Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Criminal Law Notes
Criminal Law Notes
STUDY NOTES
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Deprivation/infliction or harm/suffering
Expression of communitys disapproval/condemnation
Why punish?
o Prevention of crime (deterrent)
o Rehabilitation/reform (embitterment)
o Retribution/revenge
o Restorative justice? (restoring position prior to crime)
1.1.3. Function of Criminal Law
1.2.
What is a Crime?
Basic human rights such as right to life, bodily integrity, personal safety
and property are protected
1.2.2. Individual Autonomy / Responsibility
1.3.
Criminalisation
Have existed from earliest times come from old SA legal sources
Closed list: no new crimes can be added
Serious crimes against the person, property and interests of the state
Examples: murder, rape, beastiality, fraud
Legislature can remove common law crimes e.g. homosexuality and adultery
used to be common law crimes
Enacted by legislature/parliament
New types of conduct continue to be declared to be a crime
N.B. all crimes must be tested against the Constitution (may not be
incompatible with it)
2. THEORIES OF PUNISHMENT
Cases
S v Tabethe 2009
DPP v Tabethe
(SCA)
2.1.
2011
2.2.
2.2.2. Deterrence
2.2.2.1.
Teaches offender a lesson so that he will be deterred from repeating his offence
(e.g. suspended sentence)
BUT: what about convicted persons who commit another crime?
o If recidivism (reoffence) rate is high (2nd/3rd convictions), = ineffective; not
detterent
2.2.2.2.
Individual Deterrence
General Deterrence
2.2.3. Reinforcement
Theory of desert = only true theory of punishment that explains the underlying
reason/justification for punishment
Justice, principle of legality require that only those who have committed crimes
deserve to be punished
BUT: utilitarian theories would allow infliction of punishment on persons who
had not committed any crime!
Each theory has truths and flaws
Court uses combination
N.B. Distinguish between JUSTIFICATION for punishment in general and
PURPOSE of punishment in particular instance
Considerations
Judges and magistrates take into account when applying punishment theories:
a) Seriousness of the crime
b) The interests of society and
c) Accused personal circumstances
Often used a combination of theories
Justified the punishment of crimes
Forms of punishment
Imprisonment
Paying a fine
Community service
Suspended sentence
Others
- Attending anger management classes
- Any form of punishment that is constitutional
3. VALUES of
LEGALITY
the
CRIMINAL
LAW: PRINCIPLE
OF
Case
3.1.
Introduction
It is a mechanism for
How?
Prevent state from abusing its power set of rules that limit power i.e. state is
subject to law
POD: there is no crime without a rule of law
Protect from all powerful state
Enshrined in S35 (3)(l) to (n) of Constitution
3.2.
10
between the time that the offence was committed and the time of
sentencing
After conviction, imposition of punishment must also comply with 4
principles above I.e. above principles should also be applied when a
sentence is imposed
Nature and extent of punishment should be recognised and prescribed by
common/statute law
Determination of maximum punishments may not be arbitrary, cruel and
unusual punishment
Legislature may usually not decide on precise punishment / prescribe
minimum punishment
NB courts must have discretion to take certain factors into account
i. Personal circumstances of accused, seriousness of crime,
interests of society
ii. NB no retrospective punishments (unless to accuseds advantage)
iii. Application in Veldman v Director of Public Prosecutions (WLD)
2007
Veldman v Director of Public Prosecutions 2007
3.3.
3.4.
11
3.4.3.1.
3.4.3.2.
Criminal Sanction
3.4.3.2.2.
12
Cases
S v M 2004
4.1.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
All legal rules, including criminal law ones, must be in line with
Constitution
If it is inconsistent with the Constitution, a legal rule is invalid
and must be declared as such by the courts
4.2.
Constitutional
Context
4.2.1.
Challenges
in
the
Criminal
Law
Legislation
Prostitution
S v Jordan 2002
S 11 Criminal Law Amendment Act 32 / 2007
o Now clients are guilty of crime too
Drug offences
Punishments
Death penalty
S v Makwanyane 1995
Why unconstitutional? Rights at stake:
o Life; human dignity; equality
(treated
S v Williams 1995
14
dignity
embarrassing)
4.2.2.
Common Law
Sodomy
o What is it? Consensual/non-consensual male anal intercourse
friendly
Rights at stake?
Definition extended to anal entry as well
Role of Sexual Offences Act 32 / 2007 much wider
Bestiality
o What is it? Intercourse with an animal
o S v M 2004
Sexual orientation; no good reason against right to privacy;
basing on mere immorality not enough to justify
criminalisation
Court decided crime not unconstitutional animals cannot
consent
Questions
Conclusion
15
S v Erwin 1974
S v Smit 1963
S v Arnold 1985
S v Grobler 1974
R v Miller 1983
S v B en n ander 1994
16
6.2. Voluntary
17
Provocation/emotional stress
S v Arnold 1985
o Arnold married to younger lady: infatuated
o She hated his son + mother-in-law couple often
fought over these issues
o During a fight, Arnold fires a short and kills his wife
o Court: she provokes him + he never lied to the police
+ fully co-operated + medical evidence of his state of
mind = conduct was involuntary
o Succeeded did not perform act consciously
o Swayed by his love + honesty + background
S v Eadie 2002 may have changed the position
o SCA effectively restricted provocation as a defence
o Ripple effect on domestic violence + intoxication
related situations
Accused unconscious
Sleep
S v Van Rensburg 1987 [*TEST QUESTION LIKELY]
18
o
Epilepsy
Debate whether pathological or non-pathological?
Generally accepted as non-pathological
Hypoglycaemia
S v Van Rensburg *Read
Intoxication
PRESCRIBED: Obiter in S v Chretien 1981
Defence was not applicable in this case
Obiter: Depends on degree of intoxication; no control on
bodily movement from mind; criminal capacity must be
dead drunk
Could lead to involuntary conduct; not freely decided by
courts today though
Insane automatism
o Accused must prove involuntary conduct due to mental illness on a
balance of probabilities
o If accused is found not guilty by reason of insanity he will be detained in
a mental institute State Presidents patient
Sane automatism
o Onus is on the State to prove all elements of liability beyond reasonable
doubt (5 elements)
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Non-pathological automatism
Show connection to relevant facts: epilepsy
20
Circumstance crime:
Example: driving under the influence of alcohol
There is no consequence of the driving that must occur before the crime is
committed
All that is required is that the accuseds bodily movements should have
amounted to the driving of a vehicle
1. Impose a general duty to act positively to assist others that are in peril e.g.
France, Italy, Germany
- Those in favour of collective welfare
2. Do not impose such a duty, but rather regard liability for a failure to act as
exceptional e.g. RSA, Canada
- Those in favour of individual autonomy
Has crafted broad exceptions: categories of legal duties based upon a flexible
concept of the legal convictions of the community
Also imposed extensive delictual duties on the State to protect persons from
violent crime
All based on theory of accountability dervived from constitutional theory
No common-law duty of general rescue, or even easy rescue but exceptional
instances where have legal duty to act
No duty to: inform police of commission or crime, prevent commission of crime
or rescue drowning person
Use legal convictions of community:
- Use principles in Constitution
- Not unrestrained: otherwise fundamental principles of legality in jeopardy
+ exceptions will become general rules
Legal duty: to take precautions to protect 3rd parties from being endangered by
the animal or thing
Liability is independent of any prior conduct on the part of the accused
o S v Fernandez 1966
- Owner of a small shop had a pet baboon
- Baboon escaped from the cage but owner managed to coax the
baboon back into its cage
- Owner failed to fix the hole through which the baboon initially
escaped
- Baboon escaped again and attacked and killed a baby
22
If there is such a relationship towards another, the person may have a legal
duty to take steps to protect that person from harm
Norms of society/legal convictions
Examples
o Parent-child
S v B and Another 1994 [*TEST QUESTION]
2 year old boy assaulted by mothers boyfriend consistently
eventually killed
Mother: failed to protect her child court looked at the
injuries sustained (burns, broken bones etc.) which proved
she did know of the abuse
Court: mother foresaw the possibility that child might be
harmed and did not protect convicted assault
Boyfriend: murder
Parents will also be liable if child starves to death
o Babysitter
o Lifeguard
o Police (NB)
PRESCRIBED: Minister van Polisie v Ewels 1975 [*TEST
QUESTION]
Ewels was assaulted by off-duty police officer at station in
front of other officers that did nothing - minister to be held
liable as policemen have a legal duty to protect citizens
POD: no liability for omissions
But are cases for exceptions: where there is a legal duty to
act positively arising from a protective relationship
Must prevent crime / protect community; exercise control
over police station (crime of assault)
BUT Minister of Law & Order v Kadir 1995
Kadir is driving and a bundle of clothes falls off the back of
the car in front of him: cause accident
Other car comes to collect the clothes and drives off
Police didnt take any details of car with clothes and now
Kadir cannot claim from RAF
SCA: no legal duty
Duty of police = to maintain law and order; not to assist
people to obtain evidence for civil claims (delict)
o
23
24
Basis for liability for failing to act: legal convictions of the community +
interpretation must include the values and right protected in the Constitution
Idea of the police as the protectors of the public received support: Ewels-case
Trend: CC Carmichele + SCA- Hamilton = place legal duty on State, acting
through the police, to protect persons, particularly the vulnerable, from violent
crimes
Shows a development of the common law
Central issue: whether breach of duty could lead to criminal liability and not
only delictual liability
Civil liability cases: Carmichele, Hamilton
Each cases shows the significance of limiting factor: SA police are
understaffed, under-funded and demonstrate poor criminal detection and
prosecuting record
Unrealistic to add more legal duties
Degree of enforceability of socio-economic rights: cannot expect more of
the State than is achievable within its available resources (Grootboom
case)
However, theoretically possible for State official to commit assault or culpable
homicide by an omission for negligence (Hamilton) but must at least dolus
eventualis
Difficult to prove
Not enough just to breach legal duty, must also prove causation and
negligence in regards to death
Beyond reasonable doubt
25
Why is it relevant?
-
SA: victims of crimes of violence are not yet eligible for compensation in
criminal trials
Problems
-
Suggestions
-
Legislation created
In line with concept of Ubuntu and contemporary European thinking
Create special offences with appropriate stigma and penalties
Objectives of legislation: encourage persons, where feasible, to help others in
danger
Also, punish public officials who simply fail to fulfil duty with necessarily causing
harm in the process
Courts would require at least negligence
26
R v Blaue 1975
8.1. Background
1. Consequence crimes
Prohibit certain consequences
Must establish a causal connection between specific act and specific
consequence
Examples
- Murder = causing death
- Culpable homicide
- Robbery (BUT possession of stolen goods = circumstance)
- Arson
2. Circumstance crimes
Prohibits specific conduct/crime
Examples
- Smoking dagga (even if just in possession)
- Rape
- Attempted murder
- Negligent driving (regardless of whether you hurt someone)
27
Q: would this consequence have occurred BUT FOR the accuseds conduct?
Look for the factual link (nexus)
Application: positive act
o Hypothetical elimination of accuseds act/conduct
o But for accuseds conduct, would the consequence in question have
occurred (at all/when it did)?
Application: omission
o Hypothetical addition of act which should have been performed conditio
cum qua non
o Q: would consequence disappear if accuseds omission were replaced by
the positive act legally required from the accused?
o PRESCRIBED: Minister of Police v Skosana 1977
Drunk driver arrested and beaten by police left in police cell
began complaining about stomach pains, but nobody called for
doctor died a few hours later, could have stayed alive if he had
received medical assistance
Legal question: on balance of probabilities, would reasonable
conduct have prevented his death?
Court found it would in principle, but not according to this
particular set of facts
Evaluation of factual test:
o Complete support
De Wet & Swanepoel; Van der Merwe & Olivier
Believe that it should be the exclusive test
o Criticism
Leads to unlimited causation
Problem with alternative/cumulative causation:
Alternative causation cannot be applied
Cumulative causation can be applied
Is an ex post facto (after facts have occurred) way of
checking for causation rather than a test
Therefore qualified support of CSQN, limited by test for legal
causation
28
29
o
o
30
31
8.
Conduct that complies with the formal definition of the crime usually =
unlawful conduct
BUT under certain circumstances unlawful conduct may be justified is
lawful
Under what circumstances?
o Self-defence, consent, necessity
NB for the interests / legal convictions of the community
Ground of justification = where legal convictions of community require
that a (generally unlawful) act be regarded as lawful
Legal convictions of community: Chapter 2 of Constitution (Bill of Rights)
Burden of proof: State must prove beyond reasonable doubt that you are
not justified
- Accused raises defence
- State must prove requirements not met
I.e. to be unlawful, the conduct must take place under certain
circumstances where no recognised grounds of justification exist
= No criminal liability if a defence excluding unlawfulness exists
Unlawful conduct = no ground of justification = criminal liability
Grounds of justification exist in certain recognised situations (see below)
8.6. Grounds
of Justification:
8.6.1.
Cases
S v T 1986
S v Mogohlwane 1982
S v Engelbrecht 2005
8.6.1.1. Definition
A person who is the victim of an unlawful attack upon his/her person, property
or other recognised legal interest (also interest of 3 rd party)
Act on behalf of the State where the State cannot help you defend their own
interests privately
May resort to immediate, reasonable and necessary force against the attacker
To repel such attack
Any harm/damage inflicted upon the aggressor in the course of such private
defence is NOT unlawful
32
8.6.1.2. Background
General rule: may not take law into ones own hands / resort to self-help would
condone vengeance, retaliation, other forms of self-help that disturb peace,
good order and rule of law
Why is PD not private vengeance?
Conflicting approaches: relationship between the interests of (harm inflicted by)
the attacker and the defender
o Weighing up / balancing interests against each other choosing lesser of
two evils
o NB for individual autonomy?
Therefore: PD = extraordinary remedy to escape criminal liability the accused
must be able to show that PD was in conformity with the relevant social/legal
norms
33
34
S
If
-
2.
PD?
Court: many other options besides hitting and killing her could have
pushed her away, gone into house he did not attempt to make her stop
Harm inflicted was greater than the attack: not necessary
v Engelbrecht 2005
it is possible to avoid the attack: do you have a duty to retreat/run-away?
No absolute duty to flee/retreat from unlawful attack
If fleeing will worsen chance: more justified to stand ground and defended
Not expected to expose oneself to more danger but can stand up for oneself
Burchell: duty to retreat is demeaning and insulting to innocent victim of
unlawful attack. = should stay and fight
Snyman: waarom moet reg voor onreg wyk? Justice bow before the law
Question whether defender could have fled ought to be merely ONE of
issues to be taken into account in assessing whether defensive act was
lawful
35
Court must objectively examine the nature of the attack and defence to
determine whether they comply with the requirements set out above
o Objective = ex post facto; after event happened; looking from outside
into the situation
o NB: not subjective (in head of person at time of crime)
Court must not act as armchair critic:
Case must be considered objectively in the particular circumstances of the case:
court must put itself in the position of the accused at the time of the attack
(subjective element) i.e. fact that pitch dark how the accused perceived his
circumstances
Also think about
o What happens if limits of PD are exceeded?
I.e. 1 requirement not met = no PD
Putative private defence really thought acted in private defence
i.e. Oscar Pistorius case (objectively: no danger, but subjectively:
he thought there was danger)
o What about PD by the attacker?
Only succeeds where counter attack exceeds limits of PD
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8.6.2.
NECESSITY
Cases
S v Pretorius 1975
S v Malan 1998
Necessity
Unlawful human
conduct/compulsion/chance
circumstances (act of nature)
Defence aimed at interests of
innocent
3rd
party
or
legal
prohibition
Ethical justification harder:
Choice between two evils
proportionality required
37
2. Threat commenced/imminent
Not already ceased / only to be implemented in future (NB: no pre-emptive
strike)
Accused must desist immediately when the danger has passed
Already finished or expect in future: not rely
Courts STRICT: no extension for this defence as extended in PD (domestic
violence, defensive weapons etc.)
Why strict? Whose interests are you infringing? = An innocent person or
laws of the land
This requirements is almost an exact overlap to PD
3. Threat not caused by accuseds fault
- Created dangerous situation himself?
E.g. teasing baboon, baboon attacked: rely on necessity?
Controversial
S v Bradbury 1967
S v Pretorius 1975
a. Distinguish different situations
i. Where one should keep the creation of danger and rescue from it
apart
S v Pretorius 1975
ii. Where accused invited the trouble on himself
S v Bradbury 1967
4. Necessary for the accused to avert the danger
Must be absolute last resort
Stricter than PD: why? Whose interests infringed? Innocent
Court must be satisfied that harm must most probably have resulted had
accused not acted as he did
PRIVATE DEFENCE: Duty to flee? NO: Why must justice bow before
injustice Snyman
NECESSITY: Must flee/seek police protection if possible must avoid the
danger
Do no more harm than is necessary to avoid the danger
5. Use reasonable means to avert anger
Reasonable to avert threat AND reasonable means used
circumstances
Accused must do no more harm have necessary to avoid danger
Court: balances interests
38
in
6. Legal
o
o
o
8.6.3.
IMPOSSIBILITY
Requirements
1. Positive legal obligation
Where there is liability for an omission (see conduct element)
Only applicable to imperative legal obligation, not prohibition
2. Physically impossible to comply with law
Absolute, objective impossibility
3. Not due to accuseds fault: created impossible situation
Depends on circumstances
Intentionally sure cannot carry out legal duty court will convict you
Examples:
i. Not being able to pay tax = accuseds fault = no impossibility
ii. Lock self out and throw key away to not appear in court = not
impossibility
SUPERIOR ORDERS
Case
S v Mostert 2006
40
Requirements
1. Superior must be lawfully placed in authority over subordinate to give
order
2. Subordinate must be under duty to obey order i.e. not manifestly
unlawful
- Unlawful v lawful order?
- Manifestly unlawful order (objective test) no duty to obey
- E.g. ordered to rape somebody = manifested unlawfully
- E.g. a cop who was ordered to search a house but didnt have a
warrant = not manifest unlawfully
3. May not cause more harm than is necessary for execution of order
- PRESCRIBED: S v Mostert 2006
8.6.4.
DISCIPLINARY CHASTISEMENT
Cases
41
SA Common Law
o NB: for parents right and duties in connection with education and
upbringing
Requirements
Reasonable
Punishment must be deserved
Parents motive: education/correction/admonition for an actual
offence (cant be frustration)
o Moderate
Factors including childs age, sex, build, health, character of
offence and degree of force applied
Different to child abuse
Burchell: how to gauge where is discipline and abuse? Difficult to
distinguish
o Necessary
Must be deserved
Two schools of thought:
- Snyman: retain corporal punishment, provided it is reasonable,
moderate and necessary i.e. child attacked parent right of
parents to fight back
- POD: no hitting children in the house (Burchell agrees)
restorative justice measure used instead
Possible abolition of defence?
o See proposals in s 139 of Childrens Amendment Bill B 19B-2006
o READ: Burchell 189- critically weigh the various options up against each
other: parent use force to help child i.e. from running into road
o International trends moving away
o Childrens Amendment Bill
Different approaches to disciplinary chastisement as a ground of justification
(NB: give opinion in a test)
1. Approach emphasizing childrens rights, especially human dignity no
ground of justification
All forms of corporal punishment / chastisement to be prohibited as
a crime (usually as assault)
o
42
8.6.5.
Cases:
43
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.6.6 CONSENT
Cases
S v Nkwanyana 2003
S v W en n ander 2004
Legislation
Three requirements
1. Consent must be recognized by law as a possible defence
44
Medical operations/treatment
POD: doctor must obtain voluntary, informed consent by patient usually =
ground for justification
Patient must be informed of material risks that could happen + their
consequences
- Likelihood of material risk occurring
- Severity of potential results
- I.e. 80% of people get headaches or could die high chance + severe,
must inform
Esterhuizen v Administrator, Transvaal 1957
Non-therapeutic treatment / research procedure
- Must give information about all possible risks (not just material
risks)
If not possible to obtain consent
45
Sport
Distinguish between lawful and unlawful sport
- Unlawful: e.g. dueling, Russian roulette; consent not valid
- Lawful: must be formal set of rules
Participation = consent to risk of bodily injuries
- Mere participation in itself = consent
Distinguish between play according to / contrary to rules
- Did not consent to illegal conduct i.e. against rules of rugby?
- Snyman: if expected then covered by consent but if clearly
outside rules then consent is not valid
2. Real, informed and voluntary consent
46
8.6.6.
NEGOTIORUM GESTIO
47
NB for motive of one who intervenes must be to the benefit of other person
8.6.7.
8.6.8.
ENTRAPMENT
Defence applies where accused was induced to act unlawfully by a lawenforcement officer
NOT a general ground for justification now
Example: policeman pretends to buy drugs from a drug dealer to arrest him,
undercover officer
To which crimes is it generally applicable?
o Drugs; stolen goods; prostitution; dealing in illicit goods
What is the link between all the crimes? Why catch the criminals in normal way
o Consented crimes there is no victim
o Crimes against wider society
o Only way to catch it to induce a crime
Justification/defence - extends beyond merely affording the accused the
opportunity to commit a crime that he/she would in any event had committed
(he does not have to induce the person not against their own will)
NO defence
o Person persuaded beyond normal
o Would not have consented to otherwise
48
RSA
Practical problem
Z steals a big package of nappies from shopkeeper Y. Policeman X sees Z
running away and shoots at her. Bullet hits the nappies and charged with
malicious damage to property.
a. X cannot reply on necessity because protecting Ys interests not his own (allowed
to protect another persons interest in necessity)
b. X is not guilty because he acted in private defence (not a reasonable response &
attack is not imminent she is running away)
c. X is not guilty due to de minimis not curat lex (not insignificant or trivial)
d. X is not guilty due to necessity (weighing up interests)
e. X is not guilty because his aim was to arrest Z public office (unless it
was a last resort then cannot not a crime involving violence)
49
9.
Thus,
50
Onus of proof
Insanity/mental illness
Accused
must
prove
criminal
incapacity
on
a
preponderance / balance of probabilities
Any other factor influencing criminal capacity
State must prove criminal capacity beyond reasonable doubt
9.2.1.
Cases:
Approach originally based on English law MNaghten rules (1843) mainly focus
on MI that affect the cognitive capacity
Rumpff Commissions recommendations contained in legislation
o S 78(1) Criminal Procedure Act
A person who commits an act ... or mental defect which makes
him incapable
a) of appreciating wrongfulness of his/her act/omission; or
b) of acting in accordance with appreciation of wrongfulness
shall not be criminally responsible for such an act/omission
o Only applies to mental illness
o Recognised illness: delirium tremens (abuse alcohol over long period of
time)
I.e. A person lacks criminal capacity if:
o He suffers from mental illness/defect
Pathological/biological leg of test (scientific, expert evidence)
o He is incapable of:
Appreciating wrongfulness of act (cognitive)
Acting in accordance with appreciation of wrongfulness (conative)
Psychological leg of test
Question: Could they distinguish right/wrong?, not Did they ...?
51
S 78(1) of Criminal Procedure Act: a person who commits an act or makes an omission
which constitutes an offence and who at the time of such commission or omission
suffers from mental illness or mental defect which makes him incapable
a) of appreciating the wrongfulness of his or her act or omission; or (cognitive)
b) of acting in accordance with an appreciation of the wrongfulness of his or her
act or omission (conative)
Shall be criminally responsible for such an act or omission
52
9.2.2.
Meaning of wrongfulness
Should accused lack insight into criminality of actions
(narrow test) or moral quality of actions (wide test)?
- Hadfield case (solider suffer head wounds, must die at
martyr & attempted assassination of George III)
- If narrow test: he was not insane knew killing king
was crime
- If wide test: he was insane thought he was doing
good by killing i.e. he was not doing wrong
S78 (1) of Crim Proc Act: wrongfulness refers to ?
- Most authorities prefer narrow test = more concrete,
specific and objective
- To test on morality would be vague, dependent on
different views and subjective
- Best test: whether he knew that his act was wrong
according to the ordinary standard adopted by
reasonable men
Does accused appreciate that conduct is wrong measured
against ordinary standard adopted by reasonable men?
(objective test)
Conclusion: wrongfulness means either unlawful or morally
wrong but both are OBJECTIVE tests
Meaning of appreciation
More than know value judgement
Knowledge of nature of act as well as its implications:
evaluate its effects/consequences for accused himself or
others
YOUTH
Cases
S v T 1986
Legislation
53
o
o
o
o
Cognitive capacity
Test including appreciation of wrongfulness what is meant?
Moral test
Can child appreciate that his act is morally wrong?
OR Legal standard
Can child realize that conduct is legally wrong/unlawful?
Courts prefer legal test
Conative capacity
NB: determining childs judgement
Can child control irrational/impulsive behavior?
Weber v Santam Versekering 1983
General
Prosecutor has a discretion to prosecute: section 10(1) of Child
Justice Act for factors to be taken into account
According to s 11(3), court can evaluate childs criminal capacity
through an assessment of cognitive, moral, emotional,
psychological and social development of the child
S 7 (1) & (9):
Assessment = subjective (is this particular child able to...?)
Factors
Age & maturity
Experience
Knowledge
Specific circumstances, etc.
Impact of offence on any victim
Closer to age of 14 years or very serious crime: not necessary
convicted same as adult specific process for children
Preferable option: divert the matter (keep out of criminal
justice system) [page 268-277]
Prefer to use restorative justice: rehabilitation
Children above 14: never a complete defence
o No presumptions regarded as adult
o Evidence can still be brought that he lacks criminal capacity
o Evidence must be brought cannot rely on youth alone
o
54
9.2.3.
INTOXICATION
Cases
Can be:
o Involuntary
E.g. spiked
o Voluntary
Actio libera in causa
Intoxication leading to mental illness (e.g. delirium tremens)
Remaining instances of voluntary intoxication
Involuntary conduct
No criminal capacity
No intent
Guilty of less serious crime that requires negligence
Ground for mitigating/aggravating punishment
Degrees of Voluntary Intoxication
o Sane automatism / Involuntary conduct
o No criminal capacity
Consumption of alcohol/drugs may deprive accused of capacity to
appreciate wrongfulness of conduct/act in accordance with such
appreciation
o No intention
See later discussion of S v Chretien
o Punishment
Mitigating/aggravating
55
History
o Intoxication initially not recognised as a complete defence in RDL and in
RSA only a mitigating factor at sentencing or accused found guilty of a
lesser crime
Why? Policy Considerations
After the Rumpff decision on Chretien parliament passed the Criminal Law
Amendment Act.
56
libale for the original crime (due to lack of intention) but of contravention of this
particular piece of legislation (Act 1 of 1988).
You must be aware that the substance you consume will impair your faculties.
Critiism of act
The irony is that the Act applies to sane automatism, or people who are so
drunk they cant control their bodily movements. These people obviously lack
intention. The Act then does not actually apply to people who are only slightly
drunk and who lack intention, like for example in the Chretien case. This is a
major flaw in the Act.
A second major flaw that is that it is difficult for the State to prove beyond
reasonable doubt that the person lacked criminal capacity (it is difficult to
gauge exactly how drunk a person was). The Act specifically says that the crime
must have been committed due to intoxicationn that impaired the person
mental faculties. The State therefore has to prove the person lacked criminal
capacity. Furthermore, mere doubt in for example an assault case that the
person lacked criminal capacity (which leads to their acquittal) is not sufficient
to prove the person lacked criminal capacity in terms of the Act.
The grey area is someone who is not so drunk that it is easy to prove he lacked
criminal capacity in terms of the Act but drunk enough to claim he lacked
intention (meaning he cant be convicted of the original charge because he
lacked criminal capacity). This person will in all likelihood be acquitted of his
crime.
Statutory (definition of) crime created committing on unlawful act while in state
(...)
Elements of new offence:
1. Consumption/use of any intoxicating substance by the accused
Is involuntary intoxication included?
NB for interpretation
2. Impairment of faculties (lack of criminal capacity as a result of
alcohol/drugs)
Does it cover cases where accused acts involuntarily due to
intoxication (sane automatism)?
Yes
Does it cover situations where person has criminal capacity but
lacks intent due to drink e.g. Chretien?
No
3. Knowledge that consumption of the substance has the effect of impairing
faculties
Fault = mens rea
Foresight rather than actual knowledge of the effect of consuming
the substance would be sufficient for liability
Should accused know or merely foresee that he would commit a
crime as well as that drink/drugs would impair criminal liability?
57
Negligence?
Must extent to include fault in element of offence?
If drink is spiked = not liable. Do not know substance.
4. Commission of act prohibited by law whilst faculties impaired
Covers only positive acts
Dangerous/violent?
5. Accused not criminally liable because of impairment of faculties (i.e.
enough reasonable doubt) NB!
Onus on State to prove lack of criminal capacity / no criminal
liability (is an element of the new and distinct offence)
58
59
o
o
o
criminal
60
Proof that accused suffered from mental illness/defect was not required
for defence of criminal incapacity due to provocation to succeed
o Like intoxication, emotional stress/provocation recognised as a nonpathological cause of criminal incapacity
o Was accepted that the defence of emotional stress/provocation leading to
criminal incapacity (lack of cognitive or conative capacity)
Accuseds mere accusation of emotional stress, etc. Is insufficient: defence
treated with extreme circumspection
Accused had to lay a proper factual basis/foundation for the defence of nonpathological lack of criminal capacity expert evidence but no onus of proof
Was difficult to succeed with defence courts will not lightly accept emotional
stress as a defence BUT sometimes successful
CASES:
Good factual foundation = successful
o S v Campher 1987
Facts:
- Married to crazy man: thought he was Hitler, God, terrified of
spirits
- Solution: his wife had to stay awake and pray to keep spirits
away
- Abusive and cruel to wifes children from previous marriage
- Tired & unhappy:
- He loved birds went to pigeon cage
- Threatened her & grabbed her she ran and fetched a
firearm
Decision:
- Judge Viljoen: Defence - Yes on legal groundsand based on
facts yes
- Judge Jacobs: Defence - No
- Judge Boshoff: Defence Yes, Facts No
- 2/3 said she could in theory but in practise she had not
proved
Defence did not succeed but punished leniently
o S v Moses 1996
Facts:
- Unhappy childhood sexual abuse; child prostitute; family
kicked him out when found out he was homosexual; stayed
in squatter camp; depressed
- Angry and killed partner when partner announced he was
HIV positive (ornament & knife)
- Cleaned blood off knife
- Physiatrist evidence
- Defence: could not stop self from committing (lacked
conative capacity)
Decision:
- Provoking evidence etc.
- Court decided that he was provoked & lost control
- State failed to prove he had necessary conative capacity
beyond reasonable doubt
- Judge Hlope: acquitted
o
S v Gesualdo 1997
Facts:
61
S v Nursingh 1995
Facts:
- Student shot and killed mother and grandparents while
friend was in the house
- Friend said Nursingh looked dazed and cried.
- History of sexual and psychological abuse by mother; e.g.
had a bed in his mothers room = evidence
- Defence: lacked criminal capacity
Decision:
- He has no conative capacity
- Judge impressed by evidence could not distinguish
between right and wrong
- He was acquitted of all charges
S v Arnold 1985
Also tried to prove innocence on grounds of lack of criminal
capacity; earlier defence of involuntary conduct already succeeded
though
S v Eadie 2002
Facts
Driving under the influence
Eadie kept getting irritated by care behind him e.g.
flashing lights, overtaking several times
Eadie stopped the car and confronted him - hit him with a
hockey stick
Wife had driven away when they stopped, came to pick him
up again
62
High Court
E acted in a purposeful, focused, goal-driven manner + his
deceitful behaviour afterwards; E didnt lose control, he just
lost his temper
SCA
Agreed with court a quo
Courts approach
Judge Navsa emphasises that it was necessary to approach
the defence of non-pathological criminal incapacity with
extreme caution
1st interpretation
Problem with defence concerns its practical application, not
the underlying legal principles applied retention of
subjective test for criminal capacity
NB for legitimate inferences: in assessing an accused
persons evidence about his state of mind [court must
weigh] it against his actions and the surrounding
circumstances and [consider] it against human experience,
societal interaction and societal norms.
I.e. the law hasnt changed; State is assisted by the natural
inference that in the absence of exceptional circumstances a
sane person who engages in conduct which would ordinarily
give rise to criminal liability, does so consciously and
voluntarily
Inference must be the only reasonable one that can be
drawn and must be consistent with all the proved facts can
operate against or in favour of accused (* see later under
fault/intent)
2nd interpretation
Is defence of provocation/emotional stress leading to
criminal incapacity partially rejected?
Cognitive capacity
o Accused can still rely on defence where he is
incapable of appreciating the distinction between
right & wrong due to emotional stress or provocation
o Judge Navsa pronounces that there is no distinction
between sane automatism and non-pathological
criminal
incapacity
due
to
emotional
stress/provocation where conative capacity is
influenced both concern lack of self-control
o This would imply that if accused can distinguish
between right and wrong, he can only succeed with
63
to
to
a
of
Practical application
o Policy considerations vs legal principles (NB; theme of provocation and
intoxication)
o What is decisive according to Eadie case?
Policy considerations
o What do you think ought to be decisive?
Distinguish between sudden flare-up / loss of temper and gradual
disintegration of power of self-control
64
2.3.6.3. Intent
2.3.6.4. Punishment
Introduction
Crime not only unlawful human conduct with criminal capacity, FAULT must also
be present
Fault = intent or negligence
All common law crimes require intention (except culpable homicide and
contempt of court committed by an editor of a newspaper)
Statutory crimes require either intention or negligence
NO liability without fault: actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea (the act is not
wrongful unless the mind is guilty)
Implies blameworthiness because an accused initiated/planned a prohibited
consequence
Ratio
1. Accused must be of a blameworthy state of mind not just morally, but
also legally
2. Links with theories of punishment, specifically:
- Retribution: just desert to get punished exact revenge for
conduct (deserves punishment if had fault)
65
Fault
o
o
o
NB: accused is at fault where he directs their will towards committing unlawful
conduct knowing/foreseeing it to be unlawful
SUBJECTIVE enquiry of mens rea in the form of intention
2 elements required (both must be present for fault mens rea to exist)
1. Knowledge/foresight of existence of ALL definitional elements of crime
(including knowledge of unlawfulness/consciousness of wrongfulness): be
aware that done something wrong which is prohibited as a crime
- E.g. hunting, intend to kill bok, kill person no fault. Cannot
foresee that kill person
- Includes conduct & causation & unlawfulness [consciousness of
wrongfulness]
2. Direction of will towards a prohibited act or result/consequence
- = Dolus = intent
Forms of intention
10.2.2.
Dolus Directus
66
10.2.3.
Unlawful act/consequence not accuseds aim and object, but accused realises
that if he/she wants to achieve main goal, prohibited act/consequence will of
necessity be committed / result from act
Foresee act/consequence as virtually certain or substantially certain
Examples
o Break into office & break door down main aim is not to cause malicious
damage to door main aim is to steal papers
o X did not intend to kill Y but beat him up badly
10.2.4.
Dolus Indirectus
Dolus Eventualis
10.2.5.
Distinguish:
Indeterminatus
Determinatus
&
Dolus
10.2.6.
Dolus
67
10.2.7.
Cases
o
o
o
History
o
Before 1945
68
Requirements in detail
10.2.7.1. Foresight
10.2.7.2. Possibility
69
R v Horn 1958
Foresee possibility of consequence is sufficient for criminal
intent
Foresight of real (as opposed to remote or faint) possibility?
o Courts: various approaches
o Snyman: must be a wesenlike/redelike possibility is distinction
between real and remote relevant here?
o Burchell = real possibility
o But SA Appeal Court prefers to consider the relevance of the distinction
where recklessness is being ascertained (not in foresight inquiry)
Concerns causal chain of events; what specifically does the accused have to
foresee?
Rule only applicable to consequence crimes
Snyman & De Wet:
o Accused does not have to foresee the precise or even general manner in
which death occurred accused must have just foreseen the real
possibility of the consequence in general
o Mistake as regards causal sequence: is a question of causation, not intent
Appellate Division differs to this opinion:
o The intention element (in consequence crimes) is NOT satisfied if the
consequence occurs in a way that differs markedly from the way in which
the accused foresaw the causal consequence
o Must have a substantial correlation between foreseen way in which
consequence MIGHT have occurred and way that it ACTUALLY occurred
o But where main aim and object (dolus directus) was to bring about death,
in general, the way in which death occurred would be irrelevant
o PRESCRIBED: S v Goosen 1989
Intent element is not satisfied if (foreseen) consequence occurs in
a way which differs markedly from the way in which the accused
foresaw the causal sequence
Discussion: Goosen
o Why doesnt one merely use legal causation to limit liability?
o Field of application of Goosen?
Where deviation is not regarded as a NAI
E.g. thin skull rule
Common purpose cases
Dolus eventualis, not dolus directus: if main aim and object was to
kill then cannot rely on this
S v Masilela and Another 1968
o Masilela & friend want to kill old farmer
o Hit on head, then strangled with his tie; then burnt
the house down
o Autopsy found that he died as a result of fire was
still alive after strangling
o Main aim & object: wanted to kill dolus directus
[different to Goosen intent to rob]
o Accused tried to use this as a defence but was
unsuccessful
70
Relevant mistake wrt causal sequence context of dolus eventualis only and not
dolus directus
Precise way in which consequence occurred does not need to be foreseen only
general way
Facts:
- Taxi driver boom gate down - jumped train line - 10 children died
Court:
- Subjectively for saw possibility of death & danger
- HC: guilty of murder & attempted murder = 20 years imprisonment
71
10.3.
IGNORANCE
Negligence)
10.3.1.
&
MISTAKE:
Influence
on
Fault
(Intent
&
10.3.2.
What is ignorance/mistake?
72
Types of mistakes:
10.3.3.
Material/essential mistake
o Must be a mistake regarding an essential fact
o How determine if essential or not?
- Mistake about the elements contained in the definition of
proscription of crime (including unlawfulness)
o E.g. what might be essential? Depends on crime {look at definition of
crime}
Rape: non-consent for sexual penetration = defence: I did not
know that there was no consent
Incest: sexual penetration between close family relative = defence:
cannot argue no consent as not part of the definition of the crime,
but could argue did not know that was a family relative
Murder: Shooting what you think is an animal and then it turns out
to be a human being = defence: genuine mistake regarding the
punishable conduct (not a crime to kill an animal. Genuine
mistake)
Theft: taking somebody elses possession without knowledge or
consent = defence: mistakenly taking a computer you thought you
had been given permission to have
o Does not include mistake as to motive e.g. killed a man that you thought
was having an affair with your wife, killed the wrong twin thinking it was
the other = no defence.
Aberratio ictus
o Going astray of the blow
o E.g. A intends to kill B, shoots at him but the bullet misses and hits C
But due to As intention to kill, A is guilty of murder of C without
the prosectution having to establish an intention to kill C
specifically
o A must have foreseen Cs death as a real possibility (legal intention
dolus eventualis) and accepted this risk into the bargain
o But if did not foreseen possibility, but a reasonable person would have, A
would be guilty of culpable homicide
o Sole question: whether accused had actual intention or dolus eventualis?
Error in objecto
o A mistakenly kills C thinking that C is in fact B
73
10.3.4.
Knowledge of law is required; accused must know that law prohibits his conduct
as a crime (unlawful)
Position before 1977 (Anglo-American law)
o Ignorantia iuris neminem excusat: Ignorance (or mistake) of the law is
no excuse, everybody is presumed to know the law
o Therefore, ignorance/mistake of law = no defence
o Why?
Welfare of society and safety of state cannot be judged against
what that subjective person knew to be law, must be a standard
set by the state
People will maybe refrain deliberately from acquiring knowledge
of their legal duties
Practical difficulty of disproving such a defence
o Criticism
Do not have consciousness of wrongfulness
Subjective test could not have known
Difficult to determine if accused bona fide did not know
Many statutory crimes impossible to know the law
Therefore
fairness
and
justice
require
that
genuine
ignorance/mistake of law should exclude intention
Logic and legal principle
Snyman: impossible for a single person to know even for a lawyer
Knowledge of unlawfulness in SA law
o PRESCRIBED: S v De Blom 1977 [NB Long question: discuss critically
the case criticism and support] courts allow ignorance of the law as a
defence
Ignorantia iuris(ignorance of the law) rule no longer applies in RSA
In line with principles and logic knowledge on the part of the accused of
unlawfulness of conduct is required for mens rea in form of intention
o Exceptions?
Work in particular sphere of activity: you are expected to
know the law in your field of expertise/profession cant
use ignorance as an excuse
Where inherent badness/wrongness in crime i.e. murder,
rape
74
Seems to work well in practice (is not abused) and decision followed by
courts
Defence is seldom use: usually dealing with regulatory offences (not
establish, well-known crimes) in the context of a work or professional
environment
Is not more difficult to assess genuineness of mistake of law than mistake of
fact must look at circumstances of case inferences
o
o
10.3.4.3. Knowledge?
Meaning of knowledge
o Accused doesnt have to know that legal rule exists e.g. exact law or Act
actual knowledge of crime
o Is sufficient if he foresees the possibility of unlawfulness (due to existence of
the legal rule) and reconciles himself with it (dolus eventualis)
10.3.4.4. Unlawfulness?
Meaning of unlawfulness
o Not necessary that accused know the detailed requirements of the offence
charged must just know (or foresee possibility) that conduct was contrary
to law in the broad sense
o Knowing that conduct = morally wrong?
10.4.
Cases
S v Naidoo 1997
S v De Blom (supra)
S v Goliath (supra)
S v Goosen (supra)
S v Chretien (supra)
S v Mokonto (supra)
75
10.4.1.
10.4.2.
Youthfulness
10.4.3.
Insanity
10.4.4.
Intoxication
10.4.5.
10.4.6.
Unlawfulness (g.o.j.)
Established before fault
No degrees of unlawfulness
Ex post facto objective test:
Legal convictions of community (boni
mores)
Judgment of ACT
Fault (Intent)
Established after unlawfulness
Degrees of intent
Subjective test:
Blameworthy state of mind
Judgment of ACTOR
BUT what about fault can accused be blamed for his conduct?
a. Intent?
o
o
o
o
o
o
b. Negligence?
Assuming that there is no c.o.w, is accused necessarily not guilty?
Must still look at negligence (if applicable)
Test: must measure conduct against standard of reasonable person if
accused acted unreasonably, is negligent
o Test for negligence: would a reasonable person have foreseen
o
o
o
76
o
o
E.g. killed a man truly believing him to be a robber. Negligent option for that
crime? Culpable homicide
BUT = exception only applicable to crimes that allow for negligence (Most
crimes do not have a negligent element)
Application
S v De Oliveira 1993
S v Joshua 2003 (SCA)
S v Naidoo 1997
S v Goliath 1972
Conclusion
If a putative g.o.j. is present, the element of fault is missing therefore no
criminal liability i.e. = complete defence
NB: above principle applies to any g.o.j.
S v Ngubane (supra)
R v Mbombela 1933
S v Goosen (supra)
S v Ngema 1992
10.5.1.
10.5.2.
1. Would reasonable person in the circumstances of the accused have foreseen the
possibility that the unlawful
a. Consequence would occur, or
b. Circumstance would exist?
77
2. Would reasonable person have taken steps to guard against that possibility?
3. Did the accuseds conduct differ from that expected of a reasonable person (i.e. did
he/she fail to take reasonable steps, etc.)?
No degrees of negligence
o Even a slight deviation from the standard of the reasonable person is
enough to mean liability for negligence
But degree may play a role when punishment is imposed
10.5.3.
78
Conclusion
o Test applied by courts is definitely more objective than subjective
o BUT there needs to be scope for (normative) value judgment in
determining criminal liability
o Is NB for considerations of fairness to (sometimes) individualise the
standard of the reasonable person is not as relevant whether this occurs
at the criminal capacity stage or when negligence is determined
10.5.4.
Comparison between
Intent
Negligence
Both forms of fault assessing blameworthiness
Test = subjective
Degrees of intent
No degrees of negligence
Relationship between
o Possibility of overlapping
o S v Ngubane 1985
The existence of intention does not exclude the existence of
negligence on the same facts
Facts
N had quarrel with woman drunk in the end stabbed her
to death with knife
Murder decided to plea guilty to culpable homicide judge
wasnt sure if he was guilty, told him to plea not guilty so he
did eventually found N guilty of murder
Appeal court said it was a procedural mistake, so changed it
to culpable homicide but then went further and
investigated can one be negligent if already proved there
was intent?
79
General principle
o POD: No liability without fault (Actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea)
o There are 2 exceptions to this rule (do not enjoy real following in RSA law)
Strict liability (versari in re illicita) and vicarious liability
o Strict liability?
= State must prove all element except fault beyond reasonable
doubt (intention or negligence)
Therefore, accused has no opportunity to raise a defence excluding
fault
11.1.
STRICT LIABILITY
Case:
80
Statutory offences/crimes?
In principle this form of liability can be applied and referred to a
no-fault liability = liability without proof of intention or negligence
Context used? Public welfare offences (regulatory offences)
Maintenance of certain standards of safety and hygiene in
commercial, industrial and social undertakings e.g. factories,
mines, environmental pollution, manufacture and sale of
food and medicines, etc.
The prosecution should not be required to establish fault (or
rebut the accuseds defence based on ignorance or mistake)
can be justified on a number of grounds
Why? Based on utilitarian arguments
In context of protection of public it is necessary to have
strict liability:
1. SL contributes to the efficient administration of regulatory
legislation
2. SL encourages and stimulates compliance with the
provisions of legislation
3. Such offences are not, in their nature, true crimes
4. They only attract light or nominal penalties
Parliament does not say what fault was necessary
Presumption that fault is a requirement when parliament
does not state
Interpret in favour of liberty
Courts utilise certain considerations to establish the
intention of the legislature concerning the applicability of
strict liability
Considerations used if courts unsure of legislature:
Context of provision
Wording of provision e.g. maliciously shows state of
mind fault is a requirement
Purpose of provision
Nature and extent of punishment
The ease with which the provision may be evaded
81
VICARIOUS LIABILITY
11.2.
Definition
o
o
Background
Common law
o General rule = a person only liable for crime of another if he authorized
or procured its commission or took part in it
o E.g. woman authorized a hit man to kill her boyfriends child.
= Guilty based on common law principle
Statutory crimes
o Vicarious liability only applicable for statutory crimes
o Very common in delictual law
o Exceptional cases: only if statue imposes vicarious liability expressly or
by implication
o Examples
Someone smokes in restaurant legislation: no smoking in public
restaurant owner fined, not the person
Minister van Polisie v Ewels: Minister liable for policemans
crime
Vicarious liability
prohibited
act
How does a court know if the legislature intended to impose criminal vicarious
liability or not?
o Factors/considerations
Object of enactment
Strict liability
Language used
Class of persons affected
Penalty
Unlawful conduct
Accused does not personally commit any act which unlawful
Can postulate unlawful conduct where accused is alleged to be
vicariously liable for the contravention of the statue
NB for relationship of the two parties generally only attributed
where parties are related as: employer-employee and principalagent
Employee
must
be
acting
within
scope
of
employment/authority
Fault
Uncertainty as to whether fault of employer is required
Ought to be a requirement (Burchell)
Possible defences
83
11.3
[self-study]
84
12.1.1.
PERPETRATOR
A perpetrator is one with the necessary fault (mens rea) commits the unlawful
conduct and, thereby, satisfies requirements for liability contained in definition
of the crime
o Co-perpetrators = 2+ persons acting together
Perpetrators liability based on OWN unlawful conduct and fault not dependent
on commission of a crime by somebody else (not accessory)
In what situations is accused a perpetrator?
1. Perpetrator in his own right
Personally satisfies definitional elements of crime
2. Common purpose doctrine
Group of people act together to commit crime
3. Procures another to commit crime on your behalf (agent)
Not necessarily to be held criminal liable: Other can even be a child,
insane or an animal he cannot be held liable, but you as an agent
can be liable
Qui facit per alium, facit per se (he who does an act through
another, does it himself)
12.1.1.2.
COMMON PURPOSE
Cases:
S v Dube 2010
S v Goosen (supra)
Introduction
Example
o A community suspect person X of being a rapist, community want to get
revenge on X, call him out of his house & decide to stone him to death. 1
stone hits him fatally (unsure whose stone it was). Some or all of
85
community are arrested and charged with murder. Use common purpose
doctrine to prosecute the community.
Definition
o Where two or more people agree to commit crime or actively associate
in a joint unlawful enterprise, each is responsible for specific criminal
capacity committed by one of their number, which falls within their
common design. Liability arises from their common purpose to commit a
crime. (Burchell)
Applicable
o Instance 2: Co-perpetrators
Share a common purpose to commit a crime
Fault: direct or foreseen or negligent
Difficulties in proving causation
E.g. Y, Z, Q throw stones at X, killing him; Y uses CSQN (but
for) test but for Y throwing stones, X would still have died
from other stones; Z, Q use the same logic
Therefore the task of the State is facilitated by use of common
purpose doctrine
Prosecution doesnt have to prove causal link between every
perpetrators conduct and the unlawful consequence (makes it
easier for the State to prosecute) = element of causation is
removed
Sufficient to prove they all agreed to commit a particular crime
actively or associated themselves with the commission of the
crime with the requisite fault
If this is proven then the conduct of the participant who actually
causes the consequence is imputed or attributed to the other
participants
But, not necessary to prove precisely which member caused the
consequence, provided that a member of the common purpose
group brought about the result
86
Requirements
Unlawful conduct
o Act of principle offender/s is attributed to the rest
o Unlawful conduct consists of participation in the common purpose
o State prove participation in unlawful conduct
o Not necessary to know who main perpetrator common purpose is as if
everyone did everything
o 2 forms of common purpose liability (NB: differentiate)
Where there is a prior agreement
Accused does not need to be present at scene of crime e.g.
getaway car, if suspect runs away
Tacit (implied by conduct) or express
Active association (no prior agreement)
A prior agreement on a common purpose is not required, it
is sufficient if collaboration began without premeditation and
on the spur of the moment Burchell
Extra requirements set out in case:
o S v Mgedozi 1989
Additional requirements to be satisfied before
active association will result in imputation of
conduct of another to accused:
1 Presence at scene of crime & time crime
took place
2 Aware of crime
87
Scope of liability?
Extended approach
S v Nzo 1990
o Scope of liability is very wide
o Members of a group/organisation held liable by means
of continues membership
o Active association: NO intention to form common
cause with those who were actually perpetrating the
assault and there was no manifestation of a sharing of
a common purpose with the perpetrator by
performing some act of association
o Subscribing to policies of ANC is not a sufficient link to
the appellants
o = Unfair and wrong approach
Limited approach
S v Mzwempi 2011
o Narrow scope of liability should be used
o Court concluded that = wrong to impose wide Nzo
approach
Fault
o Prove fault separately/on own merits cannot impute fault
Dolus directus e.g. Safatsa case main aim and object to kill
Dlamini
Dolus indirectus
Dolus eventualis
Negligence e.g. Goosen
o Possible that participants could have different forms of fault depending
on participation why important to prove fault separately
o S v Molimi and Another 2006
o S v Dube 2010
o Problems
When is the correct moment for asserting fault in common purpose
cases?
Dissociation see below
How can a participant in common purpose be found guilty of
culpable homicide, which is based on negligence?
Each participants fault determined separately
Negligence is sufficient (S v Goosen)
Withdrawal / Dissociation
When is the correct moment for assessing fault in common purpose cases?
88
Joining-in Cases
Joiner-in = a person who, in the absence of common purpose to kill, but with
the intention to kill, joins in a murderous attack after the victim had been fatally
wounded, but while he or she is still alive and whose conduct does not causally
contribute to the death of the victim
Example: Gang seriously injures someone not dead yet, but wound is fatal at
this stage person joins in, associating himself with common purpose e.g.
spitting on victim but doesnt speed up the process of death then, person
dies
Debate: can a person who joins in be found guilty of the murder of the victim?
o Look at the precise moment when a common purpose arises
o One approach: hold join-in guilty of murder on basis that his or her
conduct, although not causally linked to the death, has ratified the
conduct of the person(s) who inflicted the fatal wound ex post facto
o Another approach: joining-in cases a distinction must be drawn between
participation in a common purpose to kill (before deceased is fatally
wounded) and such participation that begins thereafter but while the
deceased is still alive (followed by AD)
89
Burchell
Not a reasonable and justifiable limit on
these rights and there is a less intrusive
means of punishing persons (lesser
crimes) involved in joint criminal
90
activity
(accomplice
liability,
conspiracy, attempt, public violence
etc)
-
Sharpville
Six
conspiracy,
incitement, attempted arson, public
violence
Nzo treason
Thebus public violence or defeat
the administration of justice
ACCOMPLICE
Cases:
91
Elements of liability
o Unlawful conduct
In S v Williams, the judge described unlawful conduct as
furthering or assisting the commission of the crime (which can
take various forms)
Intentionally furthers/assists the commission of the crime by
somebody else by facilitating, assisting, giving advice,
ordering or encouraging its commission, or makes it possible
for another to commit it
E.g. somebody that drives the escape car or a person that
provides the means to purchase weapons etc.
S v Williams 1980
2nd accused held the deceased while somebody else stabbed
him
Court said murder
But he definitely assisted in associated himself with the
gang and murder
4 questions/central issued raised with the Williams-case definition
of accomplice:
1. Does further or assist imply causally contribute to the
commission of crime?
Williams YES. But is accused not a perpetrator if
there = causal link?
Solution: distinction between factual and legal
causation
Perpetrators are factually and legally the cause
of death
Accomplices are only linked legally (causal
connection between accomplice conduct and
conduct of perpetrator)
Accomplice is committing a separate crime to
that committed by the perpetrator
But Snyman argues that one cannot be
accomplice to murder, thus he does not provide
a solution
2. Can one further or assist by an omission?
POD: mere omission is not criminal, unless there is a
legal duty to act
92
Fault / Intention
Intention is required at least dolus eventualis: accused must have
foreseen the possibility that the principal offenders crime was being or
about to be committed and, accepting this risk into the bargain, he
went ahead and furthered or assisted in the commission of the crime
Negligence is NOT sufficient (but is sufficient for co-perpetrator)
otherwise spread ambit of criminal liability too far
E.g. X left a window open by mistake, somebody came in that window.
X liable as an accomplice? No not aim at furthering the commission of
theft
Punishment
Depends on extent to which accused has furthered commission of
crime more or less than perpetrator
93
94
Cases:
Definition
o
o
o
An accessory after the fact is someone who after the completion of the crime
unlawfully and intentionally associates himself or herself with the commission
of the crime by helping the perpetrator or accomplice to evade justice
No difference between accessory after the fact liability and the crime of
defeating or obstructing the course of justice
Example: allowing robbers to hide in your house to evade arrest, helping a
person to hide a body
BUT if a promise was given prior to commission of crime = accomplice or
perpetrator (depending on facts). Example: I promise to help you hide the body
after you have killed X.
Theft = Continuous crime which means that it remains a crime long after the
initial incident (so no after the fact). It is a crime to be in possession of stolen
goods, thus, liability as accomplice, not an accessory after the fact
Theoretical approaches
o
S v Nkosi (AD) refereed to the two possible definitions of accessory-after-thefact liability, but did not consider it necessary to choose between the two
approaches
There are two broad approaches to the definition of accessory after the fact
liability:
1. Association with commission of crime
Accessory after the fact is somebody who unlawfully and
intentionally assists the perpetrator after the completion of the
crime by associating himself with the commission of the crime
Wider approach broad association
E.g. accepting proceeds that you know came from a robbery
Snyman: too wide may include a person merely approving,
condoning or ratifying the commission of an offence after the event
E.g. someone who writes a letter congratulating robbers
95
Elements of liability
o
Unlawful conduct
Depending which approach is adopted, unlawful conduct could be
either:
Associating oneself with the commission of the crime, or
Helping the perpetrator to evade justice
Omission included
Only if there is a legal duty to act positively
Accessory nature of liability
Thus, can only be an accessory if somebody else has
committed the crime or attempted to do so
Person CANNOT be an accessory after the fact to his OWN
crime
Issue: X, Y and Z charged with murdering D. All 3 of the
accused were caught disposing of Ds body. Prosecution
cannot prove which of accused killed D in the absence of
proof of the common purpose BUT can they be found guilty
of being accessories after the fact to Ds murder?
- S v Gani & S v Jonathan, on a similar set of facts,
found that the accuseds CAN be guilty of being
accessories after the fact
- Justification: the accused who had not killed the victim
were accessories and the accused that killed the
victim was liable as an accomplice to their crime
- Misses the point? Williams case accomplice liability
was emphasised
- This decision can only be viewed as a policy-based
exception to the rule liable for defeating the course
of justice
- BUrchell & Snyman argue that should do away with
accessory after the fact and make a crime for
obstructing the course of justice alone.
- Therefore reason for existence of a.a.t.f. liability =
questionable (undermines/bend the legal principles of
accessory after the fact)
Attempted accessory after the fact liability
No objection to such a conviction, although has yet to occur
Fault
96
97
INCOMPLETE CRIMES
13.1.
Introduction
13.2.
ATTEMPT
Cases:
S v Laurence 1975
R v Nhlovo 1921
R v Hlatwayo 1933
S v W 1976
S v Ndhlovu 1984
Legislation:
Where the accused did all that he set out to do but failed due to: [R v
Schoombie 1945]
Lack of foresight, skill or the existence of unexpected obstacle or
otherwise (completed attempt)
Prevention by some outside agency (incomplete attempt)
Question asked to differentiate between the two: was there anything more that
this person could have done? Example: shoot and miss; hire hit man but he later
backs out; poison in coffee but throws out.
13.2.1.
Completed Attempt
98
R v Nhlovo 1921
o Facts
Accused, Nhlovo, wanted to kill Jacob. Ask another person to
poison him.
Obtained poison and told a boy it was medicine and asked him to
put it in Jacobs food
But boy didnt poison Jacob: they figured out Ns plan and went to
the police
o Court said the conduct was not close enough to complete
o Burchell & Snyman: should have been a case of attempted murder
o Note: this case was decided well before the concept of completed
attempt was propounded in Schoombie
S v du Plessis 1981
o Facts
Apartheid laws (Official Secrets Act)
Du Plessis wrote letter to London and wanted to write a book about
his experiences in the army
Asked if they would publish him
Police intercepted the letter
o Court said there was no clear formulation of intent. DuP was tentative
and unclear in his approach (not definitive) - unlike Laurence, DuPs
conduct was not complete still in the early stages
13.2.2.
Uncompleted Attempt
Definition
The accused had NOT done all that he has set out to so because he was
prevented from an outside agency
R v Schoombie 1945
o ... Those [attempts] in which the wrongdoer has not completed all he set
out to do, because the completion of his unlawful acts has been
prevented by the intervention of some outside agency
99
How to determine
Problem: how far must you have gone? Proximity of accuseds conduct to
commission of crime
Use a subjective or objective test?
Possible tests (various attempt theories)
o Subjective test (state of mind)
Focuses on accuseds evil intention / state of mind / moral guilt
Doesnt matter how remote accuseds act is from the completion of
the crime is important what accuseds state of mind was
Is applied at attempt to commit the impossible
Certain context where use a purely subjective test
R v Davies and Another 1956
S v Ndlovu 1984
S v W 1976
o
True attempt:
Preparation not sufficient for liability
Very difficult to draw dividing line between the two
Cannot be formulated ito general principles depends on
facts of case
NB other factors (Burchell & Snyman)
a. Physical proximity to success/object/scene of the crime?
Du plessis: far from commission only wrote letter
Schoombie: very close to completion
b. Do acts, viewed from the outside, bear unequivocal
testimony to a firm resolve to commit the crime?
Undecided = could be in preparation stage
c. Interval of time between when accused was caught and
expected completion of crime?
d. Natural course of events?
e. Accuseds control of the course of events?
f. Highly improbable that accused will change their mind?
NB relevant factors (from S v du Plessis)
- Has accused made up his mind to commit the crime?
- Degree of proximity/remoteness which the accuseds
conduct bore to the final act required for committing the
crime?
- Practical common sense
Conclusion: De Villiers AJ (R v Katz 1959)
A value judgment of a practical nature is to be brought to
bear upon each set of facts as it arises for consideration...
...
100
13.2.3.
Fault
o Intention is required (dolus eventialis)
o Attempt to commit a statutory offence which no fault is required need
intention? Yes!
o No such thing as a negligent attempt no attempted culpable homicide
13.2.4.
101
CANNOT be punished if what the accused was aiming to achieve was not a
crime but accused thought it was a crime R v Davies
= Mistake of law as regards to existence of crime (person thinks it is a crime
when it isnt)
[Opposite to De Blom case she thought it was not a crime, but it was not;
whereas here the person thinks it is a crime, but it is not]
Irrelevant if person has evil state of mind or not
NOT punishable
o WHY?
Principle of legality: if the court was to find such a person guilty, court
would need to criminalise that act (i.e. make a new crime) in order to
make it a crime that a person can be guilty of = against ius acceptum
(would be adding a crime)
Example:
o Adultery is not a crime in RSA thus a couple that believes it is a crime
and attempts to commit adultery will NOT be convicted to attempt
o Suicide is not a crime an attempt to commit suicide is not punishable
o X wants to sleep with his cousin, Y. (According to law in RSA, it is not a
crime to sleep with your cousin). But he thinks so some reason that Y is
his sister.
102
A) He knows that it is a crime to sleep with your sister, but not a crime
to sleep with your cousin. Is X guilty of a crime?
- Mistake wrt FACT mistook his cousin for his sister thus he can
be guilty of incest
B) He believes that sleeping with your cousin is illegal. Is X guilty?
- Mistake wrt LAW mistook the legal principles thus he cannot
be guilty of incest
103
Fault
Intention is required
In respect of influencing the incite to an act which was
criminal
Emphasis on state of mind of inciter, not incitee
Inciter must know/believe/foresee possibility that the
proposed act the he seeks to influence the incite (even if
this is not the case) = subjectively believe
R v Milne & Erleigh 1951
o Incited Percy to make a false entry in accounting
books (contrary to the Company Act)
o He knew that Percy didnt know that the entry was
false.
o Is Percy liable of a crime even though he did not know
that it was a crime to make this entry?
104
13.4. CONSPIRACY
Case:
105
Fault
106