element is involved (e.g. local buckling of
the flange of an I-beam or of a plate zone between stiffeners in a stiffened plate).
104 Resistance of a structural member to elastic buckling is
normally expressed as a critical value of load (applied force, or
General requirements
F buckling
F . Sd .F <
Mbuckle . Rdbuckle
where,
F
characteristic value of the load, or induced stress resultant , or nominal stress or strain
I. Displacements
I 100
General
101 Maximum displacements shall be defined as extreme
values with a small probability of being exceeded and without
uncertainties or tolerances associated with them. The following design criterion shall be fulfilled:
F . Sd . d n < d spec
where,
dn
dspec
Sd,
104 If the criterion is used in combination with a linear nondegraded analysis according to 9B400, all strains and stresses
in fibre direction above the level to initiate matrix cracking
shall be multiplied by the analysis factor a from section 9
C200.
If displacement requirements shall be observed the displacement criterion (see under H) shall be checked by using the relevant creep moduli in the analysis.
J 300 Stress relaxation
301 The effect of stress relaxation is a reduction of the
Young's modulus that causes a reduction of stresses under constant deformation. How the modulus changes with time is described in sections 4 and 5. Usually experimental confirmation
of the behaviour is required.
302 The result of stress relaxation can be a redistribution of
stresses in a larger structure or the loss of a certain contact
pressure. If the redistribution of stresses is of concern a stress
analysis with the changed elastic constants shall be performed.
If a certain contact pressure is needed the structure shall be
checked for the reduced moduli.
Guidance note:
A specified contact pressure is often needed for bolted connections, or if a component is kept in place by friction.
Stress relaxation will be less pronounced when:
- the glass content in the laminate is increased
- more of the fibres are orientated in the load direction
- the temperature is lowered.
fat Rd
t actual
t
y
j =1
charact
j =1
(t), (t)
(1) , (1)
slope depending on the material, failure mechanism and on the environmental conditions
log
denotes the logarithm to the basis 10.
405 It shall be documented that the material follows the
equation (6-12). More details can be found in section 4 C300
and section 5 C300. If the long term behaviour of the material
is different, the following equations to calculate lifetimes may
still be used, but the characteristic time to failure (see 407)
should be calculated by a statistical analysis appropriate for the
t actual
fat Rd t y
Sd
applied
Sd
charact
Sd
applied
or
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j applied
Sd applied
j
<1
<1
with
Rd = 1 for a summation over various strain/stress levels, i.e.
N>1.
Rd = 0.1 if the component is exposed to only one strain/stress
level, i.e. N=1.
where t .... t is a function of
{ }
j applied local response of the structure to the permanent static load conditions (max. strain)
Guidance note:
The factors fat Rd are designed in such a way that they account
for the uncertainty in Miner sum for composites and provide the
desired level of safety. When choosing the default value Rd =1
an uncertainty of 10 is assumed for the Miner sum.
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n actual
fat Rd t y
j =1
{
{
n charact
Sd
j applied
Sd
j applied
} <1
}
with
Rd = 1 for a summation over various strain conditions, each of
which consists of a combination of a specific mean strain and
a specific strain amplitude, i.e. N>1.
Rd = 0.1 if the component is exposed to only one mean strain
and one strain amplitude, i.e. N=1.
where n {....} n is a function of
applied
Guidance note:
The factors fat Rd are designed in such a way that they account
for the uncertainty in Miner sum for composites and provide the
desired level of safety. When choosing the default value Rd =1
an uncertainty of 10 is assumed for the Miner sum.
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L. Impact
L 100 General
101 Impact of an object may have two effects on a structure.
The impact may be so strong that failure modes are introduced
that will immediately lead to a violation of functional requirements. More often impact may cause some minor failures that
may lead to further damage and violation of functional requirements in the future.
102 When considering the effects of impact, it should be
documented that no unintended failure mechanisms will hap-
M. Wear
M 100 General
101 Wear is a complicated process that is influenced by the
entire system. All material data used for wear calculations
shall be relevant for the system investigated.
distance, using the length related wear rate w for the corresponding wear system. The wear rate varies with the surfaces
in contact, the magnitude of the contact pressure and the environment. The wear depth dy (thickness of removed material) is
given by:
dy
w=
(m/m)
dx
The total sliding distance dx shall be calculated assuming one
contact point for the entire duration of the wear phase.
202 Another option is to calculate the wear depth
based on
the sliding time, using the time related wear rate wt for the corresponding wear system. The wear rate varies with the surfaces
in contact, the magnitude of the contact pressure and the environment. The wear depth dy (thickness of removed material) is
given by:
dy
wt =
(m/s)
dt
The total sliding time dt shall be calculated assuming the same
contact point for the entire duration of the wear phase.
203 The consequences of removing material with respect to
all other failure mechanisms shall be evaluated.
M 300 Component testing
301 Refer to section on component testing: section 10.
Guidance note:
The performance of a wear system should ideally be assessed by
a practical trial in the intended application. However, this trial is
often impractical and it is necessary to resort to laboratory testing. Accelerated laboratory tests with simpler geometrical configurations are often used although there is still a considerable
amount of controversy about the validity of the results due to the
geometry of the test samples.
O 200 Interfaces
201 Similar to the effect observed in materials, fluids can accumulate between interfaces of materials with different diffusion constants. A rapid reduction of pressure may destroy the
interface, because the fluid wants to expand. In the case of liners or thin materials, the liner may deform substantially, buckle, or even crack.
202 The designer should think about venting arrangements
in the structure to avoid the build-up of fluids in interfaces.
203 The resistance of an interface to the effects of rapid decompression shall be tested at the maximum expected pressure, unless it can be shown that venting arrangements prevent
the build-up of fluids.
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P 100 General
101 Sandwich structures are built of a light weight core embedded between two faces (or skins). Design criteria are discussed for skins, cores and the core skin interface.
melting
burning
removal of material
phase transitions
face wrinkling
504 Global buckling will occur when the axial load will
reach the critical buckling load, i.e.
P Pcr.
505 Shear crimping will occur when the direct stress will
reach the crimping stress, i.e.
face crimping
506 Face dimpling or intercellular buckling occurs only in
sandwich structures with honeycomb and corrugated cores.
Face dimpling will occur when the compressive stress in the
cell wall reaches the buckling stress of a honeycomb cell or a
corrugated core, i.e.
core dinpling
SECTION 7
JOINTS AND INTERFACES
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 Joints and interfaces are special sections or components
of a structure. They can in principle be analysed an tested the
same way as a structure or component. However, some special
considerations are described in the following sections.
102 Requirements for joints and interfaces are based on
achieving the same level of reliability as the structure of which
it is part.
103 If metal components are part of a joint or interface, the
metal components shall be designed according to relevant
standards for such components. This standard does not cover
metal components.
A 200 Joints
201 Joints are defined here as load bearing connections between structures, components or parts.
202 Three basic types of joints are considered in this standard:
laminated joints, i.e. joints fabricated from the same constituent materials as the laminates that are joined, such as
e.g. over-laminations, lap joints, scarf joints etc.
adhesive joints, i.e. joints between laminates, cores or between laminates and other materials e.g. metals
mechanical joints, i.e. joints including fasteners, e.g. bolted connections.
A 300 Interfaces
301 Interfaces are defined here as the area or region where
different structures, components or parts meet each other. All
joints have interfaces.
302 If the interface shall transfer loads it also has the function of a joint. All requirements for joints apply to such an interface.
303 A typical interface is the area where the surface of a load
bearing structure and a liner meet.
A 400 Thermal properties
401 The effects of thermal stresses and strains and displacements shall be considered for all joints and interfaces.
A 500 Examples
501 Examples of good practise shall be evaluated with great
care. The examples are usually given for certain load and environmental conditions, without stating those explicitly. The
qualification and analysis requirements of this standard shall
also be applied joints based on good practise. See also B400 on
how experience can be utilised.
B. Joints
B 100 Analysis and testing
101 The same design rules as applied for the rest of the structure shall be applied to joints, as relevant.
102 Joints are usually difficult to evaluate, because they have
complicated stress fields and the material properties at the interfaces are difficult to determine.
103 Joints may be designed according to three different approaches:
C. Specific joints
C 100 Laminated joints
101 Laminated joints rely on the strength of the interface for
load transfer. The interface has resin dominated strength properties. Defects in the interface tend to be more critical than defects in the interface of plies of laminate, because the joint
interface is the only and critical load path.
102 The strength of the joint may be different from the
through thickness matrix properties of the laminate, because
the joint may be a resin rich layer and the joint may be applied
to an already cured surface instead of a wet on wet connection.
(see manufacturing). The strength of the joint should be documented.
103 Laminated joints are very sensitive to peel conditions.
Peel stresses should be avoided.
104 For the interface between the joining laminates the matrix design rules given in section 5 apply. The resistance of the
interface shall be determined with the same level of confidence
as specified in section 4 A600. It shall be recognised that the
resistance of the interface between the laminates may not be
the same as the corresponding resistance parameter of the joining laminates. Resin rich layers may even have to be analysed
D. Interfaces
D 100 General
101 If loads shall be transferred across an interface all aspects related to joints shall be considered.
102 If interfaces only touch each other friction and wear
should be considered according to section 6 M.
103 Fluids may accumulate between interfaces. They may
cracks cannot propagate across the interface from one substrate to the other. It should be shown that by stretching or
bending both substrates and their interface that no cracks forms
in the one substrate even if the other substrate has the maximum expected crack density.
Guidance note:
This is a typical situation for pressure vessels with liners. The
load bearing laminate may have some matrix cracks, but the liner
shall not crack to keep the vessel tight. Local debonding of the
liner may be acceptable if the liner will not collapse due to its
own weight, negative internal pressure or other effects.
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Guidance note:
A weak bond between the substrates is beneficial to prevent
crack growth across the interface. However, it means that
debonding may happen easily.
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SECTION 8
SAFETY-, MODEL- AND SYSTEM FACTORS
A. Overview of the various factors used in the
standard
A 100 General
101 The safety factor methodology used in this standard is
presented in section 2 C600.
102 The Table A1 shows the various safety factors, model
factors and system factors used in this standard.
Table A1 overview of the various factors used in the standard
Symbol
Designation
Reference Type
F
Partial load effect fac- section 8 B safety factor
tor
M
Partial resistance fac- section 8 B safety factor
tor
FM (= F x M) Combined load effect section 8 B safety factor
and resistance factor
Sd
Load model factor
section 8 C model factor
Rd
Resistance model fac- section 8 C model factor
tor
S
System factor
section 8 D model factor
fat
Partial factor for fasection 8 E safety factor
tigue analysis
Normal Ductile/
Plastic
Brittle
High
Ductile/
Plastic
Brittle
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
2.0
2.0
1.7
1.9
2.5
B 500
Guidance note:
Functional loads are defined as mean loads in Table B3.
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B 700 Partial safety factors for functional and environmental loads as typically defined for TLPs
701 If loads are defined as functional and environmental
loads as commonly done in offshore applications for Tension
Leg Platforms (TLPs) as described in Offshore Standard
DNV-OS-C105 "Structural Design of TLPS" , the partial factors in Table B7 should be used.
Table B7 Partial load effect factors F
Load categories
Combination of Permanent and Environmental Deformation
design loads
functional loads loads
loads
a)
1.2 *
0.7
1.0
b)
1.0
1.3
1.0
* ) If the load is not well defined e.g. masses or functional loads with
great uncertainty, possible overfilling of tanks etc. the coefficient
should be increased to 1.3.
Guidance note:
Functional loads are defined as mean loads in Table B7.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
ULS
FLS
F-load
effect
E-load
effect
F1)
E2)
1.1
1.0
1.3
1.0
NOTES
1)
If the functional load effect reduces the combined load effects, gF shall
be taken as 1/1.1.
2)
302 Model factors shall be used for each failure criteria. The
factors are given in Section 6 for each failure criterion. A summary is given in Table C1.
Table C1 Summary of model factors
Failure Criterion
Model factors Rd
Fibre Failure
1.0 or A
Matrix Cracking
1.0-1.15
Delamination
1.0-2.0
Yielding
1.0
Ultimate failure of orthotropic
1.25
homogenous materials
Buckling
Same range as all
other criteria.
Displacements
1.0
Stress Rupture
0.1-1.0
Fatigue
0.1-1.0
Reference
6-C202
6-D100-400
6-E
6-F
6-G
6-H
6-I
6-J400
6-K300
C. Model factors
C 100 General
101 The following two types of model factors are defined in
this standard:
load model factors, designated by Sd
resistance model factors, designated by Rd .
C 200 Load model factors
201 Load model factors Sd account for inaccuracies, idealisations, and biases in the engineering model used for representation of the real response of the structure, e.g. simplifications
in the transfer function (see section 9 A800). Effects of geometric tolerances shall also be included in the load model factor. The factor is treated here as a deterministic parameter.
202 Details about the load model factor are given in section
9 L. The factor shall make up for uncertainties and inaccuracies in the transfer function, the analysis methods, and dynamic effects.
C 300 Resistance model factors
301 Resistance model factors Rd account for differences between true and predicted resistance values given by the failure
criterion.
Safety class
Normal
30
High
50
SECTION 9
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
A. General
A 100 Objective
101 The aim of the structural analysis is to obtain the stresses, strains and displacements (denoted load effects in the following) in the structure as a result of loads and environmental
conditions. The load effects are subsequently evaluated against
failure criteria, see section 6. The following procedures are
typically involved in such an analysis:
procedure to calculate load effects in the structure based
on the loads
procedure to check for global or local failure.
102 The objective of the present section is to provide methods to calculate the response, including evaluation of failure,
of structures for specified loads, surrounding environments
and boundary conditions.
A 200 Input data
201 The input data for the structural analysis should be established as described in the relevant parts of section 3.
202 Environmental conditions should be converted into
loads based on well established physical principles. Guidance
may be found in section 3 and in relevant standards or guidelines.
203 The boundary conditions should be selected carefully in
order to represent the nature of the problem in the best possible
way. It should be demonstrated that the chosen boundary conditions lead to a realistic or conservative analysis of the structure.
204 Thermal stresses that result from production process or
in service loading should be considered in all analysis.
205 Stresses due to swelling from absorbed fluids should be
included if relevant.
206 The elastic properties of the materials constituting the
structure should be taken as described in section 4 for laminates and section 5 for sandwich structures. In particular, timedependent stiffness properties based on the expected degradation due to environmental and loading conditions should be
considered. Local variations of these conditions should also be
considered.
207 Each ply should be described by 4 elastic constants (E1,
E2, G12, 12) for in-plane 2-D analysis and by 9 elastic constants (E1, E2, G12, 12, E3, G13, G23, 13, 23) in 3-D analysis.
A nomenclature for the various elastic constants is defined in
section 14.
208 As an alternative to elastic constants, the stiffness matrix
for orthotropic plies may be used.
209 It should be shown that the estimated stiffness gives conservative results with respect to load effects. The choice of
stiffness values may be different in the cases of strength and
stiffness limited design. More details are given in the sections
below.
Guidance note:
While the FE method is applicable for a wide range of problems,
analytical solutions and the finite series approach often put too
many restrictions on laminate lay-up, geometry etc., and are thus
insufficient in the design of most real world composite structures.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
Material levels
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
601
Step-wise increase
Step-wise increase
Extreme value
Extreme value
Extreme value
Load
fects of discontinuities.
208 If fibre failure occurs in a ply and location (e.g. finite element) with matrix damage, or if matrix failure occurs in a ply
and location (e.g. element) with fibre damage, all material
properties of that ply shall be reduced at the location considered.
Guidance note:
If both fibre failure and matrix failure occur at the same location
(i.e. a finite element) in a ply, all material properties of that ply
are locally degraded. Thus, at that location the ply cannot carry
loads any more. However, in a global sense, the ply may still carry loads because stresses can be redistributed around the location
of failure. The redistribution of stresses can be of type in-plane
(within the same ply) or through thickness (into the neighbouring
plies). If considerable through thickness redistribution occurs, a
3-D progressive failure analysis should be applied, see B300.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
209 The failure analysis is repeated (for the same load level)
until no new failure mechanism is detected. Then, the load level is increased, and a similar failure analysis is performed.
210 Whenever a violation of the ultimate limit state (ULS)
condition is detected the analysis is terminated.
B 300 3-D progressive failure analysis
301 If at least one of the through thickness stress components
cannot be neglected (see Section A304), 3-D effects shall be
taken into account. Then the development of failure is most accurately predicted by 3-D progressive failure analysis on the
ply level.
302 Initially, non-degraded 3-D ply properties (E1, E2, G12,
12, E3, G13, G23, 13 and 23) shall be used in the progressive
non-linear failure analysis.
303 A crucial effect of the through thickness stresses is the
possibility of delamination.
304 In addition to the failure criteria accounted for in the 2D failure analysis in B200, the delamination failure criterion at
the ply level should now be considered (see section 6 E).
305 Otherwise, the 3-D progressive failure algorithm follows the same steps as the 2-D method presented under B200.
306 3-D ply properties shall be degraded by the same principles as described for 2-D properties in B200 and section 4 I.
B 400 Linear failure analysis with non-degraded properties
401 In this simplest approximate failure method non-degraded or initial material properties are applied.
402 The method may be used for both 2-D and 3-D problems, see A304.
403 In the results presented for this method, it is assumed
that matrix failure occurs prior to fibre breakage, see B110. On
the other hand, if fibre failure is not the last failure type to occur in the laminate, the overview of the connection between
analysis methods and failure criteria under C is not applicable.
408 After matrix cracking problems with known displacements result in:
703 All the analysis methods that are applicable for in-plane
2-D problems (presented in B200, B400, B500 and B600) may
be adopted to through thickness 2-D analysis.
704 The simplifications introduced in the through thickness
analysis shall be carefully investigated to ensure that no crucial
effect is lost.
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Elin
corr
Matrix cracking
in 90 layers
Matrix cracking
in 45 layers
Fibre failure
in 0 layer.
Laminate
failure
E 100 General
101 Only recognised FE programs should be used. Other
programs shall be verified by comparison with analytical solutions of relevant problems, recognised FE codes and/or experimental testing.
Figure 1
Typical stress-strain relation for a laminate containing 0, 45 and
90 layers
D. Analytical methods
D 100 General
101 Analytical methods can be divided into two classes: Analytical solutions of (differential) equations or use of handbook
formulae.
D 200 Assumptions and limitations
201 Analytical methods shall not be used outside their assumptions and limitations.
Guidance note:
The main disadvantage of available analytical solutions is that
simplifications often put too many restrictions on geometry, laminate build-up etc. and hence, are insufficient in the design of
more complex composite structures.
Handbook formulae are usually too simple to cover all the design
issues and are also in general not sufficient.
Simplified isotropic calculation methods should not be used, unless it can be demonstrated that these methods give valid results.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
loads
boundary conditions
important and unimportant actions
static, quasi-static or dynamic problem
damping
possibility of buckling
isotropic or anisotropic material
temperature or strain rate dependent material properties
plastic flow
non-linearity (due to geometrical and material properties)
membrane effects.
206 Support conditions shall be treated with care. Apparently minor changes in support can substantially affect results. In
FE models, supports are typically idealised as completely rigid, or as ideally hinged, whereas actual supports often lie somewhere in between. In-plane restraints shall also be carefully
treated.
207 Joints shall be modelled carefully. Joints may have less
stiffness than inherited in a simple model, which may lead to
incorrect predictions of global model stiffness. Individual
modelling of joints is usually not appropriate unless the joint
itself is the object of the study. See also requirements for the
analysis of joints in section 7.
208 Element shapes shall be kept compact and regular to perform optimally. Different element types have different sensitivities to shape distortion. Element compatibility shall be kept
satisfactory to avoid locally poor results, such as artificial discontinuities. Mesh should be graded rather than piecewise uniform, thereby avoiding great discrepancy in size between
adjacent elements.
209 Models shall be checked (ideally independently) before
results are computed.
210 The following points shall be satisfied in order to avoid
ill-conditioning, locking and instability:
a stiff element shall not be supported by a flexible element,
but rigid-body constraints shall be imposed on the stiff element
for plane strain and solid problems, the analyst shall not let
the Poissons ratio approach 0.5, unless a special formulation is used
3-D elements, Mindlin plate or shell elements shall not be
allowed to be extremely thin
the analyst shall not use reduced integration rule without
being aware of possible mechanism (e.g. hourglass nodes).
Guidance note:
Some of these difficulties can be detected by error tests in the
coding, such as a test for the condition number of the structure
stiffness matrix or a test for diagonal decay during equation solving. Such tests are usually made posterior rather than prior.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
216 In the context of finite element analysis (FEA) of laminate structures (one of) the following element types should be
applied:
layered shell elements with orthotropic material properties
for each layer (for in-plane 2-D analysis, see A304)
solid elements with orthotropic material properties (for 3D and through thickness 2-D analysis, see A304).
Guidance note:
There are two options for the solid elements: The modelling may
be performed with (at least) two solid elements through the thickness of each ply. Alternatively, one may apply layered solid elements where the thickness of a single element includes two or
more plies.
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E 500
Evaluation of results
Guidance note:
Although static material properties may yield conservative predictions of displacements, a strength assessment based on static
properties is not necessarily conservative since both the material
strength and the material stiffness may be enhanced at high strain
rates. The higher stiffness may increase the induced stress so that
the benefit of the increase in the material strength may be lost.
Furthermore, ductile materials often become brittle at high rates.
Thus, the extra margin provided by ductile behaviour may be destroyed.
E 600
601 FE programs shall be validated against analytical solutions, test results, or shall be benchmarked against a number of
finite element programs.
602 Analysis designer shall check whether the envisaged
combination of options has been validated by suppliers. If this
is not the case, he shall perform the necessary validation analysis himself.
603 FEA results shall be verified by comparing against relevant analytical results, experimental data and/or results from
previous similar analysis.
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F 200
604
606 Verification whether the many different relevant co-ordinate systems have been applied correctly shall be considered.
General
G. Impact response
G 100
Testing
H. Thermal stresses
H 100
General
{ } = [S ]{ } + {e}
I. Swelling effects
I 100
General
ei = i C
where i is the swelling expansion coefficients and C is swelling agent concentration inside the laminate.
102 Accordingly, the stress-strain relations shall be modified
to account for the stress free environmentally induced expansion strains as follows:
{ } = [S ]{ } + {e}
107 Each point in the structure shall be checked for all times
against the specified functional requirement and corresponding failure modes.
108 Failure criteria for each mechanisms of failure are described in section 6.
J 200
Elastic constants
General
101 A typical load carrying sandwich structure has the following characteristics; it is build up of three elements: two faces, usually stiff and strong; a core, weaker and lighter; a joint,
continuous along each of the two interfaces. Additionally, see
the definition in section 14.
102 All the sandwich structures that do not fall into the
above definition are denoted special sandwich structures. A
distinction is made between typical and special sandwich panels. Simple formulas are provided for design of typical sandwich panels whereas special ones shall be designed on the
basis of more rigorous analyses and possibly testing.
103 A decision to use 2-D or 3-D analysis shall be made depending on the level of significance of the through thickness
stresses/through width strains (see A304). If all through thickness stress components may be neglected, in-plane 2-D analysis may be applied, and if plane strain conditions prevail, a
through thickness 2-D approach may be adopted. Otherwise,
3-D analysis should be performed.
104 In the context of FEA of sandwich structures (one of) the
following element types or combinations should be applied:
a single layer of layered shell elements through the thickness of the entire sandwich material (for in-plane 2-D
analysis, see A304)
(layered) shell elements for the faces and solid elements
for the core (for 3-D and through thickness 2-D analysis,
see A304). In this case a compensation may be desirable
for the change in stiffness, or alternatively, in order to
avoid overlapping areas, shell elements can be positioned
adequately without the need for modifying the material
properties by using the eccentricity property of the element. Depending on the commercial package used this option is not always available
solid elements for both faces and core (for detailed 3-D
and through thickness 2-D analysis, see A304).
105 For the analysis of sandwich structures, special considerations shall be taken into account, such as:
elements including core shear deformation shall be selected
for honeycomb cores one shall account for material orthotropy, since honeycomb has different shear moduli in different directions
local load introductions, corners and joints, shall be
checked
curved panels with small radii of curvature shall be analysed in 2-D (through thickness direction) or 3-D to ac-
202 Core materials are generally orthotropic and are described by more than two elastic constants (see section 5).
However, most FE codes can only describe isotropic core materials. If the elements applied in the FEA do not allow values
for all three parameters to be specified, one should generally
use the measured values for G and , and let the E value be calculated (from the formula above) by the program. In that case
the shear response of the core will be described accurately.
However, in particular applications, in which core shear effects are negligible and axial stresses/strains are crucial, correct E values shall be applied.
Guidance note:
For many core materials experimentally measured values of E, G
and are not in agreement with the isotropic formula:
G =
E
2 (1 + )
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203 Anisotropic core shall be described with 4 elastic constants in a 2-D analysis, i.e. Ex, Ez, Gxz, xz.
204 Anisotropic core shall be described with 9 elastic constants in a 3-D analysis, i.e. Ex, Ey, Ez, Gxy, Gyz, Gxz, xy, yz,
xz.
J 300
Mz
E face
D
core =
Mz
E core
D
face
core
T
D
t
face
face
E core t core
2
4
core =
face
bd
N
4I 2
(2 b + d )d
8I 2
K. Buckling
Mz
E face
D
K 100 General
101 The need for special buckling analysis shall be assessed
carefully in every case. In particular the following aspects shall
be considered in making this assessment:
in N-direction, and
in direction perpendicular to N.
205 In cases where it is possible to establish the bending responses (stresses, strains or displacements) associated with an
in-plane loading separately from the in-plane (axial) responses, a first estimate of the influence of geometrical non-linearity
combined with the imperfection may be obtained by multiplying the relevant bending response parameter obtained from a
geometrically linear analysis by a factor:
1
,
1 P Pe
1
1
or
e
1
1
and combining the modified bending responses with the (unmodified) in-plane responses.
206 The above procedures (205 and 204) may be non-conservative for some cases where the post-buckling behaviour is
unstable. Examples include cylindrical shells and cylindrical
panels under axial loading. Such cases shall be subject to special analysis and or tests.
K 300 Buckling analysis of more complex elements or
entire structures
301 Buckling analysis of more complex elements or entire
structures shall be carried out with the aid of verified finite element software or equivalent.
302 Initially an 'eigenvalue' buckling analysis shall be performed assuming initial (non-degraded) elastic properties for
the laminates and, for sandwich structures, for the core. This
shall be repeated with alternative, finer meshes, until the lowest 'eigenvalues' and corresponding 'eigenmodes' are not significantly affected by further refinement. The main purposes
of this analysis are to clarify the relevant buckling mode shapes
and to establish the required mesh density for subsequent analysis.
303 Careful attention shall be paid to correct modelling of
boundary conditions.
304 If the applied load exceeds, or is close to, the calculated
elastic critical load, the design should be modified to improve
the buckling strength before proceeding further.
305 A step-by-step non-linear analysis shall be carried out.
Geometrical non-linearity shall be included in the model. The
failure criteria shall be checked at each step. If failure such as
matrix cracking or delamination is predicted, any analysis for
higher loads shall be performed with properties reduced as described in section 4 I.
306 Alternatively to the requirement in 305 a geometrically
non-linear analysis may be performed using entirely degraded
properties throughout the structure. This will normally provide conservative estimates of stresses and deformations. Provided reinforcing fibres are present in sufficient directions, so
that the largest range of un-reinforced directions does not exceed 60, such an estimate will not normally be excessively
conservative.
307 The influence of geometric imperfections should be assessed, on the basis of the production method and production
tolerances. Refer to section 6 H.
K 400 Buckling analysis of stiffened plates and shells
401 When stiffened plate or shell structures are analysed for
buckling, special attention shall be paid to the following failure
modes:
local buckling of laminate (plate) between stiffeners
possible local buckling of individual plate-like elements in
the stiffeners themselves
overall buckling of the stiffened plate or shell, in which
case separation (debonding) of the stiffener from the plate
or shell laminate must be explicitly considered.
402 The finite element model shall be able to reproduce all
the relevant failure modes as listed in 401. Stiffener debonding
shall be evaluated by the insertion of appropriate elements at
the interface to monitor the tensile and shear forces that are
transmitted across the bond, together with an appropriate criterion based on tests or relevant published data.
SECTION 10
COMPONENT TESTING
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 Component testing is carried out for either:
qualification based entirely on tests on full scale or large
scale components, or
updating or verification of analysis by testing.
102 This standard gives procedures to evaluate test results
and shows procedures to determine test programmes.
103 A structure or part of a structure can in some cases be
qualified by testing only, i.e. no structural analysis as presented in section 9 is performed. This approach is presented in B.
104 Testing can in some cases be carried out to document the
design or increase confidence in design calculations. It is an alternative or complement to analysis based on basic material
properties. See C.
105 If the component is checked by qualification testing only, design calculations are not relevant. The test results are the
only relevant information to evaluate whether the component
is fit for purpose. This also means that the qualification is only
valid for the conditions tested.
106 If testing is carried out to complement the analysis, it is
done to reduce or to eliminate the influence of systematic errors introduced in the design methodology or to verify that the
assumptions regarding failure mechanisms, failure modes etc.
on which the design is based are correct.
107 In most practical cases component testing is used in
combination with a structural analysis to evaluate the component for a wider range than the actual test conditions.
A 200 Failure mode analysis
201 An analysis of all possible failure modes in the structure
shall be done as described in section 3.
202 It shall be shown by testing or analysis that none of the
possible failure modes will be critical for the performance and
safety of the structure.
Guidance note:
A special concern with composite materials is that minor loads
may cause failures even though the structure can well withstand
the main loads for which it was designed or built. Such minor
loads can be through thickness loads in laminates or sandwich
structures or loads oriented perpendicular to the main fibre direction in the laminate.
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mended to test more specimens to obtain reasonably high characteristic strengths with the required 95 % confidence. The
relationship between number of tests and characteristic
strength is given in section 4 B400.
B 300
301 Long term failure shall be analysed based on the principles for obtaining time dependent properties described in sections 6 J and K:
the partial resistance model factor Rd can be set equal to
1.0, if the tests represent design and material properties in
a satisfactory manner
the partial load model factor Sd can be set equal to 1.0, if
the tests represent actual applied loads in a satisfactory
manner. If loads are representing effects of other phenomena, uncertainties in the conversion from the other phenomena to the loads shall be included in Sd, i.e.
uncertainties in the transfer function as describe in section
9 A400 shall be included
The characteristic strength shall be determined based on
the test results as described in section 4 C1100 for time dependent data
the safety factors shall be chosen based on distribution and
COV of the load and COV of the component test results
(materials COV) as in section 8. The distribution and
COV of the load shall be based on the loads the structure
will experience in the application, not on the loads of the
test.
302 At least ten specimens shall be tested. It is recommended
to test more specimens to obtain reasonably high characteristic
strengths with the required 95 % confidence. The relationship
between number of tests and characteristic strength is given in
section 4 C1100 for data that must be extrapolated to longer
lifetimes and for data that can be used within the test period.
303 If data must be extrapolated to longer lifetimes than the
measured time it shall be shown that no other failure modes
may develop between the test time and the expected lifetime of
the structure or component. It is usually not possible to show
this by component testing only. Some analysis and calculations
are necessary, see D305.
304 The static strength of the structure after long term exposure shall be the same as the extrapolation of the long term test
data of the fatigue or stress rupture tests.
305 Higher static strength values after long term exposure
may be used if experimental evidence can be provided. A procedure to obtain strength data after long term exposure is suggested in section 4 C400 and C900.
101 Tests under this category are carried out to verify that the
assumptions on which the design is based are correct and that
no important aspects of the design have been overlooked. Verification tests should be carried out to compensate for:
incorrect description of, or an unsatisfactory large uncertainty in the failure mechanisms
incorrect description of load combinations or corresponding large uncertainties
incomplete understanding of the effect of the environment
lack of experience of similar structures or components
uncertainty in the accuracy of modelling large stress gradients
108 The failure mode(s), failure mechanism(s) and location(s) of failure shall be recorded and verified during/after the
tests.
109 If analysis and test results agree with each other based on
the criteria given in C200 and C300 the analysis method is suitable for the application. (See also section 7 B200).
C 200 Short term tests
201 The requirements here apply to one test aspect as determined in C100.
202 The sequence of the failure modes in the test shall be the
same as predicted in the design. If the sequence is different or
if other failure modes are observed, the design shall be carefully re-evaluated.
203 The measured strength of each critical failure mode shall
never be less than the predicted characteristic strength. Critical
failure modes are failure modes that are linked to a limit state.
The characteristic strength of the component shall be updated
according to C300.
204 In addition to the requirements above (201 and 202), one
of the following requirements shall be met:
the test results fulfil the requirements for "confirmation
testing for static data" given in section 4 H700. Application of this criterion requires that at least three tests are carried out
the characteristic strength of the structure is updated by the
test results as described in C400. One test is sufficient to
use this method, but more tests are recommended.
C 300 Long term testing
301 Whether cyclic load testing or long term static load testing or both is required depends on the evaluation of the test
programme done in C100. The approach for both testing types
is similar and will be treated here in one part.
302 Fatigue testing for high safety class: at least two survival
tests shall be carried out. The specimen should not fail during
the survival test and it should not show unexpected damage.
The requirements to the testing are:
tests should be carried out up to five times the maximum
number of design cycles with realistic amplitudes and
mean loads that the component will experience. If constant
amplitude testing is carried out tests should be carried out
up to 50 times the maximum number of design cycles to
compensate for uncertainty in sequence effects.
if the anticipated lifetime exceeds 105 cycles testing up to
105 cycles may be sufficient. The load levels should be
chosen such that testing of the two specimens is completed
after at least 104 and 105 cycles respectively. The logarithms of the two test results shall fall within - of the
logarithm of the anticipated number of cycles to failure,
where is the mean of the logarithm of the predicted
number of cycles to failure and is one standard deviation
of the logarithm of the predicted number of cycles to failure, both interpreted from a log(stress)-log(lifetime) diagram for the anticipated number of cycles to failure. If
more tests are made the requirements are given in DNVOS-C501 Section 4 H806.
303 Fatigue testing for normal safety class: at least one survival test shall be carried out. The specimen should not fail
during the survival test and it should not show unexpected
damage. The requirements to the testing are:
tests should be carried out up to three times the maximum
number of design cycles with realistic amplitudes and
mean loads that the component will experience. If constant
amplitude testing is carried out tests should be carried out
up to 30 times the maximum number of design cycles to
compensate for uncertainty in sequence effects.
nent's life are acceptable should be evaluated based on the anticipated failure modes and whether extrapolation of the data
to longer lifetimes is possible. This will mainly depend on the
confidence and previous knowledge one has about the failure
modes that are tested.
311 In some cases high amplitude fatigue testing may introduce unrealistic failure modes in the structure. In other cases,
the required number of test cycles may lead to unreasonable
long test times. In these cases an individual evaluation of the
test conditions should be made that fulfils the requirements of
302 or 303 as closely as possible.
312 The static strength of the structure after long term exposure shall be taken as the extrapolation of the long term test
data of the fatigue or stress rupture tests.
313 Higher static strength values after long term exposure
may be used if experimental or theoretical evidence can be provided. The same arguments as given in section 4 C may be
used for matrix and fibre dominated properties. A procedure to
obtain strength data after long term exposure is suggested in
section 4 C400 and C900.
314 Additional tests may be required if resistance to a failure
mode cannot be shown by analysis with sufficient confidence
and if this failure mode is not tested by the tests described
above.
C 400 Procedure for updating the predicted resistance
of a component
401 The resistance of the component is R and is assumed to
be normally distributed:
RN(R,R2)
where,
test =
1 n
xi
n i =1
General
101 A component or structure may fail by more than one failure mechanism. In that case it is important that all the critical
failure mechanisms will not occur during the lifetime of the
structure. Critical failure mechanisms are the ones that are
linked to functional requirements in Section 3 and their occurrence will be a violation of a limit state.
Guidance note:
A typical case for a component with multiple failure mechanisms
is an adhesive joint. If the joint is loaded failure may occur in one
of the substrates, in the adhesive, or in one of the two interfaces.
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D 200
Static tests
Guidance note:
Simplified example of multiple failure mechanisms:
Laminate
301 Even if static tests show only one failure mode a change
of failure modes may happen over time. Such a change can be
caused by different time dependencies of the changes in material properties or by changes in failure mechanisms, e.g. a ductile-brittle transition.
302 If test periods to obtain long term data are as long as the
design life or design number of cycles, data can be evaluated
the same way as described in D200.
303 If design life or number of cycles exceed testing conditions it is not possible to qualify a component with more than
Test results
Matrix or adhesive
shear failure
Pressure
This is done in curve C, based on the approach in 305. The resulting maximum pressure MP, is relatively good value.
The simplifications of this example are mainly that more than
two failure mechanisms are involved in such a joint. The laminate may show matrix cracking and delamination due to through
thickness stresses. The adhesive joint may fail in the adhesive or
one of the interfaces. Each of these may have different degradation curves.
Fibre failure
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MP
Design life
Time
Figure 2
Different times to failure for different failure mechanisms
Long term tests also showed fibre failure. The strength reduction
with time was fairly small, as expected for fibre dominated properties.
However, it is known from other tests that the strength of the adhesive degrades more rapidly with time than the fibre strength.
The predicted reduction of strength is shown in curve A. Even at
the end of the design life the pipe should still fail by fibre failure.
The static strength A of the adhesive joint is, however, not well
known and cannot be tested experimentally. If the strength is totally unknown it can be assumed that the measured static strength
(fibre failure at level B) is also the strength of the adhesive joint.
Applying the degradation curve to this strength gives curve B.
This is the approach in 306, giving very conservative long-term
pressures.
Alternatively, if testing up to a certain time has always shown
that the tube failed by fibre failure, then it is possible to apply the
degradation curve of the adhesive joint to the longest test time.
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SECTION 11
FABRICATION
A. Introduction
A 100 Objective
101 The objective of this section is to provide guidelines to
ensure that the structure is built as planned and that the material properties are of consistent quality with the same properties as used in the design analysis. It is not the intention here to
give advise on how to operate particular processing equipment.
A 200 Quality system
201 This standard does not specify how requirements are
controlled, it specifies what should be controlled.
202 A quality system, like ISO 9001, shall be in place to
specify how production activities are controlled. All requirements given in this section shall be addressed in the quality
system for components with normal and high safety class.
C. Processing steps
B 100 Introduction
101 Composite laminate and sandwich structures are normally produced as the component is built. This is a special situation compared to other materials like metals that are
purchased as a finished material and subsequently assembled,
joined, and maybe modified.
102 The material properties depend not only on the raw materials but also on the specific way they are laid up.
103 The main quality principle when building composite
structures is to ensure that the laminates and sandwich structures are built with a consistent quality.
C 100 General
101 Bending of composites shall be avoided. A minimum
bending radius shall be defined if the process requires bending
of materials.
102 Materials and components shall not be exposed to pointloads. All possible point loads shall be evaluated and it shall
be ensured that they will not damage the material.
103 The working conditions are important when producing
composite parts. Ambient temperature ranges shall be defined
and production areas should be well ventilated. Dust, fumes,
chemicals etc. may influence curing conditions or may attack
the material later during service. The working conditions shall
be defined.
104 Humidity shall be controlled at places where chemical
reactions occur. If humidity cannot be controlled its effect
shall be evaluated.
or kinks.
604 Minimum and maximum overlap lengths of adjacent
fabrics shall be specified. The effect of overlaps may be similar
to damage in the laminate and shall be evaluated as described
in section 4 A700.
605 The tolerances for gaps between cores shall be defined.
606 The surfaces of cores shall have smooth transitions
across the gaps. This is especially critical if cores are tapered.
607 Procedures shall be established to ensure a good bond
between skins and cores for all geometrical shapes in the component. The quality of the interfacial bond shall be documented for all relevant geometry, e.g., convex and concave
surfaces.
608 Any gaps between cores shall be filled with the specified
resin or adhesives, unless it was specified that cores shall not
be filled and core properties were measured on cores with unfilled gaps, see section 5 F200.
609 Absorption of resin by the core shall be considered with
respect to weight of the total structure and the amount of resin
needed to obtain the desired fibre volume fraction in the laminates.
610 The curing temperature and pressure shall not effect the
properties of the core.
611 The temperature of all materials and the mould should
be the same during the lay-up, unless the process specifically
requires other conditions.
C 700 Producing joints
701 The same requirements as for laminates and sandwich
plates in C500 apply.
702 Overlap lengths shall be clearly specified and tolerances
shall be given.
703 Surface preparations of adhesive or laminated joints
shall be clearly specified and shall be the same as for the specimens that were tested to qualify the joint.
704 The application of adhesives shall follow well described
procedures. The procedures shall be exactly the same as for the
specimens that were tested to qualify the joint.
705 Surface preparation of adhesive or laminated joints and
the application of adhesives shall be verified independently
during production for normal and high safety class components. Whether the verification shall be done by the manufacturer himself, by the customer, or by a third party should be
decided by the project.
706 The alignment of components and tolerances shall be
specified.
707 Hole diameters positions and tolerances shall be specified for bolted connections.
708 Washer sizes or other supports shall be specified.
709 Torque of the bolts shall be specified.
710 Bolted joints shall be verified independently during production for high safety class components. Whether the verification shall be done by the manufacturer himself, by the
customer, or by a third party should be decided by the project.
C 800 Injection of resin and cure
801 The viscosity of the resin should be specified and controlled for all processes where the flow is important (see also
C505). As a minimum the gel time should be checked.
802 The flow patterns of injection processes shall be documented. Every part of the component shall be filled with resin.
No paths shall be blocked by resin that is already cured.
803 The curing schedule shall be specified and documented.
A log shall be kept for component of normal or high safety
Guidance note:
The factory acceptance test has the advantage that gross manufacturing errors are detected before the component leaves the factory. In some cases it is inconvenient or to perform a FAT test.
The system integrity test will detect the same manufacturing mistakes as a FAT test, and the defect will be detected before operation starts. However, replacement or repair may be more
complicated if a defect is detected as late as in a system integrity
test.
E. Component testing
E 100
General
101 Testing on components is done to detect possible manufacturing defects. The testing is not intended to qualify design
aspects. These tests are described in section 10.
102 Testing on the system addresses the same aspects as for
components. In addition the interaction between the components is tested to detect possible mistakes in the way the components were put together.
103 The testing to check for fabrication errors shall be considered in the design analysis. No unintended damage (failure
mechanisms, e.g. matrix cracking) shall be introduced into the
structure by the tests.
E 200
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204 The system integrity test is performed after final installation of all components and before the system goes into service.
205 The system integrity test shall be performed on all structures according to the requirements for pressure testing or other testing.
E 300 Pressure testing of vessels and pipes
301 All pressure vessels and pipes of safety class normal or
high shall be pressure tested before going into service.
302 A test pressure of 1.3 x maximum service pressure shall
be used unless such a pressure would introduce damage to the
component that may reduce its lifetime. The maximum service
pressure shall be the minimum test pressure.
303 A detailed test programme shall be defined. The following shall be stated as a minimum:
rates of pressure increase
holding times
time over which the pressure in the system shall not drop
without actively applying pressure, i.e. a leakage test.
304 The test schedule shall be developed for each application. The testing should allow detecting as many possible defects in the structure as possible. As a general guidance the
following schedules are recommended:
the minimum time over which the maximum test pressure
in the system (from E302) shall not drop without actively
applying pressure should be at least 10 minutes for systems that do not creep
for systems that show creep the maximum test pressure
should be kept for 1 hour applying active pressure. The
pressure should be monitored for another hour without actively applying pressure. The pressure drop shall be predicted before the test and the test result should be within
10% of the prediction.
305 Pressure vessels of low safety class shall be tested up to
their service pressure. Pressures shall be applied for at least 10
minutes.
306 Most authorities give general test requirements for pressure vessels. The requirements of the authorities that govern
the location of the application shall be followed.
E 400
Other testing
401 It is recommended to test structures of safety class normal or high up to their main maximum service loads before going into service.
402 A test programme should be established based on the requirements of the application and the possibilities to test the
structure before it goes into service.
403 An equivalent approach as the one described for pressure testing should be used.
E 500 Dimensions
501 The dimensions of the component shall be checked to be
within the specified tolerances.
F. Installation
F 100
101 The installation of composite structures shall be carefully planned. It shall be part of the design analysis.
102 Handling composite structures like metal structures may
introduce severe damage. Any aspects of handling that deviates from typically practice with metal structures should be
identified. Procedures should be in place to describe special
handling requirements for composites.
103 Handling of composite structures requires special care.
Handling instructions should follow each component.
104 Point loads and should be avoided.
105 Scraping, wear and tear should be avoided.
106 Bending the structure into place should be avoided.
107 Lifting shall only be done at specially indicated spots
SECTION 12
OPERATION, MAINTENANCE, REASSESSMENT, REPAIR
A. General
A 100 Objective
101 The objective of this section is to provide requirements
for operation and in-service inspections. This section also provides general guidance on structural integrity assessment of
composite components to demonstrate fitness for purpose in
case deviations from design appear during operation.
placed or re-evaluated after all overloads or other events exceeding the design requirements. This approach shall be
agreed upon with the customer.
207 If the failure mechanisms are not fully understood, or
competing failure mechanism are present and one is uncertain
about their sequence, inspection is required.
208 Inspection frequencies and acceptance criteria should be
determined for each project.
B. Inspection
C. Reassessment
B 100 General
101 An inspection philosophy for the component should be
established. The philosophy shall at least contain:
C 100 General
101 Reassessment of composite components shall be based
on the same criteria as designing and building a new component.
102 Old calculations and test data may be used as far as applicable.
D. Repair
D 100 Repair procedure
101 A repair procedure shall be given for each component.
102 A repair shall restore the same level of safety and functionality as the original structure, unless changes are accepted
by all parties in the project.
103 An acceptable repair solution is to replace the entire
component if it is damaged. This approach requires that the
component can be taken out of the system.
104 It may also be acceptable to keep a component in service
with a certain amount of damage without repairing it. The size
and kind of acceptable damage shall be defined and it must be
possible to inspect the damage. The possible damage shall be
considered in the design of the structure.
105 If local damage may happen to the structure detailed
procedures to repair such anticipated damage shall be given.
106 If the damage is due to an unknown loading condition or
accident, an analysis of the damage situation shall be carried
out. The analysis shall identify whether the damage was due to
a design mistake or an unexpected load condition. If the unexpected load may reoccur a design change may be required.
D 200 Requirements for a repair
201 A repair should restore the stiffness and strength of the
original part. If the stiffness and or strength cannot be restored,
the performance of the component and the total system under
the new conditions shall be evaluated.
202 It shall be documented that local reduction in strength
may not be critical for the total performance of the structure.
D 300 Qualification of a repair
301 A repair is basically a joint introduced into the structure.
The repair shall be qualified in the same way as a joint (see section 7).
302 The repair procedure used to qualify the joint shall also
be applicable for each particular repair situation.
303 Suitable conditions for repair work shall be arranged and
maintained during the repair. This is mandatory, irrespective
of whether the repair is carried out on site or elsewhere. If suit-
E. Maintenance
E 100 General
101 A maintenance procedure shall be given for each component. All aspects related to maintenance should be covered.
Guidance note:
Most composites are fairly maintenance free. Cleaning agents
and solvents that can be used and others that should not be used
should be described in the manual.
F. Retirement
F 100 General
101 A method for retirement of all components shall be documented.
SECTION 13
DEFINITIONS, ABBREVIATIONS & FIGURES
A. Definitions
A 100 General
101 May is used to indicate a preference.
Shall is used to indicate a requirement
Should is used to indicate a recommendation.
A 200
requirement which is to be fulfilled during design as part of a so-called code check. The design rule is usually an inequality expressed in
terms of the design load and the design resistance, e.g., the design load shall be less than or
equal to the design resistance. The form of the
design rule may resemble the form of the failure criterion, however, it is expressed in terms
of fixed design values of the load and resistance variables, whereas the failure criterion is
expressed in terms of the physical, stochastic
load and resistance variables themselves.
Design value
value to be used in deterministic design procedure, i.e., characteristic value modified by the
partial load factor or the partial resistance factor.
Detail
( or sub-component) is a major three-dimensional structure that can provide complete
structural representation of a section of the full
structure.
Environmental
environmental exposure that may harm or degrade the material constituents.
conditions
Environmental
loads due to the environment, such as waves,
current, wind, ice, earthquakes.
loads
Fabric
planar, woven material constructed by interlacing yarns, fibres or filaments.
Fabrication
all operations related to the material assembly
into objects with a defined purpose.
Face
sheet, consisting of metal or layers of composite materials, adhesively bonded to a core material in a sandwich structure.
Failure criterion
criterion to define or identify when failure has
occurred, usually expressed as an inequality in
the governing variables, e.g. load greater than
resistance.
Failure mechanism a mechanism of failure is the underlying phenomenon at the material level that determines
the mode of failure. Depending on its level of
severity a mechanism of failure can lead to various failures. Failure mechanisms are specific
to material type.
Failure mode
state of inability to perform a normal function,
or an event causing an undesirable or adverse
condition, e.g. violation of functional requirement, loss of component or system function, or
deterioration of functional capability to such
an extent that the safety of the unit, personnel
or environment is significantly reduced.
Failure probability probability of failure during a specified time
interval such as the design life of a structure.
Failure type
failure types are based on safety margin, intrinsic to a given failure mechanism. A distinction
is made between catastrophic and progressive
failures, and between failures with or without
reserve capacity during failure.
Failure
a state of inability to perform a normal function, or an event causing an undesirable or
averse condition, e.g. violation of functional
requirement, loss of component or system
function, or deterioration of functional capability to such an extent that the safety of the
unit, personnel or environment is significantly
reduced.
Fatigue
in materials or structures, the cumulative and
irreversible damage incurred by cyclic or static
application of mechanical and or thermal loads
in given environments.
Fibre Reinforced
a general term polymeric composite reinforced
by fibres.
Plastic (FRP)
Design rule
Terms
Table A1 Terms
Angle-ply laminate symmetric laminate, possessing equal plies
with positive and negative angles.
Anisotropy
material properties varying with the orientation or direction of the reference co-ordinate.
Box beam
a sandwich beam is defined as a box beam if it
has face material on 4 sides
Buckling
global buckling refers to an unstable displacement of a structural part, such as a panel,
caused by excessive compression and or shear.
Characteristic
reference value of a load to be used in the determination of the load effects. The characterload
istic load is normally based upon a defined
fractile is the upper end of the distribution
function load.
Characteristic re- the nominal value of the structural strength to
be used in the determination of the design
sistance
strength. The Characteristic Resistance is normally based upon a defined fractile in the lower end of the distribution function for
resistance.
Client
is understood to be the party ultimately responsible for the system as installed and its intended use in accordance with the prevailing laws,
statutory rules and regulations.
Component
a major section of the structure, i.e. tower, that
can be tested as a complete unit to qualify the
structure.
Condition
a particular state of existence.
Construction
all phases during construction, including transportation, installation, testing, commissioning
phase
and repair.
Constituent
in general, an element of a larger grouping. In
advanced composites, the principal constituents are the fibres and the matrix.
Contractor
is understood to be a party contracted by the
Client to perform all or a part of the necessary
work needed to bring the System to an installed
and operable condition
Core
the central member of a sandwich construction
. Metallic or composites facing materials are
bonded to the core to form a sandwich panel.
Cross-ply laminate special laminate that contains only 0 and 90 degree plies.
Delamination
separation or loss of bonds of plies (the 2-D
layers) of material in a laminate.
Design load
characteristic load multiplied by the load factor.
Design resistance characteristic resistance divided by the resistance factor.
Fibre
Filament
Functional requirement
Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
(GRP)
Homogeneous
single filament, rolled or formed in one direction, and used as the principal constituent of
woven or non-woven composite materials.
the smallest unit of a fibrous material. The basic units formed during drawing and spinning,
which are gathered into strands of fibre. It is a
continuous discrete fibre with an effective diameter in the range of few micrometers depending on the source.
a functional requirement is defined as a requirement that the global structure has to fulfil.
general term polymeric composite reinforced
by glass fibres.
descriptive term for a material of uniform composition throughout. A medium that has no internal physical boundaries.
Inspection
activities, such as, measuring, examination,
testing, gauging one or more characteristic of a
product or a service, and comparing the results
with specified requirements to determine conformity.
Installation
operation related to setting up a system, components or parts.
Interface
boundary or transition zone between constituent materials, such as the fibre/matrix interface, or the boundary between plies of a
laminate or layers of a sandwich structure.
Boundary between different materials in a
joint. An interface can also be the area where
two components or parts touch each other.
Lamina (Laminae) same as ply (plural of lamina).
Laminate
layers of a plies bonded together to form a single structure. Also the process to build a laminate.
Laminate ply
one layer of a laminated product.
Layer
a single ply of lay up or laminate.
Limit State
state beyond which the structure fails to meet a
particular functional requirement. A functional
requirement can be related to various limit
states depending on the modes of failure mode.
Two limit state categories are considered in the
standard.
Load effect
effect of a single load or combination of loads
on the system, such as stress, strain,
deformation, displacement, acceleration, etc.
Load factor
partial safety factor by which the characteristic
load is multiplied to obtain the design load.
Load effect factor partial safety factor by which the characteristic
load effect is multiplied to obtain the design
load effect.
Load
assembly of concentrated or distributed forces
acting on a structure (direct loads), or cause of
imposed or constrained deformations in a
structure (indirect loads).
Local buckling
unstable displacement of a sub-structural part,
such as a lamina, face or cell caused by
excessive compression and or shear.
Manufacturer
the party, which manufactures or supplies
equipment to perform the duties specified by
the Contractor
Matrix
the cured resin or polymer material in which
the fibre system is imbedded in a ply or laminate.
Monolithic struc- laminate consisting uniquely of composites
materials except core materials; also called
ture
single-skin structure.
Off-axis
not coincident with the symmetry axis; also
called off-angle.
On-axis
coincident with the symmetry axis; also called
on-angle.
Open beam
Operator
Orthotropic
Owner
Part
Partial Factor
Phase
Ply
Principal
Reinforcement
Reliability
Resistance factor
Resistance
Risk
Roving
Sandwich Structure
Strand
Structure
Stacking sequence
System
Warp
Weft
h
H
I
k
K
l
m
M
N
Qi,j
[Q]
R
S
SCF
Si,j
[S]
t
T
U
u,v,w
V
x,y,z
{}
F
FM
M
Rd
Sd
{}
q(x,y)
Mx
Mx
Tx
Tx
Nx
z,w
Nx
y,v
x,u
C. Figures
C 100
Figure 3
Co-ordinate system, sign conventions, loads and moments for
sandwich structures
z,w
y,v
z,w
1
3
tfac
Eface,
G
y,v
tface
1
h
x,u
Ecore,
G
N
A
Figure 1
Local co-ordinate system and symmetry planes in an orthotropic
bi-directional ply
C 200
Etop
face
top
tfac
N
A
tcore
z,w
botto
tfac
x,u
y max
Figure 4
Co-ordinate system, geometrical variables and shear stress distribution for box beam
Ecore,
G
Tz
tcore
botto
Eface
Figure 2
Co-ordinate system, material and geometrical variables for sandwich structures
SECTION 14
CALCULATION EXAMPLE:
TWO PRESSURE VESSELS
A. Objective
A 100
General
101 This example shows the use of the standard for the body
of two simple pressure vessels. The intention of the example is
to demonstrate the use of the standard, its flow and philosophy
and to point out important aspects to consider.
102 The example looks into many aspects of design, even
though some aspects may not be critical for this example. This
is done to make the example more useful for a wide range of
other applications.
103 The two pressure vessels described here are identical except for two aspects. The vessels are:
a pressure vessel with liner for storage of gas (air)
a pressure vessel without liner for storage of water.
104 The example will concentrate only on the body of the
vessels to show the main approach.
105 Both vessels are designed for high safety class to demonstrate the difference of using a liner or not without changing
other parameters.
106 References to parts of the standard are given in some of
the headings, if the respective section is related to one section
of the standard. In addition references are given to specific sections or paragraphs.
107 The interaction between liner and laminate is not considered in this example for reason of simplicity. Effects of yielding of the liner (global or local), should be considered in a real
design (section 7 D).
B. Design input
B 100
Overview
101 This part describes the input needed for the analysis of
the structure.
102 The standard is organised in a way to ensure that the input is given in a systematic and complete way. Checklists are
provided to ensure that all aspects are considered.
103 An experienced designer may quickly show that many
of the steps described here do not have to be considered for this
example. These steps are shown here as guidance for designing
more complicated structures.
B 200
201 The components shall be two cylindrical pressure vessels, one for the storage of gas (air), the other for the storage of
liquid (water).
B 300
Operation
Maintenance
Repair
Retrieval / recirculation
502 Consider the duration of each phase and the corresponding safety class, as summarized in Table B3.
Operation
Post-operation.
Installation
NR
Low
Commissioning
Some hours /
days
25 years
Gas: High
Water: High
Gas: High
Water: High
NR
NR
NR
NR
Operation
Maintenance
Repair
Scrapping / recirculation
Comments
Not determining design dimensions- structure is not loaded. Thermal
stresses may have to be considered (not done in this example)
NR = Not relevant (no loads are applied or duration is so short that the actual
time is irrelevant).
*
603 A complete analysis should include all parts of the component and all phases.
B 700 Failure modes (ref. section 3 G)
701 The minimum list of failure modes is evaluated in
Table B6 for the laminate of the main body.
Table B6 Minimum list of failure modes for the laminate
Minimum list of
Evaluation
failure modes
Fracture (local Relevant
or global)
Buckling (local or Not relevant, since we have no compressive
global)
loads. (The liner may see compressive loads after yielding. Such loads can potentially cause
buckling)
Burst
Here same as fracture, since no high rate loads
are applied
Relevant
Relevant, if tools can be dropped on the vessel
etc.
Excessive defor- Relevant for vessel with liner, because the liner
may have a failure strain that should not be exmation,
ceeded. This strain may put a limit on the strain
Ovalisation,
of the body of the vessel. Otherwise not releExcessive disvant, since the vessel has no restrictions on deplacement
formation. Large deformations may be linked to
some other failure modes, will be covered by analysing the other failure modes.
Wear
Not relevant, since nothing slides over the vessel.
Leakage
Impact
No other failure modes than the ones given in the table have
been identified.
702 The evaluation above should be carried out for all parts
of the vessel, but this is not covered in the example.
703 The relevant failure modes shall be linked to the functional requirements of each part of the component. In the
present example this link is only considered for the main body
of the vessel, as shown in Table B7.
Table B7 Link of failure modes and functional requirements
Functional require- Failure mode
Comments
ment
Pressure containFracture, local frac- Shall always be checked.
ment
ture
Impact
Damage from impact
may effect capacity to
contain pressure.
Excessive deforma- Relevant if deformation
tion
is large enough to cause
the liner to fail.
Leakage
Related to fracture, but
often just a gradual release of fluid from a
pressure vessel. Fracture
will cause leakage, but
other minor failure
mechanisms may also
cause leakage. Failure
consequence is often less
critical and related to
normal safety class, but
it depends on the fluid.
Tightness/ Fluid
Same as pressure
containment
containment
C. Failure mechanisms
C 100 Identification of failure mechanisms (ref. section
6 A)
101 All failure mechanisms on the material level shall be
identified. A minimum list is given in section 6 A102. In this
example the relevant failure mechanisms for a laminate are
identified in Table C1.
Table C1 Failure mechanisms relevant for laminates
Fibre failure
Matrix cracking
Matrix crack growth
Delamination
Elastic buckling
Unacceptably large displacements
Stress rupture
Fatigue
Wear
Fire*
Explosive decompression*
Impact*
Chemical decomposition
*
these items are load conditions, but are treated here as failure mecha-
Leakage
Impact
Excessive
deformation
Fibre failure
Matrix cracking
Matrix crack
growth
Shall be checked.
Check this for vessel without liner.
Acceptable for vessel with liner.
If data exist that show leakage will
only occur after a certain crack density has been reached, this failure
mechanism may be used instead of
simple matrix cracking. In this example we use first matrix cracking as a
conservative leak condition.
Delamination Not critical if liner is present. For
vessel without liner matrix cracking
happens prior to delamination. Since
we check for matrix cracking we do
not need to consider delamination.
Yielding
Not relevant for the laminate.
Buckling
Not relevant. See the comments for
fracture.
Displacement should be limited to
Unacceptably large dis- prevent liner failure for gas vessel.
No restriction for water vessel withplacement
out liner.
Stress rupture Fibre failure: Same as for fracture.
Matrix cracking vessel with liner:
Fatigue
Not relevant. Matrix cracking vessel without liner: Check.
Impact
Shall be checked
Wear
Not relevant in this application
Fire
Not relevant in this application
Explosive de- Shall be checked
compression
Chemical de- Shall be checked
composition
Impact
Shall be checked
Shall be checked for gas vessel to enUnacceptably large dis- sure that liner does not yield.
placement
103 Based on these tables we shall check the following failure mechanisms:
fibre failure:
short-term static
long-term static
long-term fatigue
matrix cracking (for vessel without liner):
short term static
long-term static
long-term fatigue
Stress rupture
Fatigue
Brittle
Brittle
Matrix cracking
Stress rupture
Fatigue
Ductile
Ductile
Ductile
Explosive decompression*
Impact*
Not applicable
Not applicable
Chemical decompo- Not apsition
plicable
*
Matrix cracking
Stress rupture
Fatigue
Unacceptably large
displacements
Explosive decompression*
Impact*
Chemical decomposition
NA: Not applicable
1t
2t
2t
NA
NA
D. Material properties
D 100
101 Properties must be measured or obtained from representative data as described in section 4 H. This example uses the
representative data from Appendix F and assumes that proper
data have been obtained.
102 Only a small number of material parameters is needed
compared to the extensive list given in section 4 A simplified
2-D analysis is performed in this example. Only the four 2-D
orthotropic elastic constants of the ply are needed. Since the
component is loaded in tension (due to internal pressure) only
the tensile and shear ply strengths are needed.
103 Ply properties are needed for the component at the first
day and after 25 years, when it has been exposed to permanent
loads and fatigue. How these properties are obtained is explained in the following sections. A summary of the properties
is given below in 104.
104 The characteristic properties are summarised in the Tables D1 and D2 below for a laminate without matrix cracks and
with matrix cracks.
fibre
23.7 GPa
7.6 GPa
0.29
3.2 GPa
1.69%
23.7 GPa
7.6 GPa*
0.29*
3.2 GPa*
1.69%
21.3 GPa
6.8 GPa*
0.29*
2.9 GPa*
1.69%
23.7 GPa
7.6 GPa
0.29
3.2 GPa
0.87%
after 25 years of
permanent
pressurein water
21.3 GPa
6.8 GPa
0.29
2.9 GPa
0.87%
fibre
401 MPa
401 MPa
361 MPa
205 MPa
185 MPa
matrix
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
26.3 MPa
26.3 MPa
23.7 MPa
26.3 MPa
23.7 MPa
E1 fibre
E2 matrix
n12
G12 linear
NA
Table D1 Ply properties for laminate without matrix cracks (water vessel)
Property
New component
after 1300 fatigue
after 1300 fatigue
cycles
cyclesin water
1t
C
C
C
C
Note: Matrix cracking is only relevant for the vessel without liner (water)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
these items are load conditions, but are treated here as failure mechanisms to simplify the approach in the standard.
testing phase
operational phase
Ductile
Ductile
Ductile
Ductile
matrix
after 25 years of
permanent pressure
12
12
matrix
0.37%
0.37%
0.37%
0.37%
0.37%
shear
17.0 MPa
17.0 MPa
15.3 MPa
17.0 MPa
15.3 MPa
Not applicable
see D600
Not applicable
see D700
Time to fibre
failure
Time to matrix failure
23.7 GPa
0.08 GPa
0.003
0.03 GPa
1.69%
23.7 GPa
0.08 GPa
0.003
0.03 GPa
1.69%
21.3 GPa
0.08 GPa
0.003
0.03 GPa
1.69%
fibre
401 MPa
401 MPa
361 MPa
205 MPa
185 MPa
matrix
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
matrix
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
matrix
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
shear
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
see D600
NR
NR
E1 fibre
E2 matrix
12
G12 linear
fibre
1t
1t
2t
2t
12
12
Time to fibre
failure
Time to matrix failure
D 200
202 A reduction of 10% of E1 fibre is suggested after 106 cycles in section 4 C602. This component is only cycled 1300
times at relatively low strains, where experiments have shown
that the modulus does not change. According to section 4 C603
the modulus can be chosen to remain the same, provided the
data can be documented.
203 Exposure to water typically gives a reduction of 10% according to appendix F E201. Therefore, 10% reduction for the
exposure to water has been used for long-term fibre dominated
properties.
204 The material may creep (obtain plastic deformation) to
for a cracked matrix) is used in the analysis of the gas tank. The
same value as the original modulus is used for the water tank,
since stresses are low and the load could be carried by a vessel
full of matrix cracks (section 4 C606 and C805). The prerequisites for not changing the modulus of the water vessel under fatigue are fulfilled as shown in the analysis in F600, where it is
shown that matrix cracks will not develop within the lifetime
of the vessel.
304 Elastic parameters under permanent load do not change.
The permanent load may cause plastic deformation (section 4
C202).
305 A 10% reduction for the exposure to water has been used
for long-term properties.
306 When matrix cracks have developed the parameters are
set to 1% of the original value according to (section 9 B208).
Values are not reduced further to account for the influence of
water.
D 400 Fibre dominated ply strength and strain to failure
401 The characteristic strength to failure in fibre direction is
534 MPa according to the representative data from appendix F.
Data are for stitch-bonded materials while the vessel is made
by filament winding. Data should be corrected according to
section 4 H1200:
534 MPa x 0.6 / 0.8 = 401 MPa.
Guidance note:
It is recommended to use data measured from a laminate made by
filament winding to avoid using the corrections made above.
Good filament wound laminates can have as good properties as
flat panels (see also section 4 H1206).
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
407 The fibre dominated strength properties are not influenced by matrix cracks and the same values are used for the
laminate with and without matrix cracks (section 9 B200).
D 500 Matrix dominated ply strength and strain to failure
501 The characteristic strengths and strains to failure transverse to the fibre direction and in shear are taken from the representative data from appendix F. Data were corrected
according to section 4 H1200. The strain to failure is given by:
= / E.
502 The change of the matrix dominated properties under fatigue is uncertain. Matrix cracks can develop even if ply stresses are below the level for initiation of matrix cracks under
quasi-static loads. However, the same value as the original
strength is used for the water tank, since stresses are low and
the load could be carried by a vessel full of matrix cracks (section 4 C805). The prerequisites for not changing the strength of
the matrix of the water vessel under fatigue are fulfilled as
shown in the analysis in F800. For the gas vessel matrix cracks
are acceptable and fracture of the matrix need not be considered.
503 The change of the matrix dominated properties under
permanent loads is treated similar to the fatigue case. The same
value as the original strength is used for the water tank, since
stresses are low and the load could be carried by a vessel full
of matrix cracks (section 4 C404). The prerequisites for not
changing the strength of the matrix of the water vessel under
permanent load are fulfilled as shown in the analysis in F700.
For the gas vessel matrix cracks are acceptable and fracture of
the matrix need not be considered.
504 When matrix cracks have developed the strength parameters are not relevant anymore, since the cracks are assumed to
be present already.
D 600 Time to failure for fibre dominated properties
601 For cyclic loads the characteristic S-N curve from appendix F D202 can be used to establish that the fibres have sufficient lifetime. The curve for R = 0.1 can be used since the
pressure vessel is cycled between 0 and maximum load. The
characteristic fatigue curve is given as:
.
log[ ( N )] = 0.063 0.101log( N )
This formula is expressed in normative strength values (absolute characteristic strength per mean short-term strength) and
time in minutes. The stress rupture curve above may be expressed with respect to the absolute strength:
mean
mean
1t
0.0423 log(t )
803 For the gas vessel with liner only the fibre dominated
properties are critical. According to section 4 H600 the tensile
and compressive strength of the laminates in fibre direction
should be confirmed. The Young's modulus should also be
measure during theses tests. Since stress rupture is the critical
failure mode for this application nine stress rupture tests up to
10000 hours according to section 4 H800 should be carried out.
(Note that the requirement is only three survival tests up to
1000 hours for normal safety class section 4 H900.)
804 For the water vessel without liner the fibre dominated
and matrix dominated properties are critical. According to section 4 H600 the tensile and compressive strength of the laminates in fibre direction and transverse to the fibres should be
confirmed. The Young's modulus should also be measure during theses tests. Long term properties do not need confirmation, since stress levels are very low.
P( D + t )
P( D + t )
and y =
(which means that y = 2x)
4t
2t
where,
x =
fibre failure:
short-term static
long-term static
long-term fatigue
E1 fibre
23.7 GPa
E2 matrix
0.08 GPa
12
0.003
G12 linear
0.03 GPa
105 Since the laminate thickness is much smaller than the diameter of the vessel (see the table in B301), the vessel is analysed using classical thin-wall theory and laminate theory.
106 For the gas vessel with liner matrix cracking in the plies
will not lead to leakage. Therefore, we can apply a linear failure analysis with degraded material properties (see section 9
B500) for the gas vessel.
206 For each of the plies (15 and 85) the global strain
components (x, y and xy) are transformed to local ply strain
components (1, 2 and 12) by multiplying a transformation
matrix (often referred to by T) by the global strain vector
207 For each ply the local stress components (1, 2 and
12) are calculated by multiplying the ply stiffness matrix (Q)
by the local strain vector.
209 For each ply the local stress and strain components are
applied in the failure criteria.
E 300 Fibre failure - short-term (ref. section 6 C)
301 The short-term static design criterion for fibre failure on
the ply level is given by:
4.6
250
6
49.1
98.1
F . Sd . nk
k fiber
<
M . Rd
302 The following values are selected for the gas vessel with
liner:
0.66
0.60
15 plies:
1
1
%
MPa
0.65
154
%
MPa
0.60
143
85 plies:
1
1
Table E4 Short term values used for gas vessel with liner
Partial factor
Characteristic value of the local response of nk
the structure (strain) in the fibre direction n
Characteristic fibre strain to failure
kfibre
Partial load effect factor
F x M
Partial resistance factor
Value
0.65%
Explanation
Largest strain in fibre direction, see the table in 208
0.87%
1.18
Load-model factor
Sd
1.05
Rd
1.0
Guidance note:
The characteristic strain to failure of 0.87% is the worst case in
this example for short-term loads at the beginning of the life of
the component and after exposure to cyclic and permanent loads.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
303 Evaluating the design criterion in E301 we find the maximum allowable strain in fibre direction nk after 25 years of
service to be:
nk <
0.87%
= 0.70%
1.18 1.05 1.0
This is more than the largest actual strain (in the fibre directions) 1=0.65%.
(Note that short term loads are not critical for the design, but
long term loads as described below.)
E 400 Fibre dominated ply failure due to static longterm loads (ref. section 6 J)
401
402 The time to stress rupture shall be checked by the criterion given in section 6 J408:
fat
Rd
t
y
j =1
t actual
t charact
Sd
Sd
applied
applied
<1
403 The following values are selected for the gas vessel with
liner:
Table E5 Long term values used for gas vessel with liner
Factors
Value Explanation
Design life
ty
25
Design life of 25 years.
years
The total number of N
1
Only one load condition.
load conditions
Actual time at one
tactual 1 year The vessel is basically
loaded all year, except for
permanent static
the short unloading times
load condition per
that are ignored here.
year
Calculated below.
Local response of the applied
structure to the permanent static load
conditions (max.
stress)
Characteristic time tcharact
Calculated below.
to failure under the
permanent static
load condition
Load-model factor
Sd
1.05
Same as before, due to simplifications in the analytical model used, see 204205.
Rd
0.1
Only one load condition.
Resistance-model
factor
50
See section 8 E.
Partial fatigue safety fat
factor
applied
applied
fibre
155 MPa
23 . 7 GPa
405 From the stress rupture formula in 401 the stress level
corresponding to a characteristic life of 125 years is: 163 MPa.
Dividing this value by the load-model factor Sd gives:
japplied=155 MPa , and
= 0 . 65 %
This is the same as the largest actual strain (in the fibre directions) 1=0.65%.
406 The stress rupture behaviour is critical for the design.
For a high safety class application the stress rupture data
should be confirmed by testing.
407 Short-term failure due to maximum loads after 25 years
was already considered in E300.
fat
n actual
Rd
t
y
j =1
charact
{
{
Sd
Sd
applied
j
applied
}<1
}
503 The following values are selected for the gas vessel with
liner:
Table E6 Fatigue values used for gas vessel with liner
Factors
Value
Explanation
Number of years for the ty
25 years Design life of 25 years
fatigue evaluation (typically equal to the design life)
The total number of
N
1
Only one load condistrain conditions
tion
Number of cycles per nactual 52
1 cycle per week
year at a particular
strain condition
Local response of the applied
Calculated below
structure to the strain
condition applied
Characteristic number ncharact
Calculated below
of cycles to failure under a given strain condition
Load-model factor
Sd
1.05
Same as before, due to
simplifications in analytical model, see 204205
0.1
Only one load condiPartial resistance-mod- Rd
tion
el factor
fat
50
See section 8 E
Partial fatigue safety
factor
n charact =
t
y
fat
Rd
n actual = 6500
F .
Sd
.d
<
spec
705 The following values are selected for the gas vessel with
liner:
Table E7 Displacement values used for gas vessel with liner
Factors
Val- Explanation
ue
Specified requirement dspec 5% See 302
on maximum displacement
Characteristic value of dn
Calculated below
the local response of the
structure (here strain)
Partial load effect factor F
1.15 From section 8 B400:
Maximum load is known
with 0 COV
Strain to failure COV 5%
Target reliability level C
Sd
1.05 Same as before, due to simLoad-model factor
plifications in analytical
model, see 204-205
= elastic +
plastic
F 100
or
elastic
plastic
708 Creep in the 15o plies: The elastic strain is 0.65%. The
plastic strain can be calculated according to the representative
data of appendix F for creep:
plastic =
1520
The total strain for the maximum stress of 154 MPa (see 208)
and 219000 hours is: 0.65%+1.18%=1.83%.
709 Creep in the 85o plies can be calculated the same way.
Since the ply stresses are slightly lower, the creep strain is also
slightly less.
710 The principle strains of the laminate should be calculated from the ply strains and applied to the design criterion.
Since the ply strains are so much below the acceptable levels
this calculation is not done here.
E 800
801 Impact may be caused by dropped tools etc. The possible impact scenarios, if any, should be defined.
802 There is no good theoretical criterion to evaluate the resistance to impact. According to section 6 L, the resistance of
a structure to impact shall be tested experimentally.
General
impact resistance
explosive decompression
chemical decomposition
104 The filament wound laminate is the same as for the gas
vessel in E104.
804 Alternatively, the vessel could be protected against impact by covers or other protection devices.
201 The thin shell method for calculations of laminate stresses is the same as for the gas vessel. The elastic properties used
in the analysis are different.
E 900
901 If the air diffuses through the liner more rapidly than it
can diffuse out of the laminate, a layer of pressurised air may
build up in the interface between liner and laminate. In such a
case the interface should be vented or experiments should be
made to show that the liner will not collapse when the internal
pressure is reduced (section 6 O200).
902 The rate of air flow through the liner is most likely much
less than through the laminate and explosive decompression
should be no problem, as long as the vessel is not exposed to
external pressures as well, like under water usage.
E 1000 Chemical decomposition (ref. section 6 Q)
1001 It is proven by many applications that composite laminates do not chemically decompose in air within 25 years.
E 1100 Summary evaluation
1101
Summary is as follows:
F 200
85 plies
E1 fibre
E2 matrix
12
G12 linear
23.7 GPa
7.6 GPa
0.29
3.2 GPa
21.3 GPa
6.8 GPa
0.29
2.9 GPa
21.3 GPa
6.8 GPa
0.29
2.9 GPa
21.3 GPa
0.08 GPa
0.003
0.03 GPa
203 Using properties of the laminate in water addresses possible diffusion of water into the laminate.
204 A load-model factor of 1.05 is chosen, for the same reasons as described in E204-E205.
205
Laminate
Pressure
Diameter
Thickness
MPa
mm
mm
no matrix
cracks
1.48
250
6
matrix cracks
MPa
MPa
GPa
GPa
15.8
31.6
11.02
16.34
15.8
31.6
6.22
14.0
%
%
%
MPa
MPa
MPa
0.108
0.168
0.035
27.0
13.9
1.01
0.233
0.217
0.009
49.5
na
na
%
%
%
MPa
MPa
MPa
0.17
0.10
0.01
39.9
10.7
0.35
0.216
0.234
0.003
45.9
na
na
1.48
250
6
15o plies:
1
2
12
1
2
12
85o plies:
1
2
12
1
2
12
without liner:
Table F3 Short term values used for vessel for water without
liner
Partial factor
Value
Explanation
13.9 MPa Ply stresses in +15 and
Characteristic val- nk
1.01 MPa +85 ply.
ue of the local load
10.7 MPa See F205
effect of the struc0.35 MPa
ture (stress) in the
direction n
Characteristic val-
26.3 MPa For the new vessel
ue of the stress
2 matrix 23.7 MPa For the vessel after 25
components to mayears
trix cracking in the
See D104 and D405,
direction 2
D406
Characteristic val-
17.0 MPa For the new vessel
ue of the stress
12 matrix 15.3 MPa For the vessel after 25
components to mayears
trix cracking in the
See D104 and D405,
direction 12
D406
1.4
From section 8 B400:
Partial load effect F x M
Maximum load is
factor
known with 0 COV
Partial resistance
Strain to failure
factor
COV 10%
Target reliability level C
1.05
Due to simplifications
Load-model factor Sd
in analytical model, see
E205.
1.15
Given in 6D201
Partial resistance- Rd
model factor
304 Checking the design criterion in 302 we find that stresses in the 15 plies are just acceptable, while no matrix cracking
is predicted for the 85 plies:
for 15 plies:
1 . 05 1 . 4 1 . 15
13 . 9 MPa
23 . 7 MPa
1 . 01 MPa
15 . 3 MPa
= 1 . 00
for 85 plies:
F 300 Matrix cracking (short term) at 1.48 MPa pressure (ref. section 6 D)
301 The criterion of section 6 D202 is not fulfilled and stress
combinations should be taken into account.
maxi
305 First matrix cracking anywhere in the structure is usually used as the criterion for onset of leakage. Matrix cracking
determines the design pressure for this component. A maximum pressure of 14.8 bar is acceptable.
ik
ik
matrix
ni
nk
nk
10
matrix
302 Since there is interaction the design criterion from section 6 D203 shall be used:
F . Sd . M . Rd .
303
nk
matrix
nk
n
1 . 05 1 . 4 1 . 15
10 . 7 MPa
23 . 7 MPa
0 . 35 MPa
15
. 3 MPa
= 0 . 76
<1
F . Sd . nk <
k
M . Rd
fiber
603 The following values are selected for the water vessel
without liner:
Table F4 Short term values used for vessel for water without
liner
Partial factor
Value Explanation
Characteristic fibre kfibre 1.69% For the new vessel
0.87% For the vessel after 25 years
strain to failure
See D104 and D405, D406
F x M 1.18 From section 8 B400:
Partial load effect
Maximum load is known
factor
with 0 COV
Partial resistance
Strain to failure COV 5%
factor
Target reliability level E
1.05 Due to simplifications in anaLoad-model factor Sd
lytical model, see E204-205
Rd
1
Degraded properties are used
Partial resistancein the analysis
model factor
applied
applied
fibre
1
139 . 5 MPa
23 . 7 GPa
= 0 . 58 %
703 Stress rupture data do not have to be confirmed by testing if the factor gRd can be multiplied by 20 (see E400 and section 6 J410). In this case the strain for a life of 125 x 20 = 2500
years should be found. In this case the acceptable characteristic
stress level is 143 MPa, after applying the load model factor
and the 10% reduction for sea water we get 123 MPa. Therefore:
applied
applied
fibre
1
123 MPa
23 . 7 GPa
= 0 . 518 %
Summarising as follows:
General
201 The elastic properties without matrix cracking are needed here and were calculated in D104. The values are different
at the beginning and the end of the life of the component.
Table G1 Elastic properties
Property
New component
23.7 GPa
E1 fibre
7.6 GPa
E2 matrix
12
0.29
3.2 GPa
G12 linear
MPa
MPa
GPa
GPa
15.8
31.6
11.02
16.34
%
%
%
MPa
MPa
MPa
0.108
0.168
0.035
27.0
13.9
1.01
%
%
%
MPa
MPa
MPa
0.17
0.10
0.01
39.9
10.7
0.35
15o plies:
1
2
12
1
2
12
85o plies:
1
2
12
1
2
12
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
G 200
202 The following results are obtained from the stress and
laminate theory analysis (without using a load factor):
Table G2 Results for vessel for water without liner
General:
After 25 years in water,
no matrix cracks
Pressure
MPa
1.48
Diameter
mm
250
Thickness
mm
6
G 600
601 Fibre failure can be analysed the same way as in the progressive failure analysis in F700. This method requires a stress
analysis with degraded matrix properties. Since checking for
matrix cracks in G300 requires an analysis with non-degraded
properties the structure is analysed two times. This is easily
done in this example, but may be time-consuming for more
complicated structures. An alternative method is given here,
where fibre failure is checked by the same analysis with nondegraded properties as is used for checking matrix cracking.
602 The short-term static design criterion for fibre failure on
the ply level is given by:
F . Sd . nk
k fiber
<
M . Rd
where,
nk
kfibre
603 The following values are selected for the water vessel
without liner:
Table G3 Short term values used for vessel for water without
liner
Partial factor
Value Explanation
Characteristic fibre kfibre 1.69% For the new vessel
0.87% For the vessel after 25 years
strain to failure
See D104 and D405, D406
From section 8 B400:
Partial load effect F x M 1.18
Maximum load is known
factor
with 0 COV
Partial resistance
Strain to failure COV 5%
factor
Target reliability level E
1.05
Due to simplifications in
Load-model factor Sd
analytical model, see E205
a
Non-degraded properties
Partial resistance- Rd
are used in the analysis
model factor
605 The laminate modulus in the 15 degree direction is obtained by calculation the Young's modulus in the main x-direction for the original laminate rotated by - 15 degrees, i.e.:
Table G5 Rotated laminate (-15)
Ply no:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Fibre angle ()
0
- 30
70
- 100
70
- 100
- 100
70
- 100
70
- 30
0
The laminate modulus is obtained from laminate theory calculations. Even though the laminate is not symmetric and the
laminate modulus is not a meaningful value, it is sufficient for
the calculation a . The results are: 10.31 GPa for non-degraded
properties, and: 4.04 GPa for the laminate with matrix cracks.
Therefore: A = Elin/Enonlin, = 2.55 for the 15 degree ply.
606 The laminate modulus in the - 15 degree direction is obtained in a similar way by rotating the original laminate by +15
degrees. The result is the same as in 605.
607 The laminate modulus in the 85 degree direction is obtained by calculation the Young's modulus in the main x-direc-
Fibre angle ()
- 70
- 100
0
- 170
0
- 170
- 170
0
- 170
0
- 100
- 70
The laminate modulus is obtained from laminate theory calculations. Even though the laminate is not symmetric and the
laminate modulus is not a meaningful value, it is sufficient for
the calculation a . The results are: 16.02 GPa for un-degraded
properties, and: 12.01 GPa for the laminate with matrix cracks.
Therefore: A = Elin/Enonlin, = 1.33 for the 85 degree ply.
608 The laminate modulus in the - 85 degree direction is obtained in a similar way by rotating the original laminate by +
85 degrees. The result is the same as in 607.
609 Analysing the design criterion above (see 602) we find
the maximum allowable strain in fibre direction nk after 25
years of service to be:
maximum strain in 15o plies:
nk
0.87
k fiber
=
=
= 0.275%
Sd FM . Rd 1.05 1.18 2.55
nk
k fiber
0.87
=
=
= 0.528%
Sd FM . Rd 1.05 1.18 1.33
G 700 Fibre dominated ply failure due to static longterm loads (ref. section 6 J)
701 The analysis method is the same as for the water vessel
in F800.
G 800 Fibre dominated ply failure due to cyclic fatigue
loads (ref. section 6 K)
801 The analysis method is the same as for the water vessel
in F900.
G 900 Unacceptably large displacement
901 Same as in F1000, no requirements to be checked.
G 1000 Impact resistance
1001 Same as in F1100.
G 1100 Explosive decompression
1101 Same as in F1200.
APPENDIX A
CHECK-LISTS FOR DESIGN INPUT
A. Phases
Table A1 Minimum list of phases
Manufacturing
Fabrication / Assembly
Transport
Handling
Storage
Installation
Testing
Commissioning
Operation
Maintenance
Repair
Retrieval / recirculation
B 200
mum
Construction
Operation
Post-operation
Wear
Pressure containment
C. LOADS
C 100
Functional loads
Weight
Reactions from components
Interactions with other components (wear, friction, interference)
Applied tension
Pre-stressing (permanent curvature, mooring/anchoring)
Permanent deformation of supporting structure
External hydrostatic pressure
Vacuum
Service induced vacuum
Internal pressure
Thermal stresses due to temperature of content
Slugging flow
Internal fluid flow
Loads induced by frequent pigging operations
Loads related to operations and normal use of the installation (cranes, helicopters, drilling, engorgement)
Fouling
Traffic loads
Live loads
Installation loads.
C 200
Environmental loads
Wind
Waves
Currents
Ice
Possible loads due to ice bulb growth
Snow
Earthquake
Movement of earth
Cover (soil, rock, and mattresses)
Reaction from seafloor
Permanent deformation due to subsidence of ground
Soil conditions
Thermal expansion and contraction due to external temperatures
Moisture (swelling loads)
Tides
Vibrations
Trawl
Flooding / ground water buoyancy.
C 300
FUNCTIONAL
Accidental loads
D. Environments
The term environment designates in this standard the surroundings that impose no direct load on the structure.
The environment may impose indirect loads on the structure,
e.g. thermal stresses or swelling due to moisture uptake. This
should be considered as a load effect, and calculated according
to the relevant parts of section 8. However, the environment is
generally considered for its effect on the degradation of material strength.
Table D1 Examples of Environments
Temperature internal and external
Temperature variations
Temperature gradients
UV radiation
Moisture
NATURAL
Sea water
Lightning
Acid rain
Atmospheric electrical field
Animals (e.g. shark bites on tethers, elephants
walking on pipes)
APPENDIX B
LAY-UP AND LAMINATE SPECIFICATION
A. Unique definition of a laminate
A 100
101 It is important to characterise a laminate in an unambiguous way. All constituent materials have to be identified.
102 A composite laminate is generally made of a number of
layers stacked on top of each other. These layers can consist of
complicated or simple fibre arrangements. The layers are the
units that are physically stacked in the production process.
103 The basic building block of a laminate is the ply (lamina). The ply is an orthotropic material and its properties are
needed for laminate analysis.
104 If reinforcement fabrics are not the same (e.g. a multi axial fabric), both should be identified in a laminate.
Guidance note:
A tri-axial fabric is typically specified as one fabric layer in production. The orientation of the fabric in the laminate is given with
respect to the long axis of the fabric role. However, for laminate
calculations the tri-axial fabric shall be described as three orthotropic unidirectional plies.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
105 The axis of the ply co-ordinate system of each ply shall
to be clearly identified.
106 The type of the reinforcement and the weight per area in
each ply shall be given.
107 The stacking sequence of the laminate shall be clearly
described. Each ply shall be identified and its orientation in the
laminate shall be described. Usually a laminate co-ordinate
system x, y, z is chosen. The z-axis is the through the thickness
direction. The orientation of the main reinforcement direction
of the plies (1-direction) is given relative to the x-direction of
the laminate.
Orientation
Resin
isotropic
0
isotropic
isotropic
isotropic
0
isotropic
90
isotropic
0
+45
-45
90
+45
-45
isotropic
+45
-45
isotropic
+45
0
-45
0
90
0/90
Vinylester
Vinylester
Vinylester
Vinylester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
ments):
t=
M
fVf
APPENDIX C
TEST METHODS FOR LAMINATES
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 This appendix describes recommended and preferred
test methods for laminates. Other test methods than the ones
described here may be used if they measure the same physical
properties under the same conditions.
102 If no standard tests exist and no test methods are suggested, tests shall be chosen that measure the desired properties with no or small side effects from specimen size and
geometry. It shall be ensured that the test results are correct or
conservative with respect to the way they are used in the design.
103 The complete list of mechanical static properties of orthotropic plies needed for structural analysis in this standard is
shown under B of this appendix - for static properties.
104 The properties of the standard are based on ply properties. These can be measured most directly from laminates
made of unidirectional plies all oriented in the same direction.
105 Ply properties may also be obtained from measurements
on laminates, if it is possible to back calculate the orthotropic
ply properties from the test results of the laminates. Some examples are given under D of this appendix.
106 The evaluation of stress vs. strain curves is described under F of this appendix for brittle, plastic and ductile materials.
107 Guidelines for the testing of sandwich are presented in
appendix D.
108 It is generally recommended to obtain data from laminates that represent the actual product and processing methods
as closely as possible.
109 Health and safety shall be considered when performing
tests. This standard does not address these aspects and reference to applicable health and safety regulations shall be made.
A 200 General testing information
201 For anisotropic material, mechanical properties should
be determined relative to the relevant direction of anisotropy.
202 Tests should be carried at a loading rates corresponding
to about 1% per minute, unless specified differently in the
standard.
203 For the preparation of test samples, curing conditions,
surface treatment and application procedure shall be according
to the specifications as described in section 4 A.
204 Measuring the thickness can be difficult for some materials, like laminates made of a coarse woven structure. Micrometers shall be used for thickness measurements and
callipers shall not be used. Modulus measurements shall be
based on an average thickness. Strength measurements shall be
based on the maximum thickness or the thickness at the failure
point.
205 Strains shall be measured directly on the specimen with
either extensometer or strain gauge. Extensometers tend to
give better results. Strain gauges shall be long enough to be not
influenced by the weave characteristics of the reinforcement.
with or without tabs or on specimens with reduced cross-sections in the middle (dogbone or dumbbell tests).
102 The recommended test procedure for straight specimens
is ISO 527 or ASTM D3039. Some preliminary testing may be
needed to find the best tab arrangements and gripping fixtures.
103 The recommended test procedure for dogbone shape
specimens is ISO 527 or ASTM D638M. The curvature of the
shoulder specified by the standards is often too sharp to obtain
good results. It is recommended to use specimens with smaller
curvatures or straight specimens (see 102).
Guidance note:
The Youngs modulus can be measured well with all test arrangements. Measuring strength and strain to failure can be more complicated, because stress concentrations at the grips or shoulder
may cause premature failure. However, choosing a non-optimised test method gives conservative results for static tests.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
403
used.
102 Loads and test environments shall be carefully controlled over the entire test period.
103 The strain rate should be kept constant for cyclic fatigue
tests of visco elastic materials. This means the test frequency
can be increased for lower strain (test) amplitudes.
104 The temperature of the specimens should be monitored
to avoid heating of the specimen due to testing at too high frequencies.
Brittle characteristics
failure point
ult lin
E lin
Stress
Guidance note:
Here the yield point is defined as the intersection between the
stress-strain curve and the 0.2% offset of the linear relation.
ult lin
Strain
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
: Stress-strain relation
Figure 1
Properties to be measured on a linear stress-strain curve for a
brittle core materials
102
yield
E non-lin
E lin
Stress
Ei =
failure point
ult
i
i
where i represents the index for the linear limit or ultimate value, etc.
F 200 Plastic characteristics
201 A typical schematic of a stress-strain curve for a plastic
material is shown in Figure 2. The following elastic parameters
are shown: elastic modulus for the linear range and non-linear
range (E or G for shear), strength and strain at failure point
(ult and ult), strength and strain at yield point (yield and
yield).
ult
yield
Stress
0.002
Strain
yield
ult
: Sress-strain relation
Figure 3
Properties to be measured on a non-linear stress-strain curve for
a ductile core materials.
Elin
0.002
Enon-lin
yield
Strain
ult
Stress-strain relation
Figure 2
Properties to be measured on a non-linear stress-strain curve for
a plastic core materials
APPENDIX D
TEST METHODS FOR SANDWICH MATERIALS
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 This appendix describes recommended and preferred
test methods for core materials alone and sandwich components (including the face/core adhesive joints and the faces).
Other test methods than the ones described here may be used if
they measure the same physical properties under the same conditions.
102 If no standard tests exist and no test methods are suggested, tests shall be chosen that measure the desired properties with no or small side effects from specimen size and
geometry. It shall be ensured that the test results are correct or
conservative with respect to the way they are used in the design.
103 The complete list of mechanical static properties (for
core and adhesive materials) needed for structural analysis in
this standard is shown in section 5 B 'static properties'.
104 Guidelines for the testing of face materials alone are presented in appendix C.
105 Health and safety shall be considered when performing
tests. This standard does not address these aspects and reference to applicable health and safety regulations shall be made.
A 200 General testing information
201 For anisotropic material, mechanical properties should
be determined relative to the relevant direction of anisotropy.
202 Tests should be carried at a loading rates corresponding
to about 1% per minute, unless specified differently in the
standard.
203 For the preparation of test samples, curing conditions,
surface treatment and application procedure shall be according to the specifications as described in section 5 A.
204 The evaluation of stress vs. strain curves is described in
appendix C, section C for brittle, plastic and ductile materials.
205 The use of strain gauges for the measurement of deformation in the core is difficult. Suitable adhesive should be used
to bond strain gauges to the core in order to avoid stress concentrations.
Guidance note:
If strain gauges are bonded with epoxy resin, for example, stress
concentration will arise due to the difference of between the adhesive stiffness and the (typically) low core stiffness. Alternatively, an extensometer could also be used.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
u lt
c ru s h
C o m p r e s s iv e
S tress
E
lin
C o m p r e s s iv e S t r a in
u lt
: S tr e s s -s tr a in r e la tio n
Figure 1
Compressive test and crushing strength
Guidance note:
Block shear test, such as the one used in ASTM C 273-00 or ISO
1922, should not be used to obtain design shear strength of balsa
cored sandwich beams and panels. Using the block shear tests
data to obtain the shear strength of balsa beams and panels will
in many relevant cases overestimates the shear strength by a factor of 2 to 4.
---e-n-d---of---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
505
shall be made of two pieces of high density core material (preferably PVC foam) with the sandwich adhesive located in the
midplane parallel to the steel supports. The adhesive should be
thicker than 1mm thick and the core material shall be specified.
C 200 Tensile tests
201 The recommended test method is ISO-527-1997 to determine the strength and fracture elongation in tension of the
adhesive.
C 300 Flatwise tensile tests
301 The recommended test method is ASTM C 297-61 to determine the strength in tension, flatwise, of the adhesive.
C 400 Shear tests
401 The recommended test method is ISO-1922-1981 to determine the strength of the adhesive.
C 500 Tests to obtain properties under long term static
and cyclic loads
501 The same tests as for measuring static properties can be
used.
502 Loads and test environments shall be carefully controlled over the entire test period.
503 The strain rate should be kept constant for cyclic fatigue
tests of visco elastic materials. This means the test frequency
can be increased for lower strain (test) amplitudes.
K 2Ic =
EG Ic
1 2
G Ic =
Pc (d P )
2 w a
301 The test aims to determine the permeability of water vapour through permeable or semi-permeable materials.
302
W
tA
where - W - is the weight change, - t - is time and - A - the
test area.
303 The recommended test method is SS 02 15 82. Other
tests are available: ASTM E 96-94, ISO 1663:1981, ISO/DIS
1663.
WVT =
APPENDIX E
TABLES OF SAFETY FACTORS
A. Partial safety factors
A 100
General
101 Partial safety factors depend on the safety class and the
failure type. The partial factors are available for five different
levels.
102 The selection of the levels is given in Table A1 for the
ultimate limit state.
103 The recommended selection of the levels for the serviceability limit state is given in Table A2.
104 Factors for each level A, B, C, D and E are given in the
following:
0.15
1.36
1.00x1.36
1.16
0.91x1.26
1.08
0.87x1.23
1.05
0.90x1.17
1.03
0.92x1.12
0.05
1.07
1.00x.1.07
1. 01
1.04x0.97
1.05
1.11x0.94
1.09
1.16x0.93
1.12
1.20x0.93
0.15
1.36
1.00x1.36
1.14
0.88x1.29
1.05
0.88x1.20
1.02
0.95x1.08
1.02
1.01x1.00
0.05
1.07
1.00x1.07
1.02
0.98x1.05
1.01
0.99x1.02
1.00
1.01x1.00
1.01
1.03x0.98
0.15
1.36
1.00x1.36
1.23
0.94x1.30
1.17
0.91x1.28
1.12
0.90x1.24
1.08
0.90x1.21
0.15
1.60
1.00x1.60
1.40
0.89x1.57
1.30
0.87x1.49
1.27
0.90x1.40
1.25
0.94x1.34
0.05
1.11
1.00x1.11
1.09
1.11x0.98
1.18
1.24x0.95
1.26
1.34x0.94
1.32
1.42x0.94
0.15
1.60
1.00x1.60
1.39
0.88x1.57
1.28
0.88x1.44
1.25
1.00x1.25
1.26
1.11x1.13
0.05
1.11
1.00x1.11
1.06
0.98x1.09
1.06
1.00x1.06
1.06
1.03x1.03
1.08
1.07x1.00
0.15
1.60
1.00x1.60
1.50
0.94x1.58
1.42
0.91x1.55
1.36
0.90x1.51
1.32
0.90x1.46
0.15
1.96
1.00x1.96
1.72
0.91x1.88
1.60
0. 87x1.84
1.55
0.90x1.73
1.53
0.94x1.63
0.05
1.15
1.00x1.15
1.17
1.17x0.99
1.31
1.37x0.96
1.43
1.51x0.95
1.53
1.63x0.94
0.15
1.96
1.00x1.96
1. 70
0.88x1.93
1.56
0.87x1.78
1.52
1.01x1.51
1.54
1.17x1.32
0.05
1.15
1.00x1.15
1.10
0.98x1.12
1.10
1.01x1.09
1.11
1.05x1.06
1.14
1.10x1.03
0.15
1.96
1.00x1.96
1.83
0.94x1.94
1.74
0.91x1.91
1.66
0.90x1.85
1.61
0.90x1.79
0.15
2.46
1.00x2.46
2.15
0.88x2.43
1.99
0.85x2.33
1.92
0.87x2.20
1.88
0.91x2.08
0.05
1.18
1.00x1.18
1.24
1.24x1.00
1.44
1.50x0.96
1.61
1.698x0.95
1,74
1,84x0,95
0.15
2.46
1.00x2.46
2.13
0.88x2.43
1.94
0.85x2.28
1.87
0.96x1.94
1,88
1,15x1,63
0.05
1.18
1.00x1.18
1.14
0.99x1.16
1.14
1.02x1.12
1.16
1.07x1.09
1.19
1.13x1.06
0.15
2.46
1.00x2.46
2.30
0.94x2.44
2.17
0.91x2.40
2.08
0.89x2.33
2.00
0.89x2.26
APPENDIX F
EXAMPLE FOR REPRESENTATIVE DATA
STITCH-BONDED UNIDIRECTIONAL (UD) PLIES - E GLASS POLYESTER
A. General
A 100
101 This appendix describes an example of a fairly complete
set of data for a glass reinforced polyester laminate.
102 Many glass reinforced materials will be similar to this
example and can be qualified according to section 4 H600 Qualification against representative data. The fibre dominated
properties should be applicable to most E-glass reinforced
laminates, matrix dominated properties may change considerably when changing the resin system.
103 The fibre dominated fatigue properties in D200 can be
used for all E-glass laminates as long as some fibres are oriented in the load direction.
104 Representative data for other materials can be measured
and used like this example, as long as the requirements given
in section 4 H500 and 600 are fulfilled.
105 There is a lack of data for matrix dominated properties
and of properties in water. Properties in other fluids are not listed, since only few and specific data exist. If such properties are
needed some qualification testing may be required.
none
none
not relevant
hand lay-up
Room temperature (about 20oC)
none
Atmospheric pressure
none
2o
35%
Less than 2%
Conditioning parameters:
See sections for properties:
Number of specimens
Reported individually for all properties
C 200
Mean
1t
COV
Charact. value
Mean
Fibre dominated
COV
1c
properties
Charact. value
Mean
COV
1t
Charact. value
Mean
1c
COV
Charact. value
C 300
Value
26.7
5%
as mean
0.023
5%
0.020
0.016
5%
0.014
614
5%
534
427
5%
373
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity in main fibre direction
Strain
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Value
8.4
10 %
as mean
0.0043
10 %
0.0031
0.0065
15 %
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity transverse to main fibre direction
Strain
Strain
Compressive strain at break for the matrix in direction normal to the fibres when tension is applied to the fibres.
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
[GPa]
[GPa]
Mean
2t
COV
Charact. value
Mean
2c
COV
2t
2c
12
12
G12 linear
G12 non-linear
12
Charact. value
0.0041
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
36.0
10 %
26.3
55.0
15 %
34.0
0.0066
(0.023)
10 %
0.0049
(0.017)
23.0
(40)
10 %
17.0
(29)
3.5
10 %
as mean
1.7
10 %
as mean
0.29
10 %
as mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
C 400
23
3t
Through thickness
Properties
3c
13
23
3t
3c
13
23
Value
9.6
15 %
as mean
2.8
15 %
as mean
2.8
15 %
as mean
0.29
COV
10 %
Charact. value
Mean
as mean
0.29
COV
10 %
Charact. value
as mean
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
Mean
COV
Charact. value
0.0014
15 %
0.0009
0.0063
15 %
0.0039
0.0050
15 %
0.0031
0.050
15 %
0.0031
13.0
15 %
8.0
61.0
15 %
38.0
14.0
15%
9.0
14.0
15 %
9.0
Unit
GPa
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity normal to the fibre plane.
GPa
Shear modulus normal to the fibre plane, including the fibre direction
GPa
Shear modulus normal to the fibre plane, including the direction normal to the fibres.
Poissons ratio normal to the fibre plane, including the fibre direction, when tensioning in the fibre direction.
Poissons ratio normal to the fibre plane, including the direction normal to the fibres, when tensioning in the fibre plane normal to the fibres.
Strain
Strain
Strain
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Chemical environment
Loading rate
Number of specimens
air
about 1% per minute
Reported individually for
all properties
Formula
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
Elastic modulus same as QSA
Plastic strain:
cyclic
load
R=0,1
cyclic
load
R=-1
cyclic
load
R=10
1520
t 0.2
perm.
load
E1 fibre
st.dev.
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
Use stress based equation in 203
1t
(t )
(t ) = 1t
E (t )
"
"
log[(N)] = 0fatigue log(N)
cyclic
load
time to fail
st.dev., n
charact.
R=0.1
stat. strength
just before
failure
mean
COV,n
charact.
mean
time to fail
st.dev.
charact.
stat. strength
just before
failure
mean
COV
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
COV
charact.
1t
Properties
cyclic
load
R= - 1
cyclic
load
R=10
time to fail
stat. strength
just before
failure
No representative data
time to fail
st.dev.
charact.
perm.
load
stat. strength
just before
failure
1t
cyclic
load
time to fail
R=0.1
Stat.strength
just before
failure
cyclic
load
time to fail
R= - 1
stat. strength
just before
failure
cyclic
load
time to fail
R=10
Stat.strength
just before
failure
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
st.dev., n
charact.
mean
COV,n
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
COV
charact.
mean
st.dev.
charact.
mean
COV
charact.
Properties
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
log[(t)] = log[(1)] log(t)
(1) = 1, = 0.0423
relative to QSA
time scale in minutes
0.7 (of log N) , n = 50
log[(t)] = log[(1)] log(t)
(1) = 0.888, = 0.0423
(1) from time to failure mean curve
(1) from time to failure characteristic curve
Use strain based equation in 202
"
"
90% of QSA
same as QSA
90% of QSA
Use strain based equation in 202
"
"
90% of QSA
same as QSA
90% of QSA
No representative data
No representative data
Formula
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
unknown*
302
Stat.strength
mean
1c
just before
R=0.1
COV,n
failure
charact.
mean
cyclic
time to fail
st.dev.
load
charact.
Stat.strength
mean
just before
R=-1
COV
failure
charact.
mean
cyclic
time to fail
st.dev.
load
charact.
Stat.strength
mean
just before
R=10
COV
failure
charact.
Properties
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
Use stress based equation in 203
1t
(t )
(t ) = 1t
E (t )
"
"
same equation as in 202
"
"
unknown*
No representative data
No representative data
303
time to fail
perm.
load
cyclic
load
time to fail
R=0.1
stat. strength
just before
failure
cyclic
load
time to fail
R= -1
stat. strength
just before
failure
cyclic
load
time to fail
R=10
stat. strength
just before
failure
1c
stat. strength
just before
failure
Properties
same as QSA
same as QSA
same as QSA
Unknown.
Can use tensile data as a conservative estimate
"
"
(t) from time to failure
st. dev.
charact.
mean
st. dev.
charact.
mean
st. dev., n
charact.
mean
COV,n
charact.
mean
st. dev.
charact.
mean
COV
charact.
mean
st. dev.
charact.
mean
COV
charact.
No representative data
E 100
Test environment
E 200
E 300
APPENDIX G
EXAMPLE FOR REPRESENTATIVE DATA
UNIDIRECTIONAL CARBON TAPE AS4 12K
A. General
A 100
101 This appendix describes an example of a fairly complete
set of data for a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminate. The fibre type is AS4 12k
102 Data were mainly obtained from Composite Materials
Handbook Mil17, Volume 2, Technomics Publishing Company, Pennsylvania, USA, 1997
103 Laminates made of similar carbon fibres may be similar
to this example and can be qualified according to section 4
H600 - Qualification against representative data.
104 Matrix dominated properties may change considerably
when changing the resin system.
105 Laminates made of carbon fibres with different characteristics than AS4 12k may have very different properties from
the ones listed here.
106 Representative data for other materials can be measured
and used like this example, as long as the requirements given
in section 4 H500 and 600 are fulfilled.
107 There is a lack of data for matrix dominated properties
and of properties in water. Properties in other fluids are not listed, since only few and specific data exist. If such properties are
needed some qualification testing may be required.
None
None
not relevant
Autoclave cured
149 - 154 C, 120 130 min.
3.79 bar
none
53 60 %
0.64 2.2 %
Conditioning parameters:
See sections for properties:
from
which is based on 5 measurements.
1t
C 200
COV
1t
Charact.value
Fibre
Mean
dominatCOV
ed prop1c
Charact.value
erties
Mean
COV
1t
Charact.value
Mean
COV
1c
Charact.value
C 300
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity in main fibre direction
Strain
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity transverse to main fibre direction
Strain
Strain
Compressive strain at break for the matrix in direction normal to the fibres when tension is applied to the fibres.
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
[GPa]
[GPa]
COV
2t
Charact.value
Mean
COV
2c
Matrix
dominated properties
Value
133
3.79 %
as mean
0.0139
11.0 %
0.0064
0.0177
4.81 %
0.0101
2089
8.26 %
1606
1441
7.8 %
1126
2t
2c
12
12
G12 linear
G12 non-linear
n12
Value
8.5
3.76 %
as mean
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Charact.value
n.a.
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.
value
37.7
13.2 %
23.8
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
113.8
6.41 %
93.3
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
as mean
0.32
n.a.
as mean
APPENDIX H
EXAMPLE FOR REPRESENTATIVE DATA:
UNIDIRECTIONAL CARBON TAPES MADE OF
TPW TAPE WITH 5631 FIBRES
A. General
A 100
101 This appendix describes an example of a set of data for
a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminate. The laminates were
made of Carbon Tape TPW reinforced by four different types
of fibres.
102 Data were supplied by Tenax Fibers, Germany.
103 Laminates made of similar carbon fibres may be similar
to this example and can be qualified according to Section 4 H
600 - Qualification against representative data.
104 Matrix dominated properties may change considerably
when changing the resin system.
105 Laminates made of carbon fibres with different charac-
teristics may have very different properties from the ones listed
here.
106 Representative data for other materials can be measured
and used like this example, as long as the requirements given
in Section 4 H 500 and 600 are fulfilled.
107 There is a lack of data for matrix dominated properties
and of properties in air and water. Properties in other fluids are
not listed, since only few and specific data exist. If such properties are needed some qualification testing may be required.
B. Definition of material
The material is described according to Section 4 H 502.
UD-Prepreg TPW0611
Epoxy
Epoxy
FT110-3550-1
Araldit LY566/HY906
---------
---------
---------
---------
--58-60 %
1.88 - 2.06 %
--54.5-57.8 %
0.79 %
--54.5-57.8 %
0.69 %
--54.6-60 %
1.3 %
Conditioning parameters:
See sections for properties:
Epoxy
Epoxy
Rates varied slightly between test methods. Shear data were obtained
from 45 laminates tested at 2 mm/minute and sometimes at faster rates
of about 6 mm/min after 2% strain.
COV
2.58 %
1t
Charact.value
0.0069
for calculations
Mean
0.0079
COV
9.77 %
1c
Charact.value
0.00160
for calculations
Mean
2449
COV
2.64 %
1t
Charact.value
2320
N/mm2 (MPa)
Mean
897
COV
4.52
%
1c
Charact.value
816
N/mm2 (MPa)
B
Tenax HTS
5631
800tex
f12000 t0
140.9
(114.2)
1.50 %
(3.53 %)
Same as mean
0.0168
0.75 %
0.0061
C
Tenax HTS
5631
1600tex
f24000 t0
143.4
(124.9)
1.81 %
(5.48 %)
Same as mean
0.0170
2.35 %
0.0055
D
Tenax UTS
5631
800tex
f12000 t0
142.9
(120.8)
1.32 %
(2.69 %)
Same as mean
0.0184
2.09 %
0.0064
0.0084
15.3 %
0.0160
0.0074
9.21 %
0.0161
0.0099
20.64 %
0.0178
2394
2.78 %
2261
2475
3.33 %
2310
2652
1.95 %
2549
923
12.44 %
693
888
11.34 %
687
1145
19.11 %
776
Explanation
APPENDIX I
EXAMPLE FOR REPRESENTATIVE DATA
UNIDIRECTIONAL CARBON TAPE TPW 0434 PREPREG
A. General
A 100
101 This appendix describes an example of a fairly complete
set of data for a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminate. The
laminates were made of carbon tape TPW 0343 Prepreg.
102 Data were supplied by Tenax Fibers, Germany.
103 Laminates made of similar carbon fibres may be similar
to this example and can be qualified according to section 4
H600 - Qualification against representative data.
104 Matrix dominated properties may change considerably
when changing the resin system.
105 Laminates made of carbon fibres with different characteristics than IMS 5131 410tex f12000 t0 may have very different properties from the ones listed here.
106 Representative data for other materials can be measured
and used like this example, as long as the requirements given
in section 4 H500 and 600 are fulfilled.
107 There is a lack of data for matrix dominated properties
and of properties in water. Properties in other fluids are not listed, since only few and specific data exist. If such properties are
needed some qualification testing may be required.
Autoclave cured
177oC for 150 minutes
6.0 bar
0.99 bar
none
--58-60 %
1.88 - 2.06 %
Conditioning parameters:
See sections for properties:
Test environment
B. Definition of material
The material is described according to section 4 H502.
Table B1 Properties to define the material
Constituent materials:
Requirements to group
measurements from different laminates
Generic Fibre type
Carbon-PAN Precursor
Bundle type
12k filaments per tow
Fibre trade name
IMS 5131 410tex
f12000 t0
Type of weave
Unidirectional Tape
Type of sizing
Epoxy compatible
Fibre Manufacturer
Tenax Fibers Germany
Tape Manufacturer
Fabric trade name and batch number
UD-Prepreg TPW0343
Generic resin type (e.g. epoxy, polyester) Epoxy
Specific resin type (trade name, batch
CIBA 6376
number)
Catalyst (trade name and batch number) ---
Rates varied slightly between test methods. Shear data were obtained
from 45 laminates tested at 2 mm/minute and sometimes at faster rates
of about 6 mm/min after 2% strain.
C 200
COV
Fibre
dominated properties
1t
1c
1t
1c
*
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Value
170.6
(136.9)
0.82 %
(1.69%)
as mean
0.0162
1.49
0.0156
1.13
1.06
2835.6
3.1%
2659.8
1547.9
3.18%
1449.4
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity in main fibre direction, in
tension and (compression)
Strain
Tensioning strain at break in the main fibre direction. Characteristic value calculated from strength
data.
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
The measured compressive strain at failure was 1.195% with a COV of 3.48%. A lower value was put in the table to allow easy linear ply analysis. A higher
strain to failure can be used, but non-linear effects should be taken into account, i.e., drop of Young's modulus.
C 300
COV
2t
Charact.value
2c
Matrix
dominated properties
2t
2c
12
12
G12 linear
G12 non-linear
12
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Mean
COV
Charact.value
Value
9.5
1.19 %
as mean
0.0081
0.0070
Unit
[GPa]
Explanation
Modulus of elasticity transverse to main fibre direction
Strain
77.1
6.69 %
66.8
91.9
4.48 %
83.5
4.5
4.24 %
as mean
-
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
N/mm2 (MPa)
Strain
N/mm2 (MPa)
[GPa]
[GPa]