Adoption of Social Software for Collaboration

Lei Zhang
Supervised by Professor Peter Kawalek
and Professor Trevor Wood-Harper
Manchester Business School
Booth Street West,
M15 6PB
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This doctoral research explores how social software can be used
to support work collaboration. A case study approach with mixed
methods is adopted in this study. Social network analysis and
statistical analysis provide complementary support to qualitative
analysis. The UK public sector was chosen as the research context.
Users are individuals who are knowledge workers in distributed
and cross-boundary groups. The asynchronous social software
applications studied are blogs and wikis. This paper first describes
the major contributions made in the research findings. Next, it
identifies the implications of this study for the adoption theory,
mixed methodology and for practice. Finally, having taken into
consideration the limitations of the study, some recommendations
are proposed for further research.
Categories and Subject Descriptors
H.1.2 [Information Systems]: User/Machine Systems human
factors.
General Terms
Human Factors
Keywords
IT adoption, social software, collaboration, blog, wiki
1. INTRODUCTION
Enabled by easy-to-use social software, communities and
collaborations are appearing on a large scale. Both public and
private organizations increasingly feel compelled to change the
way they run their businesses in order to meet the new
generations expectations, both inside and outside organizations.
Moreover, businesses want to tap the benefits of self-organized
distributed collaboration and use them as source of innovation.
Meanwhile, literature on social software-supported collaboration
is still unfolding. According to some commentary, employees are
empowered by simple, flexible and lightweight social software
such as blogs and wikis (e.g., McAfee 2006; Tapscott & Williams
2006; Cook 2008). Using such software, it is claimed they will be
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able to connect and collaborate beyond boundaries and to benefit
organizations in innovation and growth (McAfee 2006; Tapscott
& Williams 2006). Extending such claims, commentators also
argue that social software challenges existing ways of networking,
communicating and collaborating and is likely to cause disruption
to some organizations (Cook 2008). However, a literature search
reveals that it is still unclear for both researchers and practitioners
how social software can be exploited for work purposes, and what
are the grounds for its adoption. Systematic investigation of the
adoption of social software for work collaboration is found to be
absent in academic writing. These observations and the
researcher's own practical experience motivated her to carry out
this study.
In this summary, the research objectives are presented in order to
see how they have been addressed in this study. It will be noted
that an interesting implication for further research is that with
social software, adoption is heavily influenced by the capabilities
of actors rather than by the functionality of software.
2. SUMMARY OF MAIN
CONTRIBUTIONS
Objective 1: Develop a systematic understanding of social
software-supported collaboration by reviewing different
theoretical perspectives in the literature and published empirical
studies
This study firstly sought to understand social software-supported
collaboration by reviewing relevant theories and empirical
studies, and intended to learn why and how technology is adopted
for collaborative tasks. Technology adoption theories and GSS
empirical studies suggest that various aspects affect the benefits
derived from using technology, including influential factors such
as technological characteristics, individuals perceptions and
skills, task characteristics, group characteristics, and other social
and contextual factors. Although variable-based theories, such as
the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the task technology
fit (TTF), identify the important factors in the adoption of new
technology, the performance of the technology varies with the
problem context and adoption process. Since the research subject
is distributed collaboration, it was decided to use the process-
based Adaptive Structuration theory (AST) for investigation
because the way members use collaborative technology is
commonly deeply embedded in the process, group characteristics,
tasks and environments (Zigurs & Khazanchi 2008). AST
emphasizes the dynamic and emergent nature of the technology
adoption process. The theory assumes that group outcomes are
determined by a complex and continuous process in which the
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group appropriates various elements such as technology or task
characteristics. However, the original AST is tested on small
group interaction in the context of a group decision support
system. The problem context of this study is distributed
collaboration. It assumes that new knowledge is generated as a
result of collaborative efforts. So this study reviewed knowledge
management literature to clarify the problem context and the role
of technology in collaboration. Social capital appeared to be
essential for knowledge creation. A conceptual framework was
developed based on AST. The difference between AST and this
model is the context. In AST, context factors are referred to as
the organizational environment, such as corporate information,
history of task accomplishment, cultural beliefs, modes of
conduct, and so on, which provide structures groups can invoke,
in addition to advanced information technology (DeSanctis &
Poole 1994). In this study, context factors consist of social capital
(i.e., structural, relational and cognitive capital), organizational
(such as organizational culture and structure, top management
support, and training) and wider environmental elements,
including norms and values in a particular industry or sector, as
well as the growth of the Internet and social networking sites.
Moreover, social capital is highlighted in this study because it not
only constitutes some aspects of the social structure, but also
directly affects collaborative actions. One distinctive feature of
social software adoption is social interaction. Individuals are
considered to be social actors, and they are able to learn and adapt
with their user experience. The use of a multidimensional
framework has allowed for recognition of the contextual
conditions for which social software is utilized, and has enabled a
better understanding of the extent and quality of social software
use.
Objective 2: Induce theoretical insights from empirical evidence
Theoretical insights were induced through research cycles. The
conceptual framework (Figure 1) proposed in the literature review
was used to guide the investigation in both a mandatory and
voluntary context. In the first case study, student group blogs,
both user-generated data and interview data were collected and
analyzed. Adoption processes were compared across groups. The
case was critically analyzed using the concepts in the conceptual
framework, and the researcher reviewed the research design and
the framework based on the findings.
Figure 1 Conceptual framework
This second study introduced the adoption of a wiki-based social
networking site, TALKnet, in the UKs public sector. The website
aims to provide a space for open communication and
collaboration across the UKs local government. This study was
conducted to answer the question, to what extent does use of
social software affect the nature of collaboration in the voluntary
context? A social network analysis revealed that the TALK
network was not well-connected. Interviews were conducted and
secondary data was analyzed critically based on the revised
conceptual framework. The results of two case studies were
integrated in the discussion. Some insights were generated.
Firstly, this study identified adaptation and an emergent structure
in the social interaction process. These are consistent with the
adaptive structuration theory (DeSanctis & Poole 1994) . By
using social software, individual actors achieve a better
understanding of the social software and its functions, the tasks it
supports, and how their own needs can be supported by social
software. Secondly, social norm has been considered to be a
precursor in the adoption literature (Davis et al. 1989; Ajzen 1991;
Goodhue & Thompson 1995). However, this study found that
influence from meta-users, e.g., supervisors and managers,
affected both users use intention and behavior. Thirdly, task
technology fit was found to have little relevance on performance
in both the mandatory and voluntary context. The outcomes were
as a result of the adaptation process on both individual and group
levels. For example, in the student group blogs case, some
students used communication norm to facilitate discussions within
their group on the blog. TALKnet users reported that the website
was used in combination with other online and offline platforms.
Fourthly, social capital was found to influence the adoption
process. Social structures embedded in relationships enable or
inhibit users to adopt social software. For example, in the
TALKnet study, it was reported that some interviewees hesitated
to contribute due to lack of knowledge. Other interviewees
contributed because they were invited by the bloggers to comment.
Additionally, findings suggest that new connections, or social
structures, emerged from online conversations. Finally, both
organizational and environmental factors affected the adoption of
social software in this study. For example, the support of top
management and IT practice in the public sector had an influence
on the adoption of TALKnet.
3. IMPLICATIONS FOR ADOPTION
THEORY
There are two main streams in technology adoption studies,
namely, utilization-focus and fit-focus. The representative
theories are TAM and TTF. Although they identify important
factors in technology adoption, these essentially variable-based
models are not suitable for a discussion of distributed
collaboration (Zigurs & Khazanchi 2008). This is because
adoption is a dynamic and emergent process in a distributed group.
This study adopts Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) for
investigation. Contrary to opposing the TTF and TAM theories, it
enriches both by adding a dynamic aspect to IS adoption. Similar
to the TAM, attitudes towards technology are considered as
important factor to influence actors' intentions to appropriate.
Meanwhile, a high task-technology fit is likely to be associated
with greater technology appropriation moves, and more positive
attitudes towards appropriation. Nevertheless, AST argues that it
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is the social interaction process which influences the performance
rather than user's perceptions and task-technology fit. The
findings of this study suggest that both TTF and TAM are
inadequate to explain the adoption of social software for
collaborative tasks.
Firstly, the results show that initial task-technology fit had little
influence on group performance. The findings from the first case
study suggest that weblogs supported small group projects when a
communication agreement was in place. The second case study
found that most of the content on group wikis was entered by
individuals. These findings are contradictory to the literature, in
which a weblog is regarded as a tool for one-to-many
broadcasting, and a Wiki as a perfect tool for the collaborative
creation of live documents among a small group of people
(Wagner 2004; Wagner & Bolloju 2005). This study found that
the fit between task and technology is subject to the adaptation
process on both individual and group levels.
Secondly, TAM was insufficient to study social software adoption.
Web2.0 social software is still at the early stage of the
technological diffusion process. Although users reported that they
found weblogs easy-to-use, this study uncovered that many
features were not used. Users learned the tasks the social software
supported through actual use. Meanwhile, although social norm is
considered to be a precursor to use intention in utilization-focused
theories (Davis et al. 1989; Ajzen 1991), this study found that
influence from meta-users affected both users use intention and
behavior. This finding supports the literature arguing that social
influence affects both technology acceptance and use (Fulk et al.
1990; Asako & Kiyomi 2007; Damianos et al. 2007). In addition,
perceived usefulness was found to be associated with the
capability of other actors. Findings from student group blogs and
TALKnet studies suggest that other members expertise,
similarity in geographical background, and personal relationship
with other members motivated individuals to adopt social
software. Moreover, users behavior was also affected by the
feedback they received online and offline.
Thirdly, this study extended the context in AST to include the
environmental dimension. The TALKnet study identified a
number of factors which influenced the website adoption in the
wider context. These factors include public sector culture,
sponsorship and financial resources, as well as the growth of
Web2.0. For example, the dominant approach for collaboration is
physical meetings in the public sector. Communities were built
through physical meetings. The online network was used for
communication among known people. Limited evidence shows
that TALKnet was used to extend the personal network. Since the
time individuals spend on social networking sites and blogs is
increasing rapidly (Nielsen 2010), it is possible to assume that
people will be more familiar with the applications in the future.
Fourthly, social software is different from traditional information
and communication technologies. The impact of social software
on collaboration is exerted through social capital and user-
generated content. Unlike e-mails, individuals can join a
conversation at any time and become collaborative partners.
Unlike intranets, the content on social software platforms is live
and can be updated by authors and readers. A social software
application itself forms the space of a temporal collaborative
group. There are at least two implications to social software
adoption studies, the first of which is the importance of the social
aspect. Since social software can potentially be a networking tool,
who writes on it, what is written or who reads it may affect
the decision to participate. The second is that a contingent view
of the adoption study is needed because the findings from this
study suggest that relationships among members develop with
online conversations. Moreover, such online relationship can be
extended into real-life and onto different social software
platforms.
4. IMPLICATIONS FOR MIXED
METHODOLOGY
This study adopts a case study strategy with mixed methodology
to achieve the research objectives. According to Mingers(2001),
there are two main benefits of using multiple methods. Firstly,
mixed methods can be used to overcome the weakness of a single
paradigm. Secondly, different research methods tend to be more
useful at different stages of the research. However, researchers
have to face at least two challenges when implementing mixed
methodology (Van de Ven 2007). The first challenge is to decide
the priority of different results in order to develop holistic and
integrative explanations. The second is that contradictory
information is likely to be received from different sources, and
when these contradictions are observed, researchers need to look
into the problem domain to find the explanation.
A number of mixed methods research designs have been proposed
(Mingers 2001; Creswell et al. 2003). This study adopts Creswell
et al.s sequential transformative design, which is useful for
expressing diverse perspectives, advocating for research
participants, and providing a better understanding of a
phenomenon which may be changing as a result of being studied
(Hanson et al. 2005). This study gives priority to the qualitative
method: interviews in this study. Quantitative methods, such as
social network analysis and statistical data analysis were used to
provide subsidiary and complementary support. Table 1 presents a
summary of collected data. However, unlike the term sequential
suggests, the study did not go through a linear process.
Table 1 Summary of collected data
Exploratory study
on student group
blogs
Mini exploratory
work in a local
council
Talknet case study
Content: 20
group blogs used
by 115 students;
872 blog entries on
19 small group
blogs and 228 blog
entries on a big
group blog.
16 interviews
3 interviews
with local council
officers
Social network
data 313 members
on 47 wikis and 23
blogs over a 3-year
period
11 interviews
with 9 interviewees
One of the research objectives was to generate theoretical insights
from case studies. Inducing a theory from qualitative data is
adaptive and highly iterative, and involves defining broad
research themes, collecting masses of data, and analyzing and
interpreting it (Carroll & Swatman 2000). Firstly, a conceptual
framework was developed from the literature review. In both case
studies, data collection and analysis went through an iterative
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process. Website content was analyzed first, which provided the
basis for interview analysis. During the data collection, the
researcher adjusted the interview questions to incorporate new
themes. For example, influence from a third person emerged from
the interviews. These adjustments were encouraged because
inductive theory building is based on deep understanding
(Eisenhardt 1989; Carroll & Swatman 2000). The data analysis
was also an ongoing and iterative task, which was guided by the
initial conceptual framework. However, the interpretation of the
data was not limited to the concepts in the framework. New
themes were identified in the first case study and these were
added into the model. Moreover, the researcher gained a deep
understanding of the data by reading and re-reading the transcripts.
In the second case study, after the initial analysis of the interview
data, short interviews and an additional social network analysis
were carried out for further explanations and confirmation of the
identified new themes. For example, the existence of informal
communities was confirmed in the follow-up data collection.
5. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Although the literature suggests that Web2.0 social software has
the potential to support collaborative tasks, there lacks of
empirical evidence. This study addresses this concern by
conducting case studies in both mandatory and voluntary settings.
The findings suggest that social software applications, such as
weblogs and wikis, could support idea-generation and problem-
solving. However, to realize these benefits on a large-scale,
organizations have to be both technological and socially ready.
For organizations, the purpose of using social software is to
mobilize the knowledge locked in a persons mind, a project
group, a division, or an organization, in order to enable
collaborative innovation. Social software supports informal
conversation and facilitates the development of an informal
network. The findings from this study imply that a virtual network
is not meant to replace physical networking events. Instead, it
helps to maintain weak ties and makes it easy for strong ties to
communicate with each other. In other words, a virtual network is
an extension of the real network. Moreover, a web-based informal
network is complementary to the existing hierarchical structure.
The study proposes several practical implications.
Firstly, since social software is a new technology, employees
need to be given opportunities to explore social software
applications and learn how to use them productively through
experience. Findings from the TALKnet study suggest that, in the
public sector, IT departments need to put a social software-
enabled IT infrastructure in place. Some local officers believe this
is inevitable. For example, the Business Support Manager of
Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council, Ken Usman-Smith, said
on one occasion.
Nothing pokes holes in the membrane better than blogs and
Facebook type interaction. And that is happening despite
management blocks on Web2.0 social computing channels."
People have to be able to try new technologies and realize their
value through use. According to Orlikowski (2000), collaborative
technology, such as social software, can be radically tailorable
and integrated into complex configurations with other tools. The
nature of technology changes with its use, and social structures
emerge with the recurrent use of technology (ibid.). One
interviewee used text messages as an analogy to describe the
learning curve involved in using social software.
The analogy is the capability of doing text messages was
very early on into mobile technology. But nobody for one
moment thought it would take off as the way it has because
young people grasped it and realized the power of using it
without having to talk to somebody, without having to leave
a voice mail, you can just text it. If somebody responded it,
they work. It has been hugely successfulif you said to
people 20 years ago, if you had the capability of texting, how
would you use it? They wouldnt have a clue.
Secondly, in addition to practice, changes in individuals
mentality are also required for users to be encouraged to generate
content. There are two kinds of user-generated content on social
networking sites, one of which is personal information in a user
profile. The other is the entries on weblogs and wikis. In the work
context, the personal information attached to the names can be
useful. However, online social networks can be just a list of
names without much personal information. This study found that
local officers tend to find experts through their existing personal
network. Also, local officers interviewed confirmed that
knowledge or expertise is the main criteria they use to choose
collaborative partners. On one hand, this finding highlights the
importance of the completeness of user profiles. One possible
solution is to install software which provides auto-generated
information, similar to the activities updates on the Facebook
Wall. The purpose of installing such software is to help users to
connect names with expertise. However, the recent Facebook
privacy scandal suggests that such an intrusive feature needs to be
implemented with caution.
On the other hand, this finding implies that existing networks can
be a barrier for implementing social networking sites. The social
capital theory suggests that a network with close ties can hinder
innovation (Burt 2000). A representative of this type of network is
the Communities of Practice (CoP). CoP members have formed
strong interpersonal ties through direct and continuous interaction
in small communities, and membership in those communities
tends to be stable (Lave & Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998). So
members of a CoP tend to have conversations inside the
community instead of reaching out to external experts.
Nevertheless, further evidence is needed in order to make a claim.
In terms of the second type of user-generated content, this study
found that wikis were used to publish announcements and store
documents. This finding suggests that users tend to publish the
finished works rather than work-in-progress articles.
Thirdly, there are multiple forms of participation on social
networking sites. Apart from content creation, the research
findings suggest that people also participate by commenting on
what creators produce, or by reading it without leaving any mark
on the websites. Content creators are not the most important
people(Cook 2008). People who help to categorize, rate, comment
and forward the content are more important in the sense of
building an informal-learning network. Thus, it becomes
important that social software websites have the capability of
capturing these multiple forms of participation. For example, a
survey conducted by TypePad (typepad.com) suggests that a
Facebook-like function increases referral traffic to blogs by
50%(Indvik 2010). Although the report does not provide
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sufficient information about research methods, the evidence
suggests that the role of readers is important.
Fourthly, social software will not be adopted equally. Evidence of
Power-law distribution was found in both case studies. However,
as mentioned in the third point, there are multiple forms of
participation, although some forms may not be visible on the
websites. The ultimate goal of professional social networks is to
encourage learning and the transfer of knowledge. However, there
is a risk of relying on a few people to contribute to the content.
Policy is needed to reward contribution and encourage
information/knowledge receivers to share, in order to reduce the
burden on experts and ensure that they have time to perform their
own jobs (Cross et al. 2006). Nevertheless, performance
measurements have to be thought through carefully. The results of
the first case study suggest that the risk of evaluating participation
in a social software platform is that people may do what measures
rather than contributing genuinely.
6. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Since social software adoption is still in the early stages of
research, a case study appears to be a suitable strategy to achieve
the purpose of this research. However, the case study approach
and qualitative methods have a number of potential limitations,
which must be considered. The limitations are outlined below,
together with some debate about their nature and some possible
ways to overcome them.
Firstly, most of the findings of this study came from a single case
study in the public sector. The first case study of student groups
was carried out to formulate the problems. Although the case was
in a mandatory setting, its results informed the researcher of the
limitations of the research design and the conceptual framework.
Then, the second case study was chosen in a voluntary setting.
Despite the difference in research settings, the two studies
produced some similar research findings. However, more
emphasis was placed on the second case study because it was
more suitable for addressing the research questions. According to
positivists, theory which is derived from a case study is not
generalisable beyond the particular site. However, transferability
is sought by this study rather than generalisability. It is
acknowledged that the results of the TALKnet study demonstrate
the great influence public sector characteristics have on social
software adoption. For example, some local authorities limited or
banned access to social networking sites in the work place. The
prevailing practice of seeking collaborative partners is by means
of personal networks, and e-mail is still the dominant
communication channel. All of these characteristics distinguish
the public sector from the private sector. These findings can
provide insights to another study in the public sector, while other
findings have a more general implication. For example, limited
features of perceived easy-to-use social software applications
were used. Social relationships were both structures and resources
for adoption. Social norm from meta-user affected users' use
intention and behavior. The theoretical insights generated from
this single study provide a basis for future theory building.
In order to build theory, multiple studies in similar settings must
be selected for future research. The theory-building process needs
to follow a spiral process, which is essentially the interplay
between the conceptual framework and the research cycle. The
initial framework is based on the researchers understanding at the
beginning, which guides the first research cycle. The conceptual
framework is updated with understanding gained as a result of the
previous cycle. The new framework then guides the next research
cycle (Carroll & Swatman 2000). Similarly, Eisenhardt (1989)
indicates that an accumulation of both theory-building and theory-
testing empirical studies are required to build a grand theory.
Secondly, in qualitative studies, the researcher is one of the
instruments. In this study, the researcher was aware of the
possible influence of her own behavior and perceptions, and thus,
deliberately kept a distance between her and the studied network.
In other words, she chose not to be an active member on
TALKnet, so that she could ensure that her observation was
objective. Also, the subject area on TALKnet was not the
researchers area of expertise, and this also restrained her from
participating. Thus, when one interviewee reported that he did not
contribute to TALKnet due to lack of confidence, the researcher
was able to associate with her own experience. This is an
interesting reflection. For future research, using online
participative observation (similar to digital ethnography) as a
complementary method perhaps can be considered, and this
approach may enable the researcher to gain a greater
understanding of social software adoption by standing in the
users shoes (Masten & Plowman 2003).
Another potential problem relating to the researcher is in the data
analysis. Qualitative data analysis research runs the risk of being
biased by the researchers own preconceptions and interpretations,
and this study is no exception. Although the researcher used a
number of tactics to reduce this risk, it is possible that bias
remains. For example, initially, the researcher assumed that
TALKnet had brought benefits, and the analysis focused on
positive outcomes. Having had this problem pointed out by
another researcher, the data analysis was then viewed from a
different angle.
Thirdly, it is important to note that this study was conducted in
the UK, which may use social software differently from other
countries. In fact, the first case study suggests that there is
national cultural difference in the use of social software, and this
factor needs to be considered when studying globally- distributed
collaboration.
Increasingly, social software is influential, both as a new class of
information systems, but also as a modification of existing classes.
Faced with the complexity of the web and cloud applications (e.g.,
Google Docs), social software is being deployed as a means of
bringing order to otherwise over-complicated systems (Shirky
2005). This means that it is important as an architectural element
across information systems, and the suggestion that adoption is
determined more by actors than functionality is especially
pertinent. In this limited way, perhaps software is evolving
beyond TAM and TTF type frameworks and into one where
networked actors constantly arbitrate over solutions and their
value. This is for further research.
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My thanks to anonymous reviewers for providing constructive
feedback.
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