Professional Documents
Culture Documents
U S Military Aircraft
U S Military Aircraft
1.1
1.1.1
Lessons in combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
1.2
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anti-submarine warfare
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Inter-war period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
Post-war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modern warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.2.1
Current technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.2.2
Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.4
11
2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Attack helicopter
13
3.1
13
3.1.1
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.1.2
14
3.1.3
15
3.1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.1.5
India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.1.6
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.1.7
South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.2
In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.3
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
ii
CONTENTS
3.4
Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.4.1
Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.4.2
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6.1
20
22
4.1
22
4.2
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.1
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.2
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.3
Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.2.4
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.3.1
Single-engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.3.2
Twin-engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.4
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.5
Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6
Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6.1
AH-1J SeaCobra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6.2
AH-1W SuperCobra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
4.3
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.1.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.1.2
29
5.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
5.3
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
5.3.1
Foreign interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.4
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.5
Specications (AH-1Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
34
6.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
6.1.1
34
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
6.1.2
35
6.1.3
Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
6.1.4
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
6.2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
6.2.2
Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2.3
Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2.4
Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.2.5
Refueling capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
6.3.1
40
6.3.2
41
6.3.3
Potential operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
6.4
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.6
Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.7
Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.8
Specications (MV-22B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.9
46
46
6.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
6.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
53
54
7.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.1.1
54
7.1.2
54
7.1.3
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2.1
55
7.2.2
56
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.1
Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.2
56
7.3.3
RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3.4
57
7.3.5
57
7.3.6
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.1
58
6.2
6.3
iii
7.2
7.3
7.4
Design
OH-58A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
CONTENTS
7.4.2
OH-58B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.3
OH-58C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.4
OH-58D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.4.5
OH-58F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.4.6
OH-58F Block II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.4.7
Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.5.1
Former operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.6
Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7
Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7.1
OH-58A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7.2
OH-58D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.7.3
OH-58F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.1
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.2
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.3
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
66
67
8.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.1.1
Model 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.1.2
Model 205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.3
Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.4
Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.1.5
69
8.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.3
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
8.3.1
U.S. Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
8.3.2
71
8.3.3
U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.3.4
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.3.5
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.3.6
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.7
El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.8
Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.9
Rhodesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.10 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.3.11 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
73
Variant overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
7.5
8.4
CONTENTS
8.4.1
74
8.4.2
75
8.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.6
Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.7
Specications (UH-1D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.8
77
8.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.10.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
79
81
9.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.1.1
81
9.1.2
Into production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
9.2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
9.2.2
83
9.2.3
83
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
9.3.1
84
9.3.2
Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
9.3.3
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
9.3.4
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
9.3.5
Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
9.3.6
Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
9.3.7
Other users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.3.8
88
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.4.1
AH-64A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.4.2
AH-64B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.3
AH-64C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.4
AH-64D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.5
AH-64E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.4.6
AH-64F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.7
Sea Apache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.8
Export Apaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.4.9
Block modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.5
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.6
Specications (AH-64A/D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.2
9.3
9.4
vi
CONTENTS
9.7
92
9.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
99
100
125
CONTENTS
vii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
142
145
viii
CONTENTS
13.3.4 CH-47B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.5 CH-47C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.6 CH-47D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.3.7 MH-47D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.8 MH-47E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.9 CH-47F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.3.10 MH-47G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.3.11 CH-47J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.3.12 HH-47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.13 Other export models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.14 Civilian models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.3.15 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
13.5 Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.6 Specications (CH-47F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14 Boeing E-4
159
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
165
CONTENTS
ix
167
172
CONTENTS
184
194
202
CONTENTS
21 Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin
xi
203
207
213
xii
CONTENTS
23.3.4 Proposed retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
23.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.5.1 Former operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
23.6 Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
23.7 Specications (A-10A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
23.8 Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
23.9 Nicknames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
23.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
23.11.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
23.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
230
CONTENTS
xiii
253
xiv
CONTENTS
25.10Other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
25.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
25.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
25.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
275
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
277
289
CONTENTS
xv
305
xvi
CONTENTS
29.6 Incidents and accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
29.6.1 Notable accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
29.7 Aircraft on display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
29.8 Specications (C-5B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
29.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
29.10.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
29.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
320
330
CONTENTS
xvii
351
xviii
CONTENTS
33.2.3 Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
33.2.4 Stealth and signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
33.2.5 Cockpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
33.2.6 Sensors and avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
33.2.7 Helmet-mounted display system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
33.2.8 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
394
CONTENTS
xix
412
xx
CONTENTS
35.8.5 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8.6 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.9 Notable appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
35.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
35.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
432
449
CONTENTS
xxi
469
xxii
CONTENTS
39 Military helicopter
474
480
483
485
CONTENTS
xxiii
492
508
xxiv
CONTENTS
514
534
CONTENTS
xxv
542
548
553
xxvi
CONTENTS
49.1.2 SH-60B Seahawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
49.1.3 SH-60F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.4 HH-60H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.5 MH-60R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
49.1.6 MH-60S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
563
CONTENTS
xxvii
579
581
Chapter 1
Sukhoi Su-27
F-22 Raptor, a fth generation stealth ghter jet featuring
supercruise and thrust vectoring.
Shenyang J-11
1.1.1
Lessons in combat
Sukhoi Su-27
1.1.2
Shenyang J-11B
Sukhoi Su-33
Sukhoi Su-30MKI
Shenyang J-15
1.4 Notes
F-15 Eagle
After lessons learned from combat experiences involving modern military air capacity, the U.S. Navys
VFAX/VFX and U.S. Air Forces F-X (Fighter Experimental) reassessed their tactical direction which resulted
in the U.S. Navys F-14 Tomcat and US Air Forces F-15
Eagle.[1] The two designs were built to achieve air superiority and signicant consideration was given during the
development of both aircraft to allow them to excel at the
shorter ranges of ghter combat.[2][3]
[1] Davies, Steve. (2005). F-15C Eagle Units in Combat. Osprey Publishing Ltd. pp. 6-9. ISBN 978-1-84176-730-7.
[2] Spick, Mike. (1985). Modern Fighting Aircraft: F-14.
Arco Publishing Inc. p. 8. ISBN 0-668-06406-4.
[3] Gillcrist, Paul T. (1994). Tomcat! The Grumman F-14
Story. Schier Publishing Ltd. pp. 10, 195. ISBN 088740-664-5 .
1.2 Examples
Euroghter Typhoon
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
Mikoyan MiG-29
Chapter 2
Anti-submarine warfare
start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were
in service. Some warships were tted with an armoured
belt as protection against torpedoes.
There were, however, no means to detect submerged Uboats, and attacks on them were limited at rst to eorts
to damage their periscopes with hammers.[1] The Royal
Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps; these sank four or ve U-boats
in the First World War.[2] A similar approach featured a
string of 70 lb (32 kg) charges on a oating cable, red
electrically; an unimpressed Louis Mountbatten considered any U-boat sunk by it deserved to be.[3]
Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb (8.4 kg) hand-thrown
guncotton bombs.[4] The Lance Bomb was developed,
also; this featured a 3540 lb (1618 kg) cone-shaped
steel drum on a 5 ft (1.5 m) shaft, intended to be thrown
at a submarine.[5] Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench
mortars, was tried.[6] Use of nets to ensnare U-boats was
also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starsh, tted
with a spar torpedo.[7] To attack at set depths, aircraft
bombs were attached to lanyards which would trigger
their charges; a similar idea was a 16 lb (7.3 kg) guncotton charge in a lanyarded can; two of these lashed together became known as the Depth Charge Type A.[8]
Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger
as the Type B.[9] These were eective at a distance of
around 20 ft (6.1 m).[10]
Seaplanes and airships were also used to patrol for submarines. A number of successful attacks were made,[17]
but the main value of air patrols was in driving the U-boat
to submerge, rendering it virtually blind and immobile.[18]
However, the most eective anti-submarine measure was
the introduction of escorted convoys, which reduced the
loss of ships entering the Germans War Zone around the
British Isles from 25% to less than 1%.
2.1. HISTORY
2.1.3
World War II
A depth charge thrower being loaded, aboard corvette HMS Dianthus, 14 August 1942.
2.1. HISTORY
8
complementary, both suppressing the eectiveness of and
destroying U-boats. The increase in Allied naval strength
allowed both convoy defense and hunter-killer groups to
be deployed, and this was reected in the massive increase
in U-boat kills in the latter part of the war. The British
developments of centimetric radar and the Leigh Light,
as well as increased numbers of escorts, reached the point
of being able to support U-boat hunting towards the end
of the war, while earlier on, the advantage was denitely
on the side of the submarine. Commanders such as F. J.
Johnnie Walker of the Royal Navy were able to develop
integrated tactics which made the deployment of hunterkiller groups a practical proposition. Walker developed
a creeping attack technique, where one destroyer would
track the U-boat while another attacked. Often U-boats
would turn and increase speed to spoil the depth charge
attack, as the escort would lose sonar contact as it steamed
over the submarine. With the new tactic, one escort vessel
would attack while another would track the target. Any
course or depth change could be relayed to the attacking
destroyer. Once a U-boat was caught, it was very dicult
to escape. Since Hunter-Killer groups were not limited
to convoy escort, they could continue an attack until a UBoat was destroyed or had to surface from damage or lack
of air.
The earliest recorded sinking of one submarine by another while both were submerged occurred in 1945
when HMS Venturer torpedoed U-864 o the coast of
Norway. The captain of Venturer tracked U-864 on hydrophones for several hours and manually calculated a
three-dimensional ring solution before launching four
torpedoes.
Mediterranean
Italian and German submarines operated in the Mediterranean on the Axis side while French and British submarines operated on the side of the Allies. The German Navy sent 62 U-Boats to the Mediterranean, all were
lost in combat or scuttled. German subs rst had to pass
through the highly defended Straits of Gibraltar, where
9 were sunk, and a similar number damaged so severely
they had to limp back to base. The Mediterranean is
calmer than the Atlantic, which made escape for U-Boats
more dicult and was ringed with Allied air bases. Similar ASW methods were used as in the Atlantic but an
additional menace was the use by Italians of midget sub- However, US Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood presmarines.
sured the ordnance department to replace the faulty torpeOperating under the same clear-water conditions in does; famously when they initially ignored his complaints,
the Mediterranean - such that British submarines were he ran his own tests to prove the torpedoes unreliability.
painted dark blue on their upper surfaces to make them He also cleaned out the deadwood, replacing many cauless visible from the air when submerged at periscope tious or unproductive submarine skippers with younger
depth - the Royal Navy, mostly operating from Malta, (somewhat) and more aggressive commanders. As a relost 41 submarines to the opposing German and Italian sult, in the latter half of 1943, US subs were suddenly
forces, including HMS Upholder and HMS Perseus.
sinking Japanese ships at a dramatically higher rate, scor-
2.1. HISTORY
ing their share of key warship kills and accounting for almost half of the Japanese merchant eet. Japanese naval
command was caught o guard, as they had not the antisubmarine technology or doctrine, nor did the production
capability to withstand a tonnage war of attrition, nor did
they develop the organizations needed (unlike the Allies
in the Atlantic).
9
Zulu classes. Britain tested hydrogen peroxide fuels in
Meteroite, Excalibur, and Explorer, with less success.
To deal with these more capable submarines new ASW
weapons were essential. This new generation of diesel
electric submarine, like the Type XXI before it, had
no deck gun and a streamlined hull tower for greater
underwater speed, as well as more storage battery capacity than a comparable WW2 submarine; in addition, they recharged their batteries using a snorkel and
could complete a patrol without surfacing.[29] This led to
the introduction of longer-ranged ATWs, such as Ikara,
Weapon Alpha, ASROC, and to improved homing torpedoes. Nuclear submarines, even faster still, and without the need to snorkel to recharge batteries, posed an
even greater threat; in particular, shipborne helicopters
(recalling the blimps of World War I)[30] have emerged
as essential anti-submarine platforms. A number of
torpedo carrying missiles were developed, combining
ahead-throwing capability (or longer-range delivery) with
torpedo homing.
10
these were very quiet diesel-electric propelled vessels but 2.2.1 Current technologies
they are more likely to be nuclear-powered these days.
The development of these was strongly inuenced by the There are a large number of technologies used in modern
duel between Venturer and U-864.
anti-submarine warfare:
A signicant detection aid that has continued in service
is the Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD), a passive de- Sensors
vice. First used in World War II, MAD uses the Earths
magnetosphere as a standard, detecting anomalies caused
Acoustics particularly in active and passive sonar,
by large metallic vessels, such as submarines. Modern
sonobuoys, and xed hydrophones aid in the detecMAD arrays are usually contained in a long tail boom
tion of radiated noise. Sonar can be mounted on the
(xed-wing aircraft) or an aerodynamic housing carried
hull or in a towed array.
on a deployable tow line (helicopters). Keeping the sensor away from the planes engines and avionics helps elim Pyrotechnics in the use of markers, ares and
inate interference from the carrying platform.
explosive devices
At one time, reliance was placed on electronic warfare
detection devices exploiting the submarines need to perform radar sweeps and transmit responses to radio messages from home port. As frequency surveillance and
direction nding became more sophisticated, these devices enjoyed some success. However, submariners soon
learned not to rely on such transmitters in dangerous waters. Home bases can then use extremely low frequency
radio signals, able to penetrate the oceans surface, to
reach submarines wherever they might be.
Searchlights
Radar, for surfaced parts
Hydrodynamic pressure wave (wake) detection
Laser detection and ranging of surfaced vessels; airborne and satellite
Electronic countermeasures and acoustic countermeasures such as noise and bubble makers
Passive acoustic countermeasures such as concealment and design of sound-absorbing materials to
coat reecting underwater surfaces
Magnetic anomaly detection (MAD)
Active and (more commonly) passive infra-red detection of surfaced parts.
In modern times forward looking infrared (FLIR) detectors have been used to track the large plumes of heat that
fast nuclear-powered submarines leave while rising to the
surface. FLIR devices are also used to see periscopes or
snorkels at night whenever a submariner might be incautious enough to probe the surface.
11
Naval tactics in the Age of Steam
Anti-submarine weapon
Mines,
Depth charges
Rockets
Missiles
Anti-submarine net
Ramming
2.2.2
Platforms
12
[24] http://www.combinedfleet.com/type_b1.htm
[25] Masahaya, Pearl Harbor Papers, himself calls IJN ASW
eorts shiftless.
[26] Parillo, Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II. U.S.
Naval Institute Press, 1993
[27] Blair, Clay, Silent Victory (Vol.1), The Naval Institute
Press, 2001
[28] Lanning, Michael Lee (Lt. Col.), Senseless Secrets: The
Failures of U.S. Military Intelligence from George Washington to the Present, Carol Publishing Group, 1995
[29] Hutchinson, Robert Janes Submarines: War Beneath the
Waves page 114-115 Harper Collins 2001
[30] Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus the Submarine. (London:
William Kimber, 1973).
[31] National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration VENTS
project Website
Chapter 3
Attack helicopter
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and
armoured ghting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament
they are sometimes called helicopter gunships.
Weapons used on attack helicopters can include
autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided
anti-tank missiles such as the Hellre. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying air-to-air missiles,
though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays
attack helicopter has two main roles: rst, to provide
direct and accurate close air support for ground troops,
and the second, in the anti-tank role to destroy enemy
armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used
to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.
In combat, an attack helicopter is projected to destroy
around 17 times its own production cost before it is
destroyed.[1]
high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, begun to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S.
Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft
were eld-outtted with either two or four bazooka rocket
launchers attached to the lift struts,[3] against German armored ghting vehicles. During the summer of 1944,
U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed
Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer, armed
with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on
September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German
armored vehicles,[4] as a pioneering example of taking
on heavy enemy armor from a slow-ying aircraft.[5] This
role was something that was also likely to be achievable
after World War II, from the increasing numbers of postwar military helicopter designs. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4,
was only being used for rescue and were still very much
experimental in nature.
In the early 1950s various countries around the world
started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was
realised that these helicopters, successors to the World
War II-era Sikorsky R-4, could be armed with weapons
in order to provide them with limited combat capability.
Early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service
with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service
with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into
the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and
Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, to this day the pair
of most produced helicopter designs in aviation history.
These helicopters proved to be moderately successful in
these congurations, but due to a lack of armor protection
and speed, they were ultimately ineective platforms for
mounting weapons in higher-threat ground combat environments.
Since the 1960s various countries around the world
started to design and develop various types of helicopters
with the purpose of providing a heavily armed and protected aerial vehicle that can perform a variety of combat
roles, from reconnaissance to aerial assault missions.
By the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter
evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly
13
14
move about the battleeld and launch eeting pop-up attacks, helicopters presented a major threat even with the
presence of organic air defenses. The helicopter gunship
became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the
antitank mission.[6]
15
During the early 1960s, Soviet engineers started experimenting with various designs aimed at producing an
aerial vehicle that can provide battleeld mobility for infantry and provide re support to army forces on the
ground. The rst of these concepts was a mock-up unveiled in 1966 in the experimental shop of the Ministry
of Aircrafts factory number 329 where Soviet designer,
Mikhail Leont'yevich Mil, was head designer. The mockup, which was designated V-24, was based on another
project, the V-22 utility helicopter, which itself never entered production. The V-24 had an infantry transport
compartment that could hold eight troops sitting back to
back, and a set of small wings positioned to the top rear
of the passenger cabin, capable of holding up to six mis- A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50
represented the rst dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air
siles or rocket pods and a twin-barrel GSh-23L cannon
Forces in the 1980s.
xed to the landing skid.
These designs were proposed by Mil to the Soviet armed
forces, and while he had the support of a number of
strategists, he was opposed by several more senior members of the armed forces who believed that conventional
weapons were a better use of resources. Despite the opposition, Mil managed to persuade the defence ministers
rst deputy, Marshal Andrey A. Grechko, to convene an
expert panel to look into the matter. While the panels
opinions were mixed, supporters of the project eventually held sway and a request for design proposals for a
battleeld support helicopter was issued.[11]
16
The Gulf War highlighted the urgent need for attack helicopters, and revalidated the assessment that a purposebuilt design was needed. (At the time, the Chinese military depended on armed utility helicopters such as the
Changhe Z-11 and Harbin Z-9.) Also, it demonstrated
that the new attack helicopter would need to be able to
defend itself against other helicopters and aircraft. The
military perceived that once the new attack helicopter en- Both France and Germany reorganised the programme.
tered service, the existing helicopters would be used as Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tigers
scouts.
electronic development work, such as the visual systems
The Armed Helicopter Developmental Work Team and sensors.[18] Despite the early development problems
(
) was formed to develop a new medium and the political uncertainty between 1984 and 1986, the
helicopter design, as opposed to basing the new design program was formally relaunched in November 1987; it
17
was at this point that a greater emphasis on the attack helicopters anti-tank capabilities came about.[19] Much of
the projects organisational framework was rapidly redeveloped between 1987 and 1989; such as the installation
of a Franco-German Helicopter Oce to act as a program executive agency in May 1989.[20]
Air Force and the Indian Army found that there was a
need for helicopters that can operate at such high-altitude
conditions with ease.[28] Limitations from operating with
high payloads and restricted maneuverability of Mil Mi35 led India to the develop the HAL Light Combat Helicopter and HAL Rudra for multi-role high-altitude combat operations.[29] These helicopters will be used by the
Indian Air Force and the Indian Armys Aviation Corps.
A
French
Eurocopter
(Panzerabwehrhubschrauber)
Tiger
attack
helicopter
3.1.6 Italy
In 1972, the Italian Army began forming a requirement for a light observation and anti-tank helicopter.
Agusta had initially studied the development of a combatorientated derivative of their existing A109 helicopter,
however they decided to proceed with the development of
a more ambitious helicopter design.[30] In 1978, Agusta
formally began the design process on what would become the Agusta A129 Mangusta.[31] On 11 September
1983, the rst of ve A129 prototypes made the types
maiden ight; the fth prototype would rst y in March
1986. The Italian Army placed an order for a total of 60
A129s.[30]
3.1.5
India
South Africa
The Indian Army deploys the Mil Mi-35 and HAL Rudra The Rooivalk project began in early 1984 under the ausas of 2014. During the Kargil War in 1999, the Indian pices of the Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a predecessor
18
of Denel Aviation. Faced with the increasingly conventional nature of the South African Border War, the South
African Defence Force recognised the need for a dedicated attack helicopter and accordingly set along the process of developing a suitable aircraft.
The Atlas XH-1 Alpha was the rst prototype to emerge
from the program. It was developed from an Arospatiale
Alouette III airframe, retaining that helicopters engine
and dynamic components, but replacing the original
cockpit with a stepped tandem one, adding a 20 mm cannon on the nose and converting the undercarriage to taildragger conguration. The XH-1 rst ew on 3 February
1985. The results were ultimately good enough to convince Atlas and the SAAF that the concept was feasible, Above, a U.S Army's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter and below,
opening the door for the development of the Rooivalk.
an OH-58D armed scout helicopter
During the Rooivalks development it was decided to
base the aircraft on the dynamic components of the
Arospatiale Super Puma,[32] a larger and more powerful helicopter. These components were already used on
the Atlas Oryx, a local upgrade and modication of the
Arospatiale Puma.[33]
troops. Hellre missile and cannon attacks by Apache helicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars.
3.4. COMPARISON
was the rst combat deployment for the helicopter.[41]
Three helicopters from 16 Squadron SAAF were deployed to the region and since November 2013 it was
involved in heavy ghting alongside the United Nations
Force Intervention Brigade, against rebels operating in
North Kivu, in particular the M23 militia, which consisted of hardened former government troops equipped
with relatively heavy weaponry such as main battle tanks
and anti-aircraft weaponry. During its rst ever combat mission it proved to be instrumental in routing the
rebels from their hilltop strongholds during an oensive
by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade and the
Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[42][43]
3.3 Types
19
AgustaWestland Apache
CAIC WZ-10
Denel Rooivalk
Harbin Z-19
Kamov Ka-50/Ka-52
Mil Mi-28
Eurocopter Tiger
3.4 Comparison
3.4.1 Dimensions
3.4.2 Performance
A Russian Ka-50
3.6 References
[1] Frank
Barnaby
(2010).
main+battle+tank"#v=onepage&q="main
battle
tank"&f=false The role and control of weapons in the
1990s. Psychology Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-203-16831-3.
Retrieved 14 February 2011.
[2] Noggle, Anne; White, Christine (2001). A Dance with
Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. Texas A&M
University Press. pp. 2021. ISBN 1-58544-177-5.
AgustaWestland AW129
TAI/AgustaWestland T129
Bell AH-1 Cobra
[3] Francis, Devon E., Mr. Piper and His Cubs, Iowa State
University Press, ISBN 0-8138-1250-X, 9780813812502
(1973), p. 117.
[4] Gantt, Marlene, Riding His Piper Cub Through The Skies
Over France, Bazooka Charlie Fought A One-man War,
World War II Magazine, September 1987
[5] Fountain, Paul, The Maytag Messerschmitts, Flying Magazine, March 1945, p. 90
[6] Mazarella, Mark N. Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Sta
College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007.
20
Leuliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, New York:Houghton Miin
(1964)
[30] Donald, David, ed. Agusta A 129 Mangusta. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble
Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Riley, David, French Helicopter Operations in Algeria Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21
26.
3.6. REFERENCES
Shrader, Charles R. The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962 Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers (1999)
Spenser, Jay P., Whirlybirds: A History of the
U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, Seattle, WA: University of
Washington Press (1998)
21
Chapter 4
22
23
losses. However, three AH-1s were lost to accidents during and after the combat operations. The AH-1W units
were credited with destroying 97 tanks, 104 armored personnel carriers and vehicles, and two anti-aircraft artillery
sites during the 100-hour ground campaign.[4]
United States
A Super cobra ies past the USS Fort McHenry during a Search
and Seizure (VBSS) drill
During the closing months of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War, the Marine Corps embarked the AH-1J SeaCobra assigned to HMA-369
(now HMLA-369) aboard Denver, Cleveland, and later
Dubuque, for sea-based interdiction of the Ho Chi
Minh Trail in North Vietnam in the vicinity of Hon La
(Tiger) Island. These were termed Marine Hunter-Killer
(MARHUK) Operations and lasted from June to December 1972.[6]
Marine Cobras took part in the invasion of Grenada, during Operation Urgent Fury in 1983, ying close-support
and helicopter escort missions. Two Marine AH-1Ts
were shot down and three crew members killed.[4] The
Marines also deployed the AH-1 o the coast of Beirut,
Lebanon in 1983, during that nations civil war. The AH1s were armed with Sidewinder missiles and guns as an
emergency air defense measure against the threat of light
civil aircraft employed by suicide bombers.[7]
On 19 September 2011, an AH-1W crashed during training exercises at Camp Pendleton, California, killing the
two Marine crewmembers on board.[11] An investigation into the crash determined that it was caused by bird
strike.[12] The aircraft collided with a Red-tailed Hawk,
the impact damaging the pitch change link which in turn
USMC Cobras provided escort in the Persian Gulf in the produced vibrations to the rotors so erce that they caused
and rotors to break o from the helilate 1980s while the IranIraq War was ongoing. The Co- the transmission
[12]
copter
body.
bras sank three Iranian patrol boats while losing one AH1T to Iranian anti-aircraft re.[4] USMC Cobras from
Saipan ew top cover during an evacuation of Amer4.2.2 Iran
ican and other foreign nationals from Liberia in 1990.[4]
During the Gulf War, 78 Marine SuperCobras deployed, In 1971, Iran purchased 202 of an improved AH-1J,
and ew a total of 1,273 sorties in Iraq[8] with no combat named AH-1J International, from the United States.[13]
24
4.2.3 Taiwan
This improved Cobra featured an uprated P&WC T400WV-402 engine and stronger drivetrain. Recoil damping
gear was tted to the 20 mm gun turret, and the gunner
was given a stabilized sight and even a stabilized chair. 4.2.4 Turkey
Of the AH-1Js delivered to the Shahs Imperial Iranian
Army, 62 were TOW-capable.[14]
Turkey bought ten AH-1W SuperCobras in the early
1990s, and supplemented with 32 ex-US Army AH1 Cobras.[21] The AH-1s have been used against the
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) rebels.[22] In late 2011,
Turkey requested the purchase of three AH-1Ws from
the USMC inventory.[23][24]
4.3 Variants
4.3.1 Single-engine
25
AH-1T Improved SeaCobra Improved version with For operators of AH-1G, AH-1Q through AH-1S/P/E/F
extended tailboom and fuselage and an upgraded and other single-engine variants, see Bell AH-1 Cobra.
transmission and engines.
AH-1W SuperCobra (Whiskey Cobra), day/night
version with more powerful engines and advanced
weapons capability.
AH-1(4B)W Viper Four-Bladed Whiskey test version
with a 4-bladed bearingless composite main rotor
based on Bell 680 rotor. A prototype was converted
from AH-1T 161022.[25]
AH-1Z Viper A new variant nicknamed Zulu Cobra,
and developed in conjunction with the UH-1Y
Venom for the H-1 upgrade program. The variant
includes an upgraded 4-blade main rotor and adds
the Night Targeting System (NTS).
Model 309 King Cobra Experimental all-weather version based on the AH-1G single-engine and AH1J twin-engine designs.[26] Two Bell 309s were produced; the rst was powered by a PW&C T400-CP400 Twin-Pac engine set and the second was powered by a Lycoming T-55-L-7C engine.[27]
CobraVenom Proposed
Kingdom.[2]
version
for
the
United
4.4 Operators
Iran
Imperial Iranian Army (former operator)[30]
Islamic Republic of Iran Army[31]
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Republic of China Army[31]
Turkey
Turkish Army[31]
United States
United States Marine Corps[31]
HMLA-167[32]
HMLA-169[33]
HMLA-269[34]
HMLA-367[35]
HMLA-369[36]
HMLA-467[37]
HMLA-469[38]
HMLA-773[39]
HMLAT-303[40]
4.6 Specications
4.6.1 AH-1J SeaCobra
Data from Verier,[42] Modern Fighting Aircraft,[43]
General characteristics
Crew: 2: pilot, co-pilot/gunner (CPG)
An AH-1W Super Cobra with the Taiwanese Army
26
Data from Verier,[42] Modern Fighting Aircraft,[43] International Directory of Military Aircraft [44]
General characteristics
4.8. REFERENCES
27
Eurocopter Tiger
TAI T-129
Performance
Maximum speed: 190 knots (218 mph, 352 km/h)
Range: 317 nmi (365 mi, 587 km)
Service ceiling: 12,200 ft (3,720 m)
Rate of climb: 1,620 ft/min (8.2 m/s)
Armament
CAIC WZ-10
HAL Light Combat Helicopter
Harbin WZ-19
Related lists
List of attack aircraft
List of helicopters
List of active military aircraft of the United States
4.8 References
[7] John Pike (1992-04-06). AH-1W Air Combat Maneuver Training - Why It Must Be Reinstated. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
[8] AH-1 Super Cobra, U.S. Navy. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
28
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20] Soviet Air-to-Air Victories of the Cold War ACIG Journal, 23 October 2008.
[45] Marine helicopters deploy with laser-guided rocket NAVAIR.Navy.mil, 17 April 2012
Bibliography
Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-84176-984-3.
[25] Bell AH-1(4B)W Viper (United States), Aircraft Rotary-Wing - Military. Janes Information Group, 15
July 1992. Retrieved: 9 August 2011.
International Air Power Review, Volume 12. AIRtime Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-880588-77-3.
Nolan, Keith, W. Into Laos, operation Lam Son
719 and Dewey Canyon II. 1986. Presidio Press.
(An account of the US Armys nal oensive of the
Vietnam War, in 1971.)
Richardson, Doug. Modern Fighting Aircraft, Volume 13, AH-1 Cobra. New York: Prentice Hall,
1987. ISBN 0-13-020751-9.
Verier, Mike. Bell AH-1 Cobra. Osprey Publishing,
1990. ISBN 0-85045-934-6.
[33] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron-169 [HMLA169]". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[34] Marine Light/Attack Helicopter
[HML/A-269]".
globalsecurity.org.
February 2013.
Squadron-269
Retrieved 12
[35] MARINE
LIGHT
ATTACK
HELICOPTER
SQUADRON 367 HMLA-367 Scarface"". tripod.com.
Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[36] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron-369 [HMLA369]". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[37] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 467 HMLA467 Sabers. tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
SuperCobra
on
Army-
[38] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 469 HMLA469 Vengeance"". tripod.com. Retrieved 12 February
2013.
[39] Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron-773 [HMLA773]". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
Chapter 5
5.1.1
Background
5.1.2
The AH-1Z rst ew on 8 December 2000.[9] Bell delivered three prototype aircraft to the United States Navy's
Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) at Naval Air
Station Patuxent River in July 2002, for the ight test
phase of the program. Low-rate initial production began in October 2003,[5] with deliveries to run through
2018.[10] In late 2006 NAVAIR awarded a contract to
Meggitt Defense Systems to develop a new linkless 20
mm ammunition handling system to improve on the
gun feed reliability of the existing linked feed system.
These systems are now being retrotted into the AH1W and AH-1Z eets with good results during combat
in Afghanistan.
In February 2008, the U.S. Navy adjusted the contract
so the last 40 AH-1Zs are built as new airframes instead of the previously planned rebuild of AH-1Ws.[11]
In September 2008, the Navy requested an additional
46 airframes for the Marine Corps, bringing the total
number ordered to 226.[12] In 2010, the Marine Corps
planned to order 189 AH-1Zs with 58 of them being new
airframes,[13] with deliveries to continue until 2019.[14]
On 10 December 2010, the Department of the Navy approved the AH-1Z for full-rate production.[15][16]
30
The Lockheed Martin target sight system (TSS) incorporates a third-generation FLIR sensor. The TSS provides
5.2 Design
target sighting in day, night, or adverse weather conditions. The system has various view modes and can track
The AH-1Z incorporates new rotor technology with up- with FLIR or by TV.[7] The same system is also used on
graded military avionics, weapons systems, and electro- the UH-1Y Venom and the KC-130J Harvest HAWK.[18]
optical sensors in an integrated weapons platform. It
has improved survivability and can nd targets at longer
ranges and attack them with precision weapons.[7]
The AH-1Zs new bearingless, hingeless rotor system has
75% fewer parts than that of four-bladed articulated systems. The blades are made of composites, which have
an increased ballistic survivability, and there is a semiautomatic folding system for storage aboard amphibious
assault ships.[7] Its two redesigned wing stubs are longer,
with each adding a wing-tip station for a missile such as
the AIM-9 Sidewinder. Each wing has two other stations
for 2.75-inch (70 mm) Hydra 70 rocket pods, or AGM114 Hellre quad missile launchers. The AN/APG-78
Longbow re control radar can also be mounted on a wing
tip station.[5][17]
5.3.1
31
Foreign interest
5.4 Operators
United States
Data from Bell Specications,[7] The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 20022003,[31] Modern Battleeld Warplanes[5]
General characteristics
Crew: 2: pilot, co-pilot/gunner (CPG)
Capacity: 6,661 lb (3,021 kg)
Length: 58 ft 3 in (17.8 m)
32
[15] Bell Helicopter AH-1Z earns Navy approval for full rate
production. Shephard Group Limited. 10 December
2010. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
[16] Snakes and Rotors: The USMCs H-1 Helicopter Program. Defense Industry Daily. 30 December 2010.
Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
[17] AN/APG Equipment Listing. designation-systems.net
[18] Cpl. Samantha H. Arrington. From Hueys to Harvest
Hawk: Ordnance Marine arms aircraft in Afghanistan.
DVIDS. 19 May 2011.
[19] AH-1Z/UH-1Y complete rst sea trials, US Navy, 13
June 2005.
[20] Bell 449 SuperCobra and KingCobra. Janes Information Group, 7 December 2005.
[21] Milliman, John. AH-1Z/UH-1Y complete developmental testing. US Navy, 1 March 2006.
[22] AH-1Z/UH-1Y Start OPEVAL. US Navy, 6 May 2006.
5.7 References
[1] AH-1Z Viper enters production as substantially new aircraft (article). Flight global. 2010-12-20.
[2] Fiscal Year (FY) 2011 Budget Estimates, Aircraft Procurement, Vol. I, BA 14 (PDF). USA: Department of
the Navy. February 2010. p. 27.
33
Chapter 6
6.1. DEVELOPMENT
35
6.1.2
36
these upgrades began in September 2011[49] and proved eld of aircraft.[56] In 2011, it was reported by the conlargely eective.[50]
troversial defense industry supported Lexington Institute[57][58][59] that the average V-22 mishap rate per ight
hour over the past 10 years was approximately half of the
6.1.3 Controversy
average accident rate for the USMC eet; the V-22s accident rate was the lowest of any Marine rotorcraft.[60] In
The V-22s development process has been long and con- 2011 Wired Magazine reported that the safety record was
troversial, partly due to its large cost increases.[51] The achieved by excluding ground incidents;[61] the USMC
development budget was rst planned for $2.5 billion responded that MV-22 reporting were to the same stanin 1986, which increased to a projected $30 billion in dards as other aircraft in the Department of the Navy.[62]
1988.[33] By 2008, $27 billion had been spent on the
By 2012, the USMC reported eetwide readiness rate
program and another $27.2 billion was required to comhad risen to 68 percent;[63] however, the DODs Inspector
plete planned production numbers.[26] Between 2008 and
General later found 167 of 200 reports had improperly
2011, the estimated lifetime cost for maintaining the Vrecorded information.[64] Captain Richard Ulsh blamed
22 grew by 61 percent, mostly allocated to maintenance
these errors on incompetence and said that they were not
and support.[52]
malicious or deliberate.[65] The required mission capable rate was 82%, but the average was 53% from June
Its [The V-22s] production costs are
2007 to May 2010.[66] In 2010, Naval Air Systems Comconsiderably greater than for helicopters with
mand aimed for an 85% reliability rate by 2018.[67] From
equivalent capabilityspecically, about
2009 to 2014, readiness rates rose 25 percent to the high
twice as great as for the CH-53E, which has a
80s, while cost per ight hour had dropped 20 percent
greater payload and an ability to carry heavy
to $9,520 through a rigorous maintenance improvement
equipment the V-22 cannot... an Osprey unit
program that focused on diagnosing problems before failwould cost around $60 million to produce, and
ures occur.[68] As of 2015, although the Osprey requires
$35 million for the helicopter equivalent.
higher maintenance and has lower availability (62%) than
Michael E. O'Hanlon, 2002.[53]
traditional helicopters, it also has a lower incidence rate.
The average cost per ight hour is US$9,156.[69]
While technically capable of autorotation if both engines
fail in helicopter mode, performance is poor and a safe
landing is dicult.[70] In 2005, a director of the Pentagons testing oce stated that in a loss of power while
hovering below 1,600 feet (490 m), emergency landings
"...are not likely to be survivable. V-22 pilot Captain
Justin Moon McKinney stated that: We can turn it into
a plane and glide it down, just like a C-130.[55] A complete loss of power requires the failure of both engines,
as one engine can power both proprotors via interconnected drive shafts.[71] Though vortex ring state (VRS)
contributed to a deadly V-22 accident, ight testing found
the aircraft to be less susceptible to the condition than
conventional helicopters.[6] A GAO report stated that
the V-22 is less forgiving than conventional helicopters
[72]
Several test ights to explore
A V-22 in a compact storage conguration during the navys during this phenomenon.
the V-22s VRS characteristics in detail were canceled.[73]
evaluation, May 2002
The USMC trains pilots in the recognition of and reIn 2001, Lieutenant Colonel Odin Lieberman, comman- covery from VRS, and has instituted operational enveand instrumentation to help pilots avoid VRS
der of the V-22 squadron at Marine Corps Air Station lope limits [33][74]
conditions.
New River, was relieved of duty after allegations that he
instructed his unit to falsify maintenance records to make As of 2015, opinions dier on the combat survivability
the aircraft appear more reliable.[26][54] A total of three and resilience to bullet impacts.[69]
USMC ocers were later implicated as having played a
role in the falsication scandal.[51]
In October 2007, Time Magazine ran an article condemning the V-22 as unsafe, overpriced, and completely
inadequate;[55] the Marine Corps responded by arguing
that parts of the articles data were dated, obsolete, inaccurate, and reected expectations too high for any new
6.1.4 Production
On 28 September 2005, the Pentagon formally approved
full-rate production for the V-22,[75] from 11 a year to between 24 and 48 a year by 2012. Of the 458 total planned,
6.2. DESIGN
37
360 are for the U.S. Marine Corps, 48 for the Navy, and
50 for the Air Force at an average cost of $110 million per
aircraft, including development costs.[26] The V-22 had
an incremental yaway cost of $67 million per aircraft in
2008,[76] The U.S. Navy had hoped to shave about $10
million o that cost after a ve-year production contract
in 2013.[77] The cost for each CV-22 was $73 million in
the FY 2014 budget.[78]
On 15 April 2010, the Naval Air Systems Command
awarded Bell Boeing a $42.1 million contract to design
an integrated processor in response to avionics obsolescence and add new network capabilities.[79] By 2014,
Raytheon will provide an avionics upgrade that includes
Situational awareness and Blue Force Tracking.[80] In late
2009, a contract for Block C upgrades upon the V-22 was
awarded to Bell Boeing.[81] In February 2012, the Marine
Corps received the rst Block C Ospreys; these aircraft
feature a new radar, along with additional mission management and electronic warfare equipment.[82]
6.2.1 Overview
The Osprey is the worlds rst production tiltrotor aircraft, with one three-bladed proprotor, turboprop engine,
and transmission nacelle mounted on each wingtip. It is
classied as a powered lift aircraft by the Federal Aviation Administration.[90] For takeo and landing, it typically operates as a helicopter with the nacelles vertical
and rotors horizontal. Once airborne, the nacelles rotate forward 90 in as little as 12 seconds for horizontal
ight, converting the V-22 to a more fuel-ecient, higher
speed turboprop aircraft. STOL rolling-takeo and landing capability is achieved by having the nacelles tilted
forward up to 45.[91][92] Other orientations are possible,
such as the 80 Jump takeo which uses nacelles at 80
to quickly achieve high altitude and speed.[93]
38
6.2.2
Propulsion
The V-22s two Rolls-Royce AE 1107C engines are connected by drive shafts to a common central gearbox so
that one engine can power both proprotors if an engine 6.2.3
failure occurs.[71] However, if a proprotor gearbox fails
that proprotor cannot be feathered, and both engines must
be stopped before an emergency landing.[70] The aircrafts autorotation characteristics are poor partly because
the rotors have low inertia.[70]
Avionics
The V-22 is equipped with a glass cockpit, which incorporates four Multi-function displays (MFDs, compatible
with night-vision goggles)[70] and one shared Central Display Unit (CDU), to display various images including:
digimaps, imagery from the Turreted Forward Looking
Infrared System[108] primary ight instruments, navigation (TACAN, VOR, ILS, GPS, INS), and system status. The ight director panel of the Cockpit Management
System (CMS) allows for fully coupled (autopilot) functions that take the aircraft from forward ight into a 50
ft (15 m) hover with no pilot interaction other than programming the system.[109] The glass cockpit of the canceled CH-46X was derived from the V-22.[110] The fuselage is not pressurized, and personnel must wear on-board
oxygen masks above 10,000 feet.[70]
The V-22 has triple-redundant y-by-wire ight control
systems.[111] With the nacelles pointing straight up in conversion mode at 90 the ight computers command the
aircraft to y like a helicopter, with cyclic forces being applied to a conventional swashplate at the rotor hub. With
the nacelles in airplane mode (0) the aperons, rudder,
6.2. DESIGN
and elevator y the aircraft like an airplane. This is a
gradual transition and occurs over the rotation range of
the nacelles. The lower the nacelles, the greater eect of
the airplane-mode control surfaces.[112] The nacelles can
rotate past vertical to 97.5 for rearward ight.[113][114]
The aircraft also has computerized damage control that
automatically isolates damaged elements.[115] The controls so automate and simplify aspects of the V-22s ight
that without wind it can hover with no hands on the controls; according to some who have own the aircraft, former xed-wing pilots may be preferable because they, unlike those with helicopter experience, are not trained to
constantly adjust the controls while hovering.[93][70]
6.2.4
Armament
39
to provide an all-quadrant defensive weapon system including nose guns, door guns, and nonlethal countermeasures to work with the current ramp-mounted machine
gun and the IDWS.[121]
In 2014, the USMC revealed plans for new V-22 weapons
to increase all-axis, stand-o, and precision capabilities, which may be potentially operated by additional crew members. Armament increases are for enhanced oensive capabilities to special purpose Marine
rapid crisis response task forces, rather than as an attack platform. The V-22 could be adapted for various precision weapons, including the AGM-114 Hellre, AGM-176 Grin, Joint Air-to-Ground Missile, and
GBU-53/B SDB II. Fuselage-based hardpoints for the
weapons would be used to clear the proprotors.[122] In
November 2014, Bell and Boeing conducted self-funded
weapons tests using a V-22 equipped with a small pylon on the front port-side fuselage and the AN/AAQ27A EO camera replaced with an L-3 Wescam MX-15
sensor/laser designator. 26 unguided Hydra 70 rockets,
two guided APKWS rockets, and two Grin B missiles
were red over ve ights. The USMC and USAF seek a
traversable nose-mounted weapon connected to a helmetmounted sight; recoil would complicate integrating a desired forward-facing gun.[123] A weapons pylon on either side of the fuselage can carry 300 lb (140 kg) of
munitions.[124]
The high-speed version of the hose/drogue refueling system is designed to be deployed at 185 kn (213 mph; 343
km/h) and function at up to 250 kn (290 mph; 460 km/h).
Onboard tanks and a roll-on/roll-o bladder can contain
up to 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) of fuel. The operator must
open the ramp to extend the refueling hose, then raise the
ramp once extended, with the top ramp door left open.
The V-22 could refuel rotary-wing aircraft, but it would
require a separate drogue used specically by helicopters
and a partially converted nacelle. Bell and Boeing are
hoping for funding for additional testing to include contact between the refueler and receiver and eventually the
passage of fuel.[127] Since many Marine Corps ground vehicles can run on aviation fuel, a refueling V-22 could also
service them. In late 2014, it was stated that such tankers
40
Province in southern Afghanistan to disrupt Taliban communication and supply lines.[118] On 18 February 2011,
Marine Commandant General James Amos indicated
MV-22s deployed to Afghanistan had surpassed 100,000
ight hours and were noted as the safest airplane, or close
to the safest airplane in the Marine Corps inventory.[149]
Marines boarding an MV-22 at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in 2010
41
From 25 August 2013, two MV-22s completed the
longest distance Osprey tanking mission to date. Flying from Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in Okinawa
alongside two KC-130J tanker aircraft, the Ospreys ew
to Clark Air Base in the Philippines on 2 August, then
to Darwin, Australia on 3 August, Townsville, Australia
on 4 August, and nally rendezvoused with Bonhomme
Richard on 5 August.[163]
In 2013, the USMC formed an intercontinental response
force, the Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task
Force for Crisis Response (SPMAGTF-CR-AF),[164]
equipped with V-22s outtted with specialized communications equipment.[165] In 2013, following Typhoon
Haiyan, 12 MV-22s of the 3rd Marine Expeditionary
Brigade were deployed to the Philippines for disaster
relief operations.[166] The V-22s capabilities were described as uniquely relevant, being able to y faster and
with greater payload while moving essential supplies to
remote sites throughout the island archipelago.[167]
The V-22 deployment to Afghanistan was set to conclude
in late 2013 with the drawdown of combat operations;
however VMM-261 was directed to extend operations for
a new role, casualty evacuation, for which it was better
suited than helicopters as its speed better enabled casualties to reach a hospital within the 'golden hour'; they were
tted with medical equipment such as heart-monitors and
basic triage supplies.[168]
In 2014, the SPMAGTF-CR-AF supported the timecritical eort against the Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia,
ying 1,200 people and 78,000 lb (35 t) of cargo in V22s.[69]
Marine Corps MV-22B Ospreys arrive at Tribhuvan International Airport in Kathmandu, Nepal, May 3, 2015 as a part of
the U.S. response to the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
42
On 3 July 2014, V-22 aircraft carried Delta Force commandos to a campsite in eastern Syria where Islamic State
militants had held American and other hostages. The
commandos quickly eliminated the militants at the site,
but found that the hostages had been moved elsewhere
and returned home empty handed.[180]
The Air Force is looking to congure the CV-22 to perform combat search and rescue in addition to its primary
long-range special operations transport mission. The Osprey would act as a complement to Air Force HH-60G
Pave Hawk and planned HH-60W rescue helicopters, being employed in scenarios were its ability to cover more
ground quickly would be better suited to search and rescue than more nimble but slower helicopters.[181]
In August 2012, the USAF found that CV-22 wake modeling is inadequate for a trailing aircraft to make accurate estimations of safe separation from the preceding
aircraft.[176]
On 21 December 2013, three CV-22s came under small
arms re while on a mission to evacuate American civilians in Bor, South Sudan during the 2013 South Sudanese political crisis. The three aircraft were damaged
and four crew wounded; the mission was aborted and
the aircraft ew 500 mi (800 km) to Entebbe, Uganda.
South Sudanese ocials stated that the attackers were
rebels.[177][178] The CV-22s, of the 8th Special Operations Squadron, had own to Bor over three countries
across 790 nmi (910 mi; 1,460 km). The formation was
A U.S. Marine MV-22 landing on the ight deck of aircraft carrier Nimitz
The United States Navy could potentially employ the V22 in search and rescue, transport and anti-submarine
43
Israel
On 5 January 2015, the Navy and Marines signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to buy the V-22 for
the COD mission, and was conrmed in the Navys FY
2016 budget.[190] Designated HV-22, four aircraft would
be initially bought each year from 2018-2020.[191][192]
The Navys variant will incorporate an extended-range
fuel system, a high-frequency radio for over-the-horizon
communications, and a public address system to communicate with passengers. While the MV-22 has a range of
428 nmi (493 mi; 793 km) when carrying 24 Marines,
the Navy has a requirement for an 1,150 nmi (1,320 mi;
2,130 km) unrefueled range a lower passenger/payload
capacity.[193]
India
The Indian Aviation Research Centre (ARC) is interested
in acquiring four V-22 Ospreys for the purposes of personnel evacuation in hostile conditions, logistic supplies,
and deployment of the Special Frontier Force (SFF) on
the border. India had seen the Ospreys utility in relief
operations of the 2015 Nepal earthquake. The deal could
be worth some $300 million.[194] Elements of the Indian Navy also look at the V-22 rather than the E-2D for
Airborne early warning and control to replace the shortrange Kamov Ka-31.[195]
Japan
In 2012, former Defense Minister Satoshi Morimoto ordered an investigation of the costs of V-22 operations.
The V-22 exceeds current Japan Self-Defense Forces helicopters in terms of range, speed, and payload. The ministry anticipates deployments to the Nansei Islands and
the Senkaku Islands, as well as in multinational cooperation with the U.S.[212] Japan is considering plans to
have V-22s in service in a maritime role by as early as
2015.[213] On 21 November 2014, the Japanese Ministry
of Defense ocially decided to procure 17 V-22s,[214]
with deliveries planned from FY 2014 to FY 2019.[215]
In January 2015, Japans parliament approved a defense
budget with funding for ve V-22s.[216]
South Korea
In February 2015, the South Korean Army showed interest in the V-22 for delivering special forces to islands in
the Yellow Sea near North Korean territory; talks are to
be held during 2015 on a possible Osprey buy.[217]
United Arab Emirates
In May 2012, it was reported that the United Arab Emirates was in the nal negotiation stages to purchase sev-
44
eral V-22s. The UAE intends to use the Osprey to sup- EV-22 Proposed airborne early warning and control
port special forces. Both UAE and the Pentagon seek a
variant. The Royal Navy studied this AEW variant
$58 million unit cost.[218][219]
as a replacement for its current eet of carrier-based
Sea King ASaC.7 helicopters.[227]
6.4 Variants
6.5 Operators
United States
45
VMM-166
[240]
VMMT-204[241]
VMM-261[242]
VMM-263[243]
VMM-264[244]
VMM-266[245]
VMM-363[246]
VMM-365[247]
VMM-561[248]
46
Max. takeo weight: 60,500 lb (27,400 kg)
AgustaWestland AW609
Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor
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6.11.1 Notes
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[7] Whittle 2010, p. 62.
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[9] Norton 2004, p. 35.
[10] Whittle 2010, p. 55.
[11] Whittle 2010, p. 91.
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TV, 31 October 2014.
[187] Butler, Amy (18 April 2013). Osprey on the Truman,
Fishing for COD. Aviation Week. The McGraw-Hill
[208] Ya'alon Dropping V-22 Osprey Purchase From America.
Companies. Retrieved 18 April 2013. Video
israelnationalnews.com, 30 October 2014.
[188] The Future COD Aircraft Contenders: The Bell Boeing
[209] Reed Business Information Limited. Budget pressures
V-22 Defensemedianetwork.com, 2 August 2013
threaten Israeli V-22 deal. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 6
April 2015.
[189] Israel could double V-22 order size, Bell says Flightglobal.com, 25 February 2014
[210] "Heli Expo 2015 Preview", page 124. Helicopter International, Volume 38 Number 4 January - February 2015.
[190] Navy 2016 Budget Funds V-22 COD Buy, Carrier Refuel
ISSN 0143-1005. Archive
- Breakingdefense.com, 2 February 2015
[191] Whittle, Richard. "Navy Decides to Buy V-22 Ospreys [211] Israeli $800M V-22 Deal Not Dead: Just Hovering for Carrier Delivery" Breaking Defense, 13 January 2015.
Breakingdefense.com, 11 December 2014
52
[212] Defense Ministry studies Osprey use by Self-Defense [238] VMM-165. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
Forces. AJW by The Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved 6 April
[239] VMM-165. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
2015.
[213] Japan Seeks V-22 Ospreys For Naval Ops Armedforces- [240] VMM-166. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
Int.com, 20 August 2013
[241] VMMT-204. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[214] Japan Ocially Selects Osprey, Global Hawk, E-2D - De[242] VMM-261. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
fensenews.com, 21 November 2014
[243] VMM-263. usmc.mil. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[215] A lot of new equipment purchases in latest 5-year defense
plan Asahi.com, 14 December 2013
[244] VMM-264. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[216] Japan defence budget calls for 20 P-1s, 5 V-22s. ight- [245] VMM-266. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
global.com. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
[246] VMM-363. helis.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[217] Seoul Reportedly Plans to Buy US' Osprey V-22 Aircraft
[247] VMM-365. tripod.com. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- Sputniknews.com, 23 February 2015
[218] UAE V-22 Deal Nears Closure. Aviation Week, 3 May [248]
2012.
[249]
[219] United Arab Emirates Steps Up Arms Deals With US.
Al-Monitor.com, 14 May 2012.
[250]
[220] Norton 2004, p. 54.
[221] CV-22 Osprey Fact Sheet. United States Air Force, 7 July [251]
2006. Retrieved: 21 August 2013.
[252]
[222] Norton 2004, pp. 7172.
[253]
[223] Bell-Boeing V-22 Guidebook Bell Helicopter
[254] V-22 Characteristics. Naval Air Systems Command. Retrieved: 25 November 2008.
6.11.2 Bibliography
Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. Bell/Boeing V22 Osprey Tilt-Engine VTOL Transport (U.S.A.)".
Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight. Atglen,
Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2000. ISBN 07643-1204-9.
Norton, Bill. Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Tiltrotor Tactical Transport. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-85780-165-2.
O'Hanlon, Michael E. Defense Policy Choices for the
Bush Administration. Washington, D.C.: Brookings
Institution Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8157-6437-5.
53
Chapter 7
The latest model, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, is primarily operated in an armed reconnaissance role in support
of ground troops. The OH-58 has been exported to Austria, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Taiwan, and Saudi
Arabia. It has also been produced under license in Australia.
7.1 Development
On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy asked 25
helicopter manufacturers on behalf of the Army for proposals for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). Bell
Helicopter entered the competition along with 12 other
manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool
Co., Aircraft Division.[3] Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4.[4] On 19
May 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of
the design competition.[5][6]
7.2. DESIGN
AH-1 in the Attack battalions of the Army. The Army
began shopping the idea of an Aerial Scout Program to
industry as a prototype exercise to stimulate the development of advanced technological capabilities for night
vision and precision navigation equipment.[13] The stated
goals of the program included prototypes that would:
55
7.2 Design
7.2.1 Mast mounted sight
The OH-58D introduced the most distinctive feature of
the Kiowa family the Mast Mounted Sight (MMS),
which resembles a beach ball perched above the rotor system. The MMS by Ball Aerospace & Technologies has
a gyro-stabilized platform containing a TeleVision System (TVS), a Thermal Imaging System (TIS), and a Laser
Range Finder/Designator (LRF/D). These new features
gave the aircraft the additional mission capability of target acquisition and laser designation in both day or night,
56
7.3.1
Vietnam War
7.3.3 RAID
In 1989, Congress mandated that the Army National
Guard would take part in the countrys War on Drugs,
enabling them to aid federal, state and local law enforcement agencies with special congressional entitlements. In response, the Army National Guard Bureau
created the Reconnaissance and Aerial Interdiction Detachments (RAID) in 1992, consisting of aviation units in
31 states with 76 specially modied OH-58A helicopters
to assume the reconnaissance/interdiction role in the ght
against illegal drugs. During 1994, 24 states conducted
more than 1,200 aerial counterdrug reconnaissance and
interdiction missions, conducting many of these missions
at night.[33] Eventually, the program was expanded to
cover 32 states and consisting of 116 aircraft, including
dedicated training aircraft at the Western Army Aviation
Training Site (WAATS) in Marana, Arizona.[34]
7.3.4
57
pilots killed.[40] Their presence has also been anecdotally
credited with saving lives, having been used to rescue
wounded despite their small size.[41] In Iraq, OH-58Ds
ew 72 hours per month, while in Afghanistan, they ew
80 hours per month.[42] In 2013, Bell stated that the OH58 had 820,000 combat hours, and 90% mission capable
rate.[43]
The rst attempt to replace the OH-58 was the RAH66 Comanche of the Light Helicopter Experimental program, which was cancelled in 2004. Airframe age and
losses led to the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program to procure a new aircraft, the Bell ARH-70, which
was later cancelled in 2008 due to cost overruns. The
third replacement eort for the OH-58 was the Armed
Aerial Scout program.[44] Due to uncertainty in the AAS
program and scal restraints, planned retirement of the
OH-58F Kiowa has been extended from 2025 to 2036.[45]
The Kiowas role as a scout aircraft is being supplemented by tactical unmanned aerial vehicles, the two
platforms often act in conjunction to provide reconnaissance to expose crews to less risk. The OH-58F has the
ability to control UAVs directly to safely perform scout
missions.[42] In 2011, the Kiowa was scheduled to be replaced by the light version of the Future Vertical Lift aircraft in the 2030s.[46]
58
CA-32 was the equivalent of the 206B-1 (upgraded engine and longer rotor blades). The rst twelve of 56 were
built in the U.S. then partially disassembled and shipped
to Australia where they were reassembled.[55] Helicopters
in the naval eet were retired in 2000.[55]
7.4.3 OH-58C
7.4 Variants
7.4.2
OH-58B
7.4.4 OH-58D
The OH-58D (Bell Model 406) was the result of the Army
Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP). An upgraded
transmission and engine gave the aircraft the power it
7.4. VARIANTS
59
7-shot 2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra-70 rocket pods,[65] and an
M296 .50 caliber machine gun. The standard of performance for aerial gunnery from an OH-58D is to achieve
at least one hit out of 70 shots red at a wheeled vehicle 800 to 1,200 m (2,625 to 3,937 ft) away.[66][67] The
Kiowa Warrior upgrade also includes improvements in
available power, navigation, communication and survivability, as well as modications to improve the aircrafts
deployability.[68]
7.4.5 OH-58F
A OH-58D assigned to 2nd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment,
lands on the deck of the USS Lake Erie
needed for nap-of-the-earth ight proles, and a fourbladed main rotor made it much quieter than the twobladed OH-58C. The OH-58D introduced the distinctive
Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) above the rotor system, and
a mixed glass cockpit, with traditional instruments identied as standby for emergency use.
The Bell 406CS Combat Scout was based on the OH58D (sometimes referred to as the MH-58D). Fifteen
aircraft[7][59] were sold to Saudi Arabia.[60] A roofmounted Saab HeliTOW sight system was opted for in
place of the MMS.[61] The 406CS also had detachable
weapon hardpoints on each side.
The AH-58D was an OH-58D version operated by Task
Force 118 (4th Squadron, 17th Cavalry) and modied
with armament in support of Operation Prime Chance.
The weapons and re control systems would become the
basis for the Kiowa Warrior. AH-58D is not an ocial
DOD aircraft designation, but is used by the Army in reference to these aircraft.[62][63][64]
60
The Army plans to retire its Kiowa eet and end the Fmodel CASUP upgrades. CASUP and SLEP upgrades
would cost $3 billion and $7 billion respectively, totaling
$10 billion for features that the Army cannot aord to
allocate money to. The OH-58D can reach 20 percent
of armed aerial scout mission requirements, upgrading to
OH-58F standard would raise that to 50 percent. Replacing the Kiowa with Apaches and unmanned systems in
scout roles would meet 80 percent of requirements.[77] In
the rst quarter of 2014, Bell received a stop-work order
for the Kiowa F-model CASUP program.[78]
The OH-58X was a modication of the fourth development OH-58D (s/n 69-16322) with partial stealth features and a chin-mounted McDonnell-Douglas Electronics Systems turret as a night piloting system; including
a Kodak FLIR system with a 30-degree eld of view.
Avionics systems were consolidated and moved to the
nose, making room for a passenger seat in the rear. No
aircraft were produced.[2]
7.4.7 Others
7.5 Operators
Austria
Austrian Armed Forces[83]
7.4.6
OH-58F Block II
61
7.5.1
Former operators
Australia
Australian Army
[84]
Canadian Forces[85]
7.7 Specications
and
403 (Helicopter)
Squadron[89]
Training
Helicopter 7.7.1
Operational
Training
OH-58A
62
General characteristics
Length: 32 ft 2 in (9.80 m)
Height: 9 ft 7 in (2.92 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 149 mph (240 km/h)
Cruise speed: 127 mph (204 km/h)
Range: 161 miles (556 km)
Endurance: 2.0 hours
Service ceiling: 15,000 ft (4,575 m)
Armament
7.7.3 OH-58F
7.7.2
OH-58D
General characteristics
Crew: 2 pilots
Length: 42 ft 2 in (12.85 m)
7.9. REFERENCES
63
Each pylon (two total) can carry one of the fol- 7.9.2
lowing:
1x M3P .50 cal (12.7mm) machine gun
1x M260 rocket launcher w/ seven 2.75 Hydra 70
rockets
Notes
7.9 References
7.9.1
Footnotes
[1] The last new build aircraft were delivered to the U.S.
Army in 1989. The subsequent arming of the AHIP and
the System Safety Enhancement Program (SSEP) caused
aircraft to be steadily retted until 1999.
[4] Beechy, Robert. U.S Army Aircraft Acquisition Programs. Uncommon Aircraft 2006. 18 November 2005.
Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[5] See Light Observation Helicopter. The Navy, who was assisting the Army in the selection phase, recommended the
Hiller Model 1100, while the Army team preferred the
Bell D-250, and then the 1100. The Selection Board selected both aircraft. Afterwards, the acting Army Chief of
Sta directed the Selection Board to include the Hughes
369 in the y-o competition.
[6] Spangenberg, George A. George A. Spangenberg Oral
History. georgespangenberg.com. Judith SpangenbergCurrier, ed. pp. 187-190. Accessed on 29 April 2008.
[7] Visschedijk, Johan. Bell 206 JetRanger. 1000AircraftPhotos.com. 16 October 2003. Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[8] Spenser, Jay P. Bell Helicopter. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, p. 263. University
of Washington Press, 1998. ISBN 0-295-98058-3.
[9] Aastad, Andy. The Introduction to the JetRanger. Rotor
Magazine. Helicopter Association International. Winter
2006-2007. Accessed on 29 April 2008.
[10] Holley and Sloniker, p. 8.
[11] Hirschberg, Michael J. and David K. Daley. Bell. US
and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th Century.
American Helicopter Society. 7 July 2000. Accessed on
20 April 2007.
[12] Holley and Sloniker, p. 90.
[13] Department of the Army Historical Summary.
army.mil. 1974. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
[14] Cocke, Karl E. (1978). XI Research, Development and
Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1974. United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[15] Cocke, Karl E. (1978). X Research, Development and
Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1975. United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[16] Cocke, Karl E. (1977). Research, Development and Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary,
1976. United States Army Center of Military History.
Retrieved 2007-04-14.
64
[17] 11. Research Development and Acquisition. Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1980 url
= http://www.history.army.mil/books/DAHSUM/1980/
index.htm#Contents''. United States Army Center of
Military History. 1983. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[18] Historic U.S. Army Helicopters. Archived from the
original on 2007-02-24. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[19] COL Robert S. Fairweather Jr. and MAJ Grant Fossum
(JulyAugust 1982). The AHIP: Field Artillery Aerial
Observer Platform of the Future (PDF). Field Artillery
Magazine.
[20] Research Development and Acquisition. Department of
the Army Historical Summary, 1981. United States Army
Center of Military History. 1988. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[21] Gough, Terrence J. (1995). http://www.history.army.
mil/books/DAHSUM/1986/ch04.htm |chapterurl= missing title (help). Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1986. United States Army Center of Military History.
[22] Webb, William Joe (1993). Modernizing and Equipping
the Army. Department of the Army Historical Summary,
1988. United States Army Center of Military History.
[23] Demma, Vincent H. (1998). 11. Modernization: Research, Development and Acquisition. Department of
the Army Historical Summary, 1989. United States Army
Center of Military History.
[24] DRS Technologies, Inc. - Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS)".
Drs.com. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
[25] Bristol Aerospace.
[44] U.S. Army ocials said to back new scout helicopter Reuters.com, November 30, 2012
[47] Army Plans To Scrap Kiowa Helo Fleet - MarineCorpstimes.com, 9 December 2013
armyair-
[48] Army aviation ying smarter into scal squeeze Army.mil, 14 January 2014
[50] http://www.jutarnji.hr/
jutarnji-doznaje--ministar-kotromanovic-pisao-pentagonu-hrvatska-trazi-od
1236155/
[51] US Army begins grounding Kiowas, seeks buyers - Flightglobal.com, 7 May 2014
[52] Bell CH-136 Kiowa. Air Force Public Aairs, Department of National Defence. 15 April 2004.
[53] Department of the Army Historical Summary, 1978.
United States Army Center of Military History.
7.9. REFERENCES
65
[78] Bell receives stop work order for Kiowa upgrades - Flightglobal.com, 5 May 2014
[79] Bell Flies OH-58 Block II Candidate for AAS - Military.com, April 19, 2011
Re-
66
7.9.3
Bell Helicopter.
Bibliography
Chapter 8
In 1952, the Army identied a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army
determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, or complex to maintain easily. In November
1953, revised military requirements were submitted to
the Department of the Army.[3] Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell
Helicopter with the Model 204 and Kaman Aircraft with
a turbine-powered version of the H-43. On 23 February
1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to
build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation, designated as the XH-40.[4]
The rst combat operation of the UH-1 was in the service 8.1.1 Model 204
of the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. The original
designation of HU-1 led to the helicopters nickname of Main article: Bell 204/205
Huey.[2] In September 1962, the designation was changed
to UH-1, but Huey remained in common use. ApproxPowered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1Bimately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam.
1) engine producing 700 shp (520 kW), the XH-40 rst
ew on 20 October 1956[5] at Fort Worth, Texas, with
Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two
8.1 Development
more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had
previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, even
before the rst prototype had own.[3][6] In March 1960,
the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and ocially
named Iroquois after the Native American nations.[7]
The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived
from its designation of HU-1, which came to be pronounced as Huey. The reference became so popular
that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters antitorque pedals.[2] The ocial U.S. Army name was almost
never used in practice.[8] After September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unied Department of Defense (DOD) designation system,
but the nickname remained.
A Bell XH-40, a prototype of the UH-1
68
ing a maximum continuous 770 shaft horsepower (570
kilowatts).[N 1] The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the rst UH-1As were
being delivered. In response, Bell proposed the UH-1B,
equipped with the Lycoming T53-L-5 engine producing
960 shp (720 kW) and a longer cabin that could accommodate either seven passengers or four stretchers and a
medical attendant. Army testing of the UH-1B started in
November 1960, with the rst production aircraft delivered in March 1961.[3]
8.2. DESIGN
8.1.4
69
Air Force
steel later in the UH-1Hs life, due to cracking on hightime airframes. The semi-monocoque tail boom attaches
The United States Air Force's (USAF) competition for to the fuselage with four bolts.[17]
a helicopter to be used for support on missile bases in- The UH-1Hs dynamic components include the engine,
cluded a specic requirement to mandate the use of the transmission, rotor mast, main rotor blades, tail rotor
General Electric T58 turboshaft as a powerplant. The Air driveshaft, and the 42-degree and 90-degree gearboxes.
Force had a large inventory of these engines on hand for The transmission is of a planetary type and reduces the
its eet of HH-3 Jolly Green Giant rescue helicopters and engines output to 324 rpm at the main rotor. The
using the same engine for both helicopters would save two-bladed, semi-rigid rotor design, with pre-coned and
costs. In response, Bell proposed an upgraded version of under-slung blades, is a development of early Bell model
the 204B with the T58 engine. Because the T58 output designs, such as the Bell 47 with which it shares comshaft is at the rear, and was thus mounted in front of the mon design features, including a dampened stabilizer bar.
transmission on the HH-3, it had to have a separate oset The two-bladed system reduces storage space required for
gearbox (SDG or speed decreaser gearbox) at the rear, the aircraft, but at a cost of higher vibration levels. The
and shafting to couple to the UH-1 transmission.
two-bladed design is also responsible for the characteristic 'Huey thump' when the aircraft is in ight, which is
particularly evident during descent and in turning ight.
8.1.5 Twin engine variants
The tail rotor is driven from the main transmission, via
the two directional gearboxes which provide a tail rotor
The single engine UH-1 variants were followed by the
speed approximately six times that of the main rotor to
twin-engine UH-1N Twin Huey and later the UH-1Y
increase tail rotor eectiveness.[17]
Venom. Bell began development of the UH-1N for
Canada in 1968. It changed to the more powerful Pratt The UH-1H also features a synchronized elevator on the
& Whitney Canada PT6T twin-engine set. The U.S. also tail boom, which is linked to the cyclic control and allows
ordered the helicopter with the U.S. Air Force receiving a wider center of gravity range. The standard fuel system
it in 1970. Canadas military, the U.S. Marine Corps, and consists of ve interconnected fuel tanks, three of which
are mounted behind the transmission and two of which
the U.S. Navy rst received the model in 1971.[6]
are under the cabin oor. The landing gear consists of
In 1996, the USMC began the H-1 upgrade program by
two arched cross tubes joining the skid tubes. The skids
awarding a contract to Bell Helicopter for developing the
have replaceable sacricial skid shoes to prevent wear of
improved UH-1Y and AH-1Zs variants.[14] The UH-1Y
the skid tubes themselves. Skis and inatable oats may
includes a lengthened cabin, four-blade rotor and two
be tted.[17]
more powerful GE T700 engines.[1] The UH-1Y entered
service with the USMC in 2008.[15]
8.2 Design
The UH-1 has a metal fuselage of semi-monocoque construction with tubular landing skids and two rotor blades
on the main rotor.[16] Early UH-1 models featured a single Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine in versions with
power ratings from 700 shp (522 kW) to 1,400 shp (1,040
kW).[6] Later UH-1 and related models would feature
twin engines and four-blade rotors.
All aircraft in the UH-1 family have similar construction.
The UH-1H is the most-produced version, and is representative of all types. The main structure consists of
two longitudinal main beams that run under the passenger cabin to the nose and back to the tail boom attachment point. The main beams are separated by transverse
bulkheads and provide the supporting structure for the
cabin, landing gear, under-oor fuel tanks, transmission,
engine and tail boom. The main beams are joined at the
lift beam, a short aluminum girder structure that is attached to the transmission via a lift link on the top and
the cargo hook on the bottom and is located at the aircrafts center of gravity. The lift beams were changed to
Internal seating is made up of two pilot seats and additional seating for up to 13 passengers or crew in the cabin.
The maximum seating arrangement consists of a fourman bench seat facing rearwards behind the pilot seats,
70
operational service and Hueys with the 57th Medical Detachment arrived in Vietnam in March 1962.[13]
The UH-1 has long been a symbol of US involvement in
Southeast Asia in general and Vietnam in particular, and
as a result of that conict, has become one of the worlds
most recognized helicopters. In Vietnam primary missions included general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and later, ground attack. During the conict, the craft was upgraded, notably to a larger version
based on the Model 205. This version was initially designated the UH-1D and ew operationally from 1963.
While the ve main fuel tanks are self-sealing, the UH1H was not equipped with factory armor, although armored pilot seats were available.[17]
The UH-1Hs dual controls are conventional for a helicopter and consist of a single hydraulic system boosting the cyclic stick, collective lever and anti-torque pedals. The collective levers have integral throttles, although
these are not used to control rotor rpm, which is automatically governed, but are used for starting and shutting down the engine. The cyclic and collective control
the main rotor pitch through torque tube linkages to the
swash plate, while the anti-torque pedals change the pitch
of the tail rotor via a tensioned cable arrangement. Some
UH-1Hs have been modied to replace the tail rotor control cables with torque tubes similar to the UH-1N Twin A rie squad from the 1st Squadron, 9th Cavalry exiting from a
UH-1D
Huey.[17]
U.S. Army
71
During the war 7,013 UH-1s served in Vietnam and of
these 3,305 were destroyed. In total 1,074 Huey pilots
were killed, along with 1,103 other crew members.[24]
The US Army phased out the UH-1 with the introduction of the UH-60 Black Hawk, although the Army UH-1
Residual Fleet had around 700 UH-1s that were to be retained until 2015, primarily in support of Army Aviation
training at Fort Rucker and in selected Army National
Guard units. Army support for the craft was intended to
end in 2004. The UH-1 Huey was retired from active
Army service in 2005.[25] In 2009, Army National Guard
retirements of the UH-1 accelerated with the introduction
of the UH-72 Lakota.[26][27][28]
During the course of the war, the UH-1 went through several upgrades. The UH-1A, B, and C models (short fuselage, Bell 204) and the UH-1D and H models (stretchedfuselage, Bell 205) each had improved performance and
load-carrying capabilities. The UH-1B and C performed
the gunship, and some of the transport, duties in the early
years of the Vietnam War. UH-1B/C gunships were replaced by the new AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter from
1967 to late 1968. The increasing intensity and sophistication of NVA anti-aircraft defenses made continued use
of UH-1 gunships impractical, and after Vietnam the Cobra was adopted as the Armys main attack helicopter.
Devotees of the UH-1 in the gunship role cite its ability
to act as an impromptu dusto if the need arose, as well as 8.3.3 U.S. Navy
the superior observational capabilities of the larger Huey
cockpit, which allowed return re from door gunners to The US Navy began acquiring UH-1B helicopters from
the Army and these aircraft were modied into gunships
the rear and sides of the aircraft.[8][13]
72
8.3.4
Australia
A Royal New Zealand Air Force No. 3 Squadron UH-1H Iroquois in November 2009
A 9 Sqn UH-1D in Vietnam, 1970.
The Royal Australian Air Force employed the UH-1H until 1989. Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF
were deployed to South Vietnam in mid 1966 in support of the 1st Australian Task Force. In this role they
were armed with single M60 doorguns. In 1969 four
of No. 9 Squadrons helicopters were converted to gunships (known as 'Bushrangers), armed with two xed
forward ring M134 7.62 mm minigun (one each side)
and a 7 round rocket pod on each side. Aircrew were
armed with twin M60 exible mounts in each door. UH1 helicopters were used in many roles including troop
transport, medevac and Bushranger gunships for armed
support.[34] No. 35 Squadron and No. 5 Squadron also
operated the Iroquois in various roles through the 1970s
and 1980s. Between 1982 and 1986, the squadron contributed aircraft and aircrew to the Australian helicopter
detachment which formed part of the Multinational Force
and Observers peacekeeping force in the Sinai Peninsula,
Egypt.[34] In 1988 the RAAF began to re-equip with S70A Blackhawks.[35]
The RNZAF is currently in the process of retiring the Iroquois. The NHIndustries NH90 has been chosen as its replacement, eight active NH90 helicopters plus one spare
are being procured. This process was expected to be completed by the end of 2013, but has since been pushed out
to 2016. Individual aircraft were retired as they reach
their next major 'group' servicing intervals; the UH-1H
is to be retired as the NH90 eet is stood up.[42] On 21
May 2015, the remaining UH-1H eet of six helicopters
conducted a nal tour of the country ahead of its planned
retirement on 1 July. During 49 years of service the type
had seen service in areas including the U.K., Southeast
In 1989 and 1990 the RAAFs UH-1H Iroquois were sub- Asia, Timor, the Solomon Islands, various South Pacic
8.3.6
Germany
73
Force and took part as troop transports in the counterinsurgency ght. One was lost in combat in September
1979, when hit in Mozambique by a RPG. At least another three were lost. The survivors were put up for sale
in 1990.[46]
8.3.10 Argentina
German UH-1D
8.3.7
El Salvador
8.3.11 Israel
8.3.9
Rhodesia
UH-1Hs have been used by the American Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in counter-narcotics raids in
the ongoing conict in Afghanistan. Operated by contractors, these Hueys provide transportation, surveillance,
and air support for DEA FAST teams. Four UH-1Hs and
two Mi-17s were used in a raid in July 2009 which led to
the arrest of an Afghan Border Police commander.[50]
74
8.4.1
HU-1A: Initial Bell 204 production model, redesignated as the UH-1A in 1962.[13] 182 built.[51]
TH-1A: UH-1A with dual controls and blindying instruments, 14 conversions.[51]
XH-1A: A single UH-1A was redesignated for
grenade launcher testing in 1960.[13]
HU-1B: Upgraded HU-1A, various external and
rotor improvements.
Redesignated UH-1B in
1962.[13] 1014 built plus four prototypes designated
YUH-1B.[51]
NUH-1B: a single test aircraft, serial number
64-18261.[13]
UH-1C: The UH-1B gunship lacked the power necessary to carry weapons and ammunition and keep
up with transport Hueys, and so Bell designed yet another Huey variant, the UH-1C, intended strictly
for the gunship role. It is an UH-1B with improved
engine, modied blades and rotor-head for better
performance in the gunship role.[13] 767 built.[51]
YUH-1D: Seven pre-production prototypes of the
UH-1D.
UH-1D: Initial Bell 205 production model (long
fuselage version of the 204). Designed as a troop
carrier to replace the CH-34 then in US Army
service.[13] 2008 built many later converted to UH1H standard.[51]
XH-40: The initial Bell 204 prototype. Three prototypes were built, equipped with the Lycoming XT53-L-1 engine of 700 shp (520 kW).[13]
75
HH-1K: Purpose built SAR variant of the Model
204 for the US Navy with USN avionics and
equipment.[13] 27 built.[51]
TH-1L: Helicopter ight trainer based on the HH1K for the USN. A total of 45 were built.[13]
UH-1L: Utility variant of the TH-1L. Eight
were built.[13]
UH-1H: Improved UH-1D with a Lycoming T53L-13 engine of 1,400 shp (1,000 kW).[13] 5435
built.[51]
CUH-1H: Canadian Forces designation for
the UH-1H utility transport helicopter. Redesignated CH-118.[13][53] A total of 10 built.[51]
EH-1H: Twenty-two aircraft converted by installation of AN/ARQ-33 radio intercept and
jamming equipment for Project Quick Fix.
HH-1H: SAR variant for the USAF with rescue hoist.[13] A total of 30 built.[51]
UH-1J: An improved Japanese version of the UH1H built under license in Japan by Fuji was locally
given the designation UH-1J.[54] Among improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343 kW (1,800 shp), a vibrationreduction system, infrared countermeasures, and a
night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit.[55]
76
Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport helicopter version, initial version based on the
UH-1H.
Bell 205A-1A: As 205A-1, but with armament hardpoints and military avionics. Produced specically for Israeli contract.
Agusta-Bell 205: Military utility transport
helicopter. Built under license in Italy by
Agusta.
AIDC UH-1H: Military utility transport helicopter.
Built under license in Taiwan by Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation.[57]
Dornier UH-1D: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Germany by Dornier General characteristics
Flugzeugwerke.[57]
Crew: 14
Fuji-Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport
Capacity: 3,880 lb (1,760 kg) including 14 troops,
helicopter. Built under licence in Japan by
or 6 stretchers, or equivalent cargo
Fuji. Used by the Japanese Ground Self De[58]
fense Force under the designation HU-1H.
Length: 57 ft 1 in (17.40 m) with rotors
Bell 211 Huey Tug With up-rated dynamic system and larger wide chord blades, the Bell 211 was
oered for use as the US Armys prime artillery
mover, but not taken up.[8]
8.5 Operators
Main article: List of Bell UH-1 Iroquois operators
8.10. REFERENCES
Armament
Variable, but may include a combination of:
2 7.62 mm M60 machine gun, or 2 7.62 mm
GAU-17/A machine gun
2 7-round or 19-round 2.75 in (70 mm) rocket
pods
77
Bell 204/205
Bell 212
Bell 214
Bell 412
Bell 533
Panha Shabaviz 2-75
Sikorsky XH-39
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
8.10 References
8.10.1 Footnotes
[1] The total power rating of the T53-L-1A is 860 shp (640
kW). Military engines are often derated to improve reliability of the aircraft powertrain and to provide a temporary period of higher power output without exceeding the
limits of the engine.
[2] The 7 January 1965-edition of Flight International magazine states that the L-11 engine is similar to the L-9 in
power, but with a multi-fuel capability.
[3] Earlier UH-1s had some magnesium components.
[4] Quote: The UH-1B was the rst helicopter gunship to
achieve widespread combat use. It was also the rst to
carry the name Cobra
8.10.2 Citations
[1] Bell UH-1Y pocket guide. Bell Helicopter, March 2006.
Retrieved: 20 January 2010.
[5] Aeroengines 1957 (pdf). Flight, 26 July 1957 . Retrieved: 10 August 2009.
[6] Donald, David, ed. Bell 204"; Bell 205. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes
& Noble Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
78
[37] Stackpool, Andrew (22 July 2010). 40 Years of Top Service. Army. Canberra, Australia: Directorate of Defence Newspapers. p. 10. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
[38] RAAF/Army A2/N9 Bell UH-1B/D/H Iroqois. ADF Serials. Retrieved: 31 July 2012.
[16] Endres, Gunter, ed. Janes Helicopter Markets and Systems. London: Janes Information Group, 2006. ISBN
978-0-7106-2684-4.
[17] DAOT 5: C-12-118-000/MB-000 Operating Instructions
CH118 Helicopter (unclassied), Change 2, 23 April
1987. Department of National Defence
[18] Price, Major David H. The Army Aviation Story Part XI:
The Mid-1960s. rucker.army.mil. Retrieved: 3 March
2012.
[19] Bishop, Chris. Huey Cobra Gunships. London: Osprey
Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-84176-984-3.
[20] Drendel 1974, p. 9.
[21] Mason, Robert. Chickenhawk. New York: Viking Penguin Books, 1984, ISBN 0-14-303571-1.
[22] U.S. Army Helicopter Weapon Systems: Operations
with XM26 TOW missile system in Kontum (1972).
army.mil. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[23] Col. James P. Fleming. United States Air Force, 29 May
2012.
[24] Helicopter Losses During the Vietnam War. Vietnam
Helicopter Pilots Association. Retrieved: 5 September
2007.
[25] Death Traps No More - Strategypage.com, April 11, 2013
[26] Mehl, Maj. Thomas W. A Final LZ. Army National
Guard. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[27] Sommers, Larry Huey Retirement. Army National
Guard, 4 May 2009. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[28] Soucy, Sta Sgt. Jon. " New Helicopters Delivered
to District of Columbia National Guard. Army National
Guard, 3 December 2009. Retrieved: 25 August 2010.
[40] RNZAF 3 Squadron History. Airforce.mil.nz, 31 October 2005. Retrieved: 4 September 2012.
[41] RNZAF Aircraft UH-1H Iroquois. Airforce.mil.nz,
Retrieved: 18 October 2012.
[42] NH90. Royal New Zealand Air Force. Retrieved: 30
January 2012.
[43] RNZAF Huey embarks on nal domestic tour - Flightglobal.com, 21 May 2015
[44] Cooper, Tom. El Salvador, 19801992. Air Combat
Information Group, 1 September 2003. Retrieved: 3
September 2007.
[45] Kahwaji, Riad. The victory Lebanon developed helicopter bombers. Ya Libnan, 3 September 2007. Retrieved: 3 September 2007.
[46] Zimbabwe Air Force Aircraft Types. Aeroight. Retrieved: 20 May 2009.
[47] Bell 212. fuerzaaerea.mil.ar. Retrieved: 25 August
2010.
[48] "Israel:UH-1" aeroight.co. Retrieved: 4 October 2009.
[49] Brent 1988, p. 14.
[50] Afghan hash bust underscores ocial corruption. www.
wired.com. Retrieved: 4 October 2009.
[51] Andrade 1987, p. 125.
[52] Forsgren, Jan. Aviation Royale Khmere/Khmer Air
Force Aircraft. Aeroight, 22 April 2007. Retrieved: 28
October 2008.
[53] Bell CH-118 Iroquois. Canadian DND webpage. Retrieved: 30 August 2007.
[54] (Japanese)UH-1J
ber 2007.
Retrieved: 3 March
. Retrieved: 11 Decem-
79
Eden, Paul, ed. Bell UH-1 Iroquois. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[57] Goebel. Greg. The Bell UH-1 Huey. Vector site. Retrieved: 3 March 2012.
8.10.3
Bibliography
Andrade, John M. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. Hersham, Surrey, UK:
Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0904597-22-9.
Apostolo, Giorgio. Bell 204, Bell 205. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York:
Bonanza Books, 1984. ISBN 0-517-43935-2.
Australian Naval Aviation Museum (ANAM). Flying Stations: A Story of Australian Naval Aviation.
St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. 1998. ISBN
1-86448-846-8
Brent, W. A. Rhodesian Air Force A Brief History
19471980. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Freeworld
Publications, 1988. ISBN 0-620-11805-9.
Chant, Christopher.
Fighting Helicopters of
the 20th Century (20th Century Military Series).
Christchurch, Dorset, UK: Graham Beehag Books,
1996. ISBN 1-85501-808-X.
Debay, Yves. Combat Helicopters. Paris: Histoire
& Collections, 1996. ISBN 2-908182-52-1.
Donald, David, ed. Bell Model 212 Twin TwoTwelve. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Drendel, Lou. Gunslingers in Action. Carrollton,
Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1974. ISBN
0-89747-013-3.
Drendel, Lou.
Huey.
Carrollton, Texas:
ISBN
Squadron/Signal Publications, 1983.
0-89747-145-8.
Eather, Steve (1995). Flying Squadrons of the
Australian Defence Force. Weston Creek, ACT:
Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-15-3.
80
History of the Huey on timothypruittphoto.com
HA(L)3 Seawolf
HUEY 509 The Only Flying HUEY in U.K.
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-2A (1966)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-5A (1966)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-8A (1966)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-1OA
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-1OB
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-12A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-13A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-17A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-18A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-19A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm STAFF FILM REPORT 66-20A
(1966) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
Chapter 9
The U.S. Army is the primary operator of the AH-64; it An early Hughes YAH-64A prototype with T-tail
has also become the primary attack helicopter of multiple
nations, including Greece, Japan, Israel, the Netherlands
and Singapore; as well as being produced under license
in the United Kingdom as the AgustaWestland Apache.
U.S. AH-64s have served in conicts in Panama, the
Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used
the Apache in its military conicts in Lebanon and the
Gaza Strip; British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in Afghanistan and Iraq.
A YAH-64A prototype in 1982
9.1 Development
Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, and Sikorsky.
In July 1973, the U.S. Department of Defense selected
nalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division (later Hughes Helicopters). This began the phase
1 of the competition.[12] Each company built prototype
helicopters and went through a ight test program.
81
82
Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype rst ew on 30
September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A
prototype rst ew on 1 October 1975. After evaluating
the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A
over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the
YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade
main rotor and the instability of the YAH-63s tricycle
landing gear arrangement.[13][14]
The AH-64A then entered phase 2 of the AAH program under which three pre-production AH-64s would
be built, additionally, the two YAH-64A ight prototypes and the ground test unit were upgraded to the same
standard.[13] Weapons and sensor systems were integrated
and tested during this time, including the laser-guided
AGM-114 Hellre missile.[15] Development of the Hellre missile had begun in 1974, originally known by the
name of Helicopter Launched, Fire and Forget Missile
('Hellre' being a shortened acronym),[16] for the purpose
of arming helicopter platforms with an eective anti-tank Portions of the Apache are produced by various
aerospace rms. AgustaWestland has produced nummissile.[17][18]
ber of components for the Apache, both for the international market and for the British Army's AgustaWestland
9.1.2 Into production
Apache.[30] Since 2004, Korea Aerospace Industries
has been the sole manufacturer of the Apaches
In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed fuselage.[31][32][33] Fuselage production had previously
over to the U.S. Army for Operational Test II. The Army been performed by Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical; the
testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to transfer of fuselage production led to a prolonged legal
upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of dispute between Teledyne Ryan and Boeing.[34]
engine, rated at 1,690 shp (1,260 kW). The AH-64 was
The AH-64D program cost a total of $11bn through
named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys
2007.[35] In April 2006, Boeing was awarded a $67.6M
traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its
xed-price contract for the remanufacture of several exhelicopters and it was approved for full-scale production
isting U.S. AH-64As to the AH-64D conguration; bein 1982.[19] In 1983, the rst production helicopter was
tween May 2009 and July 2011, a further ve contracts
rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Ariwere issued to remanufacture batches of AH-64As to the
zona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell
upgraded D variant.[36] Since 2008, nations operating the
Douglas for $470 million in 1984.[20] The helicopter
older AH-64A have been urged to undertake modernizaunit later became part of The Boeing Company with
tion programs to become AH-64Ds, as Boeing and the
the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August
U.S. Army plans to terminate support for the A-variants
1997.[21] In 1986, the incremental or yaway cost for the
in the near future.[37]
AH-64A was $7M and the average unit cost was approximately $13.9M based on total costs.[20]
9.2 Design
9.2.1 Overview
The AH-64 Apache has a four-blade main rotor and a
four-blade tail rotor.[41] The crew sits in tandem, with
the pilot sitting behind and above the copilot/gunner.[42]
Both crew members are capable of ying the aircraft and performing methods of weapon engagements
independently.[43] The AH-64 is powered by two General
Electric T700 turboshaft engines with high-mounted exhausts on either side of the fuselage.[44][45] Various models of engines have been used on the Apache; those in
A YAH-64A in 1984
British service use engines from Rolls-Royce instead of
During the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas studied an AH- General Electric. In 2004, General Electric Aviation be64B, featuring an updated cockpit, new re control sys- gan producing more powerful T700-GE-701D engines,
9.2. DESIGN
rated at 2,000 shp (1,500 kW) for AH-64Ds.[46]
The crew compartment has shielding between the cockpits, such that at least one crew member can survive
hits. The compartment and the rotor blades are designed to sustain a hit from 23 mm (0.91 in) rounds. The
airframe includes some 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of protection and has a self-sealing fuel system to protect against
ballistic projectiles.[47] The aircraft was designed to meet
the crashworthiness requirements of MIL-STD-1290,[48]
which species minimum requirement for crash impact
energy attenuation to minimize crew injuries and fatalities. This was achieved through incorporation of increased structural strength, crashworthy landing gear,
seats and fuel system.
9.2.2
83
vironments, and to operate at night or day and during
adverse weather conditions.[57] Various sensors and onboard avionics allows the Apache to perform in these
conditions; such systems include the Target Acquisition and Designation System, Pilot Night Vision System (TADS/PNVS), passive infrared countermeasures
,[58] GPS, and the IHADSS.[51][57] In August 2012, 24
U.S. Army AH-64Ds were equipped with the Ground
Fire Acquisition System (GFAS), which detects and targets ground-based weapons re sources in all-light conditions and with a 120 Visual eld. The GFAS consists of
two sensor pods working with the AH-64s other sensors,
a thermographic camera precisely locates ground-based
threats.[59]
In 2014, it was announced that new targeting and surveillance sensors were under development to provide highresolution color imagery to crews, replacing older low
denition black-and-white imaging systems.[60] In 2014,
the U.S Army was adapting its Apaches for increased
maritime performance as part of the Pentagons rebalance to the Pacic. Additional avionics and sensor improvements includes an extended-range radar capable of
detecting small ships in littoral environments, software
adaptions to handle maritime targets, and adding Link
16 data-links for better communications with friendly
assets.[61]
84
rean demand.[70][71]
The AH-64E Apache has the ability to control unmanned
aerial vehicles, used by the U.S. Army to perform aerial
scouting missions previously performed by the OH-58
Kiowa. Apaches can request to take control of an RQ-7
Shadow or MQ-1C Grey Eagle from ground control stations to safely scout via datalink communications. There
are four levels of UAV interoperability (LOI): LOI 1 indirectly receives payload data; LOI 2 receives payload data
through direct communication; LOI 3 deploys the UAVs
armaments; and LOI 4 takes over ight control. UAVs
can search for enemies and, if equipped with a laser
designator, target them for the Apache or other friendly AH-64 during an extraction exercise at Camp Bondsteel, Kosovo,
2007. Note the soldier on the avionics bay
aircraft.[72][73]
hour ground war a total of 277 AH-64s took part, destroying 278 tanks, numerous armored personnel carriers and
other Iraqi vehicles.[84][87][88] One AH-64 was lost in the
war, to an RPG hit at close range, the Apache crashed but
9.3.1 United States Army
the crew survived.[89] To maintain operations, the U.S.
Army unocially grounded all other AH-64s worldwide;
The U.S. Army formally accepted its rst production AHtheatre ew only one-fth of the planned
64A in January 1984 and training of the rst pilots began Apaches in the
[90]
ight-hours.
[74][75]
later that year.
The rst operational Apache unit,
7th Battalion, 17th Cavalry Brigade, began training on The AH-64 played roles in the Balkans during separate
the AH-64A in April 1986 at Fort Hood, Texas.[76][77] conicts in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s.[91][92] During
Two operational units with 68 AH-64s rst deployed to Task Force Hawk, 24 Apaches were deployed to a land
Europe in September 1987 and took part in large military base in Albania in 1999 for combat in Kosovo. These reexercises there.[76][78] The Apache was rst used in com- quired 26,000 tons of equipment to be transported over
bat in 1989, during Operation Just Cause, the invasion of 550 C-17 ights, at a cost of US$480 million.[93] DurPanama. The AH-64 participated in over 240 hours of ing these deployments, the AH-64 encountered problems
combat attacking various targets, mostly at night.[79][80] such as deciencies in training, night vision equipment,
General Carl Stiner, the commander of the operation, fuel tanks, and survivability.[94][95] On 27 April 1999, an
commented that: You could re that Hellre missile Apache crashed during training in Albania due to a failthrough a window from four miles away at night.[81]
ure with the tail rotor,[96] causing the eet in the Balkans
[97]
Upon elding the Apache, capabilities such as using the to be grounded in December 2000.
85
achieved initial operating capability (IOC).[123] In March
2014, the 1st-229th Attack Reconnaissance Battalion deployed 24 AH-64Es to Afghanistan in the type' rst combat deployment.[124] From March to June 2014, the AH64E ew 1,700 hours in Afghanistan at what Boeing described as a higher tempo than the D-model would
be capable of.[125] As of 14 October 2014, AH-64E
Apaches had own almost 9,600 combat hours. From
April through September 2014, AH-64E in combat maintained an 88 percent readiness rate.[126]
The Army is implementing a plan to move all Apaches
from the Army Reserve and National Guard to the active
Army to serve as scout helicopters to replace the OH58 Kiowa. Using the AH-64 to scout would be less expensive than Kiowa upgrades or purchasing a new scout
helicopter. AH-64Es can control unmanned aerial vehicles like the MQ-1C Grey Eagle to perform aerial scouting missions; a 2010 study found the teaming of Apaches
and UAVs was the most cost-eective alternative to a new
helicopter and would meet 80 percent of reconnaissance
requirements, compared to 20 percent with existing OH58s and 50 percent with upgraded OH-58s. National
Guard units, who would lose their attack helicopters,
criticized the proposal.[127][128] In March 2015, the rst
heavy attack reconnaissance unit was formed, comprising 24 attack Apaches, 24 reconnaissance Apaches, and
12 Shadow UAVs.[129]
In July 2014, the Pentagon announced that Apaches had
been dispatched to Baghdad to protect embassy personnel
from Islamic State militant attacks. On 4 October 2014,
Apaches began performing missions in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State ground forces.[130]
9.3.2 Israel
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) rst received AH-64As in
1990,[131] for a total eet of 42.[132] There was some
controversy over the Air Forces choice to purchase
Apaches over upgrading existing AH-1 Cobra attack
helicopters.[133] In 2000, Israel was interested in acquiring up to 48 AH-64Ds, but U.S. reluctance to share
the software source code complicated the prospect.[132]
In April 2005, Boeing delivered the rst AH-64D to
the IAF.[134] In 2001, the U.S. government was allegedly investigating misuse of the Apache and other USsupplied military equipment against Palestinian leaders
and facilities.[135] In 2009, an arranged sale of six AH64Ds was reportedly blocked by the Obama Administration, pending interagency review, over concerns the
helicopters may pose a threat to civilian Palestinians in
Gaza.[136][137] In IAF service, the AH-64A was named as
the Peten (Hebrew: , for Cobra[N 1] ), while the AH64D was named Saraph[131] (, also as Seraph, Hebrew for venomous/ery winged serpent).[139]
86
87
9.3.6 Egypt
In 1995, the Egyptian Air Force placed an order for 36
AH-64A helicopters.[196] These Apaches were delivered
with most of the advanced avionics used on the U.S.
eet at that time, with the exception of localized radio equipment.[197] In 2000, Boeing announced an order to remanufacture Egypts existing Apache eet to
the AH-64D conguration.[198] Notably, the AH-64D upA Royal Netherlands Army AH-64D Apache
grade did not include the procurement of the Longbow
radar, the supply of which had been refused by the U.S.
government.[199] Egypt requested a further 12 AH-64D
II Apaches through a Foreign Military Sale in
Shortly after Apaches were deployed to Hamid Karzai In- Block[200][201]
2009.
ternational Airport, as part of the Netherlands contribution to ISAF, on 10 April 2004 a pair of Dutch Apaches In August 2012, the Egyptian Armed Forces undertook
came under light gunre close to the Afghan capital.[180] a large-scale military operation to regain control of the
On 17 December 2007, an RNLAF Apache ew into Sinai Peninsula from armed militants. Air cover throughpowerlines during a night ying exercise in the Nether- out the operation was provided by the Egyptian Air
lands, forcing an emergency landing and causing a lengthy Forces Apache helicopters; reportedly the Apaches deblackout in the region.[181] On 17 March 2015 a RNLAF stroyed three vehicles and killed at least 20 militants.[202]
Apache crashed during a training mission in Mali. Both Up to ve Egyptian Apaches were temporarily stationed
pilots died. The ministry of defence opened an investiga- in the Sinai following an agreement between Egypt and
tion into the cause of the crash.[182]
Israel.[203]
88
9.3.7
Other users
The United Arab Emirates purchased 30 AH-64A helicopters in 1991 and 1994,[204] which they are now upgrading to AH-64D specication.[205] In 2005, Kuwait
purchased 16 Longbow helicopters.[206]
In September 2003, Greece ordered 12 AH-64D in addition to existing eet of 20 AH-64A+.[207] By 1995
they had received 20 AH-64As; another 12 AH-64Ds
were ordered in 2003.[196] Singapore purchased 20 AH64D Longbow Apache aircraft in two batches between
1999 and 2001;[208] during October 2010 Apache training was suspended following the forced crash-landing of
an Apache.[209]
Japan ordered 50 AH-64Ds,[196] which are being built
under license by Fuji Heavy Industries, designated AH64DJP. The rst helicopter was delivered to the JGSDF
in early 2006.[210]
Taiwan (Republic of China) reached an agreement with
the U.S. to purchase 30 AH-64D Block III Apaches with
weapons, and associated equipment in June 2011.[211][212]
On 5 November 2013, Taiwan received the rst 6 AH64E Apaches. A second batch arrived in December
2013, with all 30 to be delivered by the end of 2014.[213]
By early April 2014, 18 had been delivered. On 25
April 2014, a Taiwanese AH-64E crashed into a threestory building during a training ight in bad weather
conditions.[214] Power loss was also being considered as a
cause. The crash is the rst airframe loss of an AH-64E
model.[215] An investigation ruled out mechanical failure
and concluded human error as responsible, that the pilots
descended too fast through clouds at low altitude without checking ight panels to maintain adequate height;
the Army responded by stepping up simulator training
for pilots.[216] In October 2014, the fth and nal batch
of AH-64Es was delivered to Taiwan, completing the
order.[217]
9.3.8
April 2013, the Indian Ministry of Defence (MoD) decided that the IAF would receive the 22 AH-64s as it
was an ongoing acquisition.[226] In May 2013, the Indian
Army requested 11 AH-64Es;[227] and has a requirement
for 39 Apaches.[228] In August 2014, the Indian Ministry of Defence approved the AH-64 procurement, nal approval from the Cabinet Committee on Security is
required.[229]
In 2009, South Korea showed interest in acquiring
Apaches.[230][231] This move may be related to U.S. plans
to withdraw many of its Apaches from South Korea.[232]
On 21 September 2012, the U.S. Congress was notied of
the possible purchase of 36 AH-64D Block III Apaches,
along with associated equipment and armament.[233] The
Apache competed against the Bell AH-1Z Viper and the
TAI/AgustaWestland T-129;[234] in April 2013, South
Korea announced that it is to purchase 36 AH-64Es.[235]
The Apaches are to be delivered from 2016 to 2018.[236]
On 26 August 2013, the U.S. and Indonesia formalized a
$500 million deal for 8 AH-64E Apaches.[237]
Iraq requested the sale of 24 AH-64s in April 2013;[238]
In January 2014, a sale, including the helicopters, associated parts, maintenance, and training, was cleared
by Congress.[239][240] However, the proposal was not accepted by the Iraqi government and expired in August
2014.[241] In July 2012, Qatar requested the sale of 24
AH-64D Apache Block III helicopters, with associated
equipment, training, and support.[242] The sale was approved on 27 March 2014.[243]
9.4 Variants
9.4.1 AH-64A
In 2008, the Indian Air Force (IAF) released a tender for 22 attack helicopters; there were six contending submissionsSikorskys UH-60 Black Hawk, the
AH-64D, Bells AH-1 Super Cobra, Eurocopter's Tiger,
Mils Mi-28 and AgustaWestlands A129 Mangusta.[218]
In October 2008, Boeing and Bell withdrew.[219] In 2009,
the competition was restarted and a new Apache proposal was submitted.[220][221] In December 2010, India
requested the possible sale of 22 AH-64Ds and associated equipment.[222] On 5 October 2012, IAF Chief NAK
Browne conrmed the AH-64D Block IIIs selection.[223]
In October 2012, India transferred most armed helicopters from the IAF to the Army Aviation Corps.[224]
The IAF sought to maintain control of the 22 proposed
Apaches for air combat missions, the Indian Army argued
that they would be better used in army operations.[225] In
9.4. VARIANTS
89
9.4.3
AH-64C
9.4.4
Israeli AH-64D
The aircraft is powered by a pair of uprated T700GE-701C engines. The forward fuselage was expanded
to accommodate new systems to improve survivability,
navigation, and 'tactical internet' communications capabilities. In February 2003, the rst Block II Apache
was delivered to the U.S. Army, featuring digital communications upgrades. The Japanese Apache AH-64DJP
variant is based on the AH-64D;[131] it can be equipped
with the AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles for selfdefense.[254][255]
AH-64D
9.4.5 AH-64E
90
oversea capacity, potentially enabling naval strikes; an Apache (assembled from kits purchased from Boeing)
AESA radar is under consideration.[266] The E model is is based on the AH-64D Block I with several dierent
to be t for maritime operations.[267]
systems, including more powerful engines, folding rotor
blades, and other modications for operation from Royal
Navy vessels.
9.4.6
AH-64F
9.4.7
Sea Apache
9.5 Operators
Egypt
9.4.8
Export Apaches
Israel
Israeli Air Force (AH-64A/D)[276]
91
Japan
United Kingdom
Netherlands
[276]
Republic of China
92
Lockheed Martin / Northrop Grumman AN/APG78 Longbow re-control radar[278] (Note: can only
be mounted on the AH-64D/E)
Powerplant: 2 General Electric T700-GE701 and later upgraded to T700-GE-701C (1990 Main article: AH-64 Apache in ction
present) & T700-GE-701D (AH-64E) turboshafts,
701: 1,690 shp, 701C: 1,890 shp, 701D: 2,000
shp (701: 1,260 kW, 701C: 1,409 kW, 701D:
1,490 kW) each
9.8 See also
Fuselage length: 49 ft 5 in (15.06 m)
Rotor systems: 4 blade main rotor, 4 blade tail rotor in non-orthogonal alignment
Performance
AgustaWestland Apache
Maximum speed: 158 knots (182 mph, 293 km/h) Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
Cruise speed: 143 knots (165 mph, 265 km/h)
Range: 257 nmi (295 mi, 476 km) with Longbow
radar mast
Combat radius: 260 nmi (300 mi, 480 km)
Ferry range: 1,024 nmi (1,180 mi, 1,900 km)
Service ceiling: 21,000 ft (6,400 m) minimum
loaded
Rate of climb: 2,500 ft/min (12.7 m/s)
Disc loading: 9.80 lb/ft (47.9 kg/m)
Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (0.31 kW/kg)
Armament
9.9. REFERENCES
9.9 References
Notes
[1] Israel had already used Tzefa (), Hebrew for Viper to
name its Bell AH-1 Cobras.[138] Donald 2004 states Peten
translates to Viper.[131]
Citations
[1] Boeing Marks 25th Anniversary of Apache First Flight
Sept. 30. Boeing. 2 October 2000.
[2] Haynes, Mary L. and Cheryl Morai Young, ed.
Department of the Army Historical Summary, FY 1987,
Chapter 5: Modernizing and Equipping the Army. Center of Military History, United States Army, 1995.
[3] Sterling, Robert. Apache helicopters roar ahead. Boeing.com. Boeing. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
[4] Modernizing the Armys Rotary-Wing Aviation Fleet.
Congressional Budget Oce. November 2007.
[5] United States Department Of Defense Fiscal Year 2015
Budget Request Program Acquisition Cost By Weapon
System (PDF). Oce Of The Under Secretary Of Defense (Comptroller)/ Chief Financial Ocer. March
2014. p. 18.
93
[34] Arbitrator will rule on AH-64 fuselage production dispute. Flight International. 8 April 1998.
[37] Hoyle, Craig (15 October 2008). Greece urged to commit to Apache upgrade, as air force eyes new utility
model. Flight International.
[41] Hudson, Joel B. (2 April 1997). Attack Helicopter Operations (PDF). Department of the Army. p. 166.
[46] T700-GE-701D Engine Awarded U.S. Army Qualication. GE Aviation. 4 November 2004.
94
[71] Raytheon gets Stinger contract for Korean Apaches Shephardmedia.com, 3 April 2015.
[72] Apache-UAV teaming combines 'best capabilities of
man, machine'". Army.mil, 8 May 2014
[73] Boeing Apache demonstrates UAV Control.
mag.com, 12 April 2006.
giz-
New
[68] Helicopter rescue bid for Marine. BBC News. 17 January 2007.
[69] Raytheon Sells Stingers for Apaches Abroad - DoDBuzz.com, 23 October 2013
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95
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[99] Luttwak 2001, pp. 7880.
[123] US Armys AH-64Es reach initial operating capability [100] Adams 2006, p. 61.
Flightglobal.com, 27 November 2013
[101] Bishop 2005, pp. 3335.
[102] Bernstein 2005, pp. 1617.
[103] Afghan Field Report: British WAH-64Ds. Defense Industry Daily. 26 November 2007.
[104] Christopher Roney inquest: 'Failures led to friendly re
death'". BBC News. 7 September 2012.
[105] Adams 2006, pp. 223224.
[106] Bishop 2005, pp. 3537.
[107] Schechter, Erik (13 June 2003). Choppers On The
Chopping Block?". Jerusalem Post.
[124] Armys First AH-64E Unit Deploys to Afghanistan DoDBuzz.com, 5 May 2014
[125] US Army Gearing Up for Apache Link 16 Test - Defensenews.com, 26 June 2014
[126] US Army details combat experience with AH-64E Flightglobal.com, 14 October 2014
[127] Budgets & 'Betrayal': National Guard Fights To Keep
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[128] Head, Elan. "Arizona Guard leader blasts Army plan to
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[108] U.S. Apache Pilots Taken Prisoner. CNN. 24 March [129] First of 10 Apache units converts, adds 12 Shadow UASs
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[109] Fred Kaplan (23 April 2003). Chop The Chopper: [130] Army Apache helos used in strikes against Islamic State.
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[131] Donald 2004, p. 157.
[110] A City And Regime Steel For Reckoning To Come.
[132] Orme, William A. (3 February 2000). Israeli Says U.S.
Sydney Morning Herald. 26 March 2003.
Fears Endanger Major Purchase of Apache Copters.
[111] The 'Apache' Farmers Tale. BBC News. 23 April
New York Times.
2003. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
[133] Pinkas, Alon (23 March 1994). IA Experts Criticize
Air Force For Preferring Apache Over Upgraded Cobra.
[112] Downed Apache Blown Up To Keep Secrets From Iraq.
Jerusalem Post.
Evening Times. 25 March 2003.
[113] Downed US Apache Blown Up With Missile. New [134] Israel Accepts First AH-64D Apache Longbows. Boeing. 11 April 2005.
Straits Times. 26 March 2003.
[114] Surface-to-Air Missile Downed U.S. Chopper In Iraq. [135] Powers 2002, pp. 11, 49.
ABC News. 17 January 2006.
[136] Bryen, Shoshana (23 January 2010). QME, Part II:
U.S. Arms Sales To The Arabs, And Will There Be Help
[115] Geotagging poses security risks
For Israel. Right Side News. Indeed, Israels request
[116] Helicopter crashes in eastern Afghanistan. ISAF Infor six AH-64D Apache Longbow attack helicopters was
ternational Security Assistance Force. 6 January 2012.
blocked by the Obama Administration in June-the same
Retrieved 28 February 2012.
time the Egyptian sale was approved. U.S. sources reported that the request was undergoing an interagency
[117] Marlborough Soldier Dies In Helicopter Crash In
review to determine whether additional Longbow heliAfghanistan. Wmur.com. 2011-05-28. Retrieved 2013copters would threaten Palestinian civilians in the Gaza
11-16.
Strip.
[118] Army Chief Warrant Ocer 3 William T. Flanigan. [137] Administration Blocks Helicopters for Israel due to
militarytimes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
Civilian Casualties in Gaza. World Tribune. 27 May
2009.
[119] Amputee Combat Vet Daniel McConnells Inspiring
Story. celebdirtylaundry.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [138] Donald 2004, p. 191.
[120] AH-64D Apache Overview (PDF). Boeing. Retrieved [139] Alon, Ben-David (18 October 2007). Performance Dis30 July 2011.
pute Puts Israeli Apache Buy On Hold. Janes Information Group.
[121] Leaked Audit: Boeing Overcharged Army Up to
177,000 Percent on Helicopter Spare Parts. Project On [140] Smolowe, Jill (2 March 1992). Vengeance Is Mine.
Government Oversight (POGO). 28 June 2011.
Time.
96
[141] Kampeas, Ron (25 July 1993). Thousands Flee Fleet, [163] Cook, Nick (1 May 1995). High Noon For Tiger And
Fickle Missiles. Lakeland Ledger.
Apache. Interavia Business & Technology.
[142] Three Killed In Hizbollah, Israeli Retaliatory Attacks. [164] Flannery, William (14 July 1995). Mac Lands $3.5 BilNew Straits Times. 24 December 1994.
lion Copter Order British Buying 67 Antitank Craft.
St. Louis Post-Dispatch.
[143] Fisk 2005, pp.773788.
[165] RTM 322. Turbomeca. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
[144] Urquhart, Conal; Gaby Hinsli (18 April 2004). Israeli
Missile Attack Kills New Hamas Chief. The Guardian [166] Apache Moves Closer To Front Line. Navy News. 11
(London, UK).
May 2004.
[145] Philps, Alan (24 August 2001). Second Israeli Rocket [167] McDonnell In Talks With Dutch On Apache Role. St.
Attack Misses Target. The Telegraph (London, UK).
Louis Post-Dispatch. 13 April 1989.
[146] Israeli Air Victories. jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 30 Au[168] Dutch May Buy McDonnell Copter. St. Louis Postgust 2004.
Dispatch. 14 December 1994.
[147] Whitaker, Brian (23 March 2004). Assassination
[169] Fitchett, Joseph (13 April 1995). Ignoring EU Solidarity,
method: surveillance drone and a Hellre missile. The
The Dutch Opt For U.S. Helicopters. New York Times.
Guardian (London).
[148] The Life And Death Of Shaikh Yasin. Al Jazeera. [170] Flannery, William (8 April 1995). McDonnell Wins Big
Helicopter Contract But Layos Are Looming At ComArchived from the original on 16 August 2007.
mercial Air Arm. St. Louis Post-Dispatch.
[149] Blanford, Nicholas (8 August 2006). Hezbollahs Hidden
Stronghold Sends Death Across The Border. The Times [171] First AH-64D Apache Pilots From The Netherlands
Complete Training At Boeing. Boeing. 29 March 1999.
(UK).
[150] Ilsemann, Siegesmund von (31 July 2006). Israelis Puz- [172] Boeing Delivers 30th AH-64D Apache to Royal Netherlands Air Force. Boeing. 10 June 2002.
zling Military Strategy. Der Spiegel.
[151] Hezbollah Dees Israeli Pressure. BBC News. 21 July [173] News: Last dutch Apache delivered. helis.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
2006.
[152] Egozi, Arie (1 August 2006). Israeli Air Power Falls [174] Aircraft Survivability Equipment (PDF). TERMA. July
Short As Oensive In Southern Lebanon Fails To Halt
2004.
Hezbollah Rocket Attacks. Flight International.
[175] AMASE/DIRCM Pod During Flight Certication Test[153] Egozi, Arie (27 February 2009). Israel seeks more
ing in the Netherlands (PDF). TERMA. July 2006.
Apache attack helicopters. Flight International.
[176] Strass, Marc (6 March 2002). Army Conducts First De[154] Israeli choppers blast Gaza City. oil.co.za. 3 December
ployment of AH-64D Apache Longbows To Kuwait. De2001.
fense Daily.
[155] Israeli airstrike in Gaza kills one, wounds 2.
glish.eastday.com. 6 November 2011.
[156] Israel expands Gaza oensive. euronews.com. 6 Jan[178] Six Apaches to Iraq to Boost Security. Government.nl.
uary 2009.
24 May 2004.
[157] Israels AH-64A Attack Helos Get Custom Upgrades
[179] More Dutch troops for Afghanistan. BBC News. 3
Despite the USA. Defense Industry Daily, 17 March
February 2006.
2014.
[158] Israel Upgrades Apache Helicopters After US Blocked [180] Two Peacekeeping Helicopters Fired on in Kabul. CTV
News. 10 April 2004.
Their Modernization. World Tribune, 14 March 2014.
[159] Egozi, Arie (30 June 2010). Israel ditches Apache up- [181] Gravemaker, Anno (18 December 2007). Dutch Apache
Accident Leaves 50,000 Homes Without Power. Flight
grade plan, commits to CH-53K. Flight International.
International.
[160] Katz, Yaajov (31 December 2010). Rapid-re rocket
system aims to reduce civilian casualties. Jerusalem Post. [182] 2 Apache-vliegers omgekomen in Mali. defensie.nl.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[161] Egozi, Arie Israeli Apache upgrade adds avionics pod.
[183] Apache Copters All Set if Iraqis Make a Move. Eugene
Flight International, 8 October 2013.
Register-Guard. 25 August 1990.
[162] British Army receives 67th Apache in ceremony held at
the Farnborough Airshow 2004. AgustaWestland. 21 [184] Jehl, Douglas (22 January 1991). Desert Air, Sands
July 2004.
Alive With Modern Warriors. Los Angeles Times.
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[185] Koenig, Robert L. (3 June 1992). Bush Endorses Sale [207] Fiszer, Michal (1 October 2003). Greece Buying New
Of Arms To Saudis...McDonnell Douglas Could Benet
Helicopters (12 AH-64D Longbow helicopters)". Journal
from Pact. St Louis Post-Dispatch.
of Electronic Defense.
[186] U.S. Plans $1.8 Billion Saudi Military Sale. Washington [208] Singapore to Purchase 12 Additional Boeing AH-64D
Apache Longbows. Boeing. 23 August 2001.
Post. 3 June 1992.
[187] Friedman, Thomas L. (15 September 1992). U.S. and [209] Apache training suspended. The Straits Times. 1 October 2010.
Israel Working Out Deal To Oset Warplane Sale to
Saudis. New York Times.
[210] Fuji Heavy Industries Delivers First Apache Longbow
Helicopter to Japanese Government Under Boeing Li[188] The 2006 Saudi Shopping Spree: $400M to Upgrade
censing Agreement. Boeing. 15 March 2006.
AH-64A Apache Helicopters. Defense Industry Daily.
1 August 2006.
[211] Trimble, Stepehen (10 June 2011). Taiwan buys 30 AH64 Apaches. Flight International.
[189] Shalal-Esa, Andrea (12 September 2008). US OKs sale
of Boeing helicopters to Saudi Arabia. Reuters.
[214] Taiwans AH-64Es Grounded After Apache Crash Armedforces-Int.com, 25 April 2014
[215] Crash destroys Taiwanese AH-64E Apache - Flightglobal.com, 26 April 2014
[216] Pilots Blamed for Taiwan Apache Crash - Defense[194] Saudi Military Operations along the Yemen Border Renews.com, 15 July 2014
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January 2010.
[217] Taiwan received fth and last batch of AH-64E Apache
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[195] Yemen rebels announce pullout from Saudi land. The
Jordan Times. 26 January 2010.
[218] IAF conducting trials for attack helicopters. Hindustan
Times. 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
[196] Bishop 2005, pp. 4044.
[219] Govindasamy, Siva (10 October 2008). Bell, Boeing
[197] Bishop 2005, p. 42.
Quit Indian Attack Helicopter Contest. Flight International.
[198] Egypt to Upgrade 35 Apaches to AH-64D Conguration. Boeing, 25 September 2000.
[220] Boeing Submits Proposals To India For Apache And
Chinook Helicopters. Boeing. 23 October 2009.
[199] Feldman 2004, p. 106.
[221] US government details AH-64D bid for Indian air force
[200] AH-64D Apache Longbow helicopters for Egypt. Decontract. Flight International. 4 January 2011.
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[222] India Support for Direct Commercial Sale of AH-64D
[201] Egypt Aims to Add AH-64D Block II Attack HeliBlock III APACHE Helicopters (PDF). US Defense Secopters. Defense Industry Daily. 28 May 2009.
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[202] Egypt launches airstrikes in Sinai after troop massacre. [223] IAF getting 22 Apache helicopters: NAK Browne. InCNN, 8 August 2012.
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[203] Friedman, Ron. Israel allows Egypt to keep attack heli- [224] The Indian Army Wins A Big One. Strategypage.com,
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[204] US Copters Set For Middle East. Toledo Blade. 4 June [225] Going To War Over Gunships. Strategypage.com, 3
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[232] Sung-ki, Jung (8 February 2009). US May Withdraw [256] Whittle, Richard Army Loves AH-64D Block III enough
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[233] Republic of Korea (ROK) AH-64D APACHE Attack
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[257] Bledsoe, Sophia. Team Apache announces nickname for
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Bibliography
TM 1-1520-251-10 Technical Manual for Helicopter, Attack, AH-64D Longbow Apache, U.S.
Army.
Bernstein, Jonathan. AH-64 Apache units of operations: Enduring Freedom an Iraqi Freedom. Oxford
: Osprey Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-84176-848-0.
Chapter 10
Origins
10.1 Development
100
10.1. DEVELOPMENT
101
issued bid invitations for these specications, with Boe- design was capable of being adapted to new aviation teching, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Com- nology and more stringent requirements.[26] In January
pany submitting proposals.[13]
1948 Boeing was instructed to thoroughly explore recent
including aerial refueling and
On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, a straight-wing technological innovations,
[27]
the
ying
wing.
Noting
stability
and control problems
aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a
Northrop
was
experiencing
with
their
YB-35 and YB-49
gross weight of 360,000 pounds (160,000 kg) and a comying
wing
bombers,
Boeing
insisted
on a conventional
bat radius of 3,110 miles (2,700 nmi, 5,010 km), was
aircraft,
and
in
April
1948
presented
a US$30 million
[14]
declared the winner.
On 28 June 1946, Boeing was
(US$294 million today[28] ) proposal for design, construcissued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build
[29]
a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do prelim- tion, and testing of two Model 464-35 prototypes. The
Model 464-35 design had a similar conguration as a later
inary engineering and testing.[15] However, by October
Union, the
1946, the air force began to express concern about the Tupolev design that was built for the Soviet
Tupolev Tu-95 Bear strategic bomber.[30] Further revisheer size of the new aircraft and its inability to meet
the specied design requirements.[16] In response, Boe- sions during 1948 resulted in an aircraft with a top speed
of 513 miles per hour (445 kn, 825 km/h) at 35,000 feet
ing produced Model 464, a smaller four-engine version
with a 230,000 pound (105,000 kg) gross weight, which (10,700 m), a range of 6,909 miles (6,005 nmi, 11,125
km), and a 280,000 pounds (125,000 kg) gross weight,
was briey deemed acceptable.[16][17]
which included 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of bombs and
Subsequently, in November 1946, the Deputy Chief of 19,875 US gallons (75,225 L) of fuel.[31][32]
Air Sta for Research and Development, General Curtis
LeMay, expressed the desire for a cruise speed of 400
miles per hour (345 kn, 645 km/h), to which Boeing re- 10.1.2 Design eort
sponded with a 300,000 lb (136,000 kg) aircraft.[18] In
December 1946, Boeing was asked to change their design
to a four-engine bomber with a top speed of 400 miles per
hour, range of 12,000 miles (10,000 nmi, 19,300 km),
and the ability to carry a nuclear weapon; in total, the aircraft could weigh up to 480,000 pounds (220,000 kg).[19]
Boeing responded with two models powered by the T35 turboprops. The Model 464-16 was a nuclear only
bomber with a 10,000 pound (4,500 kg) payload, while
the Model 464-17 was a general purpose bomber with a
9,000 pound (4,000 kg) payload.[19] Due to the cost associated with purchasing two specialized aircraft, the air
force selected Model 464-17 with the understanding that
it could be adapted for nuclear strikes.[20]
In June 1947, the military requirements were updated and XB-52 Prototype on ight line (X-4 in foreground)
the Model 464-17 met all of them except for the range.[21]
It was becoming obvious to the air force that, even with
the updated performance, the XB-52 would be obsolete
by the time it entered production and would oer little
improvement over the Convair B-36; as a result, the entire project was postponed for six months.[22] During this
time, Boeing continued to perfect the design, which resulted in the Model 464-29 with a top speed of 455 miles
per hour (395 kn, 730 km/h) and a 5,000-mile range.[23]
In September 1947, the Heavy Bombardment Committee was convened to ascertain performance requirements
for a nuclear bomber. Formalized on 8 December 1947,
these requirements called for a top speed of 500 miles
per hour (440 kn, 800 km/h) and an 8,000 mile (7,000
nmi, 13,000 km) range, far beyond the capabilities of
Side view of YB-52 bomber, with bubble canopy similar to that
464-29.[22][24]
of the B-47
The outright cancellation of the Boeing contract on 11
December 1947 was staved o by a plea from its pres- In May 1948, AMC asked Boeing to incorporate the preident William McPherson Allen to the Secretary of the viously discarded, but now more fuel-ecient, jet engine
[33]
Air Force Stuart Symington.[25] Allen reasoned that the into the design. That resulted in the development of yet
another revision in July 1948, Model 464-40 substituted
102
Westinghouse J40 turbojets for the turboprops.[34] The
air force project ocer who reviewed the Model 46440 was favorably impressed, especially since he had already been thinking along similar lines. Nevertheless, the
government was concerned about the high fuel consumption rate of the jet engines of the day, and directed that
Boeing still use the turboprop-powered Model 464-35 as
the basis for the XB-52. Although he agreed that turbojet propulsion was the future, General Howard A. Craig,
Deputy Chief of Sta for Material, was not very keen
on a jet-powered B-52, since he felt that the jet engine
had not yet progressed suciently to permit skipping an
intermediate turboprop stage. However, Boeing was encouraged to continue turbojet studies even without any
expected commitment to jet propulsion.[35][36]
On Thursday, 21 October 1948, Boeing engineers
George S. Schairer, Art Carlsen and Vaughn Blumenthal
presented the design of a four-engine turboprop bomber
to the chief of bomber development, Colonel Pete Warden. Warden was disappointed by the projected aircraft
and asked if the Boeing team could come up with a proposal for a four-engine turbojet bomber. Joined by Ed
Wells, Boeing vice president of engineering, the engineers worked that night in the Hotel Van Cleve in Dayton,
Ohio, redesigning Boeings proposal as a four-engine turbojet bomber. On Friday, Colonel Warden looked over
the information and asked for a better design. Returning
to the hotel, the Boeing team was joined by Bob Withington and Maynard Pennell, two top Boeing engineers who
were in town on other business.[37]
By late Friday night, they had laid out what was essentially
a new airplane. The new design (464-49) built upon the
basic layout of the B-47 Stratojet with 35 degree swept
wings, eight engines paired in four underwing pods, and
bicycle landing gear with wingtip outrigger wheels.[38] A
notable feature of the landing gear was the ability to pivot
the main landing gear up to 20 from the aircraft centerline to increase safety during crosswind landings.[39]
After a trip to a hobby shop for supplies, Schairer set
to work building a model. The rest of the team focused
on weight and performance data. Wells, who was also a
skilled artist, completed the aircraft drawings. On Sunday, a stenographer was hired to type a clean copy of the
proposal. On Monday, Schairer presented Colonel Warden with a neatly bound 33-page proposal and a 14-inch
scale model.[37] The aircraft was projected to exceed all
design specications.[40]
Although the full-size mock-up inspection in April 1949
was generally favorable, range again became a concern since the J40s and early model J57s had excessive fuel consumption.[41] Despite talk of another revision of specications or even a full design competition
among aircraft manufacturers, General LeMay, now in
charge of Strategic Air Command, insisted that performance should not be compromised due to delays in engine
development.[42][43] In a nal attempt to increase range,
Boeing created the larger 464-67, stating that once in
10.1.3 Pre-production
The YB-52, the second XB-52 modied with more operational equipment, rst ew on 15 April 1952 with
Tex Johnston as pilot.[49][50] During ground testing
on 29 November 1951, the XB-52s pneumatic system
failed during a full-pressure test; the resulting explosion
severely damaged the trailing edge of the wing, necessitating considerable repairs. A two-hour, 21-minute proving ight from Boeing Field, King County, in Seattle,
Washington to Larson AFB was undertaken with Boeing test pilot Johnston and air force Lieutenant Colonel
Guy M. Townsend.[51] The XB-52 followed on 2 October 1952.[52] The thorough development,[Note 3] including
670 days in the wind tunnel and 130 days of aerodynamic
and aeroelastic testing, paid o with smooth ight testing. Encouraged, the air force increased its order to 282
B-52s.[54]
10.2. DESIGN
the establishment of curfews for engine tests. Aircraft
were ferried 150 miles (240 km) east on their maiden
ights to Larson Air Force Base near Moses Lake, where
they were fully tested.[67]
103
Pacer Plank reskinning, completed in 1977.[72][80] The
wet wing introduced on G and H models was even more
susceptible to fatigue, experiencing 60% more stress during ight than the old wing. The wings were modied by
1964 under ECP 1050.[81] This was followed by a fuselage skin and longeron replacement (ECP 1185) in 1966,
and the B-52 Stability Augmentation and Flight Control
program (ECP 1195) in 1967.[81] Fuel leaks due to deteriorating Marman clamps continued to plague all variants of the B-52. To this end, the aircraft were subjected to Blue Band (1957), Hard Shell (1958), and nally QuickClip (1958) programs. The latter tted safety
straps that prevented catastrophic loss of fuel in case of
clamp failure.[82]
10.2.2 Avionics
B-52H (61-0023), congured at the time as a testbed to investigate structural failures, still ying after its vertical stabilizer
sheared o in severe turbulence on 10 January 1964. The aircraft landed safely[77]
A view of the lower deck of the B-52, dubbed the battle station
104
(1973).[85]
To improve operations at low altitude, the AN/ASQ151 Electro-Optical Viewing System (EVS), which consisted of a Low Light Level Television (LLLTV) and a
Forward looking infrared (FLIR) system mounted in blisters under the noses of B-52Gs and Hs between 1972
and 1976.[86] The navigational capabilities of the B-52
were later augmented with the addition of GPS in the
1980s.[87] The IBM AP-101, also used on the Rockwell
B-1 Lancer bomber and the Space Shuttle, was the B-52s
main computer.[88]
In 2007 the LITENING targeting pod was tted, which
increased the eectiveness of the aircraft in the attack
of ground targets with a variety of stando weapons, using laser guidance, a high-resolution forward-looking infrared sensor (FLIR), and a CCD camera used to obtain target imagery.[89] LITENING pods have been tted to a wide variety of other US aircraft, such as the
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the McDonnell Douglas AV8B Harrier II.[90]
10.2.3
Armament
10.2.4 Engines
For a study for the U.S. Air Force in the mid-1970s,
Boeing investigated replacing the engines, changing to
a new wing, and other improvements to upgrade B52G/H aircraft as an alternative to the B-1A, then in
development.[104] Boeing later suggested re-engining the
B-52H eet with the Rolls-Royce RB211 535E-4.[105]
This would involve replacing the eight Pratt & Whitney
TF33s (total thrust 8 17,000 lb) with four RB211s (total thrust 4 37,400 lb)which would increase range
and reduce fuel consumption, at a cost of approximately
US$2.56 billion for the whole eet (71 aircraft at $36 million each). A Government Accountability Oce study
concluded that Boeings estimated savings of US$4.7 bil-
105
March 1956. The training for B-52 crews consisted of
ve weeks of ground school and four weeks of ying, accumulating 35 to 50 hours in the air. The new B-52Bs
replaced operational B-36s on a one-to-one basis.[111]
10.2.5
Costs
Early operations were problematic;[112] in addition to supply problems, technical issues also struck.[113] Ramps and
taxiways deteriorated under the aircrafts weight, the fuel
system was prone to leaks and icing,[114] and bombing and
re control computers were unreliable.[113] The split level
cockpit presented a temperature control problem the
pilots cockpit was heated by sunlight while the observer
and the navigator on the bottom deck sat on the ice-cold
oor. Thus, a comfortable temperature setting for the
pilots caused the other crew members to freeze, while
a comfortable temperature for the bottom crew caused
the pilots to overheat.[115] The J57 engines proved unreliable. Alternator failure caused the rst fatal B-52
crash in February 1956;[116] as a result the eet was briey
grounded. In July, fuel and hydraulic issues grounded the
B-52s again. In response to maintenance issues, the air
force set up Sky Speed teams of 50 contractors at each
B-52 base to perform maintenance and routine checkups,
taking an average of one week per aircraft.[117]
106
The B-52 set many records over the next few years. On
26 September 1958, a B-52D set a world speed record of
560.705 miles per hour (487 kn, 902 km/h) over a 10,000
kilometers (5,400 nmi, 6,210 mi) closed circuit without
a payload. The same day, another B-52D established a
world speed record of 597.675 miles per hour (519 kn,
962 km/h) over a 5,000 kilometer (2,700 nmi, 3,105
mi) closed circuit without a payload.[80] On 14 December 1960, a B-52G set a world distance record by ying
unrefueled for 10,078.84 miles (8,762 nmi, 16,227 km);
the ight lasted 19 hours 44 minutes (510.75 mph).[121]
From 10 to 11 January 1962, a B-52H set a world distance record by ying unrefueled, surpassing the prior B52 record set two years earlier, from Kadena Air Base,
Okinawa, Japan, to Torrejon Air Base, Spain, which covered 12,532.28 miles (10,895 nmi, 20,177 km).[61] The
ight passed over Seattle, Fort Worth and the Azores.
10.3.2
Cold War
Throughout the Cold War, B-52s and other US strategic bombers performed airborne alert patrols under code
names such as Head Start, Chrome Dome, Hard Head,
Round Robin, and Giant Lance. Bombers loitered at high
altitude near the borders of the Soviet Union to provide
rapid rst strike or retaliation capability in case of nuclear
war.[124] These airborne patrols formed one component
107
pound bombs or from 27 to 42 750 pound bombs.[139] The
modication created enough capacity for a total of 60,000
pounds (27,215 kg) in 108 bombs. Thus modied, B52Ds could carry 22,000 pounds (9,980 kg) more than
B-52Fs.[140] Designed to replace B-52Fs, modied B52Ds entered combat in April 1966 ying from Andersen
Air Force Base, Guam. Each bombing mission lasted
10 to 12 hours with an aerial refueling by KC-135 Stratotankers.[49] In spring 1967, the aircraft began ying
from U Tapao Aireld in Thailand giving the aircraft the
advantage of not requiring in-ight refueling.[139]
The B-52s were restricted to bombing suspected Communist bases in relatively uninhabited sections, because their
Soviet specialists inspect the wreckage of the B-52 Stratofortress potency approached that of a tactical nuclear weapon.
shot down near Hanoi 23 December 1972
A formation of six B-52s, dropping their bombs from
30,000 feet, could take out... almost everything within
Bombardment Squadrons struck a communist stronghold a box approximately ve-eights mile wide by two miles
near the Bn Ct District in South Vietnam. The rst long. Whenever Arc Light struck ... in the vicinity of
wave of bombers arrived too early at a designated ren- Saigon, the city woke from the tremor..
dezvous point, and while maneuvering to maintain sta- Neil Sheehan, war correspondent, writing before the mass
tion, two B-52s collided, which resulted in the loss of both attacks to heavily populated cities including North Vietnams
bombers and eight crewmen. The remaining bombers, capital.[141]
minus one more that turned back due to mechanical
problems, continued toward the target.[135] Twenty-seven
Stratofortresses dropped on a one-mile by two-mile tar- On 22 November 1972, a B-52D (55-0110) from Uget box from between 19,000 and 22,000 feet, a little Tapao was hit by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) while
more than 50% of the bombs falling within the target on a raid over Vinh. The crew was forced to abandon the
This was the rst B-52
zone.[136] The force returned to Andersen AFB except damaged aircraft over Thailand.
[142]
destroyed
by
hostile
re.
In
total,
31 B-52s were lost
for one bomber with electrical problems that recovered
during
the
war,
which
included
10
B-52s
shot down over
to Clark AFB, the mission having lasted 13 hours. Post[143]
North
Vietnam.
strike assessment by teams of South Vietnamese troops
with American advisors found evidence that the VC had The zenith of B-52 attacks in Vietnam was Operation
departed the area before the raid, and it was suspected Linebacker II (sometimes referred to as the Christmas
that inltration of the souths forces may have tipped o Bombing) which consisted of waves of B-52s (mostly D
the north because of the ARVN troops involved in the models, but some Gs without jamming equipment and
post-strike inspection.[137]
with a smaller bomb load). Over 12 days, B-52s ew
729 sorties[144] and dropped 15,237 tons of bombs on
Hanoi, Haiphong, and other targets.[87][145] Originally 42
B-52s were committed to the war; however, numbers
were frequently twice this gure.[146] During Operation
Linebacker II, fteen B-52s were shot down, ve were
heavily damaged (one crashed in Laos), and ve suered
medium damage. A total of 25 crewmen were killed in
these losses.[147] North Vietnam claimed 34 B-52s were
shot down.[148]
Air-to-air victories
Beginning in late 1965, a number of B-52Ds underwent Big Belly modications to increase bomb capacity
for carpet bombings.[138] While the external payload remained at 24 500 pound (227 kg) or 750 pound (340 kg)
bombs, the internal capacity increased from 27 to 84 500
During the Vietnam War, B-52D tail gunners were credited with shooting down two MiG-21 Fishbeds. On
18 December 1972, tail gunner Sta Sergeant Samuel
O. Turners B-52 had just completed a bomb run for
Operation Linebacker II and was turning away when a
North Vietnamese Air Force MiG-21 approached.[169]
The MiG and the B-52 locked onto one another. When
the ghter drew within range, Turner red his quad (four
guns on one mounting) .50 caliber machine guns.[170] The
108
10.3.4
1968, but the bulk (82) were retired between May 1969
and March 1970. Most F models were also retired between 1967 and 1973, but 23 survived as trainers until
late 1978. The eet of D models served much longer; 80
D models were extensively overhauled under the Pacer
Plank program during the mid-1970s.[178] Skinning on
the lower wing and fuselage was replaced, and various
structural components were renewed. The eet of D
models stayed largely intact until late 1978, when 37
not already upgraded Ds were retired.[179] The remainder
were retired between 1982 and 1983.[180]
The remaining G and H models were used for nuclear standby (alert) duty as part of the United States
nuclear triad. This triad was the combination of nucleararmed land-based missiles, submarine-based missiles and
manned bombers. The B-1, intended to supplant the B52, replaced only the older models and the supersonic FB111.[181] In 1991, B-52s ceased continuous 24-hour SAC
alert duty.[182]
After the fall of the Soviet Union, all B-52Gs remaining
in service were destroyed per the terms of the Strategic
Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneraton Center (AMRC) cut the 365 B52G bombers into pieces. Completion of the destruction
task was veried by Russia via satellite and rst-person
inspection at the AMARC facility.[183]
Storm. Starting on 16 January 1991, a ight of B52Gs ew from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, refueled in
the air en route, struck targets in Iraq, and returned
B-52H modied to carry two D-21 drones
home a journey of 35 hours and 14,000 miles round
trip. It set a record for longest-distance combat mission,
A few time-expired E models were retired in 1967 and breaking the record previously held by an RAF Vulcan
109
bomber in 1982; however, this was achieved using forward refueling.[185][186] B-52Gs operating from the King
Abdullah Air Base at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; RAF Fairford in the United Kingdom; Morn Air Base, Spain; and
the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean
Territory ew bombing missions over Iraq, initially at low
altitude. After the rst three nights, the B-52s moved to
high-altitude missions instead, which reduced their eectiveness and psychological impact compared to the low
altitude role initially played.[187]
The conventional strikes were carried out by three
bombers, which dropped up to 153 750-pound bombs
over an area of 1.5 by 1 mi (2.4 by 1.6 km). The bombings demoralized the defending Iraqi troops, many of
whom surrendered in the wake of the strikes.[188] In 1999,
the science and technology magazine Popular Mechanics described the B-52s role in the conict: The Bus
value was made clear during the Gulf War and Desert
Fox. The B-52 turned out the lights in Baghdad.[189]
During Operation Desert Storm, B-52s ew about 1,620
sorties, and delivered 40% of the weapons dropped by
coalition forces.[3]
During the conict, several claims of Iraqi air-to-air successes were made, including an Iraqi pilot, Khudai Hijab, who allegedly red a Vympel R-27R missile from
his MIG-29 and damaged a B-52G on the opening night
of the Gulf War.[190] However, the U.S. Air Force disputes this claim, stating the bomber was actually hit by
friendly re, an AGM-88 High-speed, Anti-Radiation
Missile (HARM) that homed on the re-control radar of
the B-52s tail gun; the jet was subsequently renamed In
HARMs Way.[191] Shortly following this incident, General George Lee Butler announced that the gunner position on B-52 crews would be eliminated, and the gun turrets permanently deactivated, commencing on 1 October
1991.[192]
From 2 to 3 September 1996, two B-52H bombers conducted a mission as part of Operation Desert Strike.
The B-52s struck Baghdad power stations and communications facilities with 13 AGM-86C conventional airlaunched cruise missiles (CALCM) during a 34-hour,
As of January 2013, 78 of the original 744 B-52 aircraft
16,000-mile round trip mission from Andersen AFB,
were operational in the U.S. Air Force.[201] Four of 18 BGuam the longest distance ever own for a combat
52Hs from Barksdale AFB being retired are in the bonemission.[193]
yard of 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB as of 8
Since the mid-1990s, the B-52H has been the only vari- September 2008.[202]
ant remaining in military service;[Note 7] it is currently stationed at:
110
mains an eective and economical heavy bomber, particularly in the type of missions that have been conducted since the end of the Cold War against nations that
have limited air defense capabilities. The B-52 has the
capacity to "loiter" for extended periods over (or even
well outside) the battleeld, and deliver precision stando and direct re munitions. It has been a valuable asset
in supporting ground operations during conicts such as
Operation Iraqi Freedom.[207] The B-52 had the highest
mission capable rate of the three types of heavy bombers
operated by the USAF in 2001. The B-1 averaged a
53.7% ready rate and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
achieved 30.3%, while the B-52 averaged 80.5% during
the 20002001 period.[184] The B-52s $72,000 cost per
hour of ight is more than the B-1Bs $63,000 cost per
hour, but less than the B-2s $135,000 per hour.[208]
JASSM-ER and the ADM-160C MALD-J. All 1760 IWBUs should be online by October 2017. As opposed to
three B-52s carrying 36 weapons, two bombers will have
the ability to carry 40 weapons, lowering the number of
crews and amounts of fuel needed for a mission, and
gives the option of putting more weapons on target with
the same number of aircraft.[214] The 1760 IWBU allows
precision-guided weapons to be deployed from inside the
weapons bay, increasing the number of guided weapons a
B-52 can carry and reducing the need for guided bombs to
be carried externally on wing hardpoints. The rst phase
will allow a B-52 to carry 24 500-pound JDAMs or 20
2,000-pound JDAMs, with later phases accommodating
the JASSM and MALD family of missiles.[215] In addition to carrying more smart bombs, moving them internally from the wings results in a 15 percent fuel savings
[216]
Additionally, a proposed variant of the B-52H was the and greater range from less drag.
EB-52. This version would have modied and augmented The Long Range Strike Bomber program is expected to
16 B-52H airframes with additional electronic jamming yield a stealthy B-52 and B-1 successor that would begin
capabilities.[209][210] This new aircraft would have given service in the 2020s. Two competitors, Northrop Grumthe USAF an airborne jamming capability that it has man and a joint team of Boeing and Lockheed Martin,
lacked since retiring the EF-111 Raven. The program submitted proposals in 2014. A contract to the winning
was canceled in 2005 following the removal of funds for team will be awarded in mid-2015. About 80100 airthe stand-o jammer. The program was revived in 2007, craft will be produced.[217]
but funding was again cut in early 2009.[211]
In 2012, it was announced that USAF engineering studies
suggest that the lifespan of the B-52 could extend beyond
2040.[212]
In July 2013, the Air Force began a eet-wide technological upgrade of its B-52 bombers called Combat Network
Communications Technology (CONECT) to modernize
electronics, communications technology, computing, and
avionics on the ight deck. CONECT upgrades include
software and hardware such as new servers, modems, radios, data-links, receivers, and digital workstations for
the crew. One piece is the ARC-210 Warrior beyondline-of-sight software programmable radio able to transmit voice, data, and information in-ight between B-52s
and ground command and control centers, allowing for
the transmission and receipt of data with updated intelligence, mapping, or targeting information; previous inight target changes required copying down coordinates,
while the ARC-210 allows machine-to-machine transfer
of data, useful on long-endurance missions where targets
may have changed locations when the B-52 was traveling.
The aircraft will be able to receive information through
Link-16. CONECT upgrades will cost $1.1 billion overall and take several years. Funding has been secured for
30 B-52s and the Air Force hopes for 10 CONECT upgrades per year, but the rate has yet to be determined.[213]
10.4 Variants
The B-52 went through several design changes and variants over its 10 years of production.[110]
XB-52 Two prototype aircraft with limited operational
equipment, used for aerodynamic and handling tests
YB-52 One XB-52 modied with some operational
equipment and re-designated
10.4. VARIANTS
111
(the crew was increased to eight in these
aircraft).[49] The 300 pound (136 kg) pod contained radio receivers, a combination of K-36,
K-38, and T-11 cameras, and two operators on
downward-ring ejection seats. The pod required only four hours to install.[116]
Seven B-52Bs were brought to B-52C standard
under Project Sunower.[221]
NB-52B The NB-52B was B-52B number 52-0008 converted to an X-15 launch platform. It subsequently
ew as the "Balls 8" in support of NASA research
until 17 December 2004, making it the oldest ying
B-52B. It was replaced by a modied B-52H.[222]
right wing between the fuselage and the inboard engines with a 6 feet x 8 feet (1.8 m x 2.4 m) section B-52C The B-52Cs fuel capacity (and range) was inremoved from the right wing ap to t the X-15 tail.
creased to 41,700 US gallons by adding larger 3000
Liquid oxygen and hydrogen peroxide tanks were
US gallon underwing fuel tanks. The gross weight
installed in the bomb bays to fuel the X-15 before
was increased by 30,000 pounds (13,605 kg) to
launch. Its rst ight with the X-15 was on 19 March
450,000 pounds. A new re control system, the
1959, with the rst launch on 8 June 1959. The NBMD-9, was introduced on this model.[141] The belly
52A, named The High and Mighty One carried the
of the aircraft was painted with antiash white paint,
X-15 on 93 of the programs 199 ights.[219]
which was intended to reect thermal radiation away
after a nuclear detonation.[223]
RB-52C The RB-52C was the designation initially given
to B-52Cs tted for reconnaissance duties in a similar manner to RB-52Bs. As all 35 B-52Cs could
be tted with the reconnaissance pod, the RB52C designation was little used and was quickly
abandoned.[223]
B-52B/RB-52B
The B-52B was the rst version to enter service with
the USAF on 29 June 1955 with the 93rd Bombard- B-52D dropping 500-lb bombs
ment Wing at Castle AFB in California.[218] This version included minor changes to engines and avionics,
enabling an extra 12,000 pounds of thrust using water B-52D The B-52D was a dedicated long-range bomber
injection.[220] Temporary grounding of the aircraft after
without a reconnaissance option. The Big Belly
a crash in February 1956 and again the following July
modications allowed the B-52D to carry heavy
caused training delays, and at mid-year there were still
loads of conventional bombs for carpet bombing
no combat-ready B-52 crews.[116]
over Vietnam,[220] while the Rivet Rambler modication added the Phase V ECM systems, which
Of the 50 B-52Bs built, 27 were capable of
was better than the systems used on most later Bcarrying a reconnaissance pod as RB-52Bs
52s. Because of these upgrades and its long range
112
were eliminated. Instead, spoilers provided roll control. The tail n was shortened by 8 feet (2.4 m),
water injection system capacity was increased to
1,200 US gallons (4,540 L), and the nose radome
was enlarged.[226] The tail gunner manning the 4
.50 caliber machine guns (quad mounted in a remote controlled tail turret on the G-model (ASG15), the guns were later removed from all operational aircraft) was relocated to the main cockpit and
was provided with an ejection seat.[225] Dubbed the
Battle Station concept, the oensive crew (pilot
and copilot on the upper deck and the two bombing navigation system operators on the lower deck)
faced forward, while the defensive crew (tail gunner
and ECM operator) on the upper deck faced aft.[141]
The B-52G entered service on 13 February 1959 (a
day earlier, the last B-36 was retired, making SAC
an all-jet bomber force). 193 B-52Gs were produced, making this the most produced B-52 variant.
Most B-52Gs were destroyed in compliance with the
1992 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty; the last B52G, number 58-0224, was dismantled under New
START treaty requirements in December 2013.[227]
A few examples remain on display for museums.[228]
113
On 11 February 1958, a B-52D crashed in South
Dakota because of ice blocking the fuel system,
leading to an uncommanded reduction in power
to all eight engines. Three crew members were
killed.[233]
On 8 September 1958, two B-52s collided in midair
near Fairchild AFB, Washington; all 13 crew members on the 2 aircraft are killed [234]
On 15 October 1959, a B-52 from the 492d Bomb
Squadron at Columbus AFB, Mississippi carrying 2
nuclear weapons collided in midair with a KC-135
tanker near Hardinsburg, Kentucky; 4 of the 8 crew
members on the bomber and all 4 crew on the tanker
were killed. One of the nuclear bombs was damaged
by re but both weapons were recovered.[234]
On 10 August 1959, a B-52 crashed in the Spruce
Swamp at Fremont, New Hampshire. The bomber
was on a routine training mission from Chicopee,
Mass., when its air speed indicator and altimeter
failed, which led to more serious malfunctions. The
B-52 was attempting to make an emergency landing
at Goose Bay, the only landing option not aected
by foggy weather conditions. However, it crashed
before making the landing. The U.S. Air Force reported that it was the rst B-52 crash where the entire crew survived; the crew parachuted to safety.
Debris from the crash covered a quarter-mile of
densely wooded swampland.[235]
114
lost its vertical stabilizer due to bueting during lowlevel ight, and crashed on the west side of Elephant
Mountain near Greenville, Maine. Of the nine crewmen aboard, two survived the crash.[240][241]
On 30 January 1963, a B-52E of the 6th Bomb Wing
from Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico, crashed
in snow-covered mountains in northern New Mexico
after turbulence tore o the vertical n. The ECM
operator and tail gunner were killed but at least
three crew (pilot, radio operator and one other crew
member) survived. Three Lockheed T-33 Shooting Stars and, later, three Douglas C-54 Skymaster
transports, circled the area trying to locate survivors;
the pilots reported that they saw two other survivors
after the rst man walked to safety.
On 10 January 1964, a B-52H own by Boeing test
pilots lost its vertical stabilizer to turbulence near
East Spanish Peak. It was able to land at Blytheville
Air Force Base.[242][243]
On 13 January 1964, a B-52D carrying two nuclear bombs suered a structural failure in ight
that caused the tail section to shear o. Four crew-
On 18 November 1966, a B-52G Serial No. 580228 deployed from Barksdale Air Force Base
crashed and was destroyed when it ew into the
ground in swampland south of Stone Lake, Sawyer
County, Wisconsin. The crew was on a low level terrain avoidance night mission, before SAC stopped
such ights, and had just entered low altitude and
were calibrating their terrain avoidance radar, when
they ew too low, clipped the tops of the forest and
crashed.[248][249]
On 8 July 1967, B-52D AF Serial No. 56-0601
overran the runway due to loss of brakes during an
emergency landing at Da Nang Air Base, Vietnam
with the loss of ve of her six crew. The aircraft
had suered an electrical malfunction that led to the
ameout of two engines.[250]
On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four nuclear bombs aboard as part of Operation Chrome
Dome, crashed on the ice of the North Star Bay
while attempting an emergency landing at Thule
Air Base, Greenland.[251] The resulting re caused
extensive radioactive contamination, the cleanup
(Project Crested Ice) lasting until September of that
year.[246] Following closely on the Palomares incident, the cleanup costs and political consequences
proved too high to risk again, so SAC ended the airborne alert program the following day.[252][253]
On 3 April 1970 a B-52D assigned to the 28th
Bomb Wing caught re and crashed while landing at
Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota; sliding to a halt and
burning atop a 25,000 gallon fuel storage tank. Efforts by re department personnel saved the 9 man
crew and prevented a catastrophic explosion of the
fuel tank.[234]
10.7. SURVIVORS
115
On 31 March 1972, B-52D, AF Serial No. 560625, departed McCoy Air Force Base, Florida on
a routine training mission. Assigned to the 306th
Bombardment Wing, the unarmed aircraft sustained
multiple engine failures and engine res on engines
No.7 and No.8 shortly after takeo. The aircraft
immediately attempted to return to the base, but
crashed just short of Runway 18R in a residential area of Orlando, Florida, approximately 1 mile
north of McCoy AFB, destroying or damaging eight
homes. The ight crew of 7 airmen and 1 civilian on
the ground were killed.[254]
On 30 July 1972, B-52D, AF Serial No. 56-0677,
assigned to the 307th Strategic Bomb Wing, operating out of U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Aireld on a
combat mission as part of Operation Linebacker was
hit by lightning. The strike knocked out the planes
instruments and started a re on the port wing. Five
of the six crewmen were killed in the crash[255]
On 30 October 1981, B-52D, AF Serial No. 55078, assigned to the 22d Bomb Wing, March AFB,
CA, impacted the ground nine miles east of La
Junta, CO during a night low-level training mission.
All eight crew members on board were killed (six
crew and two maintainers). Sortie departed March
AFB with a planned recovering at Carswell AFB,
TX.[256]
while returning from a bombing mission in Iraq during the Persian Gulf War. The crash was eventually blamed on a catastrophic failure of the aircrafts
electrical system. Three of the six crew members on
board were killed.[260][261]
On 24 June 1994, B-52H Czar 52, AF Serial
No. 61-0026 crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base,
Washington, during practice for an airshow. All four
crew members died in the accident.[262]
On 16 December 1982, B-52G, AF Serial No. 576482, assigned to 328th BS, 93rd BW, Castle AFB,
On 21 July 2008, a B-52H, Raidr 21, AF SeCA, was participating in a Minimum Interval Takerial No. 60-0053, deployed from Barksdale Air
O (MITO; 12 seconds between each aircraft on
Force Base, Louisiana to Andersen Air Force Base,
takeo) from Mather AFB, CA. The incident airGuam crashed approximately 25 miles (40 km) o
craft was in the number two position of a three ship
the coast of Guam. All six crew members were
cell. The B-52G was equipped with water injection
killed (ve standard crew members and a ight surto give additional thrust on take-o. The lead air[263]
geon).
craft was dry and did not utilize thrust agumentation. The incident aircraft was wet and did use
the thrust augmentation system. During the take-o,
the incident aircraft rapidly started to overtake the 10.7 Survivors
lead aircraft. The incident aircraft pilot retarded the
throttles rapidly causing ameout of four engines. See also: List of displayed Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
The aircraft then stalled leading to impact with the
ground. Nine crew members were killed. There
There are many B-52s still in use and others on static diswere no fatalities on the ground.[257]
play at USAF bases and museums around the world.
On 16 October 1984, B-52G, AF Serial No. 576479, assigned to the 92d Bomb Wing, Fairchild
10.8 Specications (B-52H)
AFB, WA, clipped its wing on Hunts Mesa, an
outcropping in Monument Valley, Arizona, and
[264]
USAF fact sheet,[3] Quest for
crashed, sending a reball high into the air. Two Data from Knaack,
[265]
of the seven crew perished in the crash, including Performance
Col. William Ivy, the wings deputy commander for General characteristics
operations.[258][259]
On 2 February 1991, B-52G Hulk 46, assigned to
the 4300th Bomb Wing (Provisional), Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) crashed
116
B-52H prole
Height: 40 ft 8 in (12.4 m)
Wing area: 4,000 sq ft (370 m)
Airfoil: NACA 63A219.3 mod root, NACA
65A209.5 tip
Empty weight: 185,000 lb (83,250 kg)
Loaded weight: 265,000 lb (120,000 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 488,000 lb (220,000 kg)
Powerplant: 8 Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103
turbofans, 17,000 lbf (76 kN) each
Fuel capacity: 47,975 U.S. gal (39,948 imp gal;
181,610 L)
Avionics
10.11. REFERENCES
117
Related development
Boeing B-47 Stratojet
Conroy Virtus
[9] The electronic warfare ocer sat behind the pilot facing
to the rear.[218]
10.11.2 Citations
Avro Vulcan
Convair B-36
Convair YB-60
Myasishchev M-4
Tupolev Tu-95
Vickers Valiant
Related lists
[7] " (Return of the Flying Bear) in Russian. Lenta. 3 November 2009.
[8] RAAF C-130 Hercules 50 Years of Outstanding Service. defenseworld.net, 3 November 2008.
[9] Lombardi, Michael. The rst KC-135 tanker aircraft
rolled out 50 years ago this month. Boeing, July 2006.
10.11 References
10.11.1
Notes
[1] Fellow
is
substituted
for
Fucker
bowdlerized/sanitized versions of the acronym.[6]
in
118
[50] The Boeing Logbook: 19521956 15 April 1952. Boeing. Retrieved: 13 August 2009.
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119
[107] Defense Science Board Task Force on B-52H ReEngining. Oce of the Under Secretary of Defense. Retrieved: 10 July 2010.
[108] Sweetman, Bill. B-52 Re-engine resurfaces as USAF
reviews studies. Aviation Week, 10 October 2014, Retrieved: 16 October 2014.
[109]
[83] Zamorano, Marti, B-52 synthetic fuel testing: Center
commander pilots rst Air Force B-52 ight using solely
synthetic fuel blend in all eight engines. Aerotech News [110]
and Review, 22 December 2006.
[111]
[84] Hernandez, Jason, SECAF certies synthetic fuel blends
[112]
for B-52H. Aerotech News and Review, 10 August 2007.
[85] Knaack 1988, pp. 279280.
[86] Willis Air Enthusiast November/December 2005, pp. 41 [114] Boyne 2001, p. 220.
43.
[115] Knaack 1988, p. 238.
[87] Condor, 1994, p. 38.
[105] Trimble, Stephen. Boeing pushing B-52H re-engining. [133] NASA SP-4006, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1965:
Chronology on Science, Technology, and Policy. NaFlight International, 25 November 2003.
tional Aeronautics and Space Administration via NASA
[106] Trimble, Stephen. Air Force Widens Review Of B-52
Historical Sta, Oce of Policy Analysis. Retrieved: 5
Re-Engining Options. Aviation Week, 7 July 2003.
June 2010.
120
Futrell 1976.
McCarthy 2009, p. 141.
Toperczer #29 2001.
Toperczer, Dr. Istvan. Air War Over North Viet Nam;
The Vietnamese Peoples Air Force 19491977. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1998. ISBN
978-0-89747-390-3.
[189] Garvey, William. New Life for Bu: Older than its pilots, the B-52 gets ready to y for 100 years. Popular
Mechanics, March 1999.
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[195] Steele, Johnathan. Ghost village marks the battle that [216] Szondy, David. The B-52 gets upgraded weapons bay
ended the war. The Guardian, 17 July 1999.
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2015.
[196] Willis Air Enthusiast November/December 2005, pp. 56
57.
[217] Dillow, Clay (5 March 2015). This single Pentagon program is going to upend the combat jet industry. Fortune.
[197] Smart Bombs Keep B-52s In Business - StrategyRetrieved 16 April 2015. The program will produce 80 to
page.com, 10 October 2013
100 aircraft (at roughly $550 million per copy), replacing
the Air Forces legacy eet of B-52 and B-1 bombers with
[198] Dick and Patterson 2006, p. 242.
a stealthy, long-range, nuke-capable strike aircraft entering service around 2020.
[199] Warrick, Joby and Walter Pincus. Missteps in the
Bunker. Washington Post, 23 September 2007. Re[218] Dorr 1990, p. 26.
trieved: 3 November 2009.
[200] Homan, Michael. Wing decertied, COs sacked for [219] Willis Air Enthusiast, September/October 2005, p. 70.
nuke mistake. Air Force Times, 21 October 2007. Re[220] Boyne, Walter J. The B-52 Story. Air University Review,
trieved: 3 November 2009.
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[201] World Air Forces 2013. Flightglobal Insight, 2013. Re[221] Willis Air Enthusiast September/October 2005, p. 59.
trieved: 11 August 2013.
[202] Hopper, David. B-52 Stratofortress. Air Force, 15 April [222] NASA 'Balls 8': B-52B 'Mothership' Launch Aircraft.
NASA. Retrieved: 2 October 2007.
2011. Retrieved: 15 April 2011.
[203] Air Force Depot Maintenance: Information on the Cost- [223] Lake International Air Power Review Spring 2003, p. 121.
Eectiveness of B-1 and B-52 Support Options (Brieng
[224] Hewitt Phillips, W. Chapter 13: Gust Alleviation. JourReport, 09/12/97, GAO/NSIAD-97-210BR). fas.org.
ney in Aeronautical Research: A Career at NASA LangRetrieved: 3 November 2009.
ley Research Center, Monographs in Aerospace History,
Number 12, November 1998, p. 132. Washington, D.C:
[204] USAF Fact Sheet B-52 Stratofortress. United States Air
NASA Historical Oce.
Force. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
[205] Hebert, Adam J. Strategic Force. Air Force Magazine, [225] Tagg 2004, p. 86.
Volume 90, Issue 2, February 2007, pp. 3843. Re[226] Boyne 2001, p. 221.
trieved: 13 November 2009.
[206] Ogden, Eloise. Third generation B-52 ight ocer. [227] Last B-52G eliminated under nuclear arms treaty. militarytimes.com, 28 December 2013.
Minot Daily News, 19 September 2011. Retrieved: 2 October 2011.
[228] A roaring farewell at Wurtsmith air base. Chicago Tribune, 4 December 1992.
[207] Cortes, Lorenzo. B-52 Crew Credits Arsenal, Loiter Capability During Operation Iraqi Freedom. Defense Daily,
[229] Dorr and Peacock 2000, p.52.
9 May 2003. Retrieved: 13 November 2009.
[230]
[208] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aordable Plane?" The Atlantic, 26 March 2012. Retrieved: 30 [231]
June 2012.
[232]
[209] Tagg 2004, p. 91.
[210] USAF Radar Jamming Technology. Proxify.org. Retrieved: 9 April 2010.
[211] Trimble, Stephen. US Air Force cancels SAM-jamming [233] Report on the accident to Boeing 777-236ER, GYMMM, at London Heathrow Airport on 17 January
EB-52 for second time. Flight International, 3 March
2008. AAIB, 9 February 2010, p. 123, Retrieved: 9
2009.
February 2010.
[212] Sixty years on, the B-52 is still going strong. CNET Mil[234] Listing of B-52 crashes since 1957, ksla.com, 21 July
itary Tech News, 15 April 2012.
2008. Retrieved: 1 April 2015.
[213] Air Force Begins Massive B-52 Overhaul. DoD[235] Booth, B. J. Towns history: B52 crash to UFO visits,
Buzz.com, 12 July 2013.
UFO Casebook Files. ufocasebook.com. Retrieved: 1
[214] USAF B-52 Bomber Internal Weapons Bay to Increase its
April 2015.
Capability - Deagel.com, 23 September 2013
[236] Schneider, Barry. Big Bangs from little bombs. Bulletin
[215] Ray, Mike W. B-52 upgrade to increase smart-weapons
of Atomic Scientists, May 1975, p. 28..
capacity. Air Force Global Strike Command, 8 January
2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
[237] Oskins & Maggelet 2007, p. 174.
122
[238] Joint Nuclear Accident Co-ordinating Center: Record of [259] ASN Aircraft accident 16-Oct-1984 Boeing B-52G-80Events. United States Department of Defense, 14 April
BW Stratofortress 57-6479. Aviation safety ner. Re1961. Retrieved: 15 June 2010.
trieved: 16 August 2013.
[239] Shootdown: the death of the B-52 Ciudad Juarez. an- [260] B-52 Crash kills Chelan County man. The Seattle Times,
gelre.com. Retrieved: 1 April 2015.
5 February 1991. Retrieved: 20 December 2001.
[240] B-52C
53-0406
mewreckchasers.com.
2010.
Elephant
Mountain
1963. [261] Karaim, Reed. B-52 crash in Gulf War was eerie repeat;
Retrieved:
16 September
Three died, late in bailing out just as in the simulation.
Philly.com, 20 May 2011. Retrieved: 16 August 2013.
[241] Nemitz, Bill. Crash site tells of Cold War tragedy. Press [262] Schaefer, David. Pilot in fatal B-52 crash may have vioHerald Maine Today, 30 August 2006.
lated rules: Dicks cites Ssigns of 'acrobatic' Flying'. The
Seattle Times, 28 June 1994.
[242] Even With no tail, B-52 Finest I ever ew, says pilot.
Boeing. Retrieved: 12 January 2013.
[263] U.S. B-52 bomber with 6 crew members crashes o
Guam. CBC News, 21 July 2008.
[243] B-52 with no tail. AV media (USAF). Retrieved: 12
April 2015.
[264] Knaack 1988, pp. 29294.
[244] Narrative Summaries of Accidents Involving U.S. Nu- [265] Loftin, L. K. Jr. NASA SP-468, Quest for performance:
clear Weapons. United States Department of Defence.
The evolution of modern aircraft. NASA, 1985. Retrieved:
Retrieved: 7 February 2010.
22 April 2006.
[245] Maier 2002, p. 36.
[246] Knaack 1988, p. 279.
[266] Upgraded B-52 still on cutting edge 'U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 11 April 2013.
[247] Spain, U.S. Agree to Radioactivity Cleanup 40 Years Af- [267] Lockheed Martins Sniper ATP Continues Successful
B-52 Integration Test Program. Lockheed Martin. Reter Atomic Accident. Fox News, 8 October 2006. Retrieved: 7 February 2010.
trieved: 23 September 2007.
[248] Boettcher, Terrell. Forester nds pieces of crashed B-52 [268] Bombers B-52 (1957). Turner Classic Movies, 2010.
Retrieved: 30 April 2010.
bomber. Sawyer County Record, 18 June 2010.
[249] ASN Aircraft accident 18-NOV-1966 Boeing B-52G- [269] Sick SAC. Time, 26 July 1963. Retrieved: 15 February
2010.
105-BW Stratofortress 58-0228. Flight Safety Foundation. Retrieved: 12 April 2015.
[270] Southern, Terry. Checkup with Dr Strangelove. lmmakermagazine.com,, 2009. Retrieved: 11 January 2010.
[250] Chapin, J.T. Bad night at Da Nang. The crash of Brown
2. Aeroplane, March 2012, pp. 1620. ISSN 0143[271] Tucker. Ken. " 'By Dawns Early, Ken. Light'. Enter7240.
tainment Weekly, Issue No. 17, 8 June 1990. Retrieved:
11 January 2010.
[251] Butterknife V Thule Route. nukestrat.com. Retrieved:
13 November 2009.
[272] May, Scott A. Megafortress computer game evaluation.
COMPUTE! (Atari Magazines), Issue 139, April 1992, p.
[252] Lake and Styling 2004, p. 19.
104.
[253] Christensen, Svend Aage. The Marshals Baton. Danish
Institute for International Studies, DIIS Report 2009:18. [273] The B-52s. MTV. Retrieved: 18 July 2010.
Retrieved: 9 March 2010.
[254] Chancellor, John. Orlando Plane Crash NBC News
broadcast. Vanderbilt Television News Archive. Retrieved: 3 November 2009.
[255] Ranter, Harro. ASN Aircraft accident 30-JUL-1972
Boeing B-52D-35-BW Stratofortress 56-0677. aviationsafety.ne. Retrieved: 1 April 2015.
[256] ""Crew of 8 killed in crash of B-52 training ight. The
New York Times, 31 October 1981.
[257] Ranter, Harro.
ASN Aircraft accident 16-DEC1982 Boeing B-52G Stratofortress 57-6482. aviationsafety.net. Retrieved: 1 April 2015.
[258] Yozwiak, Steve. Monument Valley: Return to Hunts
Mesa. The Republic, 16 October 2009.
10.11.3 Bibliography
Andrade, John. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations
and Serials since 1909. Hinckley, UK: Midland
Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 978-0-90459722-6.
Bowers, Peter M. Boeing B-52A/H Stratofortress.
Aircraft in Prole, Volume 13, pp. 241265. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Prole Publications Ltd., 1973.
ISBN 978-0-85383-022-1.
Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft since 1916. London: Putnam, Third edition, 1989. ISBN 978-085177-804-4.
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Budiansky, Stephen. Air Power: The Men, Machines, and Ideas that Revolutionized War, from Kitty
Hawk to Iraq. New York: Penguin Books, 2004.
ISBN 978-0-670-03285-3.
Gunston, Bill. Boeing B-52:The Strategic Stratofortress. Flight, Vol. 72, No 2547, 15 November
1957, pp. 771778.
Higham, Robin S. D. Flying American Combat Aircraft: The Cold War. Stackpole Books, 2005. ISBN
978-0-8117-3238-3.
Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses, USAF, USN,
USMC, Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia
19611973. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty
Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-85780-115-6.
Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 978-0-07-134694-8.
Knaack, Marcelle Size. Post-World War II Bombers,
19451973. Washington, D.C.: Oce of Air Force
History, 1988. ISBN 978-0-16-002260-9.
Lake, Jon. Boeing B-52 Stratofortress: Towards
the Octogenarian Bomber. Air International, May
2001, Vol 60 No 5. Stamford, Lincs, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634. pp. 286293.
Lake, Jon. Boeing B-52 variants: Part 2 B-52D to
'B-52J'". International Air Power Review. Volume
Nine, Summer 2003, pp. 100115. Norwalk, Ct,
USA: AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 978-1-88058856-7. ISSN 1473-9917.
Lake, Jon. Variant Brieng: Boeing B-52 Stratofortress: Part 1. International Air Power Review. Volume Eight, Spring 2003, pp. 106121.
Norwalk, Connecticut, USA:AIRtime Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-880588-54-3. ISSN 1473-9917.
Lake, Jon. B-52 Stratofortress Units in Operation
Desert Storm. London: Osprey Publishing, 2004.
ISBN 978-0-85045-026-2.
Lake, Jon and Mark Styling. B-52 Stratofortress
Units in Combat 195573. London: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-84176-607-2.
Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-52 Stratofortress in Detail and
Scale, Volume 27. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books Inc., 1988. ISBN 978-0-83068037-5.
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Maier, Lothar Nick. B*U*F*F: Big Ugly Fat
F*****. Bloomington, Indianna: Traord Publishing, 2002. ISBN 978-1-55395-049-3.
Marshall, L. Michel. The Eleven Days of Christmas:
Americas Last Vietnam Battle. San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 978-1-893554-24-5.
McCarthy, Donald J. Jr. MiG Killers: A Chronology
of US Air Victories in Vietnam 19651973. North
Branch, Minnesota: Speciality Press, 2009. ISBN
978-1-58007-136-9.
McCarthy, James R. and George B. Allison.
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Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2007 USAF
Almanac Equipment. Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Volume 90, Number 5, May 2007. ISSN 0730-6784.
Miller, Jay. Convair B-58 Hustler (Aerograph 4).
Midland, UK: Aerofax, 1985. ISBN 978-0-94254826-6.
Oskins, James C. and Michael H. Maggelet. Broken Arrow: The Declassied History of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Accidents. Raleigh, North Carolina:
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Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the
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Schlight, John. The War in South Vietnam: The
Years of the Oensive, 19651968 (The United
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Force, 1988. ISBN 978-0-912799-51-3.
Spick, Mike. Modern Fighting Aircraft, B-1B.
New York: Prentice Hall, 1986. ISBN 978-0-13055237-2.
Tagg, Lori S. Development of the B-52: The Wright
Field Story. Dayton, Ohio: History Oce Aeronautical Systems Center, Air Force Materiel Command,
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Chapter 11
11.1 Development
11.1.1
The McDonnell Douglas YC-15 design was used as the basis for
the C-17.
Alternate proposals were pursued to ll airlift needs after the C-X contest. These were lengthening of C-141As
into C-141Bs, ordering more C-5s, continued purchases
of KC-10s, and expansion of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet.
Limited budgets reduced program funding, requiring a
delay of four years. During this time contracts were
awarded for preliminary design work and for the completion of engine certication.[7] In December 1985, a
full-scale development contract was awarded.[8] At this
[7]
Air Force
By 1980, the USAF found itself with a large eet of ag- time, rst ight was planned for 1990. The
[9]
had
formed
a
requirement
for
210
aircraft.
ing C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, USAF needed increased strategic airlift capabilities Development problems and limited funding caused deto fulll its rapid-deployment airlift requirements. The lays in the late 1980s.[10] Criticisms were made of the
USAF set mission requirements and released a request developing aircraft and questions were raised about more
for proposals (RFP) for C-X in October 1980. McDon- cost-eective alternatives during this time.[11][12] In April
nell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft based on 1990, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced the or125
126
11.1.2
Development diculties
A January 1995 GAO report revealed that, over the original cost of $41.8 billion for 210 C17s, the 120 aircraft on
order were costing $39.5 billion.[27] In March 1994, the
U.S. Army decided it did not need the 60,000 lb (27,000
kg) Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES)
delivery with the C-17 and that the C-130s 42,000 lb
(19,000 kg) capability was sucient; C-17 testing was
limited to this lower weight. Airow issues prevented the
C-17 from meeting airdrop requirements. A February
1997 GAO report revealed that a C-17 with a full payload In 2010, Boeing transitioned to a production rate of 10
could not land on 3,000 ft (910 m) wet runways; simula- C-17s per year from a high of 16 per year, this was due
11.2. DESIGN
127
to dwindling orders and to extend the life of the pro- rate descents. In vortex surng tests performed by C-17s,
duction line while additional international orders were up to 10% fuel savings were reported.[54]
sought. The workforce was reduced by approximately
1,100 through 2012, and a second shift at the Long Beach
assembly plant was also eliminated.[40] By April 2011,
230 production C-17s had been delivered, including 210
to the USAF.[41] The C-17 prototype T-1 was retired
in 2012 after being used by the USAF for testing and
development.[42] In January 2010, the USAF announced
the end of Boeings performance-based logistics contracts
to maintain the aircraft.[43] On 19 June 2012, the USAF
ordered its 224th and nal C-17, as a replacement for an
aircraft that crashed in Alaska in July 2010.[44]
In September 2013, Boeing announced that C-17 production was starting to close down. In October 2014,
the main wing spar of the 279th and last aircraft was
completed, this C-17 shall be delivered in 2015, after
which Boeing will close the Long Beach plant.[45][46] Production of spare components shall continue until at least
2017. The C-17 is projected to be in service for several decades.[47][48] In February 2014, Boeing was engaged in sales talks with ve or six countries for the
remaining 15 C-17s, two to four of which are not current operators,[49] and Boeing decided to build 10 aircraft
without conrmed buyers in anticipation of future purchases. As of April 2015, ve aircraft found buyers, including two for the Middle East, two for Australia and
one for Canada.[50]
In May 2015, the Wall Street Journal reported that Boeing expected to book a charge of less than $100 million and eliminate 3,000 positions associated with the C17 program. According to Teal Group analyst Richard
Aboulaa, Airbus introduction of the cheaper A400M
Atlas undercut international sales of the C-17.[51]
A Royal Australian Air Force C-17 landing at Kharkiv International Airport, showing its landing gear
11.2 Design
The C-17 is 174 feet (53 m) long and has a wingspan of
about 170 feet (52 m). It can airlift cargo fairly close to
a battle area. The size and weight of U.S. mechanized
repower and equipment have grown in recent decades
from increased air mobility requirements, particularly for
large or heavy non-palletized outsize cargo.
The C-17 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney F117-PW100 turbofan engines, which are based on the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040 used on the Boeing 757.
Each engine is rated at 40,400 lbf (180 kN) of thrust.
The engines thrust reversers direct engine exhaust air upwards and forward, reducing the chances of foreign object damage by ingestion of runway debris, and providing enough reverse thrust to back the aircraft up on the
ground while taxiing. The thrust reversers can also be
used in ight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-
128
11.3.2
129
fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001. The RAF
aircraft were some of the rst to take advantage of the new
center wing fuel tank found in Block 13 aircraft. In RAF
service, the C-17 has not been given an ocial service
name and designation (for example, C-130J referred to
as Hercules C4 or C5), but is referred to simply as the
C-17 or C-17A Globemaster.
The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17. Although the Globemaster eet was to be a fallback for the
A400M, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on
21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C17s at the end of the lease,[71] even though the A400M
appeared to be closer to production. The C-17 gives the
RAF strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose,
for example a maximum payload of 169,500 lb (77,000
kg) compared to the A400Ms 82,000 lb (37,000 kg).[67]
The C-17s capabilities allow the RAF to use it as an airborne hospital for medical evacuation missions.[72]
Another C-17 was ordered in August 2006, and delivered on 22 February 2008. The four leased C-17s were
to be purchased later in 2008.[73] Because of fears that the
A400M may suer further delays, the MoD announced
in 2006 that it planned to acquire three more C-17s, for
a total of eight, with delivery in 20092010. On 26 July
2007, Defence Secretary Des Browne announced that the
MoD intended to order a sixth C-17 to boost operations in
Iraq and Afghanistan.[74] On 3 December 2007, the MoD
announced a contract for a sixth C-17,[75] which was received on 11 June 2008.[76]
On 18 December 2009, Boeing conrmed that the RAF
had ordered a seventh C-17,[77][78] which was delivered
on 16 November 2010.[79] The UK announced the purchase of its eighth C-17 in February 2012.[80] The RAF
showed interest in buying a ninth C-17 in November
2013.[81]
On 13 January 2013, the RAF deployed two C-17s of
No. 99 Squadron from RAF Brize Norton to the French
vreux Air Base. The aircraft transported French armored vehicles to the Malian capital of Bamako during
the French Intervention in Mali.[82]
130
the USAF and the United Kingdoms RAF was also considered advantageous. RAAF aircraft were ordered directly from the USAF production run and are identical
to American C-17 even in paint scheme, the only dierence being the national markings. This allowed delivery
to commence within nine months of commitment to the
program.[84]
On 2 March 2006, the Australian government announced
the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006.[67] In July 2006 a xed
price contract was awarded to Boeing to deliver four C17s for US$780M (A$1bn).[85] Australia also signed a
US$80.7M contract to join the global 'virtual eet' C-17
sustainment program[86] and the RAAFs C-17s will receive the same upgrades as the USAFs eet.[87]
The Royal Australian Air Force took delivery of its rst
C-17 in a ceremony at Boeings plant at Long Beach,
California on 28 November 2006.[88] Several days later
the aircraft ew from Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to
Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on
4 December 2006. The aircraft was formally accepted
in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival.[89] The
second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May
2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007.
The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January
2008.[90] All the Australian C-17s are operated by No.
36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in
Queensland.[91]
131
support to a variety of missions, including humanitarian
assistance, peace support and combat.[116]
On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice that it intended to negotiate directly with Boeing
to procure four airlifters for the Canadian Forces Air
Command (renamed Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011).[104] On 1 February 2007, Canada awarded a
contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007.[105] Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the U.S. Air Force, to accelNATO Strategic Airlift Capability's C-17
erate delivery.[106]
On 16 June 2007, the rst Canadian C-17 rolled o the
assembly line at Long Beach, California and into the paint
hangar for painting and addition of Canadian markings
including the national logo and air force roundel. The
rst Canadian C-17 made its initial ight on 23 July.[107]
It was turned over to Canada on 8 August,[108] and participated at the Abbotsford International Airshow on 11
August prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing,
CFB Trenton, Ontario on 12 August.[109] Its rst operational mission was delivery of disaster relief to Jamaica
in the aftermath of Hurricane Dean.[110] The second C17 arrived at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton on 18 October 2007.
The last of four aircraft was delivered in April 2008.[111]
The ocial Canadian designation is CC-177 Globemaster III.[112] The aircraft are assigned to 429 Transport
Squadron based at CFB Trenton.
On 14 April 2010, a Canadian C-17 landed for the rst
time at CFS Alert, the worlds most northerly airport.[113]
Canadian Globemasters have been deployed in support
of numerous humanitarian and military missions worldwide, including Operation Hestia after the earthquake in
Haiti, providing airlift as part of Operation Mobile and
support to the Canadian mission in Afghanistan. After
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013, Canadian
C-17s established an air bridge between the two nations,
deploying Canadas DART Team and delivering humanitarian supplies and equipment. In 2014, they supported
Operation Reassurance and Operation Impact.
On 19 December 2014, it was reported that Canadas
Defence Department intended to purchase one more C17.[114][115] On 30 March 2015, Canadas fth C-17
landed at Canadas largest air base, CFB Trenton. Lt.
Gen. Yvan Blondin, commander of the Royal Canadian
Air Force (RCAF), noted the new military plane will improve the Canadian Armed Forces response capability to
both domestic and international emergencies and provide
132
approved by Congress in June 2010.[127] On 23 June
2010, the Indian Air Force successfully test-landed a
USAF C-17 at the Gaggal Airport, India to complete
the IAFs C-17 trials.[128] In February 2011, the IAF and
Boeing agreed terms for the order of 10 C-17s[129] with
an option for six more; the US$4.1 billion order was approved by the Indian Cabinet Committee on Security on
6 June 2011.[130][131] Deliveries began in June 2013 and
are to continue until 2014.[132][133] In 2012, the IAF reportedly nalized plans to buy six more C-17s in the 13th
ve-year plan (20172022).[125][134][135]
11.3.7 Others
Boeing delivered Qatars rst C-17 on 11 August 2009
and the second on 10 September 2009 for the Qatar Emiri
Air Force.[151] Qatar received its third C-17 in 2012, and
fourth C-17 was received on 10 December 2012.[152] In
June 2013, the New York Times reported that Qatar was
allegedly using its C-17s to ship weapons from Libya to
the Syrian opposition during the civil war via Turkey.[153]
The aircraft provides strategic airlift and the ability to deploy special forces, such as during national
emergencies.[136] They are operated in diverse terrain
from Himalayan air bases in North India at 13,000
ft (4,000 m) to Indian Ocean bases in South India.[137]
The C-17s are based at Hindon Air Force Station and
are operated by the No. 81 Squadron Skylords.[138][139]
The rst C-17 was delivered in January 2013 for testing and training;[140] it was ocially accepted on 11
June 2013.[141] The second C-17 was delivered on 23
July 2013 and put into service immediately. IAF Chief
of Air Sta Norman AK Browne called the Globemaster III a major component in the IAFs modernization
drive" while taking delivery of the aircraft at Boeings
Long Beach factory.[142] On 2 September 2013, the Skylords squadron with three C-17s ocially entered IAF
service.[143]
The Skylords regularly y missions within India, such
as to high-altitude bases at Leh and Thoise. The IAF
rst used the C-17 to transport an infantry battalions
equipment to Port Blair on Andaman Islands on 1
July 2013.[144][145] Foreign deployments to date include
Tajikistan in August 2013, and Rwanda to support Indian
peacekeepers.[134] One C-17 was used for transporting relief materials during Cyclone Phailin.[146] The fth aircraft was received in November 2013.[147] The sixth aircraft was received in July 2014.[148]
The C-17 played a crucial role in Operation Raahat, in
which over 4,500 Indian nationals and 960 foreign nationals from 41 countries including US, UK, France, Canada
11.4 Variants
C-17A: Initial military airlifter version.
C-17A ER": Unocial name for C-17As with
extended range due to the addition of the center
wing tank.[55][160] This upgrade was incorporated
in production beginning in 2001 with Block 13
aircraft.[160]
C-17B: Proposed tactical airlifter version. The
design includes double-slotted aps, an additional
main landing gear on center fuselage, more powerful engines and other systems for shorter landing and
take-o distances.[161] Boeing oered the C-17B to
11.5. OPERATORS
133
11.5 Operators
USAF C-17 transporting a Dutch PzH 2000 self-propelled howitzer to Afghanistan, September 2006
C-17 operators
RAF, RAAF and USAF C-17s and ight crews at RAF Brize Norton in June 2007
No. 36 Squadron[165]
Canada
A training mission in Jan. 2007 over the Hawaiian Islands
Australia
134
Kuwait Air Force one C-17 in inventory and a second C-17 on order as of February 2014.[159]
3d Airlift Squadron
437th Airlift Wing - Charleston AFB, South Carolina
14th Airlift Squadron
15th Airlift Squadron
16th Airlift Squadron
17th Airlift Squadron(deactivating
in summer, 2015)[173]
Pacic Air Forces
Qatar
[152]
135
C-17 on the runway at Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan on 30 January 2009 after landing with landing gear retracted.
On 6 August 2005, a U.S. Air Force C-17 (AF Serial No. 01-0196) ran o the runway at Bagram
Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land,
destroying the aircrafts nose and main landing
gear.[178] It took two months to make the aircraft
ightworthy, the aircraft was own to Boeings Long
Beach facility by a test pilot, as the temporary repairs imposed performance limitations.[179] In October 2006, the aircraft returned to service after receiving repairs.
136
Payload: 170,900 lb (77,519 kg) of cargo distributed at max over 18 463L master pallets or a mix
of palletized cargo and vehicles
Length: 174 ft (53 m)
Wingspan: 169.8 ft (51.75 m)
Height: 55.1 ft (16.8 m)
Wing area: 3,800 ft (353 m)
Empty weight: 282,500 lb (128,100 kg)
Antonov An-124
Ilyushin Il-76
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter
Xian Y-20
Related lists
List of active Canadian military aircraft
List of active United States military aircraft
List of active United Kingdom military aircraft
11.9. REFERENCES
137
11.9 References
[23] Parts Orders for C-17 far too high, GAO says. Charlotte
Observer, 16 March 1994.
11.9.1
Citations
[10] Kennedy, Betty Raab. Historical Realities of C-17 Program Pose Challenge for Future Acquisitions. Institute
for Defense Analyses, December 1999.
[11] Fuller, Richard L. More load for the buck with C-17.
Chicago Tribune, 9 September 1989.
[12] Sanford, Robert. McDonnell Plugs Away on C-17. St.
Louis Post-Dispatch, 3 April 1989.
[13] Brenner, Eliot. Cheney cuts back on Air Force programs. Bryan Times, 26 April 1990.
[39] Kreisher, Otto. House panel reverses cuts in aircraft programs. Congress Daily, 12 June 2009.
[40] Vivanco, Fernando and Jerry Drelling. Boeing C-17 Program Enters 2nd Phase of Production Rate and Work
Force Reductions. Boeing Press Release, 20 January
2011.
[41] Hoyle, Craig. Australia to get fth C-17 in August.
Flightglobal, 19 April 2011.
[42] Sanchez, Senior Airman Stacy. Edwards T-1 reaches
1,000 ight milestone. 95th Air Base Wing Public Aairs,
20 March 2008.
[43] Why is USAF bringing maintenance in-house?" ightglobal.com, 18 May 2005. Retrieved: 18 August 2011.
[44] Miller,Seth and Michael C. Sirak. Likely End of the Line
for The Air Force C-17 Production. Air Force Magazine,
20 June 2012.
138
[68] Trimble, Stephen. USAF reveals C-17 cracks and dispute on production future. Flightglobal.com, 4 April
2008.
[69] Mai, Pat. Air Force to receive its last C-17 today OrangeCountRegister.com,12 September 2013.
[47] Boeing to shut C-17 plant in Long Beach Chicago Tribune, 18 September 2013.
[70] O'Connell, Dominic. Political clash haunts MoD deal decision. The Business (Sunday Business Group), 5 December 1999.
Military-
[71] Review turns up the heat on euroghter. Flight International, 22 July 2004.
[52] C-17 Globemaster III Pocket Guide, The Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA, June 2010
[53] BDS Major Deliveries (current year). Boeing, March
2014. Retrieved: 5 April 2014.
[75] RAF gets sixth C-17 Globemaster. UK Ministry of Defence, 4 December 2007.
[76] Boeing delivers 6th C-17 to Royal Air Force. Boeing, 11
June 2008.
[54] Drinnon, Roger. "'Vortex surng' could be revolutionary. U.S. Air Force, 11 October 2012. Retrieved: 23
November 2012.
[59] Collier Trophy, 19901999 winners. National Aeronautic Association. Retrieved: 1 April 2010.
[62] http://www.dover.af.mil/units/index.asp
[63] 105th Airlift Wing, New York Air National Guard History. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
[85] Heavy Lifting Down Under: Australia Buys C-17s. Defense Industry Daily, 27 November 2012.
[86] McLaughlin 2008, p. 42.
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[90] Air Forces C-17 eet delivered on time, on budget. The [110] New military aircraft leaves on aid mission. Cnews.com,
Hon. Greg Combet MP, Parliamentary Secretary for De24 August 2007.
fence Procurement, 18 January 2008. Retrieved: 1 July
[111] Canada takes delivery of nal CC-177. Canadian
2011.
Forces, 3 April 2008.
[91] C-17 Globemaster heavy transport. Royal Australian Air
[112] Aircraft CC-177 Globemaster III. Royal Canadian Air
Force, 29 March 2008.
Force, 15 January 2010.
[92] Boeing, Australia Announce Order for 5th C-17 Globe[113] Top of the world welcomes CC-177 Globemaster III.
master III. Boeing Press Release, 18 April 2011.
airforce.forces.gc.ca. Retrieved: 18 August 2011.
[93] Fifth RAAF C-17 delivered. Australian Aviation, 23
[114] CTVNews.ca Sta (11 December 2014). Defence DeSeptember 2011. Retrieved: 15 September 2011.
partment to purchase Boeing C-17 Globemaster III.
[94] Clare, Jason. Sixth C-17A Globemaster III Letter of
CTVNews.ca. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
Request. Department of Defence. Retrieved: 23 Septem[115] Canada buys additional military cargo jet as C-17 prober 2011.
duction wraps up. CBC News. 19 December 2014. Re[95] Purchase of additional C17. Minister for Defence and
trieved 26 December 2014.
Minister for Defence Materiel joint media release, 20
[116]
March 2012.
[96] Heavy Lifting Down Under: Australia Buys C-17s. de- [117] Strategic Airlift Capability: A key capability for the Alliance. NATO. Retrieved: 1 April 2010.
fenseindustrydaily.com, 20 June 2012. Retrieved: 10 July
2012.
[118] Hoyle, Craig. Boeing delivers rst C-17 for NATO-led
Heavy Airlift Wing. Flight International, 15 July 2009.
[97] McLaughlin 2008, p. 45.
[98] Wroe, David; Ireland, Judith (22 July 2014). Australian [119] Drelling, Jerry and Eszter Ungar.3rd Boeing C-17 Joins
12-Nation Strategic Airlift Capability Initiative. Boeing,
military plane leaves for the Netherlands to return bodies
7 October 2009.
of Australian MH17 victims home. smh.com.au. Sydney
Morning Herald. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
[120] Background. Heavy Airlift Wing. Retrieved: 2 August
2012.
[99] Prime Minister Tony Abbott to y worldwide non-stop
on Airbus KC-30A. news.com.au. 14 August 2014.
[121] NATP Airborne Early Warning & Control Force: E-3A
[100] Abbott Government to spend $500 million on two new
Component. NATO. Retrieved: 1 April 2010.
Boeing C-17 heavy-lift transport jets. Retrieved on 12
[122]
October 2014.
[101] Australia to buy up to four more C-17s. Retrieved on 12 [123] Boeing C-17 Support Eort for Strategic Airlift Capability Exceeds 1,000 Missions - Defensemedianetwork.com,
October 2014.
7 September 2014
[102] PM conrms two extra C-17s for the RAAF. Australian
[124] Boeing says C-17 orders to extend line. Reuters, 16 June
Aviation. 10 April 2015.
2009. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.
[103] Whelan, Peter. Strategic lift capacity for Canada. The
Ploughshares Monitor, Volume 26, Issue 2, Summer 2005. [125] C-17 boosts Indias strategic airlift capability: IAF Air
Chief Marshal N A K Browne. The Economic Times. 24
[104] Airlift Capability Project Strategic ACP-S ACAN
July 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
MERX Website Government of Canada
[126] Mathews, Neelam. India Requests Boeing C-17s. Avi[105] O'Connor announces military plane purchase. CTV.ca,
ation Week, 8 January 2010.
2 February 2007.
[127] US Congress clears C-17 sale for India. Deccan Chron[106] Wastnage, J. Canada gets USAF slots for August delivicle, 18 August 2011.
ery after signing for four Boeing C-17s in 20-year C$4bn
deal, settles provincial workshare squabble. Flight Inter- [128] IAF completes C-17 test-ight. Janes Information
Group, 5 July 2010.
national, 5 February 2007. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.
[107] Canada One C-17 makes rst ight. Boeing, 25 July [129] IAF nalises order for 10 C-17 strategic airlifters. The
Times of India, 17 March 2011. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.
2007.
[108] Boeing delivers Canadas First C-17. Boeing, 8 August [130] Prasad, K.V. India to buy C-17 heavy-lift transport aircraft from U.S. The Hindu, 7 June 2011. Retrieved: 7
2007.
June 2011.
[109] First CC-177 Globemaster III Receives Patriotic and Enthusiastic Welcome. Department of National Defence. [131] Indias $4-Bn Order To Support Jobs At Boeing. BusiRetrieved: 2 August 2012.
nessWeek, 7 June 2011.
140
[132] Purchase of Transport Aircraft. pib.nic.in, 12 December [153] Chivers, C. J.; Schmitt, Eric; Mazzetti, Mark (21
2011. Retrieved: 2 August 2012.
June 2013). In Turnabout, Syria Rebels Get Libyan
Weapons. The New York Times.
[133] Boeing delivers third C-17 Globemaster military transport aircraft to Indian Air Force. The Economic Times. [154] Trimble, Stephen. UAE strengthens airlift capacity with
C-130J, C-17 deals. Flight International, 25 February
23 August 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
2009.
[134] Globemasters deployed for overseas missions. The
Times of India. 10 September 2013. Retrieved 10 [155] Boeing, United Arab Emirates Announce Order for 6 C17s. Boeing, 6 January 2010.
September 2013.
[135] India to buy more than 16 C-17 airlifters. Economic- [156] UAE receives rst C-17 transport. ightglobal.com, 11
May 2011.
times.indiatimes.com. Retrieved: 2 August 2012.
[136] Knowles, Victoria. C-17 Globemaster for Indian Air [157] Boeing Delivers UAE Air Force and Air Defences 6th
C-17. Boeing, 20 June 2012.
Force. Armed Forces International, 1 August 2012.
[137] US Army chief apprised of Indian strategies. Deccan [158] Kuwait C-17 GLOBEMASTER III. U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 17 April 2013.
Herald. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
[138] Indian Air Force IAF. India Times, 10 July 2010.
[159] Boeing Delivers Kuwait Air Forces 1st C-17 Globemaster III. Boeing, 13 February 2014.
11.9.2
Bibliography
141
Chapter 12
Boeing C-32
The Boeing C-32 is a military passenger transportation
version of the Boeing 757 for the United States Air Force.
The C-32 provides transportation for United States leaders to locations around the world. The primary users are
the Vice President of the United States, using the distinctive call sign "Air Force Two", the First Lady and the
Secretary of State. On rare occasions, other members of
the U.S. Cabinet and Congressional leaders have been authorized to y aboard the C-32 for various missions. Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush and Bill Clinton
have at times own on a C-32 as Air Force One in place
of the larger VC-25A.
12.2 Design
142
143
The forward area has a communications center, galley, lavatory and 10 business-class seats.
The second section is a fully enclosed stateroom
for the use of the primary passenger. It includes a
changing area, private lavatory, separate entertainment system, two rst-class swivel seats and a convertible divan that seats three and folds out to a bed.
The third section contains the conference and sta
facility with eight business-class seats.
The rear section of the cabin contains general seating
with 32 business-class seats, galley, two lavatories
and closets.
A C-32 taking o
The C-32 is more fuel ecient and has improved capa1st Airlift Squadron
bilities over its VC-137 predecessor. It can travel twice
the distance on the same amount of fuel and operate on
shorter runways down to 5,000 feet (1,500 m) in length. Air Force Special Operations Command
Its 92,000 pound (41,700 kg) fuel capacity allows the aircraft to travel 5,500 nautical miles (10,000 km) unrefu 193d Special Operations Wing - Harrisburg, Penneled. In-ight refueling is via a receptacle on top of the
sylvania
forward fuselage, just aft of the cockpit.
Heading the safety equipment list is the Trac Collision Avoidance System and Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System. Weather systems are enhanced
with a Predictive Windshear Warning System. Other
items include the future air navigation system with
Global Positioning System, Flight Management System/Electronic Flight Instrument System, Controller Pilot Data Link Communications and Automatic Dependent Surveillance.
12.3 Operators
United States
Powerplant: 2 Pratt & Whitney PW2040 engines, 43,730 lbf (185 kN) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 605 mph (Mach 0.8) (968 km/h)
Range: 5,650 nautical miles unrefueled (11,100
km)
Service ceiling: 42,000 ft (12,800 m)
144
12.6 References
[1] Type C-32 into 'Type' eld
[2] http://www.state.gov/j/ct/programs/index.htm#FEST
[3] Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST)". US Department of State. Retrieved on May 8, 2013
The original version of this article was from the public domain source at Air Force Link
Chapter 13
145
146
13.1.2
Operational history
Vietnam War
The most spectacular mission in Vietnam for the Chinook was the placing of artillery batteries in perilous
mountain positions inaccessible by any other means, and
then keeping them resupplied with large quantities of
ammunition.[3] The 1st Cavalry Division found that its
CH-47s were limited to a 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) payload when operating in the mountains, but could carry
an additional 1,000 pounds (450 kg) when operating near
the coast.[3] The early Chinook design was limited by its
147
rotor system which did not permit full use of the installed late 1978, Iran placed an order for an additional 50 hepower, and users were anxious for an improved version licopters with Elicotteri Meridionali, but that order was
which would upgrade this system.
canceled immediately after the revolution;[19] but 11 of
[20]
As with any new piece of equipment, the Chinook pre- them were delivered after multiple requests by Iran.
sented a major problem of customer education. Commanders and crew chiefs had to be constantly alert that
eager soldiers did not overload the temptingly large cargo
compartment. It would be some time before troops would
be experts at using sling loads.[3] The Chinook soon
proved to be such an invaluable aircraft for artillery movement and heavy logistics that it was seldom used as an assault troop carrier. Some of the Chinook eet were used
for casualty evacuation, due to the very heavy demand
for the helicopters they were usually overburdened with
wounded.[14] Perhaps the most cost eective use of the
Chinook was the recovery of other downed aircraft.[15]
13.2.2
Iran
During the 1970s, the United States and Iran had a strong
relationship, in which the Iranian armed forces began to
use many American military aircraft, most notably the F14 Tomcat, as part of a modernization program.[17] After an agreement signed between Boeing and Elicotteri
Meridionali, the Imperial Iranian Air Force purchased
20 Elicotteri Meridionali-built CH-47Cs in 1971.[18] The
Imperial Iranian Army Aviation purchased 70 CH-47Cs
from Elicotteri Meridionali between 1972 and 1976. In Soldiers wait for pickup from two CH-47s in Afghanistan, 2008
148
Approximately 163 CH-47Ds of various operators were 13.2.5 Disaster relief and other roles
deployed to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iraq during
Operation Desert Shield and the subsequent Operation Since the types inception, the Chinook has carried out
secondary missions including medical evacuation, disasDesert Storm in 199091.[31]
ter relief, search and rescue, aircraft recovery, re ghting, and heavy construction assistance.[43] According to
Suresh Abraham, the Chinooks ability to carry large underslung loads has been of signicant value in relief operations in the aftermath of natural disasters.[44] Chinooks
operators have often deployed their eets overseas to support humanitarian eorts in stricken nations; Chinooks
of the Republic of Singapore Air Force assisted in relief
operations in neighboring Indonesia following the 2004
Asian Tsunami, and after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake
the Royal Air Force dispatched Chinooks to Northern
Pakistan to assist in recovery eorts.[44]
Three Japanese CH-47s were used to cool Reactors 3 and
4 of the Fukushima Nuclear power-plant with sea water after the 9.0 earthquake in 2011;[45][46] to protect the
The CH-47D has seen wide use in Operation Enduring crew from heightened radiation levels, lead plates were
Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in attached to the oor.[47][48]
Iraq. The Chinook is being used in air assault missions,
inserting troops into re bases and later bringing food,
water, and ammunition. It is also the casualty evacu- 13.3 Variants
ation (casevac) aircraft of choice in the British Armed
Forces.[32] In combat theaters, it is typically escorted
by attack helicopters such as the AH-64 Apache for
protection.[33][34] Its lift capacity has been found of particular value in the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan
where high altitudes and temperatures limit the use of
helicopters such as UH-60 Black Hawk; reportedly, one
Chinook can replace up to ve UH-60s in the air assault
transport role.[35]
Chinook helicopter near Bagram, Afghanistan
The Chinook helicopters of several nations have participated in the Afghanistan War, including aircraft from
Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Canada, and Australia. Despite the age of the Chinook, it is still in
heavy demand, in part due its proven versatility and
ability to operate in demanding environments such as U.S. Army soldiers ride inside a Chinook in November 2008.
Afghanistan.[36][37]
On 6 August 2011, a Chinook crashed near Kabul killing
all of the 38 aboard. It was reportedly shot down with a
rocket-propelled grenade by the Taliban. The 38 were
members of NATO and allied forces, including about
30 U.S. special forces and seven Afghan troops. The
previous biggest single-day loss for American forces in
Afghanistan involved a Chinook that was shot down near
Kabul in Kunar Province in June 2005 with the death of
all aboard, including a 16-member U.S. Special Operations team.[38][39]
In May 2011 an Australian Army CH-47D crashed during a resupply mission in Zabul Province, resulting in one
fatality and ve survivors. The helicopter was unable to
be recovered and was destroyed in place.[40][41] To compensate for the loss, the ADF added two ex-U.S. Army
CH-47Ds to the eet which are expected to be in service
until the introduction of the CH-47Fs in 2016.[42]
13.3.1 HC-1B
The pre-1962 designation for Model 114 development
aircraft that would be re-designated CH-47 Chinook.
13.3.2 CH-47A
The all-weather, medium-lift CH-47A Chinook was
powered initially by Lycoming T55-L-5 engines rated at
2,200 horsepower (1,640 kW) but then replaced by the
T55-L-7 rated at 2,650 hp (1,980 kW) engines or T55L-7C engines rated at 2,850 hp (2,130 kW). The CH47A had a maximum gross weight of 33,000 lb (15,000
kg). allowing for a maximum payload of approximately
10,000 lb (4,500 kg)[49] Initial delivery of the CH-47A
13.3. VARIANTS
149
13.3.3
ACH-47A
13.3.4
CH-47B
13.3.6 CH-47D
150
13.3.8 MH-47E
The MH-47E has been used by U.S. Army Special Operations. Beginning with the E-model prototype manufactured in 1991, there were a total of 26 Special Operations
Aircraft produced. All aircraft were assigned to 2160th
SOAR(A) Nightstalkers, home based at Fort Campbell
Kentucky. E models were conversions from existing CH47C model airframes. The MH-47E has similar capabilities as the MH-47D, but includes an increased fuel capacity similar to the CH-47SD and terrain following/terrain
avoidance radar.[58]
In 1995, the Royal Air Force ordered eight Chinook
HC3s, eectively a low-cost version of the MH-47E for
CH-47D of the Spanish Army in 2009
the special operations role. They were delivered in 2001
but never entered operational service due to technical is472 being converted. The last U.S. Army CH-47D built sues with their avionics t, unique to the HC3. In 2008,
HC3s to HC2 standard, to
was delivered to the U.S. Army Reserve, located at Fort work started to downgrade the
[59]
enable
them
to
enter
service.
[52]
Hood, Texas, in 2002.
The Netherlands acquired all seven of the Canadian
Forces' surviving CH-147s and upgraded them to CH- 13.3.9
47D standard. Six more new-build CH-47Ds were delivered in 1995 for a total of 13. The Dutch CH-47D
feature a number of improvements over U.S. Army CH47Ds, including a long nose for Bendix weather radar,
a "glass cockpit", and improved T55-L-714 engines.
As of 2011, the Netherlands shall upgrade 11 of these
which will be updated to the CH-47F standard at a later
date.[53] As of 2011, Singapore has 18 CH-47D/SDs,
which includes twelve Super D Chinooks, in service.[54]
In 2008, Canada purchased 6 CH-47Ds from the U.S.
for the Canadian Helicopter Force Afghanistan for $252
million.[55][56] With 1 CH-47D loss, the remaining 5 CH47D were returned by Canada in 2011 after their mission
in Afghanistan was over.
13.3.7
MH-47D
CH-47F
13.3. VARIANTS
February 2007, the Netherlands became the rst international customer, ordering six CH-47Fs, expanding their
eet to 17.[64] On 10 August 2009, Canada signed a
contract for 15 CH-47Fs for the Royal Canadian Air
Force, delivered in 201314.[65][66] On 15 December
2009, Britain announced its Future Helicopter Strategy,
including the purchase of 24 new CH-47Fs to be delivered from 2012.[67] Australia ordered seven CH-47Fs in
March 2010 to replace its six CH-47Ds between 2014
and 2017.[68][69] AgustaWestland also domestically assembles the CH-47F under license, known as the Chinook ICH-47F, for several customers.[70]
151
The MH-47G Special Operations Aviation (SOA) version
is currently being delivered to the U.S. Army. It is similar
to the MH-47E, but features more sophisticated avionics including a digital Common Avionics Architecture
System (CAAS). The CAAS is a common glass cockpit
used by dierent helicopters such as MH-60K/Ls, CH53E/Ks, and ARH-70As.[73] The MH-47G also incorporates all of the new sections of the CH-47F.[74]
The new modernization program improves MH-47D and
MH-47E Special Operations Chinook helicopters to the
MH-47G design specs. A total of 25 MH-47E and 11
MH-47D aircraft were upgraded by the end of 2003.
In 2002 the army announced plans to expand the Special Operations Aviation Regiment. The expansion would
add 12 additional MH-47G helicopters.[75] On 10 February 2011, leaders and employees from the H-47 program
gathered for a ceremony at Boeings helicopter facility in
Ridley Park, PA, to commemorate the delivery of the nal MH-47G Chinook to U.S. Army Special Operations
Command. Modernization of MH-47D/E Chinooks to
MH-47G standard is due for completion in 2015.[76]
CH-47J
152
at Kawasaki.[80]
13.3.12
HH-47
13.3.13
13.3.15 Derivatives
In 1969, work on the experimental Model 347 was begun.
It was a CH-47A with a lengthened fuselage, four-blade
rotors, detachable wings mounted on top of the fuselage
and other changes. It rst ew on 27 May 1970 and was
evaluated for a few years.[87]
13.4. OPERATORS
153
13.4 Operators
Main article: List of Boeing CH-47 Chinook operators
Egypt
Greece
Iran
Italy
Japan
Libya
Morocco
Netherlands
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
Spain
Taiwan
Thailand
Argentina (former)
Australia
Canada
Vietnam (former)
154
On 6 November 1986, a British International Helicopters Chinook crashed on approach to Sumburgh Data from Boeing CH-47D/F,[101] Army Chinook
Airport, Shetland Islands resulting in the loss of 45 le,[102] International Directory[103]
lives and the withdrawal of the Chinook from crewGeneral characteristics
servicing ights in the North Sea.[94]
On 1 March 1991, Major Marie Therese Rossi Cayton was killed when her Chinook helicopter crashed
after colliding with a microwave tower during a dust
storm. She was the rst American woman to y in
combat during Desert Storm in 1991.[95]
On 2 June 1994, a British RAF CH-47 crashed
killing 25 passengers and 4 crew in Scotland.
On 29 May 2001, a ROK Army CH-47D installing a
sculpture onto Olympic Bridge in Seoul, South Korea failed to unlatch the sculpture. The helicopters
rotors struck the monument; then the fuselage hit
and broke into two. One section crashed onto the
bridge in ames and the other fell into the river. All
three crew members on board died.[96][97]
On 21 February 2002, a U.S. Army Special Forces
MH-47E crashed at sea in the Philippines, killing
all ten U.S. soldiers on board. No enemy re was
involved.[98]
Powerplant:
2 Lycoming T55-GA-714A
On 11 September 2004, a Greek Army CH-47SD
turboshaft,
4,733
hp (3,529 kW) each
crashed into the sea o Mount Athos. All 17 people
on board were killed, including four senior gures in
Performance
the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[99]
On 7 January 2013, a BV-234 N241CH owned by
Columbia Helicopters, Inc., crashed shortly after
taking o from the airport in Pucallpa, Coronel Portillo Province, Peru. All seven crew members were
killed.[100]
13.8. REFERENCES
Rate of climb: 1,522 ft/min (7.73 m/s)
Disc loading: 9.5 lb/ft2 (47 kg/m2 )
Power/mass: 0.28 hp/lb (460 W/kg)
Armament
155
13.8 References
[1] Boeing Marks 50 Years of Delivering Chinook Helicopters. Boeing. 16 August 2012. Retrieved 2014-0129.
[2] CH-47F Selected Acquisition Report RCS: DDA&T(Q&A)823-278 (PDF). US Department of
Defense. 31 December 2011. p. 13.
[3] Leuutenant General John J. Tolson (1989). Vietnam Studies: Airmobility 196171. Department of the Army (US
Government Printing Oce). CMH Pub 90-4.
[4] Apostolo, Giorgio. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York: Bonanza Books. 1984. ISBN 978-0517-43935-7.
[5] Goebel, Greg. Origins: Vertol V-107 & V-114. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[6] Spenser, Jay P. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998.
ISBN 0-295-97699-3.
[7] Holmes, Alexander (26 October 1962). The Quiet
Americans-Our Marines Overseas. Los Angeles Times.
[8] Warwick, Graham (1 April 2008). Chinook: Five
decades of development. Flight International.
[9] Chinook Information and diagrams about the transmission system. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[10] Belden, Tom (21 May 1982). This Whirlybirds an early
bird: Boeing Vertols Army copter delivered on budget.
Philadelphia Inquirer.
[11] Boeing Receives $1.15B Contract for 15 Canadian Chinooks, Announces Matching Reinvestment in Industry.
Boeing. 10 August 2009.
[12] Type Certicate Data Sheet No. H9EA (.PDF). Federal
Aviation Administration. 17 January 2007. Retrieved 8
February 2007.
[13] Chinook Copter to Vietnam. The New York Times. 11
August 1965.
[14] Scannell-Desch, Elizabeth A.; Marion Anderson (2000).
Hardships and Personal Strategies of Vietnam War
Nurses. Western Journal of Nursing Research 22 (5):
526550.
[15] Dunstan, Simon (2003). Vietnam choppers: helicopters in
battle 195075. Osprey Publishing. p. 81.
[16] Anderton, David & Miller, Jay Boeing Helicopters CH47 Chinook. Arlington : Aerofax, Inc, 1989, p. 8, ISBN
0-942548-42-6
[17] Marder, Murray (26 July 1973). Oil pact with U.S. rm:
Iran signs agreement. Victoria Advocate.
[18] Szulcs, Tad (25 July 1971). U.S., Britain Quietly Back
Military Build-Up of Iran. The New York Times.
156
[20] about:reader?url=https%3A%2F%2F1.800.gay%3A443%2Fhttp%2Firartesh.ir%
2Fpost%2F502&tabId=4
[21] Iranian troops smash four-day siege by Kurds. Lakeland
Ledger. 27 August 1979.
[42] ADF Bolsters CH-47D Chinook Capability. Ministerial press release. Department of Defence. 12 December
2011. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
[43] CH-47D/F Chinook page. Boeing.
[44] Abraham, Suresh. Tactical Transport Helicopters in Humanitarian Relief Operations. ADJ, April 2009.
[46] The Christian Science Monitor. CH-47 Chinook helicopter begins dumping water on nuclear reactor. The
Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[47] http://www.citytv.com/toronto/
citynews/topic/japan-earthquake/article/
119408--concern-grows-over-spent-fuel-pools-as-crews-spray-nuclear-plan
Concern grows over spent fuel pools as crews spray nuclear plant with water
[48] http://www.nzherald.co.nz/japan-tsunami/news/article.
cfm?c_id=1503051&objectid=10713272 Japan crisis:
Radiation levels begin to dip
[49] US ARMY CH-47 Chinook Helicopter. Retrieved 13
November 2014.
[50] Guns a Go-Go. chinook-helicopter.com
[51] US Army CH-47A / CH-47B / CH-47C / CH-47D / SOA
Chinooks. Vectorsite.net, 1 July 2004.
[52] Boeing CH-47D model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[53] Boeing, Netherlands MOD Mark 1st Flight of Royal
Netherlands Air Force CH-47F (NL) Chinook 26 January
2011.
[54] Gunner, Jerry (November 2011). Chinook at 50 World Wokka Operators - Republic of Singapore Air
Force. AirForces Monthly (Key Publishing Ltd) 284:
p.88 (pp.8490). ISSN 0955-7091.
[55] Equipment Procurement Afghanistan Air Capabilities
forces.gc.ca.
[56] Chinooks make their debut in Afghanistan canadianally.com
[57] Boeing MH-47D model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[58] Boeing MH-47E model Chinook helicopters. chinookhelicopter.com
[59] Hoyle, Craig (6 June 2008). UK starts Chinook HC3 'reversion' work, amid criticism. Flight International. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
[60] New Boeing CH-47F takes ight, Aerotech News and
Review, 3 November 2006, p. 3.
[61] Chinook Helicopter Begins Operational Test Flights with
US Army (Press release). Boeing. 19 February 2007.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
13.8. REFERENCES
157
[81] Jackson, Paul (22 July 1999). Janes All the Worlds Aircraft 1999-00. THE BOEING COMPANY. BOEING
114 and 414. US ARMY MH-47E PROCUREMENT..
Retrieved 9 March 2011.
[82] Boeing News Release
[83] Global Security.org
[84] Bowing To GAO, USAF Likely To Recompete CSARX. Aviation Week, 28 February 2007.
[85] Trimble, Stephen. USAF abandons large helicopter for
rescue mission, proposes buying 112 UH-60Ms. Flight
International. 24 February 2010.
[86] USAF HH-60 Personnel Recovery Recapitalization Program Sources Sought RFI. FBO.gov, 23 March 2010.
[87] Goebel, Greg. ACH-47A Gunship / Model 347 / XCH62 HLH (Model 301) / Model 360. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[88] XCH-62 with photo. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
[89] http://www.forte.jor.br/2015/01/14/
exercito-ja-prepara-recebimento-dos-helicopteros-ch-47f-chinook-american
[90] http://www.janes.com/article/47750/
turkey-advances-tfx-fighter-project-orders-new-rifles-more-f-35s-ch-47s
[91] ASN Wikibase Occurrence # 152334.
[92] Air show safety in the spotlight, BBC, 27 July 2002.
[93] Ursula J. Schoenborn v. The Boeing Company, 769 F.2d
115 (3d Cir. 1985) a case in the US Court of Appeals
for the Third Circuit
[72] Trimble, Stephen (31 March 2015). US Army outlines CH-47F upgrades for 100-year lifespan. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Retrieved 13
[80] Flight International. Number 4006. Volume 129. New- [103] Frawley, Gerard: The International Directory of Military
build CH-47D ready for co-production. p.11.. Flight InAircraft, p. 49. Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002.
ternational. 12 April 1986. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
ISBN 1-875671-55-2
158
[104] http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/rotorcraft/military/
ch47d/docs/CH-47F_overview.pdf
[105] United States of America. Naval Training Equipment
Center. Department of the Navy. Recognition Study Cards
US and Foreign Aircraft. Device 5E14H. LSN 6910-LLC006462. Orlando, Florida. 1982. 55 Cards. Annotation: 2252 kilometers.
Chapter 14
Boeing E-4
The Boeing E-4 Advanced Airborne Command Post,
with the project name Nightwatch,[2] is a strategic
command and control military aircraft operated by the
United States Air Force (USAF). The E-4 series was specially modied from the Boeing 747-200B. The E-4 serve
as a survivable mobile command post for the National
Command Authority, namely the President of the United
States, the Secretary of Defense, and successors. The
four E-4Bs are operated by the 1st Airborne Command
and Control Squadron of the 55th Wing located at Outt
Air Force Base, near Omaha, Nebraska. An E-4B is denoted a National Airborne Operations Center when in
action.[3]
14.1 Development
Two of the original 747-200 airframes were originally
planned to be commercial airliners. When the airline did
not complete the order, Boeing oered the airframes to
the United States Air Force as part of a package leading
to a replacement for the older EC-135J National Emergency Airborne Command Post (NEACP). Under the
481B NEACP program the Air Force Electronic Systems
Division awarded Boeing a contract in February 1973 for
two unequipped aircraft, designated E-4A, powered by
four P&W JT9D engines, to which a third aircraft was
added in July 1973. The rst E-4A was completed at
the Boeing plant outside Seattle, Washington in 1973. ESystems won the contract to install interim equipment in
these three aircraft, and the rst completed E-4A was delivered to Andrews AFB, Maryland in December 1974.
The next two were delivered in 1975, the third diered by
being powered by the GE F103 engine, which was later
made standard and retrotted to the previous two aircraft.
The A model eectively housed the same equipment as
the EC-135, but oered more space and an ability to remain aloft longer than an EC-135.[4]
Boeing delivered the rst E-4B (AF Serial Number 750125),[4] which was distinguished from the earlier version
by the presence of a large hump on the dorsal surface directly behind the upper deck. This contains the aircrafts
SHF satellite antenna.[6]
160
14.2 Design
The E-4B is designed to survive an EMP with systems
intact[8] and has state-of-the-art direct re countermeasures. Although many older aircraft have been upgraded
with glass cockpits, the E-4B still uses traditional analog
ight instruments, as they are less susceptible to damage
from an EMP blast.[9]
The E-4B is capable of operating with a crew up to
112 people including ight and mission personnel,[1] the
largest crew of any aircraft in US Air Force history. With
in-ight aerial refueling it is capable of remaining airborne for a considerable period (limited only by consumption of the engines lubricants and food supplies). In
a test ight for endurance, the aircraft remained airborne
and fully operational for 35.4 hours, however it was designed to remain airborne for a full week in the event of an
emergency.[10] It takes two fully loaded KC-135 tankers
to fully refuel an E-4B. The E-4B has three operational
decks: upper, middle, and lower.
14.2.1
The ight deck contains the stations for the pilot, copilot,
navigator, and ight engineer, including a special navigation station not normally found on commercial Boeing
747s. A lounge area and sleeping quarters for ight crews
and other personnel are located aft of the ight deck. The
ight crew consists of an aircraft commander, co-pilot,
navigator, and ight engineer.
161
sleeping area, and a dressing room. Telephone instruments in this area provide the NCA with secure and clear
worldwide communications.
The brieng room contains a brieng table with three executive seats, eighteen additional seats, a lectern, and two
80 inch at screen LED monitors ush mounted to the
partition.
The communications control area is divided into a voice
area and a data area. The voice area, located on the
right side of the compartment, contains the radio operators console, the semi-automatic switchboard console,
and the communication ocers console. The data area,
located on the left side of the area, contains the record
communications console, record data supervisors console, high speed DATA/AUTODIN/AFSAT console, and
LF/VLF control heads. The E-4B can communicate with
the ground over a wide range of frequencies covering virtually the entire radio communications spectrum from 14
kHz to 8.4 GHz. Ground stations can link the E-4B into
the main US ground-based communications network.
(SAC).[12]
162
14.3.2
14.4 Operators
United States
Recent history
14.5 Variants
E-4A Three aircraft (s/n 73-1676, 73-1677, and 740787) produced. No bulge to house equipment on
top of fuselage.[26] These were later converted to E4Bs.[1]
163
Performance
Related lists
Maximum speed: 523 knots (602 mph, 969 km/h)
14.9 References
References
The E-4B plays a prominent role in two motion pictures. [5] Doomsday Jets Increase in Cost. Spartanburg HeraldIn the 1990 HBO lm By Dawns Early Light, following a
Journal. Associated Press. 5 November 1973.
nuclear strike by the Russians the aircraft serves as a ying platform for the presumed president, the ex-Secretary [6] Bowers 1989, p. 528.
of the Interior who is played by Darren McGavin. The
aircraft is pursued by a Boeing EC-135 Looking Glass, [7] Boeing Awarded E-4B Product Support Integrator Contract. 21 December 2005.
which successfully intercepts it. In the 2002 motion picture The Sum of All Fears, the president and his sta travel [8] Dendy IV, Sta Sgt. John B (May 2000), Around
on an E-4B following the detonation of a nuclear weapon
the clock with the E-4B, Airman (magazine) (USAF),
by terrorists. In the novel, the Vice-president and his famarchived from the original on May 10, 2000.
ily are aboard the NEACP after terrorists explode a nuclear bomb in Denver while the President and his Na- [9] American Doomsday overview, video clip. National
Geographic.
tional Security Advisor are stuck at Camp David during
a blinding snowstorm. The E-4s program, Project Night- [10] Winchester, Jim (2006). The Encyclopedia of Modern
watch, was referenced in the book The Fallout, by S. A.
Aircraft. Thunder Bay Press. p. 264.
Bodeen.
[11] Guided Tour Inside the E-4B NAOC Doomsday Plane.
164
[21] Federal Budget Program 0302015F E-4B National Airborne Operations Center (PDF). FY2008 Federal Budget.
February 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[22] Francillon 2008, p. 37.
[23] Federal Budget Program E00400 / E-4B (PDF). bgaaeroweb.com. March 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[24] E-4Bs at ITO. HNL RareBirds. 5 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
[25] Plane at Hilo likely Bushs Air Force One backup. The
Honolulu Star-Bulletin. 25 October 2003. Retrieved 31
December 2013.
[26] den Daas, Gostar (January 2014). Boeing E-4 factsheet.
aviamagazine.com/factsheets. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
[27] Boeing 747-200 Technical Specications, Boeing
Bibliography
Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft since 1916.
London:Putnam, 1989. ISBN 0-85177-804-6.
Francillon, Ren J. Doomsday 747s: The National
Airborne Operations Center. Air International,
December 2008. Key Publishing, Syamford, Lincs,
UK. pp. 3237.
Haverlah, Je (2005). Nightwatch Outline.
Worldwide Ute News Club (WUN). Retrieved
2013-12-28.
Jenkins, Dennis R. Boeing 747-100/200/300/SP
(AirlinerTech Series, Vol. 6). Specialty Press,
2000. ISBN 1-58007-026-4.
Lloyd, Alwin T., A Cold War Legacy: A Tribute
to Strategic Air Command- 1946-1992. Missoula,
Montana, United States: Pictorial Histories Publications Company, 1999. ISBN 978-1-57510-052-4.
Michell, Simon. Janes Civil and Military Upgrades
1994-95. Coulsden, Surrey, UK: Janes Information
Group, 1994. ISBN 0-7106-1208-7.
Chapter 15
15.3 Specications
Data from Navy Fact File[1]
General characteristics
Navy E-6B Mercury at the Mojave Air and Space Port
Crew: 1225
Capacity: 23
165
166
15.5.2 Bibliography
Francillon, Ren J. Messenger of the Gods: The
Boeing E-6 Mercury in USN Service. Air International, Vol. 48, No 1, January 1995, pp. 1924.
Detail of the E-6s wingtip
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.862 (600 miles per hour
or 520 knots or 970 kilometres per hour)
Range: 6,600 nmi (7,590 mi, 12,144 km) with 6
hours loiter time
Service ceiling: > 40,000 ft (12,200 m)
15.5 References
15.5.1
Notes
Chapter 16
Boeing VC-25
This article is about the current primary aircraft used as
Air Force One. For the history of the callsign and the
use of aircraft, see Air Force One.
The Boeing VC-25 is the designation of a United States
Air Force passenger transportation aircraft, a military
version of the Boeing 747 airliner. The two modied
Boeing 747s are designated VC-25A by the USAF.
The VC-25 is most famous for its role as Air Force One,
the call sign of any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the
President of the United States. The two aircraft currently in U.S. service are highly modied versions of Boeings 747-200B, with tail numbers 28000 and 29000. Although the Air Force One designation technically applies Boeing VC-25 Air Force One video
to the aircraft only while the President is aboard, the term
is commonly applied to the VC-25s more generally. They
often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters
that ferry the President to airports in circumstances where The VC-25 is not compliant with Automatic Dependent
a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate.
Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) standards; the Air Force
is upgrading both airplanes. The Air Force reported
that the operating cost for each VC-25A is $210,877 per
hour.[4]
16.1 Development
By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as
the Presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and
13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for
an eventual replacement. The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have
at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least
6,000 miles (9,700 km). Both Boeing with its 747 and
McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual
winner.[1] The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (19811989). Reagan ordered two identical Boeing 747-200Bs to replace
the Boeing 707s that he used for transport.[2]
The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and rst ew in
1987.[3] The interior designs were created by First Lady
Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the
American Southwest.[2] Problems with interior wiring for
communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990,[3] during the administration of George
H.W. Bush.
167
168
President Barack Obama meets with Rep. Dennis Kucinich, DOhio, aboard Air Force One en route to Cleveland, Ohio, March
15, 2010.
The corridor that runs down the port (left) side of the aircraft.
Secret Service agents are stationed in the two chairs.
16.2.1
169
170
16.3.1
Future
16.4 Operators
United States
United States Air Force
Boeing 747
E-4 Nightwatch
16.8 References
171
[6] Harris, Tom. How Air Force One Works. HowStuWorks.com. Retrieved: October 10, 2006.
Dorr, Robert F. Air Force One. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 2002. ISBN 07603-1055-6.
Bibliography
Air Force One Fact Sheet. United States Air Force,
(Current as of May 2014).
Chapter 17
17.1 Development
17.1.1
Origins
During 1960, the U.S. Marine Corps evolved a requirement for a medium-lift, twin-turbine troop/cargo assault
helicopter to replace the piston-engined types then in
use.[5] That same year Boeing acquired Vertol and renamed the group Boeing Vertol.[4] Following a competition, Boeing Vertol was selected to build its model 107M
as the HRB-1, early in 1961.[1] In 1962 the U.S. Air Force
ordered 12 XCH-46B Sea Knights with the XH-49A designation, but later cancelled the order due to a delivery
delay and opted for the Sikorsky S-61R instead.[6]
Following the Sea Knights rst ight in August 1962, the
designation was changed to CH-46A. In November 1964,
introduction of the Marines CH-46A and the Navys UH46As began. The UH-46A variant was modied for the
vertical replenishment role.[1] The CH-46A was equipped
with a pair of T58-GE8-8B turboshaft engines rated at
1,250 shp (930 kW) each and could carry 17 passengers
or 4,000 pounds (1,815 kg) of cargo.[7]
172
173
A door gunner manning a pintle-mounted .50-caliber M2 machine gun aboard a Marine CH-46, August 2006
The CH-46 has a cargo bay with a rear loading ramp that
could be removed or left open in ight for extended cargo
or for parachute drops. An internal winch is mounted in
the forward cabin and can be used to pull external cargo
on pallets into the aircraft via the ramp and rollers. A
belly sling hook (cargo hook) which is usually rated at
10,000 lb (4,500 kg). could be attached for carrying external cargo. Although the hook is rated at 10,000 lb
(4,500 kg)., the limited power produced by the engines
precludes the lifting of such weight. It usually has a crew
of three, but can accommodate a larger crew depending
on mission specics. For example, a Search and Rescue
variant will usually carry a crew of ve (Pilot, Co-Pilot,
Crew Chief, Swimmer, and Medic) to facilitate all aspects of such a mission. A pintle-mounted 0.50 in (12.7
17.2 Design
mm) Browning machine gun is mounted on each side
of the helicopter for self-defense.[7] Service in southeast
The CH-46 has tandem counter-rotating rotors powered
Asia resulted in the addition of armor with the guns.[1]
by two GE T58 turboshaft engines. The engines are
mounted on each side of the rear rotor pedestal with a
driveshaft to the forward rotor. The engines are coupled
so either could power both rotors in an emergency. The 17.3 Operational history
rotors feature three blades and can be folded for on-ship
174
17.3.1
United States
produced documentary.[18]
17.3.2 Canada
The Royal Canadian Air Force procured six CH-113
Labrador helicopters for the SAR role and the Canadian
Army acquired 12 of the similar CH-113A Voyageur for
the medium-lift transport role. The RCAF Labradors
17.4. VARIANTS
were delivered rst with the rst one entering service on
11 October 1963.[28][29] When the larger CH-147 Chinook was procured by the Canadian Forces in the mid1970s, the Voyageur eet was converted to Labrador
specications to undertake SAR missions. The refurbished Voyageurs were re-designated as CH-113A
Labradors, thus a total of 15 Labradors were ultimately
in service.[29]
175
of Aurora, Oregon purchased eight of the retired CH113 Labradors to add to their eet of 15 Vertol 107-II
helicopters.[30]
17.3.3 Sweden
In 1963, Sweden procured ten UH-46B from the US as a
transport and anti-submarine helicopter for the Swedish
armed forces, designated Hkp 4A. In 1973, a further eight
Kawasaki-built KV-107, which were accordingly designated Hkp 4B, were acquired to replace the older Piasecki
H-21. During the Cold War, the eets primary missions were anti-submarine warfare and troop transportation, they were also frequently employed in the search
and rescue role. In the 1980s, the Hkp 4A was phased
out, having been replaced by the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma; the later Kawasaki-built Sea Knights continued in operational service until 2011, they were replaced
by the UH-60 Black Hawk.
17.3.4 Civilian
CH-113 Labrador 11301 at the Canadian Aviation Museum
The civilian version, designated as the BV 107-II Vertol,[31] was developed prior to the military CH-46. It
was operated commercially by New York Airways, Pan
American World Airways and later on by Columbia Helicopters.[31] Among the diversity of tasks was pulling a
hover barge.[32][33] In December 2006, Columbia Helicopters purchased the type certicate of the Model 107
from Boeing, with the aim of eventually producing newbuild aircraft themselves.[34]
176
CH-46D Medium-lift assault and cargo transport helicopter for the USMC, tted with two 1,400 shp
(1,044 kW) General Electric T58-GE-10 turboshaft
107-II-2, two built as Boeing Vertol prototypes, ve
engines. 266 built.
sold to New York Airways, ten supplied to Kawasaki
HH-46D Surviving HH-46A were upgraded and a small
as sub-assemblies or as parts.[36]
number of UH-46Ds were converted into SAR heliModel 107M Company model number for military
copters. SAR upgrades included the addition of an
transport of BV-107/II-2 for the U.S. Marine
external rescue hoist near the front crew door and an
Corps.[37]
18-inch X 18-inch Doppler RADAR system located
behind the nose landing gear, which provided for
YHC-1A Vertol Model 107 for test and evaluation by
automatic, day/night, over-water hovering capability
the United States Army. Adopted by the U.S. Mafor at sea rescue. Additionally a Loud Hailer was
rine Corps as the HRB-1. Later redesignated YCHinstalled opposite the crew entrance door for com46C, three built.
municating with downed aviators on the ground or
HRB-1 Original designation before being renamed as
in the water.
17.4. VARIANTS
177
UH-46D Medium-lift utility transport helicopter for the HKP 4A Boeing Vertol 107-II-14, used originally by
US Navy combat supply role. Similar to the CHAir Force for SAR, ten built.[42]
46D. Ten built and one conversion from CH-46D.
HKP 4B Boeing
Vertol
107-II-15,
mineCH-46E Approximately 275 -A, -D, and -F airframes
layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy, three
were updated to CH-46E standards with improved
built and one conversion from Boeing-Vertol civil
avionics, hydraulics, drive train and upgraded T58prototype.[43]
GE-16 and T58-GE-16/A engines.
HKP 4C Kawasaki KV-107-II-16, advanced mineHH-46E Three CH-46Es were converted into SAR
layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy,eight built.
helicopters for Marine Transport Squadron One
HKP 4D Rebuilt HKP 4A for Navy as SAR/ASW he(VMR-1) at MCAS Cherry Point.[38]
licopter, four conversions.[44]
CH-46F Improved version of CH-46D, electrical distribution, com/nav update BUNO 154845-157726.
Last production model in the United States. 174 17.4.4 Japanese versions
built, later reverted to CH-46E.
VH-46F Unocial designation of standard CH-46F
used by HMX-1 as VIP support transport helicopter.
CH-46X Replacement helicopter based on the Boeing
Model 360, this Advance Technology Demonstrator
from the 1980s never entered production. The aircraft relied heavily on composites for its construction and had a beeer drive train to handle the twin
Avco-Lycoming AL5512 engines (4,200 shp).[39]
XH-49 Original designation of UH-46B.
17.4.2
Canadian versions
CH-113 Labrador Search and rescue version of the KV-107II-1 (CT58-110-1) Utility transport version,
Model 107-II-9 for the Royal Canadian Air
one built from Boeing-supplied kits.
Force.[40]
KV-107II-2 (CT58-110-1) Commercial airline version,
CH-113A Voyageur Assault and utility transport vernine built from Boeing-supplied kits.
sion of the Model 107-II-28 for the Canadian Army.
Later converted to CH-113A Labrador when the KV-107IIA-2 (CT58-140-1) Improved version of the
Canadian Forces acquired the CH-47 Chinook.[41]
KV-107/II-2, three built.
17.4.3
Swedish versions
utility
178
US Navy Sea Knight ies for the nal time over Norfolk, Virginia
United States
Canada
Helifor Canada[47]
United States
Columbia Helicopters[48]
Former operators
trans-
KV-107IIA-SM-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Air ambulance helicopter for Saudi Arabia, three built.
Source:[45]
17.5 Operators
Canada
179
HMM-265[63]
HMM-268[64]
HMM-364[65]
HMM-764[66]
HMMT-164[67][68]
Thailand
Royal Thai Army[56]
United States
VMR-1[61]
HMM-262[62]
General characteristics
180
Museum,
17.10. REFERENCES
from the United States Embassy, Saigon on 30 April
1975.[84][85]
USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California displays HH-46A #150954 (c/n 2040) as U.S. Navy
SA-46 of HC-3 on one side and VR-46 of HC-11
on the other.[86]
National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola,
FL displays HH-46D #151952 (c/n 2102) as U.S
Navy HW-00 of HC-6.[87]
181
17.10 References
Citations
[1] CH-46 history page, U.S. Navy, 16 November 2000.
[2] Apostolo, Giorgio. Boeing Vertol Model 107. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York: Bonanza
Books. 1984. ISBN 978-0-517-43935-7.
[3] Donald 1997, p. 175.
Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA has Raymond Clausen's Medal of Honor
mission CH-46E #153389 (c/n 2287) as HMM-263
EG-16. The rear fuselage of #153335 was used in
restoration.[88]
[4] Spenser, Jay P. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998.
ISBN 0-295-97699-3.
182
[49] Worlds Air Forces 1981 pg. 330. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[26] Venerable 'Sea Knight' Makes Goodbye Flights - Military.com, 3 October 2014
[28] Milberry, Larry: Sixty Years The RCAF and Air Command 19241984, p. 472. McGraw Hill Ryerson, 1984.
ISBN 0-07-549484-1
[29] Canada Aviation and Space Museum (n.d.). Boeing Vertol CH-113 Labrador. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
[30] Columbia Helicopters Acquires eight CH-113 Labrador
helicopters from Canadian military. RotorHub. RotorHub.com. Archived from the original on 22 December
2007. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
[52] "
Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[53] World Air Forces 2004 pg. 83. ightglobal.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[54] Kawasaki/Vertol KV107 operators. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
[55] World Air Forces 1987 pg. 91. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
[56] Thai aviation history. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
[57] New York Airways Boeing-Vertol V 107 N6672D. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
ut-
[39] Photo of Boeing Model 360 with CH-46X tail markings. Airport-data.com. 2007-06-17. Retrieved 201404-25.
[67] Marine Medium Helicopter Training Squadron 164. tripod.com. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
183
Bibliography
Andrade, John U.S.Military Aircraft Designations
and Serials since 1909. Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0-904597-22-9.
Andrade, John. Militair 1982. London: Aviation
Press Limited, 1982. ISBN 0-907898-01-7.
Donald, David ed. Boeing Vertol Model 107 (H-46
Sea Knight)" The Complete Encyclopedia of World
Aircraft, Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997. ISBN 07607-0592-5.
Dunstan, Simon. Vietnam Choppers: Helicopters in
Battle 1950-1975, Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN
1-84176-796-4.
Murray, Williamson and Robert H. Scales. The Iraq
War. Harvard University Press, 2005. ISBN 067450-412-7.
Rottman, Gordon and Adam Hook. Vietnam Airmobile Warfare Tactics. Osprey Publishing, 2007.
ISBN 1-84603-136-2.
Chapter 18
18.1 History
18.1.1 World War I
The use of aircraft in the close air support of ground
forces dates back to World War I, the rst signicant use
of aerial units in warfare.[2] Air warfare, and indeed aviation itself, was still in its infancyand the direct eect
of rie calibre machine guns and light bombs of World
War I aircraft was very limited compared with the power
of (for instance) a World War II ghter bomber, but close
A Boeing AH-64 Apache attack helicopter provides close air supsupport aircraft still had a powerful psychological impact.
port to United States Army soldiers patrolling the Tigris River
The aircraft was a visible and personal enemyunlike
southeast of Baghdad, Iraq during the Iraq War
artillerypresenting a personal threat to enemy troops,
while providing friendly forces assurance that their supeIn military tactics, close air support (CAS) is dened as riors were concerned about their situation.
air action by xed or rotary-winged aircraft against hostile Most successful attacks of 19171918 included planning
targets that are close to friendly ground or naval forces, for co-ordination between aerial and ground units, aland which requires detailed integration of each air mis- though it was very hard at this early date to co-ordinate
sion with re and movement of these forces.[1]
these attacks due to the primitive nature of air-to-ground
Conversely, deep air support (DAS) is air action directed
on objectives not in the immediate vicinity of friendly
forces for the purposes of neutralizing and destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and for interfering with enemy command, supply, communications, and observations.
The determining factor for CAS is detailed integration,
not proximity. CAS may need to be conducted far from
friendly forces, if the mission requires detailed integration with the re and movement of these forces. A closely
related subset of air interdiction, battleeld air interdiction denotes interdiction against units with near-term
eects on friendly units, but which does not require integration with friendly troop movements. The term battleeld air interdiction is not currently used in US joint
doctrine.
radio communication. Though most airpower proponents sought independence from ground commanders and
hence pushed the importance of interdiction and strategic
bombing, they nonetheless recognised the need for close
air support.[3]
From the commencement of hostilities in 1914, aviators
engaged in sporadic and spontaneous attacks on ground
forces, but it wasn't until 1916 that an air support doctrine
was elaborated and dedicated ghters for the job were put
into service. By that point, the startling and demoralizing
eect that attack from the air could have on the troops in
the trenches had been made clear.
18.1. HISTORY
185
seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier
two-seaters with an additional machine gunner in the aft
cockpit. The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover
CL.II and built the rst purpose built ground attack aircraft, the Junkers J.I. During the 1918 Spring Oensive the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta,
of ground attack ghters and were able to achieve some
initial tactical success.[3] The British later deployed the
Sopwith Salamander as a specialised ground attack aircraft, although it was too late to see much action.
The British used air power extensively during the interwar period
to police areas in the Middle East.
186
nial hotspots in the Middle East and North Africa during the immediate postwar period. The newly formed
RAF contributed to the defeat of Afghan forces during the Third Anglo-Afghan War by harassing the enemy and breaking up their formations. Z force, an air
squadron, was also used to support ground operations
during the Somaliland campaign, in which the 'Mad Mullah' Mohammed Abdullah Hassan's insurgency was defeated. Following from these successes, the decision was
made to create a unied RAF Iraq Command to use air
power as a more cost-eective way of controlling large
areas than the use of conventional land forces.[4] It was
eectively used to suppress the Great Iraqi Revolution of
1920 and various other tribal revolts.
18.1. HISTORY
187
the Allies, the Germans were not able to develop powerful strategic bombing capabilities, which implied industrial developments they were forbidden to take according to the Treaty of Versailles.[7] In joint exercises with
Sweden in 1934, the Germans were rst exposed to divebombing, which permitted greater accuracy while making attack aircraft more dicult to track by antiaircraft
gunners. As a result, Ernst Udet, chief of the Luftwae
's development, initiated procurement of close support
dive bombers on the model of the U.S. Navys Curtiss
Helldiver, resulting in the Henschel Hs 123, which was
later replaced by the famous Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. Experience in the Spanish Civil War lead to the creation of
ve ground-attack groups in 1938, four of which would
be equipped with Stukas. The Luftwae matched its material acquisitions with advances in the air-ground coordination. General Wolfram von Richthofen organized a
limited number of air liaison detachments that were attached to ground units of the main eort. These detachments existed to pass requests from the ground to the
air, and receive reconnaissance reports, but they were not
trained to guide aircraft onto targets.
The Royal Air Force (RAF) entered the war woefully unprepared to provide CAS. In 1940 during the Battle of
France, the Royal Air Force and Army headquarters in
France were located at separate positions, resulting in unreliable communications. After the RAF was withdrawn
in May, Army ocers had to telephone the War Oce
in London to arrange for air support. The stunning effectiveness of German air-ground coordination spurred
change. On the basis of tests in Northern Ireland in August 1940, Group Captain A. H. Wann RAF and Colonel
J.D. Woodall (British Army) issued the Wann-Woodall
Report, recommending the creation of a distinct tactical air force liaison ocer (known colloquially as tentacles) to accompany Army divisions and brigades. Their
report spurred the RAF to create an RAF Army Co-
188
operation Command and to develop tentacle equipment strikes by what was originally termed a Mobile Fighter
and procedures placing an Air Liaison Ocer with each Controller traveling with the forward troops. The conbrigade.
troller rode in the leading tank or armoured car and di[13]
Although the RAF was working on its CAS doctrine in rected a cab rank of aircraft above the battleeld.
London, ocers in North Africa improvised their own This system of close co-operation rst used by the Desert
coordination techniques. In October 1941, Sir Arthur Air Force, was steadily rened and perfected, during the
Tedder and Arthur Coningham, senior RAF commanders campaigns in Italy, Normandy and Germany.
in North Africa, created joint RAF-Army Air Support
Control stas at each corps and armored division headquarters, and placed a Forward Air Support Link at each
brigade to forward air support requests. When trained
tentacle teams arrived in 1942, they cut response time
on support requests to thirty minutes.[3] It was also in
the North Africa desert that the cab rank strategy was
developed.[8] It used a series of three aircraft, each in
turn directed by the pertinent ground control by radio.
One aircraft would be attacking, another in ight to the
battle area, while a third was being refuelled and rearmed
at its base. If the rst attack failed to destroy the tactical
target, the aircraft in ight would be directed to continue
the attack. The rst aircraft would land for its own refuelling and rearming once the third had taken o. The
CAS tactics developed and rened by the British during
the campaign in North Africa served as the basis for the
Allied system used to subsequently gain victory in the
air over Germany in 1944 and devastate its cities and
industries.[2]
The use of forward air control to guide close air support (CAS)[9] aircraft, so as to ensure that their attack
hits the intended target and not friendly troops, was rst
used by the British Desert Air Force in North Africa, but
not by the USAAF until operations in Salerno.[10] During
the North African Campaign in 1941 the British Army
and the Royal Air Force established Forward Air Support
Links (FASL), a mobile air support system using ground
vehicles. Light reconnaissance aircraft would observe enemy activity and report it by radio to the FASL which was
attached at brigade level. The FASL was in communication (a two-way radio link known as a tentacle) with the
Air Support Control (ASC) Headquarters attached to the
corps or armoured division which could summon support
through a Rear Air Support Link with the airelds.[11][12]
They also introduced the system of ground direction of air
18.1. HISTORY
down in self-defense by Allied tanks. The expectation of
losses to friendly re from the ground during the planned
invasion of France prompted the black and white invasion
stripes painted on all Allied aircraft from 1944.
189
advance of General Patton's Third Army in its drive
across France. Armed reconnaissance was a major feature of XIX TAC close air support, as the rapid advance
left Pattons Southern ank open. Such was the close nature of cooperation between the Third Army and XIX
TAC that Patton actually counted on XIX TAC to guard
his anks. This close air support from XIX TAC was thus
undoubtedly a key factor in the rapid advance and success
of Pattons Third Army.
The American Navy and Marine Corps used CAS in conjunction with or as a substitute for the lack of available
artillery or naval gunre in the Pacic theater. Navy and
Marine F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs used a variety of
ordnance such as conventional bombs, rockets and napalm to dislodge or attack Japanese troops utilizing cave
complexes in the latter part of World War II.
Red Air Force
The Red Air Force was not slow to recognize the value of
ground support aircraft. Even as far back as the Battles
of Khalkhyn Gol, Russian aircraft were given the task of
disrupting enemy ground operations. This use increased
markedly after the German invasion.[16] Purpose-built
aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik were highly
eective in blunting the activity of the Panzers. Joseph
Stalin paid the Il-2 a great tribute in his own inimitable
manner: when a particular production factory fell behind
on its deliveries, Stalin sent the following cable to the factory manager: They are as essential to the Red Army as
air and bread.[17]
Though the Marine Corps continued its tradition of intimate air-ground cooperation in the Korean War, the
newly created United States Air Force (USAF) again
moved away from CAS, now to strategic bombers and
jet interceptors. Though eventually the Air Force supXIX TAC, under the command of General Otto P. Wey- plied sucient pilots and forward air controllers to proland utilized similar tactics to support the rapid armored vide battleeld support, coordination was still lacking.
190
The Korean War revealed important aws in the application of CAS. Firstly, the USAF preferred interdiction Though helicopters were initially armed merely as defenover re support while the Army regarded support mis- sive measures to support the landing and extraction of
sions as the main concern for air forces. Then, the Army troops, their value in this role lead to the modication of
18.2. AIRCRAFT
early helicopters as dedicated gunship platforms. Though
not as fast as xed-wing aircraft and consequently more
vulnerable to anti-aircraft weaponry, helicopters could
utilize terrain for cover, and more importantly, had much
greater battleeld persistence owing to their low speeds.
The latter made them a natural complement to ground
forces in the CAS role. In addition, newly developed antitank guided missiles, demonstrated to great eectiveness
in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, provided aircraft with an
eective ranged anti-tank weapon. These considerations
motivated armies to promote the helicopter from a support role to a combat arm. Though the U.S. Army controlled rotary-wing assets, coordination continued to pose
a problem. During wargames, eld commanders tended
to hold attack helicopters out of fear of air defenses, committing them too late to eectively support ground units.
The earlier debate over control over CAS assets were reiterated between ground commanders and aviators. Nevertheless, the US Army incrementally gained increased
control over its CAS role.[22]
In the mid-1970s, after Vietnam, the USAF decided to
train an enlisted force to handle many of the tasks the
ALO was saturated with, to include terminal attack control. Now the ALO mainly serves in the liaison role, the
intricate details of mission planning and attack guidance
left to the enlisted members of the Tactical Air Control
Party.
18.2 Aircraft
191
track. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka is the best known example
of a dive bomber built for precision bombing but which
was successfully utilised for CAS. It was tted with windblown whistles on its landing gear to enhance its psychological eect. Some variants of the Stuka were equipped
with 37 mm anti-tank cannons.
Other than the A-36, a P-51 modied with dive brakes,
the Americans and British used no dedicated CAS aircraft in World War II, preferring ghters or ghterbombers that could be pressed into CAS service. While
some such as the Hawker Typhoon and the P-47 Thunderbolt, performed admirably in that role, there were a number of compromises that prevented most ghters from
making eective CAS platforms. Fighters were usually
optimized for high-altitude operations without bombs or
other external ordnance ying at low level with bombs
quickly expended fuel. Cannons had to be mounted differently for strang strang required a further and
lower convergence point than aerial combat did.
Of the World War II allies, the Soviet Union used specifically designed ground attack aircraft more than the UK
and US. Such aircraft included the Ilyushin Il-2, the single
most produced military aircraft design in all of aviation
history. The Soviets also used the Polikarpov Po-2, a biplane, as a ground attack aircraft.
The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury ghters and the U.S.
Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued
to be used throughout the Vietnam War.
In the Vietnam War, the United States introduced xed
and rotary wing gunships, cargo aircraft retted as gun
platforms to serve as close air support and air interdiction
aircraft. The rst of these was the AC-47 Spooky. Later
models include the Fairchild AC-119 and the Lockheed
AC-130; the latter was used extensively in Afghanistan
and Iraq.
192
The use of information technology to direct and coordinate precision air support has increased the importance
of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in utilizing CAS. Laser, GPS, and battleeld data transfer are
routinely used to coordinate with a wide variety of air
platforms able to provide CAS. Recent doctrine[1] reects
the increased use of electronic and optical technology to
direct targeted res for CAS. Air platforms communicating with ground forces can also provide additional aerialto-ground visual search, ground-convoy escort, and enhancement of command and control (C2), assets which
can be particularly important for low intensity conict.[23]
fully lled close support roles using precision guided munitions. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the lack
of ghter aircraft forced military planners to rely heavily on US bombers, particularly the B-1B Lancer, to ll
the CAS role. Bomber CAS, relying mainly on GPS
guided weapons and laser-guided JDAMs has evolved
into a devastating tactical employment methodology and
has changed US doctrinal thinking regarding CAS in general. With signicantly longer loiter times, range, and
weapon capacity, bombers can be deployed to bases outside of the immediate battleeld area, with 12 hour missions being commonplace since 2001. After the initial
collapse of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, airelds in
Afghanistan became available for continuing operations
against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. This resulted in a great
number of CAS operations being undertaken by aircraft
from Belgium (F-16 Fighting Falcon), Denmark (F-16),
France (Mirage 2000D), the Netherlands (F-16), Norway (F-16), the United Kingdom (Harrier GR7s, GR9s
and Tornado GR4s) and the United States (A-10, F-16,
AV-8B Harrier II, F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet,
F/A-18 Super Hornet, UH-1Y Venom).
18.5 Notes
[1] Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Close Air
Support (2003). DoD.
[2] Hallion (1990), Airpower Journal.
[3] House (2001), Combined Arms Warfare.
[4] Boyle, Andrew. Trenchard Man of Vision p. 371
[5] Corum & Johnson, Small Wars, p. 23-40.
[6] Mearsheimer, John J. (2010). Liddell Hart and the Weight
of History. Cornell University Press. Retrieved 2013-0207.
[7] Elie Tenenbaum, The Battle over Fire Support. The
CAS Challenge and the Future of Artillery, Focus
stratgique, No. 35 bis, October 2012. http://www.ifri.
org/downloads/fs35bistenenbaum.pdf
[8] Strike from Above: The History of Battleeld Air Attack
19111945. pp. 181182.
18.6. REFERENCES
193
18.6 References
Blair, Clay (1987). The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 19501953. New York: Times
Books/Random House.
Corum, James S. and Wray R. Johnson (2003).
Airpower in Small Wars Fighting Insurgents and
Terrorists. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of
Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1240-8.
Hallion, Dr. Richard P. (Spring 1990). Battleeld
Air Support: A Retrospective Assessment". Airpower
Journal (U.S. Air Force). Archived from the original on 2006-04-01. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
Haun, LtCol Phil M., USAF (Fall 2006). The Nature of Close Air Support in Low Intensity Conict.
Air & Space Power Journal. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
House, Jonathan M. (2001). Combined Arms Warfare in the Twentieth Century. Lawrence, Kansas:
University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1081-2.
Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for
Close Air Support (CAS)" (PDF). Joint Publication 3-09.3 (PDF). U.S. Department of Defense. 3
September 2003. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
Krulak, Victor H. (1984). First To Fight: An Inside
View of the U.S. Marine Corps. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-785-2.
Elie Tenenbaum, The Battle over Fire Support.
The CAS Challenge and the Future of Artillery,
Focus stratgique, No. 35 bis, October 2012.
Chapter 19
Delta IV
Delta IV is an active expendable launch system in the
Delta rocket family. Delta IV uses rockets designed by
Boeing's Integrated Defense Systems division and built
in the United Launch Alliance (ULA) facility in Decatur,
Alabama. Final assembly is completed at the launch site
by ULA.[2] The rockets were designed to launch payloads
into orbit for the United States Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program and commercial satellite business. Delta IV rockets are available in
ve versions: Medium, Medium+ (4,2), Medium+ (5,2),
Medium+ (5,4), and Heavy, to cover a range of payload
size and weight. Delta IV was primarily designed to satisfy the needs of the U.S. military.
Recent history
The United States Air Force (USAF) funds Delta IV engineering, integration, and infrastructure through contracts
with Boeing Launch Services (BLS). On August 8, 2008
the USAF Space and Missile Systems Center increased
the cost plus award fee contract with BLS for $1.656
billion to extend the period of performance through the
end of FY09. In addition a $557.1 million option was
194
19.3. VARIANTS
195
The L-3 Communications Redundant Inertial Flight Control Assembly (RIFCA) guidance system used on the
Delta IV is common to that carried on the Delta II, although the software is dierent because of the dierences between the Delta II and Delta IV. The RIFCA features six ring laser gyroscopes and accelerometers each,
to provide a higher degree of reliability.[18]
To encapsulate the satellite payload, a variety of dierent payload fairings are available. A stretched Delta III
4-meter composite payload fairing is used on 4-meter
variants, while an enlarged, 5-meter composite fairing is
used on 5-meter variants. A longer fairing version is standard on the Heavy variant, and a Boeing-built Titan IVderived, 5-meter, aluminum isogrid fairing is also available for the Heavy.[19] The Delta IV is over 62 m (205 ft)
The RS-68 engine is mounted to the lower thrust structall.
ture of the vehicle by a four-legged (quadrapod) thrust
frame, and enclosed in a protective composite conical
thermal shield. Above the thrust structure is an aluminum Comparable rockets
isogrid (a grid pattern machined out of the inside of the
tank to reduce weight) liquid hydrogen tank, followed by Angara - Ariane 5 - Atlas V - Falcon 9 - Falcon Heavy a composite cylinder called the centerbody, an aluminum GSLV III - H-IIB - Long March 5 (or Chang Zheng 5) isogrid liquid oxygen tank, and a forward skirt. Along Proton
the back of the CBC is a cable tunnel to hold electrical
and signal lines, and a feedline to carry the liquid oxygen
to the RS-68 from the tank. The CBC is of a constant,
19.3 Variants
5-meter (16.4 ft) diameter.[12]
19.2.2
196
Delta IV Heavy
The possibility of a higher performance Delta IV was indicated in a 2006 RAND Corporation study of national
Main article: Delta IV Heavy
security launch requirements out to 2020,[26] which noted
The Delta IV Heavy (Delta 9250H) is similar to the that a single National Reconnaissance Oce (NRO) payload would require an increase in the lift capability of
the Delta IV Heavy. This was achieved using the higherperformance RS-68A engine,[27] and launched on June
29, 2012.[28] ULA phased out the baseline RS-68 engine
with the launch of Delta ight 371 on March 25, 2015.
All future launches will use the RS-68A,[29] with the engines higher thrust allowing use of a single CBC design
for all Delta IV Medium and M+ versions. This upgrade
reduces cost and increases exibility, since any standardized CBC can be congured for zero, two, or four solid
boosters; this CBC will necessitate a slight performance
loss for most medium congurations.[30] The Delta IV
Heavy will still require non-standard CBCs for the core
and boosters.[31]
RS-68A
RS-68
*Masses include Payload Attach Fitting weighing from
240 kg to 1,221 kg depending on payload.[1]
197
198
19.6.1
19.8. REFERENCES
DemoSat 6020 kg; an aluminum cylinder lled
with 60 brass rods planned to be carried to GEO;
however due to the sensor faults, the satellite did not
reach this orbit.
199
List of launch vehicles
19.8 References
19.6.2
Planned launches
200
[41] Justin Ray (December 22, 2004). Air Force says plenty
of good came from Delta 4 test. Spaceight Now. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[42] Justin Ray (June 27, 2006). New era of rocket launches
begins at California base. Spaceight Now. Retrieved
December 12, 2010.
[22] Boeing Signs agreement for Delta IV Integration Facility (Press release). Boeing. January 28, 1999.
[43] Covault, Craig (March 9, 2007). Delta Pad Damage Assessed After Fuel Leak. Aviation Week.
[44] Tracking Station - Worldwide launch schedule. Spaceight Now. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
[24] Delta Launch 310 Delta IV Heavy Demo Media Kit Delta Growth Options (PDF). Boeing.
NASA
201
First Vandenberg Delta IV Heavy launch video via
EducatedEarth.
Bates, Jason. Boeings Delta IV Heavy Gets Ready
for its Close-Up, Space News, 2004-12-06.
Rocketdyne Space Page
Delta IV page on Astronautix.com
Chapter 20
Electronic-warfare aircraft
An-12BK-PPS (Soviet Union)
Mi-8PP (Soviet Union)
An-26REP (Soviet Union)
Tu-16RM-2 (Soviet Union)
Chapter 21
The USCG funded a program to improve engine reliability, but the resulting LTS101-850 failed to meet expectations.
In 1994, the USCG therefore held a fast-track competition to select a new powerplant, and in March 2004 the
Guard announced the selection of the Turbomeca Arriel
2C2-CG, already installed on the EC155. This upgrade
began in 2004, and has resulted in a safer and more ca21.1 Development
pable aircraft. These modied HH-65As and HH-65Bs,
which also gained new avionics and other enhancements,
The SA366 G1 Dauphin version was selected by the have been designated as HH-65Cs.
United States Coast Guard in 1979 as its new short range
recovery (SRR) air-sea rescue helicopter, replacing the
Sikorsky HH-52A Sea Guard. In total 99 helicopters, optimised for the USCGs search and rescue role tasks and 21.2 Design
given the designation HH-65A Dolphin, were acquired.
Unlike the HH-52, the HH-65A is not able to perform
water landings.[1] The HH-65 normally carries a crew of
four: Pilot, Copilot, Flight Mechanic and Rescue Swimmer.
The Dolphin was manufactured by Aerospatiale Helicopter Corporation (later American Eurocopter; now
Airbus Helicopters, Inc.) in Grand Prairie, Texas.
Textron Lycoming (now Honeywell) built the Dolphins
LTS101-750B-2 turboshaft engines in Williamsport,
Pennsylvania, and Rockwell Collins manufactured the
HH-65s electronic systems in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.[1]
The HH-65 Dolphin is used for homeland security patrols, cargo, drug interdiction, ice breaking, military
readiness, pollution control, and search and rescue missions. The HH-65 is known for its Fenestron tail rotor and
its autopilot capabilities, which can complete an unaided
approach to the water and bring the aircraft into a stable
50 ft (15 m) hover, or automatically y search patterns,
an ability which allows the crew to engage in other tasks.
The HH-65As minimum equipment requirements exceeded anything previously packaged into a helicopter
weighing less than 10,000 pounds. 75% of the HH-65s
structure including rotorhead, rotor blades and fuselage consists of corrosion-resistant composite materials. Some Coast Guard pilots have nicknamed the Dolphin as Tupperwolf, a portmanteau of tupperware (because of the aircrafts high composites content)[2] and
Airwolf (from the 1980s TV series).
In order to comply with U.S. regulations relating to local content (based primarily on the value of individual
components of the aircraft), engineering changes were
required notably, the SA365s original Turbomeca Arriel engines were replaced with LTS101-750B-2 powerplants, which at the time represented the cutting edge of
turboshaft design. Unfortunately, initial teething prob- Also a unique feature of the Dolphin is its computerized
lems with this engine worsened as the HH-65s weight ight management system, which integrates state-of-thegrew, resulting in several in-ight loss-of-power events. art communications and navigation equipment. This sys203
204
21.4 Variants
HH-65C radar
tem provides automatic ight control. At the pilots direction, the system will bring the aircraft to a stable hover 50
feet (15 m) above a selected object. This is an important Members of USCG Air Station Savannah use a USCG HH-65C
safety feature in darkness or inclement weather. Selected demonstrating a helicopter rescue
search patterns can be own automatically, freeing the pilot and copilot to concentrate on sighting & searching the
HH-65A Initial USCG version, powered by two 734 shp
object.[1]
(547 kW) LTS101-750B-2 turboshafts and with an
A distinctive feature of the MH-65 is its fenestron ducted8,900 lb (4,000 kg) M.T.O.W.
fan anti-torque device. The fenestron consists of 10
blades spin inside a circular housing at the base of the
HH-65B Avionics upgrade undertaken on a portion of
helicopters tail n.
the eet. Retrot included an NVG-compatible inCertied for single-pilot instrument ight rules (IFR) optegrated ight management avionics suite consisting
eration, the HH-65A was the rst helicopter certied with
of two GPS-embedded CDU-900G control display
a four-axis autopilot, allowing for hands-o hover over a
units and two MFD-255 multifunction at panel dispre-determined location.
plays. The HH-65B upgrade was undertaken at the
Coast Guards Aircraft Repair and Supply Center
(ARSC) in Elizabeth City, NC, with the rst aircraft
rolling-o the post-depot maintenance (PDM) line
21.3 Operational history
in March 2001.
The Dolphin is primarily a Short Range Recovery (SRR)
aircraft. There are now a total of 102 Dolphins in the HH-65C HH-65A/B upgraded with new 934 shp (696
kW) Arriel 2C2-CG engines that provide 40% more
Coast Guard Fleet. The eet has home ports in 17
power and higher performance, plus an upgraded
cities on the Atlantic and Pacic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico,
tail gearbox, long-nose avionics compartment, inHawaii, and the Great Lakes region.[1]
creased 9,480 lb (4,300 kg) MTOW, expanded latThe Dolphin is usually deployed from shore but it can be
eral ight envelope and Vehicle and Engine Multideployed from medium and high endurance Coast Guard
function Display (VEMD) with First Limit Indicator
Cutters, as well as the Polar Icebreakers. The Dolphins
(FLI). First retrot completed in October 2004.
main jobs are: search and rescue, enforcement of laws
and treaties (including drug interdiction), polar ice breaking, marine environmental protection including pollution MH-65C Initially intended only for use by the MultiMission Cutter Helicopter (MCH), a further encontrol, and military readiness.
hancement of the HH-65C within the USCGs
When deployed from an icebreaker, the helicopter acts as
Deepwater eort, includes the installation of a 10the ships eyes, searching out thinner and more navigable
blade low-noise Fenestron, relocated avionics, and
ice channels. They also have the job of airlifting supplies
an airborne use of force package (in common with
to villages isolated by winter, or transporting scientists to
that of the modernized HH-60T) which provides the
conduct remote research.[1]
capability to re warning and disabling shots from
The MH-65 is also used to patrol the Air Defense Identhe air. The MH-65C is used in 'airborne use of
tication Zone (ADIZ) around Washington, D.C., also
force' missions, such as the Helicopter Interdiction
known as the National Capital Region (NCR). Seven
Tactical Squadron (HITRON) mission taken up by
205
CGAS Houston[13]
CGAS Humboldt Bay[14]
CGAS Kodiak[15]
CGAS Los Angeles [16]
CGAS Miami [17]
CGAS New Orleans[18]
CGAS North Bend[19]
CGAS Port Angeles[20]
CGAS San Francisco [21]
CGAS Savannah[22]
CGAS Traverse City[23]
Helicopter Interdiction Tactical Squadron[24]
21.5 Operators
Data from United States Coast Guard[25]
General characteristics
Crew: 2 pilots and 2 crew
Length: 11.6 m (38 ft 1 in)
Height: 4 m (13 ft 1 in)
Empty weight: 3,128 kg (6,896 lb)
Max takeo weight: 4,300 kg (9,480 lb)
HH-65C Dolphins of the United States Coast Guard
Powerplant: 2 Turbomeca Arriel 2C2-CG turboshaft engines, 636 kW (853 hp) each
Main rotor diameter: 11.9 m (39 ft 1 in)
United States
206
Guns:
21.8 References
[1] HH-65A Dolphin, GlobalSecurity.org, accessed 1 October 2007
[2] http://www.fredsplace.org/images/morgenthau2/
060813.pdf
[3] http://www.uscg.mil/acquisition/mch/default.asp USCG
Acquisition Directorate: Multi-Mission Cutter Helicopter
[4] Airforces Monthly, April 2011
[5] Coast Guard Common Avionics Today. Retrieved: 13
September 2014.
[6] Signicant Dates in Coast Guard Aviation (PDF).
uscg.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[7] AIR STATION ATLANTIC CITY. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[8] Coast Guard Aviation Training Center. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[9] Air Station Barbers Point. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12
March 2013.
[10] Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen. uscg.mil. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
[11] Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. uscg.mil. Retrieved
5 April 2013.
Chapter 22
207
208
Proposed uses
Use as trainers
As of December 2013, the U.S. Army is considering retiring its OH-58 Kiowa eet and transferring all National
Guard and U.S. Army Reserve AH-64 Apaches to the
active Army to serve as scout helicopters. All 100 active
Army UH-72s along with 104 Army National Guard UH72s would be transferred to use as training helicopters,
replacing the TH-67 Creek at the United States Army
Aviation Center of Excellence at Fort Rucker. Some active Army UH-60 Black Hawks would be transferred to
Army Reserve and Army National Guard units for homeland defense and disaster response missions. The proposals aim to retire older helicopters to substantially reduce costs while retaining crucial capabilities.[17] With
the prospect of most UH-72s being repurposed as training helicopters, the Army is requesting funds to buy 100
more Lakotas to add to the training eet. The FY 2015
budget would cover 55 helicopters, and FY 2016 funds
would complete the purchase.[18]
On 4 September 2014, the Army issued a notice that they
intended to buy up to 155 EC145/UH-72s to use as training platforms on an other than full and open competitive basis. Following this, AgustaWestland launched a
judicial bid to have the acquisition declared illegal. On
19 September, they claimed at a hearing that the EC145
did not oer the best value for the money and that its
restricted ight maneuver envelope impeded its training utility. Airbus defended the Armys position, noting
their previous selection and use of the EC145, claiming
AgustaWestlands gures of EC145 costs were exaggerated, and that the Lakota was already in use in training
roles.[19] Bell Helicopter also criticized the Armys actions, but did not take legal action. On 14 October 2014,
a Federal Claims Court issued a temporary order denying the U.S. governments challenge of AgustaWestlands
action until the Army issues its nal justication and approval (J&A) to sole-source the helicopter trainer procurement. Since the Army contends buying UH-72As
falls under 2006 LUH contract, and so not requiring a
new J&A, AgustaWestlands court challenge was eectively nulled.[20]
209
22.2 Design
See also: Eurocopter EC 145 Design
The UH-72 is designed to take on a range of missions, from general support and medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) to personnel recovery and counternarcotics operations. They are planned to replace the
UH-1 and OH-58A/C, which are older light utility helicopters, and supplant other types in domestic use, primarily those in Army National Guard service. The UH-72
is being procured as a commercial o-the-shelf (COTS)
product, which simplies logistics support of the eet.[32]
EADS NA has teamed with Sikorsky to provide Contractor Logistics Support (CLS) for the UH-72, through
its Helicopter Support, Inc. (HSI)/Sikorsky Aerospace The rst two Army National Guard UH-72As at Tupelo, Mississippi
Maintenance. (SAM) subsidiaries.[33]
The basic UH-72A is simply a commercial EC145 helicopter that has a U.S. Army color scheme and is tted
with an AN/ARC-231 radio. Other than utility transport, the Lakota can be congured for medical evacuation, VIP transport, security and support, and opposing
forces training. It is described as the best military aircraft in the inventory for domestic operations, used by
the Army National Guard for state support, disaster relief, and homeland defense and by non-deployed active
units for MEDEVAC and training.[34] Compared to the
previous UH-1 Huey used in those roles, the twin-engine
Lakota ies faster (145 kn or 269 km/h or 167 mph versus
124 kn or 230 km/h or 143 mph), has an external hoist
system, and has a fully integrated computerized cockpit.
The Huey has an advantage in the MEDEVAC role, being
able to carry three patients compared to the Lakotas twopatient load, but an average evacuation typically deals
with two or fewer patients.[35] The Security & Support
Mission Equipment Package (S&S MEP) is a version of
the UH-72A for homeland security, counter drug, and
border patrol missions. It is equipped with an electrooptical/infrared sensor and laser pointer turret, moving
map system and touch-screen displays, video management system, digital video recorded and datalink, searchlight, and rescue hoist from the MEDEVAC package.[36]
210
AAS-72X+ An armed military version of the Eurocopter EC145T2 also proposed for the Armed
Aerial Scout program.[26] It was equipped with more
powerful engines with an extra 200 horsepower
nal, Huntsville, Alabama; they are used for general supeach, a fenestron shrouded tail rotor, and a fully digport and as chase aircraft to support aviation development
ital glass cockpit.[56][57]
testing. With this delivery, the service has received over
200 UH-72As.[47] On 22 September 2012, the Oregon
Army National Guard's Detachment 1, C Company, 1112 Aviation, received the rst of four UH-72A heli- 22.5 Operators
copters during a roll-out ceremony at Camp Rilea in Warrenton, Oregon.[48]
Thailand
A UH-72A at the Pentagon, 2010
22.3.1
Export
On 7 June 2013, Thailand requested the sale of six UH72A Lakotas with associated equipment, training, and Data from UH-72 specications,[60] Eurocopter EC 145
support for an estimated cost of $77 million.[50] On 9 data[61]
October 2013, the Thai government approved $55 million in funds to support the Royal Thai Army's acquisi- General characteristics
tion of six UH-72A helicopters from 2013 to 2015.[51]
On 28 March 2014, the Thai Army awarded a $34 mil Crew: 1 or 2 pilots
lion contract to Airbus Helicopter for six UH-72As, they
Capacity: 9 troops or 2 stretchers and medical crew
are to be tted with a mission equipment package including the AN/ARC-231 airborne radio terminal; deliveries
Length: 42 ft 7 in (13.03 m)
are to begin by April 2015.[52] On 29 September 2014,
Congress was notied of a Thailand request for the sale
Rotor diameter: 36 ft 1 in (11.0 m)
of another nine UH-72 Lakotas, related equipment, and
Height: 11 ft 9 in (3.45 m)
support.[53][54]
Disc area: 1,023 ft (94.98 m)
22.4 Variants
UH-72A Lakota An unarmed utility military version
of the EC 145.
22.8. REFERENCES
211
Powerplant:
2 Turbomeca Arriel 1E2
turboshafts, 738 shp (551 kW) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 145 knots (167 mph, 269 km/h)
Cruise speed: 133 knots (153 mph, 246 km/h)
Range: 370 nmi (426 mi, 685 km)
Service ceiling: 13,181 ft (4,018 m)
Rate of climb: 1,600 ft/min (8.13 m/s)
Related development
Eurocopter EC 145
[17] Army Plans To Scrap Kiowa Helo Fleet. MarineCorpstimes.com, 9 December 2013.
[18] US Army Seeks To Purchase 100 Lakota Helicopters Defensenews.com, 27 February 2014
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
[19] Rotorcraft rivals trade blows over US Army trainer buy Flightglobal.com, 29 September 2014
List of helicopters
[20] Army Moves Ahead with Airbus Trainer Plan - Ainonline.com, 7 December 2014
22.8 References
[21] EADS North America selects Lockheed Martin as Mission Equipment Package integrator for new Armed Scout
Helicopter. Eurocopter, 4 May 2009.
[1] Airbus Group Delivers 300th On-Time, On-Budget UH72A Lakota Helicopter to U.S. Army - Reuters.com, 14
May 2014
[2] US Army aircraft, FY2012 budget estimate, p. 43. US
Army
[3] US Army set new LHX Timetable. Fight International,
27 February 1988.
[4] From LHX to Comanche.
March 2008.
Globalsecurity.org, 25
212
[27] Outgoing General: US Army Must Continue To Fund Research and Development - Defensenews.com, 14 January
2014
[28] UH-72 Lakota Could Be a Candidate for Air Force Duty
- Defensemedianetwork.com, March 10, 2013
[47] http://www.al.com/42/index.ssf/2012/07/army_fields_
three_uh-72a_lakot.html#incart_river_business
[48] http://www.albanytribune.com/
20092012-oregon-national-guard-to-roll-out-new-uh-72a-lakota-helicopters
E2%80%8F/
[29] air force planning decade-long Huey extension - Militarytimes.com, 22 August 2013
[50] Thailand Seeks Six UH-72A Lakota Helicopters Deagel.com, 20 June 2013.
[51] Thai government approves funds for helicopter procurement - Janes.com, 9 October 2013
[53] Thailand UH-72A Lakota Helicopters. Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 29 September 2014.
[54] FMS: Thailand Wants Nine UH-72A Lakota Helicopters. Deagel.com, 29 September 2014.
[59] U.S. Naval Test Pilot School UH-72A Lakotas have arrived. navy.mil. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
[60] UH-72A Lakota specications. Airbus Helicopters, Inc.
Mid-
[44] U.S. Naval Test Pilot School UH-72A Lakotas have arrived. Naval Air Systems Command. 24 March 2010.
[45] Expanding missions for the UH-72A are highlighted
at the 100th Lakota delivery ceremony. EADS North
America. 4 March 2010.
[46] Tremble, Stephen. UH-72A crashes o Puerto Rico in
rst major mishap. Flight International, 22 December
2010.
Chapter 23
23.1 Development
23.1.1
Background
Criticism that the U.S. Air Force did not take close air
support (CAS) seriously prompted a few service members to seek a specialized attack aircraft.[4][5] In the
Vietnam War, large numbers of ground-attack aircraft
were shot down by small arms, surface-to-air missiles,
and low-level anti-aircraft gunre, prompting the development of an aircraft better able to survive such weapons.
In addition, the UH-1 Iroquois and AH-1 Cobra heli-
213
214
air support.[11] During this time, a separate RFP was released for A-Xs 30 mm cannon with requirements for a
high rate of re (4,000 round/minute) and a high muzzle
velocity.[12] Six companies submitted aircraft proposals,
with Northrop and Fairchild Republic selected to build
prototypes: the YA-9A and YA-10A, respectively. General Electric and Philco-Ford were selected to build and
test GAU-8 cannon prototypes.[13]
Two YA-10 prototypes were built in the Republic factory in Farmingdale, New York and rst ew on 10 May
1972 by pilot Howard Sam Nelson. Production A-10s
were built at Fairchild in Hagerstown, Maryland. After trials and a y-o against the YA-9, on 18 January
1973, the USAF announced the YA-10s selection for
production.[14] General Electric was selected to build the
GAU-8 cannon in June 1973.[15] The YA-10 had an additional y-o in 1974 against the Ling-Temco-Vought
A-7D Corsair II, the principal USAF attack aircraft at
the time, in order to prove the need for a new attack aircraft. The rst production A-10 ew in October 1975,
and deliveries commenced in March 1976. In total, 715
airplanes were produced, the last delivered in 1984.[16]
23.2. DESIGN
215
23.1.4
Other uses
forward airelds near front lines. The aircraft can loiter for extended periods and operate under 1,000 ft (300
m) ceilings with 1.5 mi (2.4 km) visibility. It typically
ies at a relatively low speed of 300 knots (350 mph; 560
km/h), which makes it a better platform for the groundattack role than fast ghter-bombers, which often have
diculty targeting small, slow-moving targets.[6]
The leading edge of the wing has a honeycomb structure panel construction, providing strength with minimal weight; similar panels cover the ap shrouds, elevators, rudders and sections of the ns.[42] The skin panels are integral with the stringers and are fabricated using computer-controlled machining, reducing production
time and cost. Combat experience has shown that this
type of panel is more resistant to damage. The skin
is not load-bearing, so damaged skin sections can be
easily replaced in the eld, with makeshift materials if
necessary.[43] The ailerons are at the far ends of the wings
for greater rolling moment and have two distinguishing
features: The ailerons are larger than is typical, almost
50 percent of the wingspan, providing improved control
even at slow speeds; the aileron is also split, making it a
deceleron.[44][45]
The A-10 is designed to be refueled, rearmed, and serviced with minimal equipment.[46] Also, most repairs can
be done in the eld.[47] An unusual feature is that many
of the aircrafts parts are interchangeable between the left
and right sides, including the engines, main landing gear,
and vertical stabilizers. The sturdy landing gear, lowIn 2015, Boeing revealed that it was holding initial discus- pressure tires and large, straight wings allow operation
sions on the prospects of selling retired or stored A-10s from short rough strips even with a heavy aircraft ordin near-yaway condition to international customers.[41]
nance load, allowing the aircraft to operate from damaged
airbases, ying from taxiways or even straight roadway
sections.[48]
23.2 Design
23.2.1
Overview
216
23.2.2
Durability
23.2. DESIGN
23.2.3
Weapons
217
The fuselage of the aircraft is built around the cannon.
The GAU-8/A is mounted slightly to the port side; the
barrel in the ring location is on the starboard side at
the 9 o'clock position so it is aligned with the aircrafts
centerline. The guns 5-foot, 11.5-inch (1.816 m) ammunition drum can hold up to 1,350 rounds of 30 mm
ammunition,[49] but generally holds 1,174 rounds.[63] To
prevent enemy re from causing the GAU-8/A rounds to
re prematurely, armor plates of diering thicknesses between the aircraft skin and the drum are designed to detonate incoming shells.[49][54] A nal armor layer around
the drum protects it from fragmentation damage. The gun
is loaded by Syn-Techs linked tube carrier GFU-7/E 30
mm ammunition loading assembly cart.
The AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile is a
commonly-used munition, targeted via electro-optical
(TV-guided) or infrared. The Maverick allows target engagement at much greater ranges than the cannon, and
thus less risk from anti-aircraft systems. During Desert
Storm, in the absence of dedicated forward-looking infrared (FLIR) cameras for night vision, the Mavericks
infrared camera was used for night missions as a poor
mans FLIR.[64] Other weapons include cluster bombs
and Hydra rocket pods.[65] The A-10 is equipped to carry
laser-guided bombs. A-10s usually y with an ALQ-131
ECM pod under one wing and two AIM-9 Sidewinder airto-air missiles under the other wing for self-defense.[66]
Modernization
218
Targeting Pod (ATP). Also included is the Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) to provide
sensor data to personnel on the ground.[25]
23.2.5
Arkansas Air National Guard A-10C ring an AGM-65 air-tosurface missile on a ring range at Davis-Monthan AFB
23.3.1 Introduction
219
The A-10 was used in combat for the rst time during 23.3.3
the Gulf War in 1991, destroying more than 900 Iraqi
tanks, 2,000 other military vehicles and 1,200 artillery
pieces.[4] A-10s also shot down two Iraqi helicopters with
the GAU-8 cannon. The rst of these was shot down by
Captain Robert Swain over Kuwait on 6 February 1991,
marking the A-10s rst air-to-air victory.[75] Four A-10s
were shot down during the war, all by surface-to-air missiles. Another three battle-damaged A-10s and OA-10As
returned to base but were written o, some sustaining additional damage in crash landings.[76][77] The A-10 had a
mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, ew 8,100 sorties,
and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles red in the conict.[78] Shortly after the Gulf War,
the Air Force abandoned the idea of replacing the A-10
with a close air support version of the F-16.[79]
A-10s at Tallil Air Base, Iraq of the Air Force Reserve Command's 442nd Fighter Wing, in 2009
220
23.5. OPERATORS
221
A-10.[130]
Civilian A-10 Proposed by the South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology to replace its North American T-28 Trojan thunderstorm penetration aircraft.
The A-10 would have its military engines, avionics, and oxygen system replaced by civilian versions.
The engines and airframe would receive protection
from hail, and the GAU-8 Avenger would be replaced with ballast or scientic instruments.[131]
23.5 Operators
The A-10 has been own exclusively by the United States
Air Force and its Air Reserve components, the Air Force
Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard
(ANG). The USAF operates 173 A-10C aircraft (54 in
active duty, 55 in AFRC, and 64 in ANG) (as of FY
2014).
23.4 Variants
United States
[127]
222
Four A-10s of the 111th Fighter Wing, Pennsylvania Air National Guard, y in formation during a refueling mission.
223
YA-10A
[140]
General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m)
Wingspan: 57 ft 6 in (17.53 m)
Height: 14 ft 8 in (4.47 m)
224
Missiles:
2 AIM-9 Sidewinders air-to-air missiles
for self-defense
6 AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface
missiles
Bombs:
Mark 80 series of unguided iron bombs
or
Mk 77 incendiary bombs or
BLU-1,
BLU-27/B Rockeye II,
Mk20,
BL-755[164]
and
CBU52/58/71/87/89/97
cluster
bombs
or
Paveway series of Laser-guided bombs or
Joint Direct Attack Munition (A10C)[165] or
Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (A10C)
Other:
SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys and
cha dispenser pod or
AN/ALQ-131 or AN/ALQ-184 ECM
pods or
Lockheed Martin Sniper XR or
LITENING targeting pods (A-10C)
or
2 600 US gallon Sargent Fletcher drop
tanks for increased range/loitering time.
Avionics
AN/AAS-35(V) Pave Penny laser tracker pod[166]
(mounted beneath right side of cockpit) for use with
Paveway LGBs (Currently the Pave Penny is no
longer in use)
Head-up display (HUD) for improved technical ying and air-to-ground support.[167]
Rockets:
4 LAU-61/LAU-68 rocket pods (each
with 19 / 7 Hydra 70 mm rockets, respectively)
4 LAU-5003 rocket pods (each with
19 CRV7 70 mm rockets)
6 LAU-10 rocket pods (each with 4
127 mm (5.0 in) Zuni rockets)
23.9 Nicknames
The A-10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname
"Warthog" from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who ew and maintained it. The A10 is the last of Republics jet attack aircraft to serve
23.11. REFERENCES
with the USAF. The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was nicknamed the Hog, F-84F Thunderstreak nicknamed Superhog, and the Republic F-105 Thunderchief tagged
Ultra Hog.[168] The saying Go Ugly Early has been associated with the aircraft in reference to calling in the A-10
early to support troops in ground combat.[169]
225
23.11 References
23.11.1
Notes
[1] With the inner wheel on a turn stopped, the minimum radius of the turn is dictated by the distance between the
inner wheel and the nose wheel. Since the distance is less
between the right main wheel and the nose gear than the
same measurement on the left, the aircraft can turn more
tightly to the right.
23.11.2
Citations
[3] Operation Desert Storm: Evaluation of the Air Campaign, GAO/NSIAD-97-134 Appendix IV. U.S. General
Accounting Oce, 12 June 1997. Retrieved 5 March
2010.
[31] Air Force Budget Proposal Preserves Cherished Modernization Programs - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 4
March 2014
[32] A-10:
Been There, Considered That.
forcemag.com, 24 April 2014.
Air-
[33] 40th FTS expands A-10 fuel limitations in combat Eglin.AF.mil, 26 August 2013
226
[74] Stephens World Air Power Journal, Spring 1994, pp. 50,
56.
23.11. REFERENCES
227
[89] Fight to Keep A-10 Warthog in Air Force Inven- [110] B-1B, F-16s Could Be Next If Congress Blocks Air
tory Reaches End Game - Nationaldefensemagazine.org,
Force Plan To Retire A-10, Defense news, 18 March
September 2013
2014.
[90] Air Force, lawmakers clash over future of A-10 again - [111] Shanker, Thom; Cooker, Helene (23 February 2014).
Pentagon Plans to Shrink Army to Pre-World War II
Militarytimes.com, 29 April 2014
Level. The New York Times. Retrieved 24 February
[91] New air missions attack Kadha troops: Pentagon. AFP,
2014.
29 March 2011.
[112] How Hagel spending plan will transform US military,
Flight global, 26 February 2014.
[92] Schmitt, Eric U.S. Gives Its Air Power Expansive Role
in Libya. The New York Times, 29 March 2011, p. A13.
[113] Lawmakers readying legislation to block A-10 cuts, MilRetrieved: 29 March 2011.
itary times, 10 April 2014.
[93] Bagram pilots save 60 Soldiers during convoy ambush
[114] Welsh Defends Plan to Scrap A-10 as Logical", DoD
AF.mil, 6 August 2013.
Buzz, 23 April 2014.
[94] 122nd Fighter Wing deploying 300 airmen to Mideast [115] Grounding A-10s will save $4.2 billion, decision clear:
Journalgazette.net, 17 September 2014
USAF general, Flight global, 23 April 2014.
[95] Pentagon to deploy 12 A-10s to Middle East. TheHill.
[116] Air Force Chief: Shelving A-10 Makes 'Eminent Sense'
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
Given Budget Constraints, National defense magazine, 23
April 2014.
[96] House Dem: A-10 jets crucial to ISIS ght. TheHill.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
228
Re- [156] A-10 Thunderbolt II/79-0079. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[133] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1664.'Air Force Flight Test [157] A-10 Thunderbolt II/79-0100. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
Center Museum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[134] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1666. Hill Aerospace Museum. [158] A-10 Thunderbolt II. New England Air Museum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[135] A-10 Thunderbolt II/73-1667. Warbird Registry. Re- [159] . Selfridge Military Air Museum. Retrieved: 5 April
2013.
trieved: 5 April 2013.
[136] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0263. Empire State Aero- [160] Spick 2000, pp. 21, 4448.
sciences Museum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[161] Jenkins 1998, p. 54.
[137] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0270. McChord Air Museum.
[162] Flight manual TO 1A-10A-1 (20 February 2003, Change
Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
8), pp. 524.
[138] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0293. Wings of Eagles Discov[163] Aalbers, Willem Palerider. History of the Fairchildery Center. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, Part Two. Simhq.com.
Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[139] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0288. Air Force Armament
Museum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[164] Flight Manual TO 1A-10A-1 (20 February 2003, Change
8), pp. 530.
[140] " Eielson Air Force Base. Retrieved: 23 November 2014.
[141] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0298. Pima Air & Space Mu- [165] Pike, John. A-10 Specs. Global Security. Retrieved: 5
March 2010.
seum. Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
[142] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0305. Museum of Aviation. [166] Lockheed Martin AN/AAS-35(V) Pave Penny laser
tracker. Janes Electro-Optic Systems, 5 January 2009.
Retrieved: 5 April 2013.
Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[143] A-10 Thunderbolt II/75-0308. Warbird Registry. Re[167] A-10 vs F-16: Go Ugly Early, HUD Video. Livetrieved: 5 April 2013.
leak.com, 24 January 2009. Retrieved: 5 March 2010.
[144] http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/shared/media/
[168] Jenkins 1998, pp. 4, backcover.
document/AFD-130115-047.pdf
[145] "
~
April 2015.
23.11.3 Bibliography
Bell, Dana. A-10 Warthog in Detail & Scale, Blue
Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: TAB Books, 1986.
ISBN 0-8168-5030-5.
Burton, James G. The Pentagon Wars: Reformers Challenge the Old Guard, Annapolis, Maryland:
Naval Institute Press, 1993. ISBN 1-55750-081-9.
Campbell, Douglas N. The Warthog and the Close
Air Support Debate. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval
Institute Press, 2003. ISBN 1-55750-232-3
Coram, Robert. Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who
Changed the Art of War. Los Angeles: Back Bay
Books, 2004. ISBN 0-316-79688-3.
Donald, David and Daniel J. March, eds. A-10
Fighting Warthog. Modern Battleeld Warplanes.
Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime, 2004. ISBN 1880588-76-5.
Drendel, Lou. A-10 Warthog in action. Carrollton,
Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1981. ISBN
0-89747-122-9.
229
Chapter 24
24.1 Development
230
24.1. DEVELOPMENT
231
Increased interest would turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and
Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G ghterbombers.[22] In early 1974, they reached an agreement
with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner,
they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also
needed to replace its F-105 and F-4 ghter-bombers. The
U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in ghter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974
redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter
(NACF) program that would be a navalized ghterbomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies
had formed the Multinational Fighter Program Group
(MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December
1974; thus the USAF accelerated testing.[23][24][25]
232
24.1.3
Into production
The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 Full-Scale Development (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four twoseat models) for its ight test program, but this was
reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F16B two-seaters).[32] The YF-16 design was altered for
the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by
10.6 in (0.269 m), a larger nose radome was tted for
the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from
280 sq ft (26 m2 ) to 300 sq ft (28 m2 ), the tailn
height was decreased, the ventral ns were enlarged, two
more stores stations were added, and a single door replaced the original nosewheel double doors. The F-16s
24.2. DESIGN
233
Design
Overview
234
24.2.2
General conguration
regulating the ight envelope.[38][59] The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, reduced by fuselage lift.[62] The vortex lift eect is increased by leading edge extensions,
known as strakes. Strakes act as additional short-span,
triangular wings running from the wing root (the juncture with the fuselage) to a point further forward on the
fuselage. Blended into the fuselage and along the wing
root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of
attack increases, generating additional lift and allowing
greater angles of attack without stalling. Strakes allow
a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which increases roll
rates and directional stability while decreasing weight.
Deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and internal fuel volume.[59]
24.2.3 Armament
Early F-16s could be armed with up to six AIM-9
Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles
(AAM), including rail launchers on each wingtip. Some
F-16s can employ the AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range
AAM; more recent versions can equip the AIM-120
AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAMs; a wide
variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs;
F-16CJ of the 20th Fighter Wing at Shaw AFB, South Carolina,
electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting
armed with a mix of air-to-air missiles, anti-radiation missiles,
or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on 9 hardpoints six unexternal fuel tanks and support equipment
der the wings, two on wingtips, and one under the fusethe fuselage are available
The F-16 has a cropped-delta planform incorporat- lage; two other locations under
[63]
for
sensor
or
radar
pods.
The
F-16 carries a 20 mm
ing wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control
(0.787
in)
M61A1
Vulcan
cannon
for close range aerial
strakes; a xed-geometry, underslung air intake (with
combat
and
strang.
[60]
splitter plate ) to the single turbofan jet engine; a
conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with allmoving horizontal "stabilator" tailplanes; a pair of ventral
24.2.4 Negative stability and y-by-wire
ns beneath the fuselage aft of the wings trailing edge;
and a tricycle landing gear conguration with the aftretracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance
behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located behind the single-piece bubble
canopy of the cockpit. Split-ap speedbrakes are located
at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and an tailhook
is mounted underneath the fuselage. A fairing beneath
the rudder often houses ECM equipment or a drag chute.
Later F-16 models feature a long dorsal fairing along
the fuselages spine, housing additional equipment or
fuel.[38][61]
Aerodynamic studies in the 1960s demonstrated that the
"vortex lift" phenomenon could be harnessed by highly
swept wing congurations to reach higher angles of attack, using leading edge vortex ow o a slender lifting
surface. As the F-16 was being optimized for high combat agility, GDs designers chose a slender cropped-delta
wing with a leading edge sweep of 40 and a straight
trailing edge. To improve maneuverability, a variablecamber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected;
the camber is adjusted by leading-edge and trailing edge
aperons linked to a digital ight control system (FCS)
The F-16 was the rst production ghter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable,
also known as "relaxed static stability" (RSS), to improve
maneuverability.[64] Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces aircraft to return to
24.2. DESIGN
235
236
A F-16 from the 18th Aggressor Sqdn. takes o from Eielson Air
Force Base
24.2.6
Fire-control radar
24.2.7 Propulsion
The initial powerplant selected for the single-engined F16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning
turbofan, a modied version of the F-15s F100-PW-100,
rated at 23,830 lb (106.0 kN) thrust. During testing,
the engine was found to be prone to compressor stalls
and rollbacks, wherein the engines thrust would spontaneously reduce to idle. Until resolved, the Air Force
ordered F-16s to be operated within "dead-stick land-
237
the 29,588 lb (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50
and 29,160 lb (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block
52. F-16s began ying with these IPE engines in the early
1990s. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the
USAF, 556 were tted with F100-series engines and 890
with F110s.[38] The United Arab Emirates Block 60 is
powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan,
which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lb (144.6
kN), the highest developed for the F-16.[89][90]
The U.S. Air Force, including the Air Force Reserve and
the Air National Guard, ew the F-16 in combat during
Operation Desert Storm in 1991 and in the Balkans later
in the 1990s. F-16s also patrolled the no-y zones in Iraq
during Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch
and served during the wars in Afghanistan (Operation
Enduring Freedom) and Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom)
from 2001 and 2003 respectively. In 2011, Air Force FThe Increased Performance Engine (IPE) program led to 16s took part in the intervention in Libya.[91]
238
24.3.2
Pakistan
Israel
The Pakistan Air Force's new F-16D Block 52+ ghters with
internal/integrated Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) systems
undergoing ight testing
24.4. VARIANTS
239
and Kosovo since 1993 in support of United Nations in 1999.[125] Belgian and Danish F-16s also particiresolutions.[107]
pated in joint operations over Kosovo during the war.[125]
On 18 June 1992, a Greek Mirage F-1 crashed during Dutch, Belgian, Danish, and Norwegian F-16s were dethe 2011 intervention in Libya and in
dogght with a Turkish F-16.[108][109][110] On 8 February ployed during
[126]
Afghanistan.
In Libya, Norwegian F-16s dropped al1995, a Turkish F-16 crashed into the Aegean after being
most
550
bombs
and ew 596 missions,[127] some 17%
[111][112]
intercepted by Greek Mirage F1 ghters.
of the total strike missions[128] including the bombing of
On 8 October 1996, 7 months after the escalation over Muammar Gaddas headquarters.[129]
Imia a Greek Mirage 2000 red an R.550 Magic II missile
and shot down a Turkish F-16D[113] over the Aegean Sea. See also: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
The Turkish pilot died, while the co-pilot ejected and was operational history and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting
rescued by Greek forces.[110][114][115] In August 2012, af- Falcon operators
ter the downing of a RF-4E on the Syrian Coast, Turkish
Defence Minister smet Ylmaz conrmed that the Turkish F-16D was shot down by a Greek Mirage 2000 with
an R.550 Magic II in 1996 after violating Greek airspace 24.4 Variants
near Chios island.[116]
On 23 May 2006, two Greek F-16s intercepted a Turkish RF-4 reconnaissance aircraft and two F-16 escorts o
the coast of the Greek island of Karpathos, within the
Athens FIR. A mock dogght ensued between the two
sides, resulting in a midair collision[117] between a Turkish F-16 and a Greek F-16. The Turkish pilot ejected
safely, but the Greek pilot died due to damage caused by
the collision.[118][119]
Turkey used its F-16s extensively in its conict with separatist Kurds in Kurdish parts of Turkey and Iraq. Turkey
launched its rst cross-border raid on 16 December 2007,
a prelude to the 2008 Turkish incursion into northern
Iraq, involving 50 ghters before Operation Sun. This
was the rst time Turkey had mounted a night-bombing
operation on a massive scale, and also the largest opera- A Portuguese Air Force F-16A outtted with AIM-9 Sidewinder
missiles, AN/ALQ-131 ECM pod, and external fuel tanks.
tion conducted by Turkish Air Force.[120]
During the Syrian Civil War, Turkish F-16s were tasked Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
with airspace protection on the Syrian border. After the variants
RF-4 downing in June 2012 Turkey changed its rules of
engagements against Syrian aircraft, resulting in scramF-16 models are denoted by increasing block numbers to
bles and downings of Syrian combat aircraft.[121]
denote upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and twoseat versions. A variety of software, hardware, systems,
weapons compatibility, and structural enhancements have
24.3.5 Egypt
been instituted over the years to gradually upgrade production models and retrot delivered aircraft.
On 16 February 2015, Egyptian F-16s performed air
strikes on jihadi weapons caches and training camps in While many F-16s were produced according to these
Libya in revenge of the murder of 21 workers by masked block designs, there have been many other variants with
militants aliated with the Islamic State (ISIS). The air signicant changes, usually due to modication programs.
strikes killed 64 ISIS ghters, including three leaders in Other changes have resulted in role-specialization, such
as the close air support and reconnaissance variants. SevDerna and Sirte on the coast.[122]
eral models were also developed to test new technology.
The F-16 design also inspired the design of other aircraft,
which are considered derivatives. Older F-16s are being
24.3.6 Others
converted into QF-16 drone targets.[130]
The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force,
Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, F-16A/B The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two seat)
Pakistan Air Force, and Venezuela have own the Fwere initial production variants. These variants in16 on combat missions.[123][124] A Serbian MiG-29 was
clude the Block 1, 5, 10 and 20 versions. Block 15
shot down by a Dutch F-16AM during the Kosovo War
was the rst major change to the F-16 with larger
240
F-16C/D The F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two seat) F-16N The F-16N is an adversary aircraft operated by
variants entered production in 1984. The rst C/D
the U.S. Navy. It is based on the standard F-16C/D
version was the Block 25 with improved cockpit
Block 30 and is powered by the General Electric
avionics and radar which added all-weather capaF110-GE-100 engine. However, the F-16N has a
bility with beyond-visual-range (BVR) AIM-7 and
strengthened wing and is capable of carrying an
AIM-120 air-air missiles. Block 30/32, 40/42,
Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation (ACMI)
and 50/52 were later C/D versions.[132] The Fpod on the starboard wingtip. Although the single16C/D had a unit cost of US$18.8 million (1998).[2]
seat F-16Ns and twin-seat (T)F-16Ns are based on
Operational cost per ight hour has been estimated
the early-production small-inlet Block 30 F-16C/D
at $7,000[133] to $22,470[134] or $24,000, depending
airframe, they retain the APG-66 radar of the Fon calculation method.[135]
16A/B. In addition, the aircrafts 20 mm cannon has
been removed, as has the ASPJ, and they carry no
F-16E/F The F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two seat)
missiles. Their EW t consists of an ALR-69 radar
are newer F-16 variants. The Block 60 version is
warning receiver (RWR) and an ALE-40 cha/are
based on the F-16C/D Block 50/52 and has been
dispenser. The F-16Ns and (T)F-16Ns have the
developed especially for the United Arab Emirates
standard Air Force tailhook and undercarriage and
(UAE). It features improved AN/APG-80 active
are not aircraft carrier capable. Production totaled
electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, avion26 airframes, of which 22 are single-seat F-16Ns
ics, conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), and the more powand 4 are twin-seat TF-16Ns. The initial batch of
erful GE F110-132 engine.[136][137]
aircraft were in service between 1988 and 1998. At
that time, hairline cracks were discovered in several bulkheads and the Navy did not have the reF-16IN For the Indian MRCA competition for the
sources to replace them, so the aircraft were eventuIndian Air Force, Lockheed Martin oered the
ally retired, with one aircraft sent to the collection of
F-16IN Super Viper.[138] The F-16IN is based on
the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Penthe F-16E/F Block 60 and features conformal fuel
sacola, Florida, and the remainder placed in storage
tanks; AN/APG-80 AESA radar, GE F110-132A
at Davis-Monthan AFB. These aircraft were later
engine with FADEC controls; electronic warfare
replaced by embargoed ex-Pakistani F-16C/Ds in
suite and infra-red searching (IRST); updated glass
2003. The original inventory of F-16Ns were precockpit; and a helmet-mounted cueing system.[139]
viously operated by adversary squadrons at NAS
As of 2011, the F-16IN is no longer in the
Oceana, Virginia; NAS Key West, Florida and the
competition.[140]
former NAS Miramar, California. The current aircraft are operated by the Naval Strike and Air WarF-16IQ In September 2010, the Defense Security Coopfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada.[142][143][144]
eration Agency informed the United States Congress
of a possible Foreign Military Sale of 18 F-16IQ aircraft along with the associated equipment and services to the newly reformed Iraqi Air Force. Total F-16V At the 2012 Singapore Air Show Lockheed Marvalue of sale is estimated at US$4.2 billion.[141]
tin unveiled plans for the new F-16V variant with the
241
A USAF QF-16A, on its rst unmanned test ight, over the Gulf
of Mexico
V sux referencing its Viper nickname. It is to feature an active electronically scanned array (AESA)
radar, a new mission computer and electronic warfare suite, and various cockpit improvements; this
package can be retrotted to previous F-16s, including the Block 60.[145][146]
QF-16 In September 2013, an unmanned F-16 tested by
Boeing and US Air Force, with two US Air Force
pilots controlling the airplane from the ground as
it ew from Tyndall AFB over the Gulf of Mex- A U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds pilot ejects from his F-16 at an
air show in September 2003
ico.[147][148]
24.5 Operators
Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
operators
4,500 F-16s had been delivered by July 2010.[149]
24.5.1
Former operators
United States AeroGroup, a private American commercial company, performed F-16 training
services and support for the Dutch, Italian and Belgian Air Forces.[151][152][153]
242
On 15 September 2003, a USAF Thunderbird F16C crashed during a Mountain Home AFB, Idaho,
air show. Captain Christopher Stricklin attempted a
"Split S" maneuver based on an incorrect mean-sealevel altitude of the aireld. Climbing to only 1,670
ft (510 m) above ground level instead of 2,500 ft
(760 m), Stricklin had insucient altitude to complete the maneuver, but was able to guide the aircraft
away from spectators and ejected less than one second before impact. Stricklin survived with only minor injuries; the aircraft was destroyed. USAF procedure for demonstration Split-S maneuvers was
changed, requiring both pilots and controllers to use
above mean-sea-level altitudes.[159][160]
On 26 January 2015, a Greek F-16D crashed while
performing a NATO training exercise in Albacete,
Spain. Both crew members and 9 French soldiers on
the ground died when it crashed in the ight-line, destroying or damaging two Italian AMX, two French
Alpha Jets and one French Mirage 2000.[161][162]
243
FA-55 On display at the Chateau de Savigny les
Beaune in Beaune, France. A former Belgian Air
Force example.[203][204]
F-16B
78-0088 On display at the Naval Air Station Wildwood Aviation Museum, Cape May County Airport,
New Jersey[205]
F-16C
83-1126 Pylon display at Hill Memorial Park, Hill
AFB, Utah[210]
84-1264 Air park display, Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station, Indiana. Aircraft retains Air
Force Heritage paint scheme honoring 358th Fighter
Group during World War II.[211]
84-1393 Pylon display at Texas National Guard's
Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas. Former Texas Air
National Guard 147th Fighter Wing/111th Fighter
Squadron aircraft.[212]
85-1469 Static display at Joe Foss Field Air National Guard Station, South Dakota[213]
87-0323 Preserved as Thunderbird 1 in front
of the USAF Air Demonstration Squadron/United
States Air Force Thunderbirds hangar, Nellis AFB,
Nevada. Assigned to Thunderbirds in the 1992
2008 timeframe. Had number 1 attached on 11 Jun
1999; number 2 in the 2004 season; number 3 on 3
Mar 2003 and number 4 on 1 Apr 2005.[214]
244
M61A1 on display
Height: 16 ft (4.88 m)
Wing area: 300 ft (27.87 m)
Crew: 1
Length: 49 ft 5 in (15.06 m)
Wingspan: 32 ft 8 in (9.96 m)
1 F110-GE-100 afterburning
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barrel Gatling cannon, 511 rounds
Hardpoints: 2 wing-tip Air-to-air missile launch
rails, 6 under-wing, and 3 under-fuselage pylon
(2 of 3 for sensors) stations with a capacity of up to
17,000 lb (7,700 kg) of stores
Rockets:
4LAU-61/LAU-68 rocket pods (each with
19 /7 Hydra 70 mm rockets, respectively)
4LAU-5003 rocket pods (each with 19
CRV7 70 mm rockets)
245
2 AIM-7 Sparrow
6 AIM-9 Sidewinder
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM
6 IRIS-T
6 Python-4
Air-to-ground missiles:
6 AGM-65 Maverick
4 AGM-88 HARM
AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Stando
Missile (JASSM)
Anti-ship missiles:
2 AGM-84 Harpoon
4 AGM-119 Penguin
Bombs:
Others:
SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys dispenser
pod and cha pod or
AN/ALQ-131 & AN/ALQ-184 ECM pods or
LANTIRN, Lockheed Martin Sniper XR &
LITENING targeting pods or
up to 3 300/330/370/600 US gallon Sargent
Fletcher drop tanks for ferry ight/extended
range/loitering time or
UTC Aerospace DB-110 long range EO/IR
sensor pod on centerline
MIL-STD-1553 bus
246
24.11 References
24.11.1
Notes
[26] Drfer, Ingemar. The Selling of the F-16. Foreignaffairs.com, 1983. Retrieved: 23 April 2011.
[27] Coram 2002, p. 305.
[3] Lockheed Martin to deliver 4,500th F-16 ghter. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
[4] Rosenwald, Michael S. Downside of Dominance? Popularity of Lockheed Martins F-16 Makes Its F-35 Stealth
Jet a Tough Sell. Washington Post, updated 17 December
2007. Retrieved: 11 July 2008.
[5] Company Histories Lockheed Martin Corporation..
Retrieved 13 September 2014.
[6] Aleshire 2005, p. xxii.
[7] Peacock 1997, p. 100.
[8] Stout, Joe and Laurie Quincy. United States Government
Awards Lockheed Martin Contract to Begin Production of
Advanced F-16 Aircraft for Morocco. Lockheed Martin
press release, 8 June 2008. Retrieved: 11 July 2008.
24.11. REFERENCES
247
248
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[98] F-16 Air Forces - Israel. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
[99] Marie Colvin, Tony Allen-Mills and Uzi Mahnaimi.
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[109] While engaged by two THK F-16Cs, Sialmas entered a
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24.11.2
Bibliography
251
Hoh, Roger H. and David G. Mitchell. Flying
Qualities of Relaxed Static Stability Aircraft Volume I: Flying Qualities Airworthiness Assessment
and Flight Testing of Augmented Aircraft. Federal
Aviation Administration (DOT/FAA/CT-82/130-I),
September 1983. Retrieved: 16 June 2008.
Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success
Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 9780-07134-696-2.
Peacock, Lindsay. On Falcon Wings: The F-16
Story. RAF Fairford, United Kingdom: The Royal
Air Force Benevolent Fund Enterprises, 1997.
ISBN 1-899808-01-9.
Richardson, Doug. General Dynamics F-16 Fighting
Falcon. London: Salamander Books, 1990. ISBN
0-86101-534-7.
Senior, Tim. The AirForces Monthly Book of the F16 Fighting Falcon. Stamford, UK: Key Books Ltd,
2002. ISBN 0-946219-60-5.
Spick, Mike, ed. Great Book of Modern Warplanes.
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Darling, Kev. F-16 Fighting Falcon (Combat Legend). London: Airlife, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-399-7.
Eden, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London, UK: Amber Books, 2004.
ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard.
The International Directory
Manly NSW, Australia:
of Military Aircraft.
Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN 1875671-55-2.
Hampton, Dan. Viper Pilot: the autobiography of
one of Americas most decorated F-16 combat pilots.
William Morrow, 2012. ISBN 9780062130358
252
Chapter 25
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to eorts to modernize the GPS
system and implement the next generation of GPS Block
IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control
System (OCX).[3] Announcements from Vice President
Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these
changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization eort, GPS III.
In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suered from incomplete coverage
of the globe until the mid-2000s.[4] There are also the
planned European Union Galileo positioning system, Indias Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, and the
Chinese BeiDou Navigation Satellite System.
25.1 History
The design of GPS is based partly on similar groundbased radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the
U.S. Air Force Senior Airman runs through a check- Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s and used
by the British Royal Navy during World War II.
253
254
25.1.1
Predecessors
Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964,
the United States Army orbited its rst Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic
surveying.[17] The SECOR system included three groundbased transmitters from known locations that would send
signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth
ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could
then use those signals to x its location precisely. The last
SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.[18] Decades later,
during the early years of GPS, civilian surveying became
one of the rst elds to make use of the new technology,
because surveyors could reap benets of signals from the
less-than-complete GPS constellation years before it was
declared operational. GPS can be thought of as an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground-based transmitters have been migrated into orbit.
25.1.2 Development
With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program.
During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about
twelve military ocers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It
was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became
GPS was created. Later that year, the DNSS program
was named Navstar, or Navigation System Using Timing
and Ranging.[19] With the individual satellites being as-
25.1. HISTORY
255
taries of defense and transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level ocials from the departments of
state, commerce, and homeland security, the joint chiefs
of sta, and NASA. Components of the executive oce
of the president participate as observers to the executive
committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaiAfter Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 car- son.
rying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to
into the USSRs prohibited airspace,[22] in the vicinity of maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as dened in
Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan the federal radio navigation plan and the standard posiissued a directive making GPS freely available for civil- tioning service signal specication) that will be available
ian use, once it was suciently developed, as a common on a continuous, worldwide basis, and develop meagood.[23] The rst satellite was launched in 1989, and the sures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations
24th satellite was launched in 1994. The GPS program without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses.
cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment, but including the costs of the satellite launches,
has been estimated at about USD$5 billion (then-year 25.1.3 Timeline and modernization
dollars).[24] Roger L. Easton is widely credited as the priMain article: List of GPS satellites
mary inventor of GPS.
Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed
with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive in
1996 to turn o Selective Availability in May 2000 to
provide the same precision to civilians that was aorded
to the military. The directive was proposed by the U.S.
Secretary of Defense, William Perry, because of the
widespread growth of dierential GPS services to improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the U.S. military
advantage. Moreover, the U.S. military was actively developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential
adversaries on a regional basis.[25]
Since its deployment, the U.S. has implemented several
improvements to the GPS service including new signals
for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all
users, all the while maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment. Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U.S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions
to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and
the commercial market.
As of early 2015, high-quality, FAA grade, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provide an accuracy of better than 3.5 horizontal meters,[26] although
many factors such as receiver quality and atmospheric issues can aect this accuracy.
GPS is owned and operated by the United States Government as a national resource. The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS. Interagency GPS Executive
Board (IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996
to 2004. After that the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and
coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters
concerning the GPS and related systems.[27] The executive committee is chaired jointly by the deputy secre-
256
In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was inactivated and replaced by the
50th Space Wing.
By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), indicating a full constellation (24 satellites) was available and providing the
Standard Positioning Service (SPS).[35]
Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by
Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April 1995,
signifying full availability of the militarys secure
Precise Positioning Service (PPS).[35]
In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill
Clinton issued a policy directive[36] declaring GPS
a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency
GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety and
in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the
eort, referring to it as GPS III.
25.1.4 Awards
On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992
Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nations most prestigious
aviation award. This team combines researchers from the
Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace
Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and
IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors
them for the most signicant development for safe and
ecient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft
since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago.
257
The receivers earth-centered solution location is usually
converted to latitude, longitude and height relative to an
ellipsoidal earth model. The height may then be further
converted to height relative the geoid (e.g., EGM96) (essentially, mean sea level). These coordinates may be displayed, e.g. on a moving map display and/or recorded
and/or used by some other system (e.g., a vehicle guidance system).
Fundamentals
Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the
TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of ight
(TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite range dierences.
The receiver then computes its three-dimensional posi- The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed
tion and clock deviation from the four TOFs.
or direction can only be computed with a delay, and that
In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance
Cartesian coordinates with origin at the earths center) traveled between two position measurements drops below
and the oset of the receiver clock relative to GPS system or near the random error of position measurement. GPS
time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation units can use measurements of the doppler shift of the
equations to process the TOFs.
signals received to compute velocity accurately.[49] More
258
advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a 25.3.1 Space segment
compass or an inertial navigation system to complement
See also: GPS (satellite) and List of GPS satellite
GPS.
launches
The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting
25.2.5
Non-navigation applications
25.3 Structure
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These
are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and
a user segment (US).[53] The U.S. Air Force develops,
maintains, and operates the space and control segments.
GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each
GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its threedimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude)
and the current time.[54]
The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in
medium earth orbit and also includes the payload adapters
to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The
control segment is composed of a master control station
(MCS), an alternate master control station, and a host of
dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of
thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure
GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of
civil, commercial, and scientic users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices).
GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs,
eight each in three approximately circular orbits,[55] but
this was modied to six orbital planes with four satellites each.[56] The six orbit planes have approximately 55
inclination (tilt relative to the earths equator) and are
separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending node
(angle along the equator from a reference point to the
orbits intersection).[57] The orbital period is one-half a
sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the
satellites pass over the same locations[58] or almost the
same locations[59] every day. The orbits are arranged so
that at least six satellites are always within line of sight
from almost everywhere on the earths surface.[60] The
result of this objective is that the four satellites are not
evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In
general terms, the angular dierence between satellites in
each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart, which
sum to 360 degrees.[61]
25.3. STRUCTURE
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
(12,600 mi); orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km
(16,500 mi),[62] each SV makes two complete orbits
each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each
day.[63] This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment
means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours
each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat
can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.
As of December 2012,[64] there are 32 satellites in the
GPS constellation. The additional satellites improve the
precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of
satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform
arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to
a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.[65] About
nine satellites are visible from any point on the ground at
any one time (see animation at right), ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed
for a position.
25.3.2
Control segment
259
Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.[66] The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command
MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE
of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space
Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force.
Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with
a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN)
ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and
Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic
clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds
of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellites internal orbital model. The updates are created by a
Kalman lter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other
inputs.[67]
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standardsso
to change a satellites orbit, the satellite must be marked
unhealthy, so receivers don't use it. After the satellite maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground,
upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy
again.
The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves
as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps
the GPS system operational and performing within specication.
OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable
upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces. OCS will
continue to be the ground control system of record until
the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System[3] (OCX), is fully developed and functional.
The new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPSs mission capabilities,
and enabling[68] Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces,
civil partners and myriad domestic and international
users.
The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule
and technical risk. It is designed to provide 50%[69] sustainment cost savings through ecient software architecture and Performance-Based Logistics. In addition, GPS
OCX expected to cost millions less than the cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.
The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS
modernization and provides signicant information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.
OCX will have the ability to control and manage
GPS legacy satellites as well as the next generation
of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of
military signals.
260
Built on a exible architecture that can rapidly adapt
to the changing needs of todays and future GPS
users allowing immediate access to GPS data and
constellations status through secure, accurate and reliable information.
Provides the warghter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to enhance situational awareness.
GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such
as these.
of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil,
commercial and scientic users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of
an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock
(often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the
25.4. APPLICATIONS
25.4 Applications
Main article: GNSS applications
See also: GPS navigation device
While originally a military project, GPS is considered a
dual-use technology, meaning it has signicant military
and civilian applications.
GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for
commerce, scientic uses, tracking, and surveillance.
GPSs accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as
banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control
of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-o
switching.[54]
25.4.1
Civilian
261
ics calculations. It is also used in amateur astronomy using small telescopes to professionals observatories, for example, while nding extrasolar planets.
Automated vehicle: applying location and routes for
cars and trucks to function without a human driver.
Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables
time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its
spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate
inter-cell hando and support hybrid GPS/cellular
position detection for mobile emergency calls and
other applications. The rst handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency
services could locate 911 callers. Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs
from Nextel upon launch, followed by Sprint in
2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.
Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time
signals (10 ns)[72] is second only to the atomic
clocks they are based on.
Disaster relief/emergency services: depend upon
GPS for location and timing capabilities.
Meteorology-Upper Airs: measure and calculate the
atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up
to 27 km from the earths surface
Fleet tracking: the use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one or
more eet vehicles in real-time.
Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS to
locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices are
attached to the vehicle, person, or the pet collar. The
application provides continuous tracking and mobile
or Internet updates should the target leave a designated area.[73]
This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientic experiment needing precise timing.
Geotagging: applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data) and
other documents for purposes such as creating map
overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1
GPS aircraft tracking
GPS for mining: the use of RTK GPS has signicantly improved several mining operations such as
drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying.
RTK GPS provides centimeter-level positioning accuracy.
262
GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an approaching
point of interest.
Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate
timestamping of power system measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.
Recreation: for example, geocaching, geodashing,
GPS drawing and waymarking.
25.4.2 Military
The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian
receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above As of 2009, military GPS applications include:
18 km (60,000 feet) altitude and 515 m/s (1,000 knots)
or designed, modied for use with unmanned air vehicles
Navigation: Soldiers use GPS to nd objectives,
like, e.g., ballistic or cruise missile systems, are classied
even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coas munitions (weapons)which means they require State
ordinate troop and supply movement. In the United
Department export licenses.[75]
States armed forces, commanders use the Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier
This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian
Digital Assistant.[76]
units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A
(Coarse/Acquisition) code.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classication as a munition. Vendor interpretations dier. The rule refers to operation at both the
target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with
some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach
30 kilometers (19 mi).
These limits only apply to units or components exported
from the USA. There is a growing trade in various components, including GPS units from other countries. These
are expressly sold as ITAR-free.
25.5. COMMUNICATION
263
or about 118 km/s2 have been developed for use in almanac, which contains coarse orbit and status informa155-millimeter (6.1 in) howitzers.[77]
tion for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as
data related to error correction. Thus, to obtain an accu Search and rescue.
rate satellite location from this transmitted message, the
Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed receiver must demodulate the message from each satellite
it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. To collect
more closely.
all transmitted almanacs, the receiver must demodulate
GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation de- the message for 732 to 750 seconds or 12 1/2 minutes.[83]
tectors consisting of an optical sensor (Y-sensor), an All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies, encodX-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic ing signals using unique code division multiple access
pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor), that form a major (CDMA) so receivers can distinguish individual satellites
portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation De- from each other. The system uses two distinct CDMA
tection System.[78][79] General William Shelton has encoding types: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which
stated that future satellites may drop this feature to is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P(Y))
save money.[80]
code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military
25.5 Communication
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6
Main article: GPS signals
hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac
is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally, data for
The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites en- a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission
code a variety of information including satellite positions, updates that delay data upload.
the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the 25.5.2 Satellite frequencies
network. Two dierent encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an
encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies,
1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal).
25.5.1 Message format
The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum
technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded
with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is
dierent for each satellite. The receiver must be aware
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the acmessage on L1 C/A and L2 P/Y frequencies at a rate of tual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, trans50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message mits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the
takes 750 seconds (12 1/2 minutes) to complete. The P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 milmessage structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long lion chips per second. The actual internal reference of
frame made up of ve subframes, each subframe being the satellites is 10.22999999543 MHz to compensate for
300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are sub- relativistic eects[85][86] that make observers on the earth
commutated 25 times each, so that a complete data mes- perceive a dierent time reference with respect to the
sage requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each transmitters in orbit. The L1 carrier is modulated by both
subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modwith 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame ulated by the P code.[87] The P code can be encrypted
times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits as a so-called P(Y) code that is only available to mililong. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 tary equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the
seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to
Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute the user.
or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used
satellite.[81]
to transmit data from the satellites to ground stations.
The rst subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week,[82] as well as the data
about the health of the satellite. The second and the third
subframes contain the ephemeris the precise orbit for
the satellite. The fourth and fth subframes contain the
264
The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
broadcast
demodulator
signal
The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in
demodulated
signal
the process of GPS modernization. This frequency falls
...
into an internationally protected range for aeronautical
C/A gold code
navigation, promising little or no interference under all
modulo 2 C/A gold code
modulo 2
...
n1 1023 b/ms
n2 1023 b/ms
addition
addition
circumstances. The rst Block IIF satellite that provides
this signal was launched in 2010.[89] The L5 consists of
navigation data
navigation data
two carrier components that are in phase quadrature with
...
satellite n1
satellite n2
each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key
50 b/s
50 b/s
(BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train. L5, the third
civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety-of-life ap- Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the
plications for aviation and provide improved availability Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.
and accuracy.[90]
25.5.3
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, For n satellites, the equations to satisfy are:
the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs,
unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If the almanac
(
)2
information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search (xxi )2 +(yyi )2 +(zzi )2 = [ti +bsi ]c , i = 1, 2, . . . , n
(x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2 bc =
pi , i = 1, 2, ..., n .[96][97]
265
When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simulSince the equations have four unknowns [x, y, z, b]the taneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the
three components of GPS receiver position and the clock number of receiver channels, processing capability, and
biassignals from at least four satellites are necessary to geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).
attempt solving these equations. They can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods. Existence and uniqueness Using more than four involves an over-determined sysof GPS solutions are discussed by Abell and Chaee.[47] tem of equations with no unique solution; such a system
by a least-squares or weighted least squares
When n is greater than 4 this system is overdetermined can be solved
[96]
method.
and a tting method must be used.
With each combination of satellites, GDOP quantities can
)
(
be calculated based on the relative sky directions of the (
x
, y, z, b = arg min
(x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2 bc
satellites used.[98] The receiver location is expressed in a
(x,y,z,b) i
specic coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude
using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country-specic
system.[99]
Iterative
Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares
equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common approach is by iteraWhile the GPS equations can be solved directly by nu- tion on a linearized form of the equations, (e.g., Gauss
merical and analytical methods, geometrical interpreta- Newton algorithm).
tions are possible and may have pedagogical value. In a
The GPS system was initially developed assuming use of
simplied case in which the measured ranges are synchroa numerical least-squares solution methodi.e., before
nized, they represent the radii of spheres, each centered
closed-form solutions were found.
on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the
position of the receiver is then at one of the two intersections of three of these spheres. However, this idealized Closed-form
case assumes the receiver clock bias is known; including
the unknown receiver clock bias allows the ranges to be- One closed-form solution to the above set of equations
come unsynchronized (thus referred to as pseudoranges), was developed by S. Bancroft.[97][101] Its properties are
as considered below.
well known;[47][48][102] in particular, proponents claim it
is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative
least squares methods.[101]
Hyperboloids
Bancrofts method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical,
If the distance traveled between the receiver and satel- and can be used for four or more satellites. When four
lite i and the distance traveled between the receiver and satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4
satellite j are subtracted, the result is (ti - si) c - (tj - sj) c, matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equawhich only involves known or measured quantities. The tion. Bancrofts method provides one or two solutions for
locus of points having a constant dierence in distance the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the
to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperboloid (see case), only one is a near-earth sensible solution.[97]
Multilateration). Thus, from four or more measured re- When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a soception times, the receiver can be placed at the intersec- lution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the
tion of the surfaces of three or more hyperboloids.[47][48] pseudoinverse) to nd a solution. However, a case has
25.6.2
Geometric interpretation
266
25.8.2
Precise monitoring
Leap seconds
267
specially equipped receivers. This method has many surveying applications. It is accurate enough for real-time
tracking of the very slow motions of tectonic plates, typically 0100 mm (04 inches) per year.
The GPS navigation message includes the dierence between GPS time and UTC. As of July 2012, GPS time
is 16 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second
added to UTC June 30, 2012.[111] Receivers subtract this
oset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specic timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct
UTC time until after receiving the UTC oset message.
The GPS-UTC oset eld can accommodate 255 leap
seconds (eight bits).
The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles. Let (ri , sj , tk ) denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by
receiver i at time tk . This notation shows the meaning of the subscripts i, j, and k. The receiver (r), satellite (s), and time (t) come in alphabetical order as arguAccuracy
ments of and to balance readability and conciseness,
let i,j,k = (ri , sj , tk ) be a concise abbreviation. Also
GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14
we
dene three functions, : r , s , t , which return
nanoseconds.[112] However, most receivers lose acdierences between receivers, satellites, and time points,
curacy in the interpretation of the signals and are only
respectively. Each function has variables with three subaccurate to 100 nanoseconds.[113][114]
scripts as its arguments. These three functions are dened below. If i,j,k is a function of the three integer
arguments,
i, j, and k then it is a valid argument for the
Format
functions, : r , s , t , with the values dened as
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the
r (i,j,k ) = i+1,j,k i,j,k ,
Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week
number and a seconds-into-week number. The week
s (i,j,k ) = i,j+1,k i,j,k , and
number is transmitted as a ten-bit eld in the C/A and
t (i,j,k ) = i,j,k+1 i,j,k .
P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again
every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started
Also if i,j,k and l,m,n are valid arguments for the
at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and
three functions and a and b are constants then (a i,j,k +
the week number became zero again for the rst time at
b l,m,n ) is a valid argument with values dened as
23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date,
r (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a r (i,j,k ) +
a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate
b r (l,m,n ) ,
date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS
s (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a s (i,j,k ) +
date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS
b s (l,m,n ) , and
navigation message uses a 13-bit eld that only repeats
every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year
t (a i,j,k + b l,m,n ) = a t (i,j,k ) +
2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).
b t (l,m,n ) .
25.8.4
268
ambiguity associated with the integral number of wavelengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not
change with time. Thus the triple dierence result eliminates practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris errors
have been signicantly reduced. This triple dierence is:
t (r (s (1,1,1 )))
Triple dierence results can be used to estimate unknown
variables. For example if the position of receiver 1 is
known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be
possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root nding and least squares. Triple dierence
results for three independent time pairs may be sucient
to solve for receiver 2s three position components. This
may require a numerical procedure.[118][119] An approximation of receiver 2s position is required to use such
a numerical method. This initial value can probably be
provided from the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Such a reasonable estimate can
be key to successful multidimensional root nding. Iterating from three time pairs and a fairly good initial value
produces one observed triple dierence result for receiver
2s position. Processing additional time pairs can improve
accuracy, overdetermining the answer with multiple solutions. Least squares can estimate an overdetermined system. Least squares determines the position of receiver 2
that best ts the observed triple dierence results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the
sum of the squares.
269
Orbital period
Galileo
GPS
15 hours
Geostationary
Earth Orbit
COMPASS
10 hours
MEO satellites
GLONASS
5 hours
Radius of orbit
Iridium
Hubble
40 Mm 30 Mm 20 Mm 10 Mm
10 Mm 20 Mm 30 Mm
Height above
sea level
ISS10000 miles
20000 miles
25000 km/h
20000 km/h
10000 mph
15000 km/h
Orbital speed
of development include:
GLONASS Russias global navigation system.
Fully operational worldwide.
Galileo a global system being developed by
the European Union and other partner countries,
planned to be operational by 2014 (and fully deployed by 2019)
Beidou Peoples Republic of Chinas regional
system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacic[139]
COMPASS Peoples Republic of Chinas global
system, planned to be operational by 2020[140][141]
IRNSS Indias regional navigation system, planned
to be operational by 2015, covering India and Northern Indian Ocean[142]
QZSS Japanese regional system covering Asia and
Oceania
270
GPS navigation device
[9] Helen E. Worth and Mame Warren (2009). Transit to Tomorrow. Fifty Years of Space Research at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (PDF).
Military invention
Navigation paradox
S-GPS
25.12 Notes
[1] Though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose.
[2] Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4R = TGM and VR = GM, where R = radius of
orbit in metres, T = orbital period in seconds, V = orbital
speed in m/s, G = gravitational constant 6.6731011
Nm/kg, M = mass of Earth 5.981024 kg.
[18] SECOR Chronology. Mark Wades Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved January 19, 2010.
25.13 References
[1] What is a GPS?".
[2] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Future of the Global Positioning System; National Academy
of Public Administration (1995). The global positioning system: a shared national asset: recommendations
for technical improvements and enhancements. National
Academies Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-309-05283-1. Retrieved August 16, 2013., Chapter 1, p. 16
[3] Factsheets : GPS Advanced Control Segment (OCX)".
Losangeles.af.mil. October 25, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2011.
[4] Russia Launches Three More GLONASS-M Space Vehicles. Inside GNSS. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
[5] Winterberg, Friedwardt (1956). Relativistische Zeitdiiatation eines knstlichen Satelliten (Relativistic time dilation of an articial satellite)". Astronautica Acta II (in
German) (25). Retrieved 19 October 2014.
[6] GPS and Relativity. Astronomy.ohio-state.edu. Retrieved November 6, 2011.
[7] Guier, William H.; Weienbach, George C. (1997).
Genesis of Satellite Navigation (PDF). John Hopkins
APL Technical Digest 19 (1): 178181.
[8] Steven Johnson (2010), Where good ideas come from,
the natural history of innovation, New York: Riverhead
Books
[17] http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
19660002550_1966002550.pdf
25.13. REFERENCES
271
[39] First Modernized GPS Satellite Built By Lockheed Martin Launched. Phys.org. Retrieved September 26, 2005.
[58] What the Global Positioning System Tells Us about Relativity. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
[59] . Retrieved October 27, 2011
[60] USCG Navcen: GPS Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved January 31, 2007.
[61] Thomassen, Keith. How GPS Works.
swest.com. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
avionic-
272
Gpsinformation.net.
Re-
25.13. REFERENCES
273
[104] doi:10.1002/9781119018612.ch6,
Gmat.unsw.edu.au.
Services in the Mobile Satellite Service. Federal Communications Commission. FCC.gov. July 15, 2010. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
274
Chapter 26
completion of the desert and temperate temperature testing of the YHO-2 HU. The YHO-3 BR did not complete
user testing after engineering evaluations revealed significant deciencies. Service testing demonstrated that the
YHO-2 had been the most capable, but due to a limited
load capability, it was deemed not suitable to replace the
OH-13.[3]
26.1.1 LOH
On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy Bureau of
Weapons issued Technical Specication 153, a request
for proposals (RFP) for a four-seat, turbine-powered,
light observation helicopter capable of fullling various
roles: personnel transport, escort and attack missions,
casualty evacuation and observation.[4] 25 aircraft manufacturers were solicited for the program on behalf of
the Army Chief of Transportation. By January 1961, 12
manufacturers, including Cessna, Hughes Tool Co. Aircraft Division, Hiller Aircraft and Bell Helicopters, had
responded with 19 designs.[3][5]
26.1 History
275
276
marketed as the FH-1100.[9] In the end, Bell won the contract and the model 206A was designated as the OH-58A.
Following the Armys naming convention for helicopters,
the OH-58A was named Kiowa for the Native American
tribe.
26.3 References
Notes
[1] Weinert 1991, p. 205.
[2] Weinert 1991, pp. 205-206.
[3] Weinert 1991, p. 206.
[4] Apostolo 1984
[5] Remington, Steve. The Cessna CH-1 Helicopter. Collectair.com. Accessed on 30 June 2009.
[6] Spangenberg, George A. George A. Spangenberg Oral
History. edited by Judith Spangenberg-Currier. pdf.
Spangenberg.org. pp.187-190
[7] Holley and Sloniker, p. 7.
[8] Beechy, Robert. U.S Army Aircraft Acquisition Programs. Uncommon Aircraft 2006. 18 November 2005.
Accessed on 19 September 2006.
[9] Michael J. Hirschberg and David K. Daley (7 July 2000).
US and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th
Century.
Bibliography
Apostolo, Giorgio. The Illustrated Encyclopedia
of Helicopters. New York:Bonanza Books, 1984.
ISBN 0-517-43935-2
Holley, Charles, and Mike Sloniker. Primer of the
Helicopter War. Grapevine, Tex: Nissi Publ, 1997.
ISBN 0-944372-11-2
Weinert, Richard P., Jr. A History of Army Aviation
1950 - 1962. Fort Monroe, Virginia: Oce of
the Command Historian, U.S. Army Training and
Doctrine Command, 1991.
Chapter 27
Lockheed AC-130
This article is about the ground attack aircraft. For the
video game about the aircraft, see AC-130 Operation
Devastation.
27.1 Development
27.1.1 Origins
During the Vietnam War, the C-130 Hercules was selected to replace the Douglas AC-47 Spooky gunship
(Project Gunship I) in order to improve mission endurance and increase capacity to carry munitions. Capable of ying faster than helicopters and at high altitudes
with excellent loiter time, the use of the pylon turn allowed the AC-47 to deliver continuous accurate re to a
[6][7]
The gunships sole user is the United States Air Force, single point on the ground.
which uses AC-130H Spectre, AC-130U Spooky, AC130J Ghostrider, and AC-130W Stinger II[2] variants
for close air support, air interdiction, and force protection. Close air support roles include supporting ground
troops, escorting convoys, and urban operations. Air interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets
and targets of opportunity. Force protection missions include defending air bases and other facilities. AC-130Us
are based at Hurlburt Field, Florida, while AC-130Hs and
AC-130Ws are based at Cannon AFB, New Mexico; gunships can be deployed worldwide.[3] The squadrons are
part of the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), a component of the United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM).[4]
Weaponry is mounted to re from the port side of the
non-pressurised aircraft. During an attack the gunship
performs a pylon turn, ying in a large circle around a
target, allowing it to re for far longer than conventional
attack aircraft. The AC-130H Spectre was armed with
two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 cannon; after 1994 the
20 mm cannons were removed for most missions. The
upgraded AC-130U Spooky has a single 25 mm GAU12 Equalizer in place of the Spectres twin 20 mm cannons, an improved re control system, and increased ammunition capacity. New AC-130Js based on the MC130J Combat Shadow II special operations tanker were
planned as of 2012. The AC-130W is armed with one
30 mm Bushmaster cannon, AGM-176 Grin missiles,
and GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs.[5]
In 1967, JC-130A USAF 54-1626 was selected for conversion into the prototype AC-130A gunship (Project
Gunship II). The modications were done at WrightPatterson Air Force Base by the Aeronautical Systems
Division. A direct view night vision telescope was installed in the forward door, an early forward looking
infrared (FLIR) in the forward part of the left wheel
well, and Gatling guns xed facing down and aft along
the left side. The analog re control computer prototype was handcrafted by RAF Wing Commander Tom
Pinkerton at the USAF Avionics Laboratory at WrightPatterson AFB. Flight testing of the prototype was performed primarily at Eglin Air Force Base, followed by
further testing and modications. By September 1967,
the aircraft was certied ready for combat testing and was
own to Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam for a 90-day
test program.[6] The AC-130 was later supplemented by
277
278
the AC-119 Shadow (Project Gunship III), which later GAU-12/U and 40 mm Bofors cannon on the ACproved to be underpowered.
130U gunships to be replaced with two 30 mm Mk 44
Bushmaster II cannons.[13] In 2007, the Air Force modied four AC-130U gunships as test platforms for the
Bushmasters. These were referred to as AC-130U Plus
4 or AC-130U+4. AFSOC, however, canceled its plans
to install the new cannons on its eet of AC-130Us. It
has since removed the guns and re-installed the original
40 mm and 25mm cannons and returned the planes to
combat duty.[14] Brigadier General Bradley A. Heithold,
AFSOCs director of plans, programs, requirements, and
assessments, said on 11 August 2008 that the eort was
canceled because of problems with the Bushmasters accuracy in tests at the altitude we were employing it.
There were also schedule considerations that drove the
An AC-130U ring ares
decision, he said.[15]
Seven more warplanes were converted to the Plain Jane
conguration like the AC-130 prototype in 1968,[8] and
one aircraft received the Surprise Package equipment
in 1969.[9] Surprise Package included the latest 20 mm
rotary cannons and 40 mm Bofors cannon but no 7.62
mm close support armament. Surprise Package served as
a test bed for the avionic systems and armament for the
AC-130E.
In 1970, ten more AC-130As were acquired under the
Pave Pronto project.[10] In the summer of 1971, Surprise Package equipped AC-130s were converted to the
Pave Pronto conguration and assumed their new nickname 'Thor'. Conversion of C-130Es into AC-130Es for
the PAVE Spectre project followed.[11][12]
279
to provide remote video feed and coordinates to weapons AC-130H.[1] Although the AC-130U conducts some opoperators through cloud cover.[26]
erations in daylight, most of its combat missions are conducted at night.[28] The AC-130Hs unit cost is US$132.4
million, and the AC-130Us cost is US$190 million (scal
27.1.3 Future
2001 dollars).[4]
By 2018, AC-130 gunships will have been providing
close air support for special operators for 50 years. Al- 27.2.2
though the aircraft have been kept relevant through constant upgrades to their weaponry, sensor packages, and
countermeasures, they are not expected to be survivable
in future non-permissive environments due to their high
signatures and low airspeeds. Military analysts, such as
the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, have
suggested that AFSOC invest in more advanced technologies to ll the role to operate in future contested combat
zones, including a mix of low-cost disposable unmanned
and stealthy strike aircraft.[27]
Upgrades
27.2 Design
AC-130U sensor suite
27.2.1
Overview
During the Vietnam era, the various AC-130 versions following the Pave Pronto modications were equipped with
a magnetic anomaly detector (MAD) system called the
Black Crow (AN/ASD-5), a highly sensitive passive device with a phased-array antenna located in the left-front
nose radome that could pick up localized deviations in
Earths magnetic eld that is normally used to detect submerged submarines. The Black Crow system was slaved
into the targeting computers of the AC-130A/E/H, enabling the detection of the unshielded ignition coils of
North Vietnamese trucks hidden under dense jungle foliage, typical along the Ho Chi Minh trail. It could also
detect hand-held transmitter signals of air controllers on
the ground to identify and locate targets.
The PGM-38/U enhanced 25 mm high explosive incendiary (HEI) round was created to expand the AC-130U
gunships mission in stando range and survivability for
its 25 mm GAU-12/U gun system. This round is a combination of the existing PGU-25 HEI and a M758 fuze
designated as FMU-151/B to meet the MIL-STD-1316.
The FMU-151 has an improved arming delay with multisensitive range.[29]
280
IIs arrived to form a squadron, the 16th Special Operations Squadron (SOS) of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing
(TFW), at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. It
was at this time that the C-130A gunship was designated
the AC-130A.
On 18 August 1968, an AC-130 gunship ying an armed
reconnaissance mission in Vietnams III Corps was diverted to support a Special Forces Katum Camp. The
ground commander quickly assessed the accurate re and
capabilities of this weapon system and called for re
on his own perimeter when the Viet Cong attempted to
bridge the wire on the west side of his position.
By December 1968 most AC-130s ew under F-4 Phantom II escort (to protect the gunship against heavy and
concentrated AAA re) from the 497th Tactical Fighter
Squadron, normally three Phantoms per Gunship. In late
1969, under the code name of Surprise Package, 560490 arrived with solid-state laser-illuminated low-lightlevel-TV with a companion YAG laser designator, an improved forward looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, video
recording for TV and FLIR, an inertial navigation system, and a prototype digital re control computer. The
remaining AC-130s were retted with upgraded similar
equipment in the summer of 1970, and then redeployed
to Ubon RTAFB. On 25 October 1971, the rst Cadillac gunship, the AC-130E arrived in Vietnam. On 17
February 1972, the rst 105 mm cannon arrived for service with Spectre and was installed on Gunship 570. It
was used from mid-February until the aircraft received
battle damage to its right ap. The 105 was switched to
Gunship 571 and was used until 30 March when the aircraft was shot down.
281
At Guam, AC-130H crews developed communicationsout/lights-out refueling procedures for later employment
by trial-and-error. This deployment with the 1 SOW/CC
as Task Force commander was directed from the oce
of the CJCS for fear that Iranian militants could begin
executing American Embassy personnel who had been
taken hostage on 4 November. One early option considered AC-130H retaliatory punitive strikes deep within
Iran. Later gunship ights exceeded the 1979 Hurlburtto-Guam ight. Upon return in March 1980, the four
planes soon found themselves in Egypt to support the illfated hostage rescue attempt.
27.3.3
282
Taliban locations during the early days of the war in AC-130W Stinger II (former MC-130W Dragon Spear)
Afghanistan. U.S. Special Operations Forces are using
MC-130Ws conversions (active duty USAF).[50]
the AC-130 to support its operations. The day after arriving in Afghanistan, the AC-130s attacked Taliban and AlQaeda forces near the city of Konduz and were directly 27.5 Operators
responsible for the citys surrender the next day. On 26
November 2001, AC-130 Spectres were called in to put
down a rebellion at the prison fort of Qala-i-Janghi. The
16 SOS ew missions over Mazar-i-Sharif, Konduz, Kandahar, Shkin, Asadabad, Bagram, Baghran, Tora Bora,
and virtually every other part of Afghanistan. Spectre
participated in countless operations within Afghanistan,
performing on-call close air support and armed reconnaissance.
In March 2002, three AC-130 Spectres provided 39 crucial combat missions in support of Operation Anaconda
in Afghanistan. During the intense ghting, the planes
expended more than 1,300 40 mm and 1,200 105 mm
rounds.
There are eight AC-130H and seventeen AC-130U air- AC-130U over Hurlburt Field
craft in active-duty service as of July 2010.[4]
In March 2011, the U.S. Air Force deployed two ACUnited States
130U gunships to take part in Operation Odyssey Dawn,
the U.S. military intervention in Libya,[43] which eventually came under NATO as Operation Unied Protec- United States Air Force[51][52][53]
tor.[44]
As of September 2013, 14 MC-130W Dragon Spear
aircraft have been converted to AC-130W Stinger II
gunships. The Stinger gunships have been deployed to
Afghanistan to replace the aging AC-130H and provide
an example for the new AC-130J Ghostrider. Modications began with crews cutting holes in the plane to make
room for weapons, and adding kits and bomb bases for
laser-guided munitions. Crews added a 105 mm cannon,
20 in infrared and electro-optical sensors, and the ability
to carry 250-pound bombs on the wings.[45]
27.4 Variants
AC-130A Spectre (Project Gunship II, Surprise
Package, Pave Pronto)
Nineteen converted from C-130As, transferred to
Air Force Reserve in 1975, retired in 1995.[10][46]
AC-130E Spectre (Pave Spectre, Pave Aegis) Eleven
converted from C-130Es, ten upgraded to AC-130H
conguration.[47]
27.7. SPECIFICATIONS
283
Hurlburt Field on 20 October 1994. The Spectre Association dedicated Ultimate End (which served with the
16 SOS in Vietnam) on 4 May 1995. Lt Col Michael Byers, then 16 SOS commander, represented the active-duty
gunship force and Clyde Gowdy of the Spectre Association represented all Spectre personnel past and present
for the unveiling of a monument at the aircraft and the
dedication as a whole.[57]
Nose art on AC-130A AF Serial No. 53-3129 at the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida
284
AC-130U Spooky
Height: 38 ft 6 in (11.7 m)
Wing area: 1745.5 ft (162.2 m)
27.7.1
Armament
27.7. SPECIFICATIONS
1 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer
AC-130U Spooky II
1 General Dynamics 25 mm (0.984 in) GAU-12/U
Equalizer 5-barreled Gatling cannon
1 40 mm (1.58 in) L/60 Bofors cannon
1 105 mm (4.13 in) M102 howitzer
AC-130W Stinger II / AC-130J Ghostrider[23]
1x 30 mm ATK GAU-23/A autocannon[61]
1x 105 mm M102 Howitzer (AC-130J Ghostrider
only, red out the back of the aircraft via a modied
rear ramp.)[62][63]
'Gunslinger' weapons system with launch tube for
AGM-176 Grin missiles and/or GBU-44/B Viper
Strike munitions (10 round magazines)[2]
Wing mounted, AGM-114 Hellre missiles, GBU39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDBs) and/or GBU53/B SDB IIs[2] (4 per hardpoint on BRU-61/A
rack)[64][65]
27.7.2
Avionics
285
Raytheon AN/AAQ-26 Infrared Detecting Set
(IDS) long-wave infrared (LWIR) band
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) (mounted
forward of the nose landing gear door)[68][69]
General Electric (now Lockheed Martin)
AN/ASQ-145 Low Light Level Television
(LLLTV) EO re control system consists
of television camera (CCD-TV), AN/AVQ19 Laser Target Designator/Ranger (LTD/R
1064 nm laser emitter with permanently preset
PRF code) with eyesafe mode (1570 nm laser
emitter), AN/AAT-3 Ambient Temperature
Illuminator (ATI wide beam 860 nm laser
illuminator), and Infrared Zoom Laser Illuminator Designator (IZLID airborne version
of 860 nm narrow beam laser pointer/marker
and illuminator AN/PEQ-18) (mounted in the
crew entrance door)[67][68]
Navigation systems:
Teledyne Ryan (now Northrop Grumman)
AN/APN-218 radar doppler navigation
radar[68]
Previously installed systems:
AN/APN-59 radar search and weather
radar[68]
AC-130H Spectre
Mission systems:
Northrop Grumman AN/APN-241 multimode navigation radar derived version of
AN/APG-66 radar (formerly used on F16A Fighting Falcon) consisting of precised
navigation and air-to-ground modes including Monopulse Ground Mapping (MGM),
Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS), high resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Terrain Avoidance/Terrain Following (TA/TF),
skin paint (for Station KEeping; SKE), maritime detection, weather/turbulence detection,
wind shear alert, and ballistic wind measurement (for precision airdrop)[66]
Motorola (now General Dynamics) AN/APQ150 Beacon Tracking Radar (BTR) sidelooking radar designed to search, acquire, and
track ground beacon signal (X-band transponder) located at a friendly position from 10 nautical miles, beacon coordinate is used as a reference point for ground troop to give the gunship a bearing and range from the beacon to
the desired target (mounted between 40 mm
cannon and 105 mm howitzer)[67][68]
Cubic Corporation AN/ARS-6 Personnel Locator System (PLS) radio navigation set[68]
AC-130U Spooky II
Mission systems:
Raytheon AN/APQ-180 multimode attack
radar enhanced version of AN/APG-70
radar (used on F-15E Strike Eagle) incorporating several enhanced air-to-ground modes
such as xed target track, ground moving target indication and track, projectile impact
point position, beacon track, and a weather
detection[68][70][71]
Raytheon AN/AAQ-26 IDS LWIR FLIR
(mounted on port side of the nose landing gear
door)[68][69]
Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-39 Gunship Multispectral Sensor System (GMS2) EO/IR re
control system consists of mid-wave infrared
(MWIR) FLIR, two Image-Intensied Television (I2TV) cameras (CCD-TV), laser target designator/rangender with eyesafe mode
(1064 and 1570 nm dual mode laser emitter),
and near-infrared (NIR) laser pointer/marker
(860 nm laser emitter) (mounted under the
nose of port landing gear sponson)[72]
Previously installed systems:
286
27.10 References
Countermeasures:
Raytheon AN/ALR-69 digital Radar warning receiver (RWR)[70][73]
L-3 Communications AN/AAR-44 UVbased Missile Approach Warning System
(MAWS)[74]
ITT Exelis AN/ALQ-172 Digital radio
frequency memory (DRFM) jammer-based
Electronic countermeasure (ECM) incorporating integrated Electronic Warfare (EW) selfprotection function of detection, processing,
warning, prioritization, jamming, and threat
display[70][75]
BAE Systems AN/ALQ-196 Low-Band Jammer (LBJ) low frequency DRFM jammerbased ECM[76]
Northrop Grumman AN/AAQ-24 Nemesis
laser-based Directional Infrared Counter Measures (DIRCM) (mounted on the port and starboard rear fuselage)[77]
BAE Systems AN/ALE-47 Countermeasure
Dispensing System (CMDS) cha/are
dispenser[78]
27.10. REFERENCES
287
[29] PGU-38/U 25mm Ammunition, August 1993, Alliant Techsystems, Public Release, Case No. 93-S3040,
E10630 8/93.
[53] http://www.eglin.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123379338
[43] McGarry, Brendan (28 March 2011), Coalition Isnt Coordinating Strikes With Rebels, US Says, Bloomberg.
[44] Schmitt, Eric (29 March 2011). US Gives Its Air Power
Expansive Role in Libya. The New York Times. p. A13.
Retrieved 29 March 2011.
288
[68] U.S. Air Force Career Field Education and Training Plan:
Communication/Navigation/Mission Systems, pp. 257
291. U.S. Air Force, 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
[69] AN/AAQ-26 Infrared Detecting Set. Raytheon. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
[70] Pushies, Fred J. United States Air Force Special Ops, pp.
4226. Zenith Press, 2007. ISBN 0-760-32947-8. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[71] AN/APQ-180 Radar. Raytheon. Retrieved 11 June
2013.
[72] AN/AAQ-39. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved 12 June
2013.
[73] AN/ALR-69A(V) Radar Warning Receiver. Raytheon.
Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[74] AN/AAR-44 Infrared Warning Receiver. American
Special Ops. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
[75] ALQ-172 (EW Integrated Self Protection System)". ITT
Exelis. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[76] BAe Systems Jammer for Special Hercs. Aero News
Network. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[77] Parsch, Andreas. AN/AAQ Airborne Infrared Multipurpose/Special Equipment. Designation systems. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[78] Pike, John. AC-130 Project Gunship II. Global security. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Chapter 28
290
28.1.3
Improved versions
As the C-130A became operational with Tactical Air 28.1.4 Refueling versions
Command (TAC), the C-130s lack of range became apparent and additional fuel capacity was added in the form The KC-130 tankers, originally C-130Fs procured for the
of external pylon-mounted tanks at the end of the wings. US Marine Corps (USMC) in 1958 (under the designaThe C-130B model was developed to complement the A tion GV-1) are equipped with a removable 3,600 US gal
models that had previously been delivered, and incorpo- (13,626 l) stainless steel fuel tank carried inside the cargo
rated new features, particularly increased fuel capacity in compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue
the form of auxiliary tanks built into the center wing sec- aerial refueling pods each transfer up to 300 US gal per
tion and an AC electrical system. Four-bladed Hamil- minute (19 l per second) to two aircraft simultaneously,
ton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three- allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft
bladed propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models. formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in
An electronic reconnaissance variant of the C-130B was less than 30 minutes). The US Navy's C-130G has indesignated C-130B-II. A total of 13 aircraft were con- creased structural strength allowing higher gross weight
verted. The C-130B-II was distinguished by its false ex- operation.
28.1.5
291
More improvements
Aerospace as ight-testbed for the A400M turbine engine, the TP400. The C-130K is used by the RAF FalThe C-130H model has updated Allison T56-A-15 tur- cons for parachute drops. Three C-130K (Hercules C
boprops, a redesigned outer wing, updated avionics and Mk.1P) were upgraded and sold to the Austrian Air Force
other minor improvements. Later H models had a new, in 2002.[7]
fatigue-life-improved, center wing that was retrotted
to many earlier H-models. The H model remains in
widespread use with the United States Air Force (USAF)
and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in 28.1.6 Later models
1964 (to the RNZAF), remaining in production until
1996. An improved C-130H was introduced in 1974, The MC-130E Combat Talon was developed for the
with Australia purchasing 12 of type in 1978 to replace USAF during the Vietnam War to support special operathe original 12 C-130A models, which had rst entered tions missions in Southeast Asia, and led to both the MC130H Combat Talon II as well as a family of other speRAAF Service in 1958.
cial missions aircraft. 37 of the earliest models currently
The United States Coast Guard employs the HC-130H operating with the Air Force Special Operations Comfor long-range search and rescue, drug interdiction, illegal mand (AFSOC) are scheduled to be replaced by newmigrant patrols, homeland security, and logistics.
production MC-130J versions. The EC-130 Commando
C-130H models produced from 1992 to 1996 were des- Solo is another special missions variant within AFSOC,
ignated as C-130H3 by the USAF. The 3 denoting the albeit operated solely by an AFSOC-gained wing in the
third variation in design for the H series. Improvements Pennsylvania Air National Guard, and is a psychological
included ring laser gyros for the INUs, GPS receivers, operations/information operations (PSYOP/IO) platform
a partial glass cockpit (ADI and HSI instruments), a equipped as an aerial radio station and television stations
more capable APN-241 color radar, night vision device able to transmit messaging over commercial frequencies.
compatible instrument lighting, and an integrated radar Other versions of the EC-130, most notably the EC-130H
and missile warning system. The electrical system up- Compass Call, are also special variants, but are assigned
grade included Generator Control Units (GCU) and Bus to the Air Combat Command (ACC). The AC-130 gunSwitching units (BSU)to provide stable power to the more ship was rst developed during the Vietnam War to prosensitive upgraded components.
vide close air support and other ground-attack duties.
The equivalent model for export to the UK is the C-130K,
known by the Royal Air Force (RAF) as the Hercules
C.1. The C-130H-30 (Hercules C.3 in RAF service) is
a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by
inserting a 100 in (2.54 m) plug aft of the cockpit and
an 80 in (2.03 m) plug at the rear of the fuselage. A single C-130K was purchased by the Met Oce for use by
its Meteorological Research Flight, where it was classied as the Hercules W.2. This aircraft was heavily modied (with its most prominent feature being the long red
and white striped atmospheric probe on the nose and the
move of the weather radar into a pod above the forward
fuselage). This aircraft, named Snoopy, was withdrawn in
2001 and was then modied by Marshall of Cambridge
292
28.1.7
Next generation
28.1.9
Replacement
293
strategic missions, but which course to pursue is to be
decided before C-17s need to be retired.[23]
The rst production aircraft, C-130As were rst delivered beginning in 1956 to the 463d Troop Carrier Wing
at Ardmore AFB, Oklahoma and the 314th Troop Carrier Wing at Sewart AFB, Tennessee. Six additional
squadrons were assigned to the 322d Air Division in Europe and the 315th Air Division in the Far East. Additional aircraft were modied for electronics intelligence
work and assigned to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany
while modied RC-130As were assigned to the Military
Air Transport Service (MATS) photo-mapping division.
294
In October 1968, a C-130Bs from the 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing dropped a pair of M-121 10,000 pound bombs
that had been developed for the massive B-36 bomber but
had never been used. The U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force
resurrected the huge weapons as a means of clearing land- The A-model continued in service through the Vietnam
ing zones for helicopters and in early 1969 the 463rd War, where the aircraft assigned to the four squadrons at
commenced Commando Vault missions. Although the Naha AB, Okinawa and one at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan
performed yeomans service, including operating highly
295
ated two KC-130 tankers during the war, and these refueled both the Douglas A-4 Skyhawks and Navy DassaultBreguet Super tendards; some C-130s were modied to
operate as bombers with bomb-racks under their wings.
The British also used RAF C-130s to support their logistical operations.
296
During the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the ongoing support of the International Security Assistance Force
(Operation Enduring Freedom), the C-130 Hercules has
been used operationally by Australia, Belgium, Canada,
Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, the UK and the
United States.
companies to be converted into air tankers (see U.S. Forest Service airtanker scandal). After one of these aircraft crashed due to wing separation in ight as a result
of fatigue stress cracking, the entire eet of C-130A air
tankers was permanently grounded in 2004 (see 2002 airtanker crashes). C-130s have been used to spread chemical dispersants onto the massive oil slick in the Gulf Coast
in 2010.[37]
A recent development of a C-130based airtanker is the
Retardant Aerial Delivery System developed by Coulson
Aviation USA. The system consists of a C-130H/Q
retrotted with an in-oor discharge system, combined
with a removable 3,500- or 4,000-gallon water tank. The
combined system is FAA certied.[38]
28.3 Variants
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom), the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, the UK and the United States. After the initial invasion, C-130 operators as part of the Multinational force
in Iraq used their C-130s to support their forces in Iraq.
Since 2004, the Pakistan Air Force has employed C-130s
in the War in North-West Pakistan. Some variants had
forward looking infrared (FLIR Systems Star Sare III
EO/IR) sensor balls, to enable close tracking of Islamist
militants.[35]
C-130H Hercules ight deck
28.2.2
Civilian
28.3. VARIANTS
297
C-130D/D-6 Ski-equipped version for snow and ice operations United States Air Force / Air National
Guard
CC-130E/H/J Hercules Designation for Canadian
Armed Forces / Royal Canadian Air Force Hercules aircraft. U.S. Air Force used the CC-130J
designation to dierentiate standard C-130Js
from stretched C-130Js (Company designation
C-130J-30s).
DC-130A/E/H USAF and USN Drone control
C-130s from the: U.S., Canada, Australia and Israel (foreground to background)
C-130K Designation for RAF Hercules C1/W2/C3 aircraft (C-130Js in RAF service are the Hercules C.4 JC-130 Temporary conversion for ight test operations
and Hercules C.5)
KC-130F/R/T/J United States Marine Corps aerial reAC-130A/E/H/J/U/W Gunship variants
fueling tanker and tactical airlifter
298
LC-130F/H/R USAF / Air National Guard Skiequipped version for Arctic and Antarctic support
operations; LC-130F previously operated by USN
MC-130 MC-130E/H Combat Talon I/II Special
operations inltration/extraction variant
MC-130W Combat Spear/Dragon Spear Special
operations tanker/gunship[42]
MC-130P Combat Shadow Special operations
tanker
MC-130J Commando II (formerly Combat Shadow II)
Special operations tanker Air Force Special OperC-130H used by the Egyptian Air Force.
ations Command[43]
YMC-130H Modied aircraft under Operation Credible Sport for second Iran hostage crisis rescue attempt
NC-130 Permanent conversion for ight test operations
PC-130/C-130-MP Maritime patrol
RC-130A/S Surveillance aircraft for reconnaissance
SC-130J Sea Herc Proposed maritime patrol version of
the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance and
anti-submarine warfare.[44][45]
TC-130 Aircrew training
28.4 Operators
Main article: List of C-130 Hercules operators
Philippine Air Force and Army servicemen unload a C-130 of
supplies for transfer to waiting U.S. helicopters for delivery to
Panay Island.
28.5 Accidents
Main article: List of accidents and incidents involving
the C-130 Hercules
The C-130 Hercules has had a low accident rate in general. The Royal Air Force recorded an accident rate
of about one aircraft loss per 250,000 ying hours over
the last 40 years, placing it behind Vickers VC10s and
Lockheed TriStars with no ying losses.[46] USAF C130A/B/E-models had an overall attrition rate of 5% as
299
uary 1987. It was damaged in a re at Jeddah in December 1989. Restored for ground training by August 1993. At Riyadh Air Base Museum, November 2002, restored for ground display by using a tail
from another C-130H.[52]
28.6.2
Canada
28.6.3
Colombia
28.6.4
Norway
28.6.5
Saudi Arabia
300
301
length, 123 inches (3.12 meters); width, 119
inches (3.02 meters)
C-130J-30 cargo hold: length, 55 feet (16.9
meters); width, 119 inches (3.12 meters);
height, 9 feet (2.74 meters). Rear ramp:
length, 123 inches (3.12 meters); width, 119
inches (3.02 meters)
92 passengers or
64 airborne troops or
74 litter patients with 5 medical crew or
6 pallets or
23 Humvees or
2 M113 armored personnel carriers
Payload: 45,000 lb (20,400 kg)
Length: 97 ft 9 in (29.8 m)
Wingspan: 132 ft 7 in (40.4 m)
Height: 38 ft 3 in (11.6 m)
Wing area: 1,745 ft (162.1 m)
Empty weight: 75,800 lb (34,400 kg)
Useful load: 72,000 lb (33,000 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 155,000 lb (70,300 kg)
Powerplant: 4 Allison T56-A-15 turboprops,
4,590 shp (3,430 kW) each
Propellers: 4 propellers
Propeller diameter: 13.5 ft (4.1 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 320 knots (366 mph, 592 km/h)
at 20,000 ft (6,060 m)
Cruise speed: 292 kts (336 mph, 540 km/h)
Range: 2,050 nmi (2,360 mi, 3,800 km)
Service ceiling: 33,000 ft (10,060 m) empty;[72]
23,000 ft (7,077 m) with 42,000 pounds (19,090
kilograms) payload ()
Rate of climb: 1,830 ft/min (9.3 m/s)
302
Lockheed LC-130
Lockheed MC-130
Lockheed WC-130
Lockheed L-100 Hercules
Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
[8] NASA and Lockheed Martin Partners In C-130 Technology Retrieved 21 May 2013.
[9] The High Technology Test Bed Lockheed Service News
Vol. 12 No. 3, September 1985. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Antonov An-12
Blackburn Beverley
Shaanxi Y-8
Short Belfast
Transall C-160
Related lists
[15] Wall, Robert. Pentagon Approves C-130 AMP Production. Aviation Week, 25 June 2010.
28.9 References
Notes
[1] The aircrew of Spare 617 were: Capt. William Caldwell, pilot; Lt. John Hering, co-pilot; Lt. Richard A.
Lenz, navigator; Tech. Sgt. Jon Sanders, ight engineer,
loadmasters Tech. Sgt. Charlie Shaub and A1C Dave
McAleece
Citations
[1] http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/
224/Article/104517/c-130-hercules.aspx
28.9. REFERENCES
303
[46] Aircraft Air Accidents and Damage Rates. Defence Analytical Services Agency. Retrieved: 2 October 2010.
strat-
[43] MC-130 J name change promotes modern missions, preserves heritage. Afsoc.af.mil. Retrieved on 2013-08-16.
Transport.
Retrieved: 7 July
304
Bibliography
Borman, Martin W. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 1999. ISBN
978-1-86126-205-9.
Diehl, Alan E., PhD, Former Senior USAF Safety
Scientist. Silent Knights: Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover-ups. Dulles, Virginia: Brasseys Inc., 2002. ISBN 1-57488-544-8.
Donald, David, ed. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New
York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. ISBN 0-76070592-5.
Eden, Paul. Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of
Military Aircraft, 2002/03. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN
1-875671-55-2.
Olausson, Lars. Lockheed Hercules Production List
19542011. Stens, Sweden: Self-published, 27th
Edition March 2009. No ISBN.
Olausson, Lars. Lockheed Hercules Production List
19542012. Stens, Sweden: Self-published, 28th
Edition, March 2010. No ISBN.
Reed, Chris. Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Its Variants. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing,
1999. ISBN 978-0-7643-0722-5.
Chapter 29
29.1 Development
29.1.1
306
29.1.2
Into production
29.2. DESIGN
307
centerline, aft of the refueling port, extending back to the 2009 with Lockheed reaching full production in May
wing. The cracks required a redesign to the hydraulic sys- 2011. 22 C-5M Super Galaxies have been completed as
tem for the visor, the front cargo entry point.
of August 2014.[43] The RERP upgrade program is to be
completed in early 2018.
29.1.3
29.2.1 Overview
The C-5 is a large high-wing cargo aircraft with a distinctive high T-tail n (vertical) stabilizer, and with four
TF39 turbofan engines mounted on pylons beneath wings
that are swept 25 degrees. Similar in layout to its smaller
predecessor, the C-141 Starlifter, the C-5 has 12 internal
wing tanks and is equipped for aerial refueling. Above
the plane-length cargo deck, it provides an upper deck for
ight operations and for seating 75 passengers including
the embarked loadmaster crew, all who face to the rear
of the aircraft during ight. Full-open(able) bay doors
at both nose and tail enable drive-through loading and
unloading of cargo.[45]
The cargo hold of the C-5 is one foot longer than the
entire length of the rst powered ight by the Wright
Brothers at Kitty Hawk.[46] But, for its voracious consumption of fuel and its maintenance and reliability issues [47] the Galaxys aircrews have nicknamed it FRED,
for: fucking[N 1] (fantastic, or freaking) ridiculous, economic/environmental disaster.[47]
Takeo and landing distance requirements for the plane
at maximum-load gross weight are 8,300 ft (2,500 m)
and 4,900 ft (1,500 m), respectively. Its high otation
main landing gear provides 28 wheels to distribute gross
weight on paved or earth surfaces. The rear main landing gear can be steered to make a smaller turning radius; it is rotated 90 degrees after takeo before being
retracted. Kneeling landing gear permits lowering the
aircraft when parked, thereby presenting the cargo deck
at truck-bed height to facilitate loading and unloading
operations.[50]
308
Heavy equipment stowed inside a C-5. Aircrew loadmasters ensure cargo is secured and balanced before takeo.
The rst C-5A was delivered to the USAF on 17 December 1969. Wings were built up in the early 1970s at
Altus AFB, Oklahoma; Charleston AFB, South Carolina;
Dover AFB, Delaware; and Travis AFB, California. The
C-5s rst mission was on 9 July 1970, in Southeast Asia
during the Vietnam War.[51] C-5s were used to transport
equipment and troops, including Army tanks and even
some small aircraft, throughout the later years of the US
action in Vietnam.[52] In the nal weeks of the war, prior
to the Fall of Saigon, several C-5s were involved in evacuation eorts; during one such mission a C-5A crashed
while transporting a large number of orphans, with over
140 killed.[53][54]
C-5s have also been used to deliver support and reinforce various US allies over the years. During the Yom
Kippur war in 1973, multiple C-5s and C-141 Starlifters
delivered critical supplies of ammunition, replacement
weaponry and other forms of aid to Israel, the US effort was named as Operation Nickel Grass.[55][56] The C-5
Galaxys performance in Israel was such that the Pentagon
began to consider further purchases.[57] The C-5 was regularly made available to support American allies, such
as the British-led peacekeeper initiative in Zimbabwe in
1979.[58]
On 24 October 1974, the Space and Missile Systems Organization successfully conducted an Air Mobile Feasibility Test where a C-5A Galaxy aircraft air dropped an
86,000 lb Minuteman ICBM from 20,000 ft over the Pacic Ocean. The missile descended to 8,000 ft before
its rocket engine red. The 10-second engine burn carried the missile to 20,000 ft again before it dropped into
the ocean. The test proved the feasibility of launching
an intercontinental ballistic missile from the air. Operational deployment was discarded due to engineering
and security diculties, though the capability was used
as a negotiating point in the Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks.[59][60] Aircraft 69-0014, Zero-One-Four used in
the test was retired to the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base.[61]
29.4. VARIANTS
309
The C-5 has been used for several unusual functions; during the development of the secretive stealth ghter, the
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, Galaxies were often used
to carry partly disassembled aircraft, leaving no exterior signs as to their cargo.[62] It remains the largest aircraft to ever operate in the Antarctic;[63] Williams Field
near McMurdo Station is capable of handling C-5 aircraft, the rst of which landed there in 1989.[64] The C5 Galaxy was a major supply asset in the international
coalition operations in 1990-91 against Iraq in the Gulf
War.[65][66][67] C-5s have routinely delivered relief aid
and humanitarian supplies to areas aicted with natural disasters or crisis, multiple ights were made over
Rwanda in 1994.[68]
placed set limits upon retirement plans for C-5A models in 2003.[76] As of November 2013, 45 C-5As have
been retired; 11 have been scrapped, parts of one (A/C
66-8306) are now a cargo load trainer at Lackland AFB,
Texas and one was sent to the Warner Robins Air Logistics Center (WR-ALC) for tear down and inspection to
evaluate structural integrity and estimate the remaining
life for the eet.[77]
The U.S. Air Force began to receive retted C-5M aircraft in December 2008.[78] Full production of C-5Ms
began in the summer of 2009.[79] In 2009, the Congressional ban on the retirement of C-5s was overturned.[80]
The Air Force seeks to retire one C-5A for each 10
new C-17s ordered.[81] In October 2011, the 445th Airlift Wing based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base retired or reassigned all of its remaining C-5s; it has since
reequipped with C-17s.[82] Sixteen C-5M aircraft have
been delivered as of December 2013.[83] The C-5Ms have
The wings on the C-5As were replaced during the 1980s been delivered late from the production schedule due to
to restore full design capability.[28] The USAF took de- unspecied complications.
livery of the rst C-5B on 28 December 1985 and the
On 13 September 2009, a C-5M set 41 new records; ight
nal one in April 1989.[69] The reliability of the C-5 eet
data was submitted to the National Aeronautic Associahas been a continued issue throughout its lifetime,[70][71]
tion for formal recognition. The C-5M had carried a payhowever the C-5M upgrade program seeks in part to
load of 176,610 lb (80,110 kg) to over 41,100 ft (12,500
address this issue.[40] Their strategic airlift capacity has
m) in 23 minutes, 59 seconds. Additionally, 33 time to
been a key logistical component of U.S. military operaclimb records at various payload classes were set, and the
tions in Afghanistan and Iraq; following an incident durworld record for greatest payload to 6,562 ft (2,000 m)
ing Operation Iraqi Freedom where one C-5 was damwas broken. The aircraft was in the category of 551,160
aged by a projectile, the installation of defensive systems
to 661,390 lb (250,000 to 300,000 kg) with a takeo
has become a stated priority.[72]
weight of 649,680 lb (294,690 kg) including payload,
The C-5 AMP and RERP modernization programs plan fuel, and other equipment.[84]
to raise mission-capable rate to a minimum goal of
75%.[40] Over the next 40 years, the U.S. Air Force estimates the C-5M will save over $20 billion.[73] The rst
C-5M conversion was completed on 16 May 2006; C- 29.4 Variants
5Ms began test ights at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in
June 2006.[73] The USAF decided to convert remaining 29.4.1 C-5A
C-5Bs and C-5Cs into C-5Ms with avionics upgrades and
re-engining in February 2008.[74] The C-5As will receive The C-5A is the original version of the C-5. From 1969 to
only the avionics upgrades.[74][75]
1973, 81 C-5As were delivered to U.S. Air Force bases.
In response to Air Force motions towards the retirement Due to cracks found in the wings in the mid-1970s, the
of the C-5 Galaxy, Congress implemented legislation that cargo weight was restricted. To restore the C-5s full ca-
310
29.5. OPERATORS
29.4.6
29.5 Operators
311
21st Airlift Squadron,
1993-2006
22nd
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 197275th Military Airlift
Squadron, 1970-92
The 60th AMW operates the 2 C-5Cs for
NASA. C-5C 68-0213 is undergoing RERP
modications, leaving one available.
436th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing - Dover
Air Force Base, Delaware
People in line to enter the 445th Airlift Wings rst C-5A Galaxy
in 2005
3d
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1973-2007
9th
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 197131st
Military
Airlift
Squadron/Airlift
Squadron, 1989-94
437th Military Airlift Wing - Charleston Air Force
Base, South Carolina
3d
Military
Airlift
Squadron, 1970-73
443d Military Airlift Wing - Altus Air Force Base,
Oklahoma
56th Military Airlift
Squadron, 1969-92
Air Education & Training Command
Air Force Reserve
A C-5 Galaxy from the Air Force Reserve Commands 433rd Airlift Wing
United States
Wing
312
The ight deck from the C-5B crash at Dover AFB in April 2006
being loaded into another C-5
313
the runway, one of the thrust reversers suddenly deployed. This resulted in loss of control of the aircraft and the subsequent crash. Of the 17 people
on board, only four survived the crash.[107] All four
were in the rear troop compartment. The sole crew
member to survive, Sta Sgt. Lorenzo Galvan, Jr.,
was awarded the Airmans Medal for his actions in
evacuating the survivors from the wreckage.[101]
On 3 April 2006, C-5B 84-0059 crashed following a cockpit indication that a thrust reverser was
not locked. The C-5B assigned to the 436th Airlift
Wing and own by a reserve crew from the 709th
Airlift Squadron, 512th Airlift Wing crashed about
2,000 ft (610 m) short of the runway while attempting a heavyweight emergency landing at Dover Air
Force Base, Delaware. The aircraft had taken o
from Dover 21 minutes earlier and reported an inight emergency 10 minutes into the ight. All
17 people aboard survived, but two received serious injuries. The Air Forces accident investigation board report concluded the cause to be human error, most notably the crew had been manipulating the throttle of the (dead) number two
engine as if it was still running while keeping the
(live) number three engine at idle. The situation
was further worsened by the crews decision to use
a high ap setting that increased drag beyond normal two engine capabilities.[108][109] The aircraft was
one of the rst to receive the new avionics and glass
ight displays for C-5 avionics modernization program (AMP).[110] This accident led to a redesign of
the cockpit engine displays, particularly the visual
indicators of a non-active engine.[111] The aircraft
was a complete hull-loss and the airframe scrapped,
but the forward fuselage became a C-5 AMP test
bed.[112]
314
29.10 References
Length: 247 ft 1 in (75.31 m)
Wingspan: 222 ft 9 in (67.89 m)
Height: 65 ft 1 in (19.84 m)
Wing area: 6,200 ft2 (576 m2 )
Empty weight: 380,000 lb (172,370 kg)
Loaded weight: 769,000 lb (348,800 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 840,000 lb (381,000 kg)
Powerplant: 4 General Electric TF39-GE-1C
high-bypass turbofan, 43,000 lbf (190 kN) each
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 0.79 (503 kn, 579 mph,
932 km/h)
29.10.1 Notes
[1] sometimes written as fantastic[48][49]
29.10.2 Citations
[1] Bakse 1995, p. 91.
[2] Congressional Budget Oce 1986, p. 47.
[3] C-5 history. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 20 January
2010.
[4] Bakse 1995, p. 39.
[5] Norton 2003, pp. 89.
[6] Norton 2003, pp. 1213.
[7] Norton 2003, p. 11.
29.10. REFERENCES
315
[14] Plane costs suppressed, Colonel says. Milwaukee Journal, 30 April 1969.
[39] Schanz, Marc V., Assoc. Editor. Life with the C-5.
Air Force Magazine, Volume 90, Issue 6, June 2007, pp.
5960. ISSN 0730-6784.
316
[84] Lockheed Martin C-5M Super Galaxy Sets World Aviation Records. Lockheed Martin, 15 September 2009.
[85] C-5A. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
[86] C-5B. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 21 January 2010.
[87] Miller 2003, p. 53.
[88] Norton 2003, pp. 62, 78.
[89] C-5C. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 21 January 2010.
[90] Jablonski, David A. Air Force Fleet Viability Board releases C-5A assessment. Air Force Print News, 15 July
2004.
[91] First Flight For AMP C-5. Code One Magazine, April
2003.
[92] Hooker, John R., David L. Hoyle and Dwayne N. Bevis.
The Application of CFD for the Aerodynamic Development of the C-5M Galaxy. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, January 2006.
[93] C-5 modernization program. Lockheed Martin. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
[94] Lockheed Martin C-5M 'Super Galaxy' Expands U.S.
Air Force 'Global Reach' Capability at Lower Cost.
Lockheed Martin, 16 May 2006.
[95] Second C-5M Super Galaxy takes ight.
Force, 20 November 2006.
U.S. Air
[96] Upgraded C-5M Super Galaxies gain IOC designation Upi.com, 24 February 2014
[97] Aircraft: The Biggest Bird. TIME, 12 July 1968.
[98] Lockheed L-500 Galaxy proposed UAL colors, c.
1968. doraplane.com. Retrieved: 3 January 2011.
[99] http://www.janes.com/article/34542/
usaf-declares-ioc-for-c-5m
[76] Weinberger, Sharon. Congress Moves To Limit C-5A [100] San Bernardino Sun, 28 May 1970.
Retirement. Defense Daily, 14 November 2003.
[101] C-5 crash doesnt diminish historians view of aircraft.
US Air Force, 4 April 2006.
[77] http://www.amarcexperience.com
[78] Trimble, Stephen. Lockheed delivers rst upgraded C- [102] 305 aboard giant craft; 100 survive. Boca Raton News,
4 April 1975.
5M Super Galaxy. Flight International, 11 December
2008.
[103] Airforce imposes curbs on C-5 use. The New York
Times, 12 April 1975.
[79] Lockheed Martin delivers third C-5M Super Galaxy to
United States Air Force. Bloomberg, 27 February 2009.
[104] Lippincott 2006, p. 35.
[80] Trimble, Stephen. More C-17 sales possible after C-5A
[105] Lippincott 2006, p. 28.
retirement ban lifted. Flight International, 11 September
2009.
[106] San Antonio air base mourns reservists killed in C-5
crash. Austin American-Statesman, 30 August 1990.
[81] Rolfsen, Bruce, C-5A swap for new C-17s has hitch. Air
Force Times, 12 January 2010.
[107] U.S. plane crashes, killing 13. Deseret News, 29 August
1990.
[82] 445th C-5 era comes to an end 445th Airlift Wing Public
Aairs, 4 October 2011.
[108] C-5 accident investigation board complete. US Air
Force, 13 June 2006.
[83] C-5 A/B/C Galaxy and C-5M Super Galaxy fact sheet.
US Air Force, January 2014. Retrieved: 29 January 2014. [109] USAF Crash Investigation Video. youtube.com.
29.10.3
Bibliography
317
Miller, David. Conict Iraq: Weapons and Tactics
of the US and Iraqi Forces. St. Paul, Minnesota:
Zenith Imprint, 2003. ISBN 0-7603-1592-2.
Nalty, Bernard C. Winged Shield, Winged Sword
19501997: A History of the United States Air Force.
Minerva Group, 2003. ISBN 1-4102-0902-4.
Lippincott, Richard. C-5 Galaxy in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 2006.
ISBN 0-89747-504-6.
Norton, Bill. Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy. North
Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2003. ISBN
1-58007-061-2.
Philips, Warren F. Mechanics of Flight. Hoboken,
New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2004. ISBN 0471-33458-8.
Reed, Chris. Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-76431205-7.
Tillman, Barrett. What We Need: Extravagance and
Shortages in Americas Military. Zenith Imprint,
2007. ISBN 076032-869-2.
Veronico, Nick and Jim Dunn. 21st Century U.S. Air
Power. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2004.
ISBN 0-7603-2014-4.
Chapter 30
30.2 Design
30.2.1 Crew
The EC-130H aircraft carries a combat crew of thirteen people. Four members are responsible for aircraft
ight and navigation (aircraft commander, co-pilot, navigator and ight engineer), while nine members operate
and employ the EA mission equipment permanently integrated in the cargo/mission compartment. The mission
crew includes the mission crew commander (electronic
warfare ocer), weapon system ocer (electronic warfare ocer), mission crew supervisor (an experienced
cryptologic linguist), four analysis operators (linguists),
one acquisition operator and an airborne maintenance
technician.[1]
30.1 Development
30.4 Operators
The EC-130H eet is composed of a mix of state-of-theUnited States Air Force
art baseline aircraft.
Compass Call provides the Air Force with addi Air Combat Command (Langley Air Force Base,
tional capabilities to jam communication, Early WarnVirginia)
ing/Acquisition radar and navigation systems through
55th Wing (Outt Air Force Base, Nebraska)
higher eective radiated power, extended frequency
55th Electronic Combat Group (Davisrange and insertion of digital signal processing. The
Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona)
Block 35 will have the exibility to keep pace with adversary use of technology. It is highly recongurable and
41st Electronic Combat Squadron
permits incorporation of clip-ins with less crew impact.
42d Electronic Combat Squadron
It promotes enhanced crew prociency, maintenance and
43d Electronic Combat Squadron
sustainment with a common eet conguration, new operator interface, increased reliability and better fault de- Egyptian Air Force
tection.
Compass Call integrates into tactical air operations at any
level. The versatile and exible nature of the aircraft 30.5 Specications (EC-130H)
and its crew enable the power of electronic combat to be
Data from {Air Force Link: EC-130H Compass Call}[2]
brought to bear in virtually any combat situation.
318
319
Crew: 13
30.7 References
[1] http://archive.is/20120720200900/http://www.af.mil/
information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=190
[2] EC-130H Compass Call. United States Air Force.
Archived from the original on 2012-07-20. Retrieved
2006-01-15.
Chapter 31
321
31.1.1
Harvest HAWK
322
31.3.1
International orders
(CISMOA), which resulted in the exclusion of high precision GPS and other sensitive equipment. However the
IAF added similar equipment produced indigenously to
the aircraft after delivery.[39] In October 2011, India announced its intent to exercise the option for the six additional aircraft, following the C-130Js favorable performance in the 2011 Sikkim earthquake relief operations.
In July 2012, the U.S. accepted Indias request for the six
more C-130Js through the FMS program.[40] On 20 December 2013, Indias CCS approved the order for 6 more
aircraft.[41]
The Iraqi Air Force ordered six C-130J-30s in July
2008.[42][43]
The Royal Norwegian Air Force ordered four C-130J30s in 2007 to replace six aging C-130Hs in need of
additional repairs.[28][29] Aircraft were delivered from
November 2008[30][31] to 2010.[32] One of these was lost
in March 2012.
The Canadian Forces signed a US$1.4 billion contract
with Lockheed Martin for seventeen new C-130J-30s on
16 January 2008, as part of the procurement process to
replace the existing C-130E and H models.[33] The C130J will be ocially designated CC-130J Hercules in
Canadian service.[34] The rst C-130J was delivered to
CFB Trenton on 4 June 2010.[35] The nal C-130J was
delivered on 11 May 2012.[36]
31.5. OPERATORS
323
31.3.2
Deliveries
31.4 Variants
WC-130J Weather
reconnaissance
("Hurricane
Hunter") version for the Air Force Reserve
Command.
Hercules C4 Royal Air Force designation for the C130J-30
Hercules C5 Royal Air Force designation for the C130J
L-100J A civilian version of the C-130J-30 was under
development, but the program was placed on hold
indenitely to focus on military development and
production.[73] In February 2014, Lockheed stated
it would sell a civilian version of the C-130J-30,
named LM-100J.[74]
SC-130J Sea Hercules Proposed maritime patrol version of the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance
and anti-submarine warfare.[75][76]
31.5 Operators
Australia
324
Canada
Denmark
Royal Danish Air Force - four C-130J-30s in service
as of January 2014[77]
India
Indian Air Force - ve C-130J-30s in service as of
January 2014.[77][79] A total of 12 C-130J-30s had
been ordered by December 2013.[80][81]
Iraq
Italy
Italian Air Force - 20 aircraft (nine C-130Js, 10 C130J-30s, and one KC-130J) in service as of January
2014[77]
31.6. ACCIDENTS
Kuwait
325
31.6 Accidents
Main article: List of C-130 Hercules crashes
Oman
326
Lockheed EC-130
Lockheed HC-130
Length: 97 ft 9 in, 29.79 m (for C-130J-30: 112 ft, Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
9 in, 34.36 m)
Wingspan: 132 ft 7 in (40.41 m)
Height: 38 ft 10 in (11.84 m)
Wing area: 1,745 ft (162.1 m)
Empty weight: 75,562 lb (34,274 kg)
Useful load: 72,000 lb (33,000 kg)
Airbus A400M
Antonov An-70
Embraer KC-390
Shaanxi Y-9
UAC/HAL Transport Aircraft
31.9. REFERENCES
List of active Indian military aircraft
List of aircraft of the Royal Canadian Air Force
List of current Royal Australian Air Force aircraft
List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force
List of C-130 Hercules crashes
List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft
31.9 References
31.9.1
Notes
31.9.2
Citations
[1] Lockheed Martin Delivers Landmark 300th C-130J Super Hercules. lockheedmartin.com.
[2] FY 2014 Budget Estimates, p. Volume 147. U.S. Air
Force, April 2013.
[3] India - C-130J Aircraft - The Ocial Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency. dsca.mil.
[4] India Buys C-130J-30 Hercules for Special Forces. Defense Industry Daily. 22 July 2014.
[5] 250TH C-130J Super Hercules Built Is Delivered. Lockheedmartin.com, 16 February 2012. Retrieved: 21 August 2012.
[6] C-130J Advanced propeller system (six-blade R391 propeller). Dowty Propellers. Retrieved: 31 July 2009.
[7] Eden 2004.
[8] C-130J Spec Book. cc-130j.ca. Retrieved: 1 August
2010.
[9] FY 2009 Budget Estimates. United States Air Force via
sam.hq.af.mi, February 2008, p. 81.
[10] Trimble, Stephen. Lockheed Martin C-130J selected for
new special operations role. Flightglobal, 18 June 2008.
Retrieved: 17 July 2010.
[11] HC-130J Completes Developmental Testing. Lockheed
Martin Press Release, 22 March 2011.
[12] General James T. Conway on The Posture of the United
States Marine Corps. zumwaltfacts.info, 14 May 2009.
Retrieved: 1 August 2010.
[13] McCullough, Amy. Refuel and Fire. Marine Corps
Times, 1 June 2009.
327
[14] Flurry, SSgt Christopher. KC-130J Harvest Hawk: Marine Corps teaches old plane new tricks in Afghanistan.
2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (Fwd), United States Marine
Corps, Camp Dwyer, Afghanistan, 1 April 2011. Retrieved: 5 April 2011.
[15] C-130J Super Hercules Worldwide Fleet Soars Past 1 Million Flight Hours - Lockheed press release, May 14, 2013
[16] Israel Receives First C-130J Super Hercules: Shimshon
- Lockheed press release, 26 June 2013
[17] Weston, Greg. Fake parts in Hercules aircraft called a
genuine risk. CBC News, 9 January 2013.
[18] IAFs C-130J transporter lands near India-China border.
Business Standard. 20 August 2013. Retrieved 20 August
2013.
[19] 10 reasons why IAFs C-130J Super Hercules landing in
Daulat Beg Oldie, Ladakh is important. India Today. 20
August 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
[20] Modular Airborne FireFighting System (MAFFS). U.S.
Forest Service, 19 March 2008. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[21] Modular Airborne FireFighting Systems (MAFFS)".
U.S. Forest Service, 24 June 2008. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[22] Gabbert, Bill. New MAFFS II used for rst time on a
re. Wildre Tody, 16 July 2010. Retrieved: 9 October
2010.
[23] Krenke, Lt. Col. Ellen. MAFFS responds to brush res
in California. national Guard, 16 July 2010. Retrieved:
9 October 2010.
[24] Pike, John, KC-130J. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 17
July 2010.
[25] Major Program Milestone Demonstrates Success For
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules Program.
Lockheed Martin, 20 July 2010. Retrieved: 10 August
2010.
[26] Kemp, Ian. Farnborough 2010: Lockheed Martin looks
to sell another 250 C-130J. Shephard, 21 July 2010. Retrieved: 10 August 2010.
[27] Australian Budget 2011-2012. Budget.australia.gov.au.
Retrieved: 21 August 2012.
[28] Norway to Renew Tactical Transport Fleet. Defense Industry Daily, 23 November 2009.
[29] Trine, Jung Ling. Contract for new transport planes
signed. Norwegian Defence Force website, 29 June 2007.
[30] Lunde, Caroline. Work horse back in business. Norwegian Defence Force website, 25 November 2008.
[31] Hoyle, Craig. Norway takes delivery of rst Lockheed
Martin C-130J. Flight International, 17 November 2008.
[32] Last Super Hercules comes to Norway. Theforeigner.no,
4 July 2010. Retrieved: 21 August 2012.
328
[65] Lockheed Martin Reports 2003 Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2004.
[66] Lockheed Martin Announces 2004 Fourth Quarter And
Year-End Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2005.
[67] Lockheed Martin Prepares to Deliver Two More New
C-130J Aircraft to the Hercules Center of Excellence in
Little Rock. cc-130j.ca, 20 December 2005.
[68] Lockheed Martin Corporation 2006 Annual Report.
Lockheed Martin. Retrieved: 4 May 2011.
[47] Lockheed expects delays for Middle East aircraft orders. FlightGlobal, 3 May 2011.
Re-
[70] Lockheed Martin Announces Fourth Quarter And YearEnd Results. Lockheed Martin, 28 January 2010.
[49] Egozi, Arie. Israel ditches Apache upgrade plan, commits to CH-53K. Flightglobal.com, 30 June 2010. Retrieved: 1 August 2010.
[71] Lockheed Martin Announces Fourth Quarter 2010 Results. Lockheed Martin, 27 January 2011.
[50] US DOD Contract No. 286-11. United States Department of Defense, 8 April 2011.
[51] Israel Acquires Additional Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. Lockheed Martin, 28 April 2011.
[72] Simmons, Peter. More Lockheed Martin C-130J Aircraft Now on Contract. Lockheed Martin, March 2002.
[73] Frawley, Gerald. The Lockheed L-100 Hercules. Airliners.net, 2010. Retrieved: 10 February 2011.
[53] Israel welcomes arrival of rst C-130J transport - Flightglobal.com, 9 April 2014
329
strat-
[78] Kuglin, Ernst. Flying high for 50 years. Belleville In- [100] Fact sheet: USAF C-130 Hercules. af.mil. Retrieved: 1
telligencer, 19 November 2010. Retrieved: 3 December
May 2014.
2010.
[101] Frawley 2002, p. 108.
[79] Indian search nds no trace of Malaysian plane, MSN.com,
Redmond, WA: MSN (Microsoft), 15 March 2014, [102] Altitude. C-130J/CC-130J. Retrieved: 23 March 2012.
Sharma, A., Retrieved 15 March 2014.
[80] India Buys C-130J-30 Hercules for Special Forces. Defenseindustrydaily.com, 21 January 2013.
[81]
[82] Iraq Takes Delivery of Super Hercs. Lockheed press
release, December 12, 2012
[83] Final three C-130Js for Iraq set for delivery. Shephardmedia.com, 2 May 2013. Retrieved: 16 August 2013.
[84] http://www.janes.com/article/31172/
israel-orders-additional-c-130j-30-hercules-airlifters
[85] Eshel, David. Israel Considers Renewing its C-130 Fleet
with C-130J-30. Aviation Week, 8 November 2008.
[86] Government to spend $588 million on US military transport planes. Libya Herald. Retrieved: 16 August 2013.
[87] Kinder, Brian.
South Korea Super Hercules.
codeonemagazine.com, 2 December 2010. Retrieved: 10
February 2011.
[88] "
C-130J 2
". fnnews.com.
31.9.3 Bibliography
Borman, Martin W. Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 1999. ISBN
978-1-86126-205-9.
Eden, Paul. Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of
Military Aircraft, 2002/03. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002. ISBN
1-875671-55-2.
Reed, Chris. Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Its Variants. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing,
1999. ISBN 978-0-7643-0722-5.
[90] http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/
lockheed-completes-tunisian-c-130j-deliveries-407058/.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
[91] Lockheed Martin delivered second C-130J Super Hercules airlifter to the Republic of Tunisia. December 12,
2014.
Chapter 32
330
32.1. DEVELOPMENT
331
The rst F-22, an engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) aircraft named Raptor 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia on 9 April 1997, and rst ew
on 7 September 1997.[30] In 2006, the Raptors development team, composed of over 1,000 contractors and the
USAF, won the Collier Trophy, American aviations most
prestigious award.[31] The F-22 was in production for 15
years, at a rate of roughly two per month during peak
production.[32]
32.1.2
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed nal assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta,
Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well
as avionics integration and training systems.[20] F-22 production was split up over many subcontractors across 46
states to increase Congressional support,[21][22] though
this production split may have contributed to increased
costs and delays.[23] Many capabilities were deferred
to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but
increasing total program cost.[24] Production supported
over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers and up to 95,000
jobs.[25]
The F-22 had several design changes from the YF-22.
The swept-back angle on the wings leading edge was
decreased from 48 to 42, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and their area decreased by
20%.[26] To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was
moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes
moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the
wing and stabilator trailing edges were rened to improve
aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics.[27][28]
Due to increasing weight during development, range and
aerodynamic performance were slightly reduced.[29]
332
Two F-22s during ight testing, the upper one being the rst EMD
F-22, Raptor 4001
General Ze'ev Snir.[46]
32.1.4
Production termination
32.2. DESIGN
333
when it comes to the F-22 or any other program in excess of our needs.
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, speaking on the
cancellation.[74]
32.1.5
Upgrades
Scorpion HMCS
The F-22 is currently being upgraded with a backup oxygen system, software upgrades and oxygen sensors to address the frequent oxygen deprivation issues and normalize operations.[96] In 2013, the faulty ight vest valves
were replaced and altitude restrictions lifted; distance
restrictions will be lifted once a backup oxygen system
is installed.[97] In April 2014 the USAF stated in Congressional testimony that installation of automatic backup
F-22 eet would be completed
To enable two-way communication with other platforms, oxygen systems on the
[98]
within
twelve
months.
the F-22 can use the Battleeld Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The originally planned The F-22 was designed for a lifespan of 30 years and
MADL integration was cut due to the lack of system 8,000 ight hours, with a $100 million structures retrot
maturity.[84] Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman program.[99] Investigations are being made for upgrades
are currently competing to connect the F-22 with other to extend their useful lives further.[100] In the long
platforms while maintaining stealth.[85] Other upgrades term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixthbeing developed include infra-red search and track func- generation jet ghter to be elded in the 2030s.[101]
tionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector
(MLD) and integration of the Visionix Scorpion helmetmounted cueing system (HMCS) to enable o-boresight
missile launches.[81][86] In March 2010, the USAF accelerated software portions of 3.2 to be completed in FY
32.2 Design
2013.[87][88]
In January 2011, the USAF opened the Raptor enhance-
334
32.2. DESIGN
335
32.2.3 Cockpit
The F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital ight instruments. The monochrome head-up display oers a wide
eld of view and serves as a primary ight instrument;
information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal
display (LCD) panels.[127] The primary ight controls are
a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pair of throttles. The USAF initially wanted to implement direct
voice input (DVI) controls, but this was judged to be too
technically risky and was abandoned.[128] The canopys
dimensions are approximately 140 inches long, 45 inches
wide, and 27 inches tall (355 cm x 115 cm x 69 cm) and
weighs 360 pounds.[129]
frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125
150 miles, though planned upgrades will allow a range of
250 miles (400 km) or more in narrow beams.[109] Radar
information is processed by two Raytheon Common Integrated Processor (CIP)s, each capable of processing up to
10.5 billion instructions per second. In a process known
as sensor fusion, data from the radar, other sensors, and
external systems is ltered and combined by the CIP into
a common view, reducing pilot workload.[120] However,
upgrading the aircrafts avionics was reportedly very challenging due to their highly integrated nature.[80]
The F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal
virtualized rather than as a sepaThe F-22s ability to operate close to the battleeld gives processing systems are[130]
rate
hardware
module.
There has been several reports
the aircraft threat detection and identication capability
on
the
F-22s
inability
to
communicate with other aircomparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the abilcraft, and funding cuts have aected the integration of the
ity to function as a mini-AWACS", though the radar is
[84]
Voice
less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. The F- Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL). [131]
communication is possible, but not data transfer.
22 can designate targets for allies, and determine whether
two friendly aircraft are targeting the same aircraft. This The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system
radar system can sometimes identify targets many times for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot
quicker than the AWACS.[109] The IEEE 1394B bus de- data. Two 3 in 4 in (7.6 cm 10.2 cm) up-front disveloped for the F-22 was derived from the commercial plays located around the ICP are used to display inteIEEE 1394 FireWire bus system.[121] In 2007, the F- grated caution advisory/warning data, communications,
22s radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver, trans- navigation and identication (CNI) data and also serve as
mitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at the stand-by ight instrumentation group and fuel quangigabit speed, far faster than the Link 16 system.[122]
tity indicator.[132][133] The stand-by ight group displays
The F-22s software has some 1.7 million lines of code, an articial horizon, for basic instrument meteorological
the majority involving processing radar data.[123] For- conditions. The 8 in 8 in (20 cm 20 cm) primary
mer Secretary of the USAF Michael Wynne blamed the multi-function display (PMFD) is located under the ICP,
use of the DoDs Ada for cost overruns and delays on and is used for navigation and situation assessment. Three
many military projects, including the F-22.[124] Cyber- 6.25 in 6.25 in (15.9 cm 15.9 cm) secondary multiPMFD for tactiattacks on subcontractors have reportedly raised doubts function displays are located around the [133]
cal
information
and
stores
management.
about the security of the F-22s systems and combateectiveness.[125] In 2009, former Navy Secretary John The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II (Advanced
Lehman considered the F-22 to be safe from cyberattack, Concept Ejection Seat) commonly used in USAF aircraft,
citing the age of its IBM software.[126]
with a center-mounted ejection control.[134] The F-22 has
336
a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG)
valve controlling ow and pressure to the pilots mask
and garments. The pilot garments were developed under
the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project
and are to protect against chemical/biological hazards and
cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and low pressure
at high altitudes, and provide thermal relief.[135] Suspicions regarding the performance of the OBOGS and life
support equipment have been raised by several mishaps,
including a fatal crash.[136]
F-22 with external weapons pylons
32.2.4
Armament
The F-22s high cruise speed and altitude increase the effective ranges of its munitions, it has 50% greater employment range for the AIM-120 AMRAAM than prior
platforms, and range will be further extended with the
introduction of the AIM-120D.[112] While specics are
classied, it is expected that JDAMs employed by F-22s
will have twice or more the eective range of legacy
platforms.[144] In testing, an F-22 dropped a GBU-32
JDAM from 50,000 feet (15,000 m) while cruising at
Mach 1.5, striking a moving target 24 miles (39 km)
away.[145]
32.2.5 Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly dicult to detect and
track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section
include airframe shaping such as planform alignment of
edges, xed-geometry serpentine inlets that prevent lineof-sight of the engine faces from any exterior view, use of
radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail
such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar
return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased
radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye.[148]
The aircrafts at thrust vectoring nozzle reduces infrared
emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing (heat
seeking) surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles.[149] Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include
special paint and active cooling of leading edges to man-
337
For stealth, the F-22 carries weapons in internal bays. The doors
for the center and side bays are open; note the six LAU-142/A
AMRAAM Vertical Eject Launchers (AVEL).
338
32.3.2
Secretary of Defense Gates initially refused to deploy F22s to the Middle East in 2007.[178] The type made its
rst deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in
the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra Air Base, less than 200 miles from
Iran;[179][180] the Iranian defense minister referred to the
deployment as a security threat.[181] In March 2013 the
The Raptor achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) USAF announced that an F-22 had chased o an Iranian
in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air F-4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an
Combat Command (ACC) ocially declared the F- MQ-1 Predator ying o the Iranian coastline.[156]
22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and
Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully
operational.[168] This was followed by an Operational
Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in
April 2008, in which it was rated excellent in all categories, with a simulated kill-ratio of 2210.[169]
32.3.3
Deployments
In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron On 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the types rst
performed their rst NORAD interception of two Rus- combat sorties during the American-led intervention in
339
reduced to 18.1, and 10.5 by 2009; lower than the Pentagons requirement of 12 maintenance hours per ight
hour.[191] When introduced, the F-22 had a Mean Time
Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.7 hours, short of the
required 3.0; in 2012 this rose to 3.2 hours.[64] By 2013,
the cost per ight hour was $68,362, over three times as
much as the F-16.[192]
Each aircraft requires a month-long packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 ight hours.[190] The stealth
system, including its radar absorbing metallic skin, account for almost one third of maintenance. The canopy
was redesigned after the original design lasted an average
of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours.[64] F-22
depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics
In late 2014, the USAF was testing a rapid deployment Complex at Hill AFB, Utah.[193]
concept involving four F-22s and one C-17 for support, In January 2007, the F-22 reportedly maintained 97%
rst proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was sortie rate, ying 102 out of 105 tasked sorties while
for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat amassing a 144-to-zero kill ratio during Northern Edge
within 24 hours.[188][189]
air-to-air exercises in Alaska. According to Lieutenant
Colonel Wade Tolliver, squadron commander of the 27th
Fighter Squadron, the stealth coatings of the F-22 are
more robust than those used in earlier stealth aircraft,
being less sensitive to weather and wear and tear.[109]
However, rain caused shorts and failures in sophisticated electrical components when F-22s were posted to
Guam.[194]
To reduce operating costs and lengthen the F-22s service life, some pilot training sorties are performed using high delity ight simulators, while the T-38 Talon
is used for adversary training.[190] DoD budget cuts led
to F-22 demonstration ights being halted in 2013 before resuming in 2014.[195][196] In 2012, it was reported
that the F-22s maintenance demands have increased as
the eet aged, the stealth coatings being particularly
demanding.[197][198]
Operational problems
32.3.4
340
In 2005, the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group, a
USAF expert panel, recommended several changes to
deal with the oxygen supply issues.[202] In October
2011, Lockheed Martin was awarded a $24M contract to investigate the breathing diculties.[203] In July
2012, the Pentagon concluded that a pressure valve
on ight vests worn during high-altitude ights and a
carbon air lter were likely sources of at least some
hypoxia-like symptoms. Long-distance ights were resumed, but were limited to lower altitudes until corrections had been made. The carbon lters were changed
to a dierent model to reduce lung exposure to carbon particulates.[204][205] The breathing regulator/anti-g
(BRAG) valve, used to inate the pilots vest during
high G maneuvers, was found to be defective, inating
the vest at unintended intervals and restricting the pilots
breathing.[206] The on-board oxygen generating system
(OBOGS) also unexpectedly reduced oxygen levels during high-G maneuvers.[207] In late 2012, Lockheed Martin was awarded contracts to install a supplemental automatic oxygen backup system, in addition to the primary
and manual backup.[208] Changes recommended by the
Raptor Aeromedical Working Group in 2005 received
further consideration in 2012;[209] the USAF reportedly
considered installing EEG brain wave monitors on the pilots helmets for inight monitoring.[210][211]
32.4.1 Derivatives
The FB-22 was a proposed medium-range bomber for
the USAF.[218] The FB-22 was projected to carry up to
30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of
the F-22A, while maintaining the F-22s stealth and supersonic speed.[219] However, the FB-22 in its planned
form appears to have been canceled with the 2006
Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much
greater range.[220][221]
The X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was
a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with
enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic
surface backup.[222] The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was
halted in 2000.[223]
32.5 Operators
New backup oxygen generators and lters have been installed on the aircraft. The coughing symptoms have been
attributed to acceleration atelectasis, which may be exacerbated by the F-22s high performance; there is no
present solution to the condition. The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed to be
unrelated.[212] On 4 April 2013, the distance and altitude
ight restrictions were lifted after the F-22 Combined
Test Force and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron determined that breathing restrictions on the pilot were
responsible as opposed to an issue with the oxygen F-22 from Tyndall AFB, Florida cruising over the Florida Panhandle
provided.[213][214][215]
32.4 Variants
YF-22A pre-production technology demonstrator
for ATF demonstration/validation phase; two were
built.
F-22A single-seat production version, was designated F/A-22A in early 2000s.
F-22B planned two-seat variant, but was canceled
in 1996 to save development costs.[216]
Naval F-22 variant a carrier-borne variant of the
F-22 with variable-sweep wings for the U.S. Navy's
Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program
to replace the F-14 Tomcat. Program was canceled
in 1993.[216] Former SoAF Donald Rice has called
the possibility of the naval variant the deciding factor for his choice of the YF-22 over the YF-23.[217]
32.6. ACCIDENTS
341
Pacic Air Forces
3d Wing, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska
90th Fighter Squadron[229]
525th Fighter Squadron
15th Wing, Hickam AFB, Hawaii
19th Fighter Squadron Active Associate
squadron to the 199th Fighter Squadron
(Hawaii Air National Guard).[230]
Air National Guard
F-22 with drop tanks in transit to Kadena Air Base, Japan, from
Langley AFB, Virginia
32.6 Accidents
In April 1992, the second YF-22 crashed while landing at
Edwards AFB. The test pilot, Tom Morgenfeld, escaped
without injury. The cause of the crash was found to be a
ight control software error that failed to prevent a pilotinduced oscillation.[232]
The rst F-22 crash occurred during takeo at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot
ejected safely before impact.[233] The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to ight caused a ight-control system malfunction;[159][234] consequently the aircraft design
was corrected to avoid the problem. Following a brief
grounding, F-22s operations resumed after a review.[235]
342
Length: 62 ft 1 in (18.92 m)
Wingspan: 44 ft 6 in (13.56 m)
EMD F-22A 91-4003 is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.[246]
Height: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m)
Wing area: 840 ft (78.04 m)
Airfoil:
NACA
64A?04.29 tip
General characteristics
64A?05.92
root,
NACA
343
AN/APG-77 radar: 125150 miles (200240 km)
against 1 m2 (11 sq ft) targets (estimated range)[109]
Performance
Maximum speed:
Related development
Combat radius: 410 nmi (with 100 nmi in supercruise) (470 mi, 760 km)
Lockheed YF-22
Thrust/weight: 1.08
Sukhoi T-50
Maximum design g-load: 3.0/+9.0 g
[106]
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A2 Vulcan 6barrel Gatling cannon in right wing root, 480 rounds
Air to air loadout:
Related lists
List of ghter aircraft
List of Lockheed aircraft
List of active United States military aircraft
List of megaprojects, Aerospace
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM
2 AIM-9 Sidewinder
Air to ground loadout:
2 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM or 8 250 lb (110
kg) GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs
2 AIM-120 AMRAAM
2 AIM-9 Sidewinder
Hardpoints: 4 under-wing pylon stations can
be tted to carry 600 U.S. gallon drop tanks or
weapons, each with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,270
kg).[251]
Avionics
32.11 References
32.11.1 Notes
[1] Referring to statements made by the Secretary of Defense Robert Gates: The secretary once again highlighted
his ambitious next-year request for the more-versatile F35s.[11]
[2] This capability was demonstrated in 2005 when General
John P. Jumper exceeded Mach 1.7 in the F-22 without
afterburners.[107]
[3] "noting that Raptors are ready for a mission around 62
percent of the time, if its low-observable requirements are
met (DAILY, 20 November). Reliability goes up above 70
percent for missions with lower stealth demands.[152]
344
[4] The F-22 was lost when a victim exited the area, regenerated and immediately re-engaged; the pilot had erroneously assumed it was still dead.
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[218] Tirpak, John A. Long Arm of the Air Force. Air Force
[239] USAF AIB Report on 16 November 2010 F-22A mishap.
magazine, October 2002. Retrieved: 31 August 2011.
Retrieved: 1 July 2014.
[219] Bolkcom, Christopher. Air Force FB-22 Bomber Concept. Digital.library.unt.edu. Retrieved: 28 August 2011. [240] Bouboushian, Jack. Pilots Widow Calls F-22 Raptor
Defective. Courthouse News Service, 12 March 2012.
[220] Quadrennial Defense Review Report. US Department of
Defense, 6 February 2006. Retrieved: 28 August 2011. [241] Majumdar, Dave (13 August 2012). Settlement reached
in Haney F-22 crash lawsuit. Flightglobal. Retrieved 30
[221] Hebert, Adam J. The 2018 Bomber and Its Friends. Air
October 2013.
Force magazine, October 2006. Retrieved: 31 August
[242] Hennigan, W. J., Fatal Crash Leads To Change In F-22s
2011.
Backup Oxygen System, Los Angeles Times, 20 March
[222] Jenkins, Dennis R., Tony Landis and Jay Miller.
2012, p. B1.
Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 31: American
X-Vehicles: An Inventory, X-1 to X-50. NASA, June [243] DoD IG report on 16 November 2010 F-22A mishap AIB
report.. Retrieved: 11 February 2013.
2003. Retrieved: 13 June 2010.
[223] X-Planes Explained. at the Wayback Machine (archived [244] Safety paramount as F-22 investigation continues (press
release)". U.S. Air Force. 16 November 2012. Retrieved
October 15, 2007) NASAExplores.com, 9 October 2003.
16 November 2013.
Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
[224] Dave Majumdar, Dave (30 November 2012). How many [245] Everstine, Brian. Air Force: Faulty wire brought down
Raptors does the USAF have left?". Flightglobal blogs.
F-22. Air Force Times, 19 August 2013. Retrieved: 16
Retrieved 8 March 2014.
August 2013.
350
32.11.3
Bibliography
Aronstein, David C. and Michael J. Hirschberg. Advanced Tactical Fighter to F-22 Raptor: Origins of
the 21st Century Air Dominance Fighter. Arlington,
Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 1998. ISBN 978-1-56347-282-4.
Crosby, Francis. Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz
Books, 2002. ISBN 0-7548-0990-0.
Goodall, James C (1992). The Lockheed YF-22
and Northrop YF-23 Advanced Tactical Fighters.
Americas Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117,
YF-22 and YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
Holder, Bill and Mike Wallace. Lockheed-Martin
F-22 Raptor: An Illustrated History (Schier Military/Aviation History).
Atglen, Pennsylvania:
Schier Publishing, 1998. ISBN 978-0-76430558-0.
Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. North
Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2008. ISBN
978-1-58007-111-6.
Miller, Jay. Lockheed Martin F/A-22 Raptor, Stealth
Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2005.
ISBN 1-85780-158-X.
Miller, Jay. Lockheed Martins Skunk Works: The
Ocial History (updated ed). Leicester, UK:
Midland Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85780-037-0.
Pace, Steve. F-22 Raptor: Americas Next Lethal
War Machine. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.
ISBN 0-07-134271-0.
Chapter 33
The F-35 is descended from the X-35, which was the winning design of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. It
is being designed and built by an aerospace industry team
led by Lockheed Martin. Other major F-35 industry partners include Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney and
BAE Systems. The F-35 took its rst ight on 15 December 2006. The United States plans to buy 2,457 aircraft. The F-35 variants are intended to provide the bulk
of the manned tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force,
Navy, and Marine Corps over the coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled to
be completed in 2037.[11]
F-35 JSF development is being principally funded by the
United States with additional funding from partners. The
partner nations are either NATO members or close U.S.
allies. The United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada,
Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Turkey are part
of the active development program;[12][13] several additional countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the F-35.
33.1 Development
33.1.1
George Standridge, Vice President of Strategy and Business Development for Lockheed Martin Aeronautics, and
a Naval Aviator who ew the F/A-18 Hornet in both the
U.S. Navy and the Naval Reserve, predicted in 2006 that
the F-35 will be four times more eective than legacy
ghters in air-to-air combat, eight times more eective in
air-to-ground combat, and three times more eective in
reconnaissance and Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses
while having better range and requiring less logistics
support and having around the same procurement costs
(if development costs are ignored) as legacy ghters.[14]
The design goals call for the F-35 to be the premier strike
351
352
aircraft through 2040 and to be second only to the F-22 Lightning II, in honor of Lockheeds World War II-era
Raptor in air supremacy.[15]
twin-propeller Lockheed P-38 Lightning for the USAAF
War-era jet, the English Electric Lightning
The JSF development contract was signed on 16 Novem- and the Cold[27][N
1]
for
the
RAF.
ber 1996, and the contract for System Development and
Demonstration (SDD) was awarded on 26 October 2001
to Lockheed Martin, whose X-35 beat the Boeing X32. Although both aircraft met or exceeded requirements, the X-35 design was considered to have less risk
and more growth potential.[16] The designation of the new
ghter as F-35 is out-of-sequence with standard DoD
aircraft numbering,[17] by which it should have been F24. It came as a surprise even to the company, which had
been referring to the aircraft in-house by this expected
designation.[18]
The development of the F-35 is unusual for a ghter aircraft in that no two-seat trainer versions have been built
for any of the variants; advanced ight simulators mean
that no trainer versions were deemed necessary.[19] Instead F-16s have been used as bridge trainers between the
T-38 and the F-35. The T-X was intended to be used to
train future F-35 pilots, but this might succumb to budget
pressures in the USAF.[20]
33.1.2
Design phase
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
the F-35 to have a yaway cost from US$89 million to
US$200 million over the planned production run.[38][39]
In February 2011, the Pentagon put a price of $207.6 million on each of the 32 aircraft to be acquired in FY2012,
rising to $304.16 million ($9,732.8 million 32 aircraft)
if its share of research, development, test and evaluation
(RDT&E) spending is included.[40][41]
On 21 April 2009, media reports, citing Pentagon
sources, said that during 2007 and 2008, spies downloaded several terabytes of data related to the F-35s design and electronics systems, potentially compromising
the aircraft and aiding the development of defense systems against it.[42] Lockheed Martin rejected suggestions
that the project was compromised, stating it does not
believe any classied information had been stolen.[43]
Other sources suggested that the incident caused both
hardware and software redesigns to be more resistant to
cyber attack.[44] In March 2012, BAE Systems was reported to be the target of cyber espionage. BAE Systems
refused to comment on the report, although they did state,
"[Our] own cyber security capability can detect, prevent
and rectify such attacks.[45]
On 9 November 2009, Ashton Carter, under-secretary
of defense for acquisition, technology and logistics, acknowledged that the Pentagon joint estimate team
(JET) had found possible future cost and schedule overruns in the project and that he would be holding meetings to attempt to avoid these.[46] On 1 February 2010,
Gates removed the JSF Program Manager, U.S. Marine
Corps Major General David Heinz, and withheld $614
million in payments to Lockheed Martin because of program costs and delays.[47][48]
On 11 March 2010, a report from the Government Accountability Oce to United States Senate Committee
on Armed Services projected the overall unit cost of
an F-35A to be $113 million in todays money.[49] In
2010, Pentagon ocials disclosed that the F-35 program has exceeded its original cost estimates by more
than 50 percent.[50] An internal Pentagon report critical
of the JSF project states that aordability is no longer
embraced as a core pillar. In 2010, Lockheed Martin expected to reduce government cost estimates by 20
percent.[51] On 24 March 2010, Gates termed the cost
overruns and delays as unacceptable in a testimony before the U.S. Congress; and characterized previous cost
and schedule estimates as overly rosy. Gates insisted
the F-35 would become the backbone of U.S. air combat
for the next generation and informed the Congress that
he had expanded the development period by an additional
13 months and budgeted $3 billion more for the testing program while slowing down production.[52] In August 2010, Lockheed Martin announced delays in resolving a wing-at-mate overlap production problem, which
would slow initial production.[53]
353
sponsibility and Reform suggested cancelling the F-35B
and halving orders of F-35As and F-35Cs.[54][55][56] Air
Force Magazine reported that Pentagon ocials were
considering canceling the F-35B because its short range
meant that the forward bases or amphibious ships it would
operate from would be in range of hostile tactical ballistic missiles.[57] Lockheed Martin consultant Loren B.
Thompson said that this rumor was a result of the usual
tensions between the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, and
there was no alternative to the F-35B as an AV-8B Harrier II replacement.[58] He also conrmed further delays
and cost increases because of technical problems with the
aircraft and software, blaming most of the delays and extra costs on redundant ight tests.[59]
In November 2010, the Center for Defense Information
estimated that the program would be restructured with
an additional year of delay and $5 billion in additional
costs.[60] On 5 November 2010, the Block 1 software ew
for the rst time on BF-4.[61] As of the end of 2010, only
15% of the software remained to be written, but this was
reported to include the most dicult sections such as data
fusion.[62] In 2011, it was revealed that 50% of the eight
million lines of code had been written and that it would
take another six years to complete the software to the new
schedule.[63] By 2012, the total estimated lines of code
for the entire program (onboard and oboard) had grown
from 15 million lines to 24 million lines.[64]
In 2011, the program head and Commander of the Naval
Air Systems Command, Vice Admiral David Venlet, conrmed that the concurrency built into the program was
a miscalculation.[65] This was during a contract dispute where the Pentagon insisted that Lockheed Martin help cover the costs of applying xes found during
testing to aircraft already produced.[66] Lockheed Martin objected that the cost sharing posed an uninsurable
unbounded risk that the company could not cover, and
later responded that the concurrency costs for F-35 continue to reduce.[67][68] The Senate Armed Services Committee strongly backed the Pentagon position.[69] In December 2011, Lockheed Martin accepted a cost sharing agreement.[70] The Aerospace Industries Association
warned that such changes would force them to anticipate
cost overruns in future contract bids.[71] As of 2012, problems found in ight testing were expected to continue
to lead to higher levels of engineering changes through
2019.[72] The total additional cost for concurrency in the
program is around $1.3 billion.[73] By the next year the
cost had grown to $1.7 billion.[74]
In January 2011, Defense Secretary Robert Gates expressed the Pentagons frustration with the rising costs
of the F-35 program when he said, The culture of endless money that has taken hold must be replaced by a culture of restraint. Focusing his attention on the troubled
F-35B, Gates ordered a two-year probation, saying it
[75]
In November 2010, as part of a cost-cutting measure, should be canceled if corrections are unsuccessful.
[76]
Some
the co-chairs of the National Commission on Fiscal Re- Gates has stated his support for the program.
private analysts, such as Richard Aboulaa, of the Teal
354
costs increase, and Canada has indicated it is not committed to a purchase yet.[98][99] The United States is projected to spend an estimated $323 billion for development and procurement on the program, making it the
most expensive defense program ever.[100] Testifying before a Canadian parliamentary committee in 2011, Rear
Admiral Arne Rksund of Norway estimated that his
countrys 52 F-35 ghter jets will cost $769 million each
over their operational lifetime.[101] In 2012, the total
life-cycle cost for the entire U.S. eet was estimated at
US$1.51 trillion over a 50-year life, or $618 million per
plane.[102] To reduce this high life-cycle cost over a 50year lifetime, the USAF is considering reducing Lockheed Martins role in Contractor Logistics Support.[103]
The company has responded that this cost estimate relies
on future costs beyond its control such as USAF reorganizations and yet to be specied upgrades.[104] Delays have
negatively aected the programs worldwide supply chain
and partner organizations.[105]
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
355
On 21 August 2013, C-Span reported that Congressional Quarterly and the Government Accountability Ofce were indicating the total estimated program cost
now is $400bnearly twice the initial cost. The current investment was documented as approximately $50
billion. The projected $316 billion cost in development
and procurement spending was estimated through 2037
at an average of $12.6 billion per year. These were conrmed by Steve O'Bryan, Vice President of Lockheed
Martin on the same date.[137]
In June 2013, Frank Kendall, Pentagon acquisition, technology and logistics chief, declared major advances had
been made in the F-35 program over the last three years;
and that he intended to approve production rate increases
in September. Air Force Lt. Gen. Christopher Bogdan,
program executive ocer, reported far better communications between government and vendor managers, and
that negotiations over Lot 6 and 7 talks were moving fast.
It was also stated that operating costs had been better
understood since training started, and he predicted we
can make a substantial dent in projections of operating
costs.[132]
356
33.1.4
Concerns over performance and plan to equip the F-35 with six AIM-120D missiles by
2019.[160] Former RAND author John Stillion has writsafety
Considerable criticism followed in the wake of U.S. Ambassador Tom Schieer's conrmation to the Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Aairs (JSCFADT) on 21
June 2004: With regard to the stealth technology, the
airplane that Australia will get will be the stealthiest airplane that anybody outside the United States can acquire.
We have given assurances to Australia that we will give
you the absolute maximum that we can with regard to that
technology. Having said that, the airplane will not be exactly the same airplane as the United States will have. But
it will be a stealth ghter; it will have stealth capabilities;
and it will be at the highest level that anyone in the world
has outside the United States.[149][150] Lockheed Martins Tom Burbage stated in a 2006 article that export of
key technologies such as stealth would be limited by U.S.
national disclosure policy.[151] A Janes article in 2004
gave a hint that US$1B, spent on several contracts, may
provide for a less stealthy F-35 export conguration.[152]
Andrew Krepinevich has questioned the reliance on
short range aircraft like the F-35 or F-22 to manage China in a future conict and has suggested reducing
the number of F-35s ordered in favor of a longer range
platform like the Next-Generation Bomber, but Michael
Wynne, then United States Secretary of the Air Force
rejected this plan of action in 2007.[153][154] By 2012,
Wynne had conceded that Americas short ranged fthgeneration ghters would need drop tanks in order to
be eective, with resultant compromises to their radar
low observable stealth characteristics.[155] In 2011, the
Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments (CSBA)
pointed to the restructuring of the F-35 program and the
return of the bomber project as a sign of their eectiveness, while Rebecca Grant said that the restructuring was
a vote of condence in the F-35 and there is no other
stealthy, survivable new ghter program out there.[156]
Lockheed Martin has also said that the F-35 is designed to
launch internally carried bombs at supersonic speed and
internal missiles at maximum supersonic speed.[157]
A Lockheed Martin press release points to USAF simulations regarding the F-35s air-to-air performance against
adversaries described as "4th generation" ghters, in
which it claims the F-35 is 400 percent more eective. Major General Charles R. Davis, USAF, the F-35
program executive ocer, has stated that the F-35 enjoys a signicant Combat Loss Exchange Ratio advantage over the current and future air-to-air threats, to inIn November 2011, a Pentagon study team identied the
clude Sukhois.[158]
following 13 areas of concern that remained to be adIn September 2008, in reference to the original plan dressed in the F-35:[172][173]
to t the F-35 with only two air-to-air missiles (interIn March 2012, Tom Burbage, and Gary Liberson, of
nally), Major Richard Koch, chief of USAF Air ComLockheed Martin addressed an Australian Parliamentary
bat Commands advanced air dominance branch is reCommittee about earlier assessments. Liberson stated:
ported to have said that I wake up in a cold sweat at the
Our current assessment that we speak of is: greater than
thought of the F-35 going in with only two air-dominance
six to one relative loss exchange ratio against in four ver[159]
The Norwegians have been briefed on a
weapons.
33.1. DEVELOPMENT
sus eight engagement scenariosfour blue [F-35s] versus eight advanced red threats in the 2015 to 2020 time
frame. Later stating: And it is very important to note
that our constructive simulations that Mr Burbage talks
about without the pilot in the loop are the lowest number
that we talk aboutthe greater than six to one. When we
include the pilot in the loop activities, they even do better. Burbage said: We actually have a fth-gen airplane
ying today. The F-22 has been in many exercises. We
have one of the pilots here who ew it and they can tell
you that in any real-world event it is much better than the
simulations forecast. We have F-35 ying today; it has
not been put into that scenario yet, but we have very high
quality information on the capability of the sensors and
the capability of the airplane, and we have represented
the airplane fairly and appropriately in these large-scale
campaign models that we are using. But it is not just
us...it is our air force; it is your air force; it is all the other
participating nations that do this; it is our navy and our
marine corps that do these exercises. It is not Lockheed
in a closet genning up some sort of result.[174]
In May 2012, Michael Auslin of the American Enterprise
Institute has questioned the capability of the F-35 to engage modern air defenses.[175] In July 2012, the Pentagon
awarded Lockheed Martin $450 million to improve the
F-35 electronic warfare systems and incorporate Israeli
systems.[176]
In a negative assessment of the Joint Strike Fighter, the
think tank Air Power Australia declared that the Joint
Strike Fighter is not designed to perform air superiority roles and also is not adapted to performing the longrange penetration strike role lled by previous Australian
aircraft like the General Dynamics F-111C. Critically,
they also stated that the F-35s intended survivability and
lethality are mismatched against the operational environment in which the aircraft is intended to be used.[177]
357
the fuel tank and fueldraulic (fuel-based hydraulic) systems have left it considerably more vulnerable to lightning strikes and other re sources, including enemy re
than previously revealed, especially at lower altitudes.[179]
This report updated a separate report from 2010, in which
Lockheed Martin spokesman John Kent said that adding
re-suppression systems would oer very small improvement to survivability.[180] The same 2010 report
also noted performance degradation of the three variants,
the sustained turn rates had been reduced to 4.6 g for the
F-35A, 4.5 g for the F-35B, and 5.0 g for the F-35C. The
acceleration performance of all three variants was also
downgraded, with the F-35C taking 43 seconds longer
than an F-16 to accelerate from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2;
this was judged by several ghter pilots to be a lower performance level than expected from a fourth generation
ghter.[181] On 30 August 2013, it was reported that the
F-35B and F-35C models take several complex maneuvers in order to accelerate to their top speed of Mach
1.6, which consumed almost all of the onboard fuel.[182]
The F-35 program oce is reconsidering addition of previously removed safety equipment.[183] In 2012, Lockheed Martin program manager Tom Burbage said that
while the relatively large cross-sectional area of the ghter
that was required by the internal weapons bays gave it a
disadvantage against fourth generation ghters that were
operating in a clear conguration, the F-35 armed with
weapons carried internally had the advantage over ghters carrying their weapons outside the aircraft.[184]
In March 2013, USAF test pilots, ying with preoperational software that did not utilize the all-aspect infrared AAQ-37 DAS sensor, noted a lack of visibility
from the F-35 cockpit during evaluation ights, which
would get them consistently shot down in combat. Defense spending analyst Winslow Wheeler concluded from
ight evaluation reports that the F-35A is awed beyond redemption";[185] in response, program manager
Bogdan suggested that pilots worried about being shot
down should y cargo aircraft instead.[186] The same report found (in addition to the usual problems with the aircraft listed above):
In June 2012, Australias Air Vice Marshal Osley responded to Air Power Australias criticisms by saying
Air Power Australia (Kopp and Goon) claim that the F35 will not be competitive in 2020 and that Air Power
Australias criticisms mainly center around F-35s aerodynamic performance and stealth capabilities. Osley
Current aircraft software is inadequate for even bacontinued with, these are inconsistent with years of desic pilot training.
tailed analysis that has been undertaken by Defence, the
Ejection seat may fail, causing pilot fatality.
JSF program oce, Lockheed Martin, the U.S. services
and the eight other partner nations. While aircraft de Several pilot-vehicle interface issues, including lack
velopments, such as the Russian PAK-FA or the Chinese
of feedback on touchscreen controls.
J20, as argued by Airpower Australia, show that threats
we could potentially face are becoming increasingly so The radar performs poorly, or not at all.
phisticated, there is nothing new regarding development
Engine replacement takes an average of 52 hours,
of these aircraft to change Defences assessment. He
instead of the two hours specied.
then said that he thinks that the Air Power Australias
analysis is basically awed through incorrect assump Maintenance tools do not work.[187]
tions and a lack of knowledge of the classied F-35 performance information.[178]
The JPO responded that more experienced pilots would
In a report released in 2013, it was stated that aws in be able to safely operate the aircraft and that procedures
would improve over time.[188]
358
33.2. DESIGN
severe that the F-35 is only able to y twice a week. To
address the issue of wing drop and buet maneuvering,
the required control law modications will reduce the maneuverability of the F-35, only exacerbating the planes
performance problems in this area. The F-35Cs wing
drop problem is worse than other variants.
33.1.5
In September 2012, the Pentagon criticized, quite publicly, Lockheed Martins performance on the F-35 program and stated that it would not bail out the program
again if problems with the planes systems, particularly
the helmet-mounted display, were not resolved. The
deputy F-35 program manager said that the governments
relationship with the company was the worst I've ever
seen in many years of working on complex acquisition
programs. Air Force Secretary Michael Donley told reporters the Pentagon had no more money to pour into the
program after three costly restructurings in recent years.
He said the department was done with major restructuring and that there was no further exibility or tolerance for that approach. This criticism followed a very
painful 7 September review that focused on an array
of ongoing program challenges. Lockheed Martin responded with a brief statement saying it would continue
to work with the F-35 program oce to deliver the new
ghter.[196]
On 28 September 2012, the Pentagon announced that the
F-35 Joint Strike Fighter support program would become
an open competition. They invited companies to participate in a two-day forum on 1415 November for possible
opportunities to compete for work managing the supply
chain of the aircraft. Their reason is to reduce F-35 lifecycle costs by creating competition within the program
and to rene its acquisition strategy and evaluate alternatives that will deliver the best value, long-term F-35 sustainment solution. This could be hazardous to Lockheed
Martin, the current prime contractor for sustainment of
all three variants, and selection of another company could
reduce their revenues.[197]
359
The aircraft are expected to be upgraded throughout their
operational lives.[200]
In September 2013, Northrop Grumman revealed the
development of a company-funded Directional Infrared
Counter Measures system in anticipation of a requirement to protect the F-35 from heat-seeking missiles. A
laser jammer is expected to be part of the F-35 Block
5 upgrade; it must meet low-observability (LO) requirements and t in the F-35s restricted space. Called the
Threat Nullication Defensive Resource (ThNDR), it is
to have a small, powerful laser, beam steering and LO
window, use liquid cooling, and t alongside the distributed aperture system (DAS) to provide spherical coverage with minimal changes; the DAS would provide missile warning and cue the jam head.[201]
Combat capabilities of the F-35 are made possible
through software increments to advance technical abilities. Block 2A software enhanced simulated weapons,
data link capabilities, and early fused sensor integration.
Block 2B software enables the F-35 to provide basic close
air support with certain JDAMs and the 500 lb GBU-12
Paveway II, as well as re the AIM-120 AMRAAM. The
Air Force is to declare the F-35 initially operational with
Block 3i software. Full operational capability will come
from Block 3F software; Block 3F enhances its ability to
suppress enemy air defenses and enables the Lightning
II to deploy the 500 lb JDAM, the GBU-53/B SDB II,
and the AIM-9X Sidewinder. Block 4 software will increase the weapons envelope of the F-35 and is made to
counter air defenses envisioned to be encountered past
the 2040s. Block 4 upgrades will be broken into two
increments; Block 4A in 2021 and Block 4B in 2023.
This phase will also include usage of weaponry unique to
British, Turkish, and other European countries who will
operate Lightning II.[202]
Lockheed has oered the potential of Higher Denition
Video, longer range target detection and identication,
Video Data Link, and Infrared (IR) Marker and Pointer
for the EOTS in future upgrades.[203]
33.2 Design
360
Lightweight, powerful and volatile Lithium-ion batteries similar to those that have grounded the
Boeing 787 Dreamliner eet.[222] These are required to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency,[223] and have been strenuously tested.[224]
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22).[225] The majority of these are bismaleimide (BMI) and composite epoxy
material.[226] The F-35 will be the rst mass produced
aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely
carbon nanotube reinforced epoxy.[227] Experience of the
F-22s problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap
ller that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframes
skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring ller and implementing better drainage.[228] The relatively short 35-foot
Some improvements over current-generation ghter air- wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35Bs
requirement to t inside the Navys current amphibious
craft are:
assault ship parking area[229] and elevators; the F-35Cs
longer wing is considered to be more fuel ecient.[230]
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using
structural ber mat instead of the high-maintenance A United States Navy study found that the F-35 will
cost 30 to 40 percent more to maintain than current jet
coatings of legacy stealth platforms;[211]
ghters;[231] not accounting for ination over the F-35s
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1
information from o- and on-board sensors to in- trillion maintenance cost for the entire eet over its lifescrease the pilots situational awareness and improve pan, not accounting for ination.[232] The F-35 program
target identication and weapon delivery, and to re- oce found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35
lay information quickly to other command and con- eet over a 53-year life cycle was $857 billion. Costs for
trol (C2) nodes;
the ghter have been dropping and accounted for the 22
33.2. DESIGN
percent life cycle drop since 2010.[233] Lockheed claims
that by 2019, pricing for the fth-generation aircraft will
be less than fourth-generation ghters. An F-35A in 2019
is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with
engines and full mission systems, ination adjusted from
$75 million in December 2013.[234]
33.2.2
Engines
361
Rolls-Royce. This system more resembles the German
VJ 101D/E than the preceding STOVL Harrier Jump Jet
and the Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine.[242][243][244] The Lift
System is composed of a lift fan, drive shaft, two roll
posts and a Three Bearing Swivel Module (3BSM).[245]
The 3BSM is a thrust vectoring nozzle which allows the
main engine exhaust to be deected downward at the tail
of the aircraft. The lift fan is near the front of the aircraft and provides a counterbalancing thrust using two
counter-rotating blisks.[246] It is powered by the engines
low-pressure (LP) turbine via a drive shaft and gearbox.
Roll control during slow ight is achieved by diverting
unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust
nozzles called Roll Posts.[247][248]
F136 funding came at the expense of other program
elements, impacting on unit costs.[249] The F136 team
claimed their engine had a greater temperature margin,
potentially critical for VTOL operations in hot, high altitude conditions.[250] Pratt & Whitney tested higher thrust
versions of the F135, partly in response to GEs claims
that the F136 is capable of producing more thrust than the
43,000 lbf (190 kN) of early F135s. In testing, the F135
has demonstrated a maximum thrust of over 50,000 lbf
(220 kN);[251] making it the most powerful engine ever
installed in a ghter aircraft as of 2010.[252] It is much
heavier than previous ghter engines; the Heavy Underway Replenishment system needed to transfer the F135
between ships is an unfunded USN requirement.[253]
Thermoelectric-powered sensors monitor turbine bearing
health.[254]
The Pratt & Whitney F135 powers the F-35. An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136, was
being developed until it was cancelled by its manufacturers in December 2011.[235][236] Neither the F135 or
F136 engines are designed to supercruise,[237] the F-35
can achieve a limited supercruise of Mach 1.2 for 150
miles.[238] The F135 is the second (radar) stealthy afterburning jet engine. Like the Pratt & Whitney F119 33.2.3
from which it was derived, the F135 has suered afterburner pressure pulsations, or 'screech' at low altitude and
high speed.[239] The F-35 has a maximum speed of over
Mach 1.6. With a maximum takeo weight of 60,000
lb (27,000 kg),[N 2][241] the Lightning II is considerably
heavier than the lightweight ghters it replaces.
Armament
362
Lockheed Martin states that the weapons load can be congured as all-air-to-ground or all-air-to-air, and has suggested that a Block 5 version will carry three weapons per
bay instead of two, replacing the heavy bomb with two
smaller weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air
missiles.[265] Upgrades are to allow each weapons bay to
carry four GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB) for A
and C models, or three in F-35B.[266] Another option is
four GBU-53/B Small Diameter Bomb IIs in each bay on
all F-35 variants.[267] The F-35A has been outtted with
four SDB II bombs and an AMRAAM missile to test adequate bay door clearance,[268] as well as the C-model, but
the VTOL F-35B will not be able to carry the required
load of four SDB IIs in each weapons bay upon reaching
33.2. DESIGN
33.2.4
363
Radar
F-35A front prole in ight. The doors are opened to expose the
aerial refueling inlet valve.
364
33.2.5
Cockpit
33.2.6
33.2. DESIGN
365
software-dened radio systems.[331]
Lockheed Martins Dave Scott claims that sensor fusion
boosts engine thrust and oil eciency, increasing the aircrafts range.[339] Air Force ocial Ellen M. Pawlikowski
has proposed using the F-35 to control and coordinate
multiple unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs). Using its sensors and communications equipment, a single
F-35 could orchestrate an attack made by up to 20 armed
UCAVs.[340]
AN/APG-81 AESA-radar
it and be available for use in any possible way and combination with one another; for example, the AN/APG-81
multi-mode radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system.[328] The Program Executive Ocer (PEO)
General Bogdan has described the sensor fusion software
as one of the most dicult parts of the program.[329]
Much of the F-35s software is written in C and C++ due
to programmer availability, Ada83 code also is reused
from the F-22.[330] The Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) from Green Hills Software runs
on COTS Freescale PowerPC processors.[331] The nal Block 3 software is planned to have 8.6 million
lines of code.[332] In 2010, Pentagon ocials discovered that additional software may be needed.[333] General Norton Schwartz has said that the software is the
biggest factor that might delay the USAFs initial operational capability.[334] In 2011, Michael Gilmore, Director
of Operational Test & Evaluation, wrote that, the F-35
mission systems software development and test is tending towards familiar historical patterns of extended development, discovery in ight test, and deferrals to later
increments.[335]
366
367
During testing in 2011, all eight landing tests of the
F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire; a redesigned
tail hook was developed and delivered two years later
in response.[392][393] In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials aboard USS
Wasp.[394]
The rst delivered USAF F-35 on its delivery ight to Eglin Air
Force Base in July 2011.
368
(From the top) 33rd FW F-35A, F-35B and F-35C near Eglin
AFB in May 2014.
In 2013, Lockheed Martin produced and delivered 36 F35s, increasing the total number of F-35s produced to 106
(46 F-35As, 42 F-35Bs, and 13 F-35Cs).[432] However in
November 2014, the total number of F-35s produced, has
increased minimally to 115.
33.5. VARIANTS
369
35As.[450][451] Turkey will buy four F-35s to be delivered in 2015 and 2016, while the order may be increased
from 100 to 120 aircraft.[452] These changes resulted in
increased procurement prices, and increased the likelihood of further cuts.[453][454]
370
33.5.1
F-35A
33.5.2 F-35B
The F-35A is expected to match the F-16 in maneuverability and instantaneous and sustained high-g performance, and outperform it in stealth, payload, range on
internal fuel, avionics, operational eectiveness, supportability, and survivability.[471] It is expected to match an
F-16 that is carrying the usual external fuel tank in accelF-35B short-takeo from USS Wasp during its rst sea trials,
eration performance.[472]
October 2011.
The A variant is primarily intended to replace the USAFs
F-16 Fighting Falcon. At one point it was also intended to The F-35B is the short takeo and vertical landing
replace the A-10 Thunderbolt II starting in 2028.[473][474] (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A
The F-35A can be outtted to receive fuel via either of the variant, the B sacrices about a third of the other versions
two main aerial refueling methods; this was a considera- fuel volume to accommodate the vertical ight system.
tion in the Canadian procurement and a deciding factor Vertical takeos and landings are riskier due to threats
for the Japanese purchase.[475][476][477] On 18 December such as foreign object damage.[480][481] Whereas the F2013, the Netherlands became the second partner coun- 35A is stressed to 9 g,[482][483] the F-35Bs stress goal is
try to operate the F-35A, when Maj. Laurens J.W. Vijge 7 g. As of 2014, the F-35B is limited to 4.5 g and 400
of the Royal Netherlands Air Force took o from Eglin knots. Next software upgrade includes weapons, 5.5 g
Air Force Base.[478]
and Mach 1.2, with a nal target of 7 g and Mach 1.6.[484]
test ight of the F-35B was conducted on 11 June
On 27 January 2014, General Mike Hostage, head of Air The rst
[485]
2008.
Combat Command, stated he would ght to the death to
not have a single plane of the USAFs 1,763 plane planned
F-35 purchase be cut, because the allies and partners of
the US got weak in the knees when seeing the USAF
back away from the F-35. He said the F-15 and F16 eets would become tactically obsolete in the middle
of the next decade regardless of improvements. Hostage
also commented that the F-35 would be irrelevant without the F-22 eet being viable as the F-35 was not an air
superiority ghter.[479]
33.5. VARIANTS
fuel.[488]
371
Amos has said that, in spite of increasing costs and schedule delays, there is no plan B to the F-35B.[511] The
F-35B is larger than the aircraft it replaces, which required USS America to be designed without well deck
capabilities.[512] In 2011, the USMC and USN signed an
agreement that the USMC will purchase 340 F-35B and
80 F-35C ghters while the USN will purchase 260 F35C ghters. The ve squadrons of USMC F-35Cs will
be assigned to Navy carriers while F-35Bs will be used
on amphibious ships and ashore.[434][435]
The United States Marine Corps plans to purchase 340 F35Bs,[80] to replace current inventories of both the F/A18 Hornet (A, B, C and D-models), and the AV-8B Harrier II, in the ghter and attack roles.[489] The Marines
plan to use the F-35B from unimproved surfaces at austere bases but with special, high-temperature concrete
designed to handle the heat.[490][491] The USMC intends
to declare Initial Operational Capability with about 50
F-35s running interim Block 2B software in the 2014 to
2015 timeframe.[492] The USAF had considered replac- Although the Australian Canberra-class landing heliing the A-10 with the F-35B, but will not do so due to the copter dock ships were not originally planned to operate
F-35Bs inability to generate enough sorties.[493]
xed-wing aircraft, in May 2014, the Minister for DeOn 6 January 2011, Gates said that the 2012 budget fence David Johnston stated in media interviews that the
would call for a two-year pause in F-35B production dur- government was considering acquiring F-35B ghters for
ing which the aircraft faced redesign, or cancellation if the Canberra 's, and Prime Minister Tony Abbott has
unsuccessful.[75][494] In 2011, Lockheed Martin execu- instructed 2015 Defence White Paper planners to conof embarking F-35B squadrons aboard
tive vice president Tom Burbage and former Pentagon di- sider the option
[513][514][515]
the
two
ships.
Supporters of the idea claim
rector of operational testing Tom Christie stated that most
that
providing
xed-wing
support
to amphibious operaprogram delays were due to the F-35B, which forced mastions
maximises
aircraft
capability,
and the presence of a
[495]
sive redesigns of other versions.
Lockheed Martin
ski-jump
ramp
inherited
from
the
original
design means
Vice President Steve OBryan has said that most F-35B
that
the
vessels
are
better
suited
to
STOVL
operations
landings will be conventional to reduce stress on vertical
[516]
than
equivalent
ships
with
at
ight
decks.
Opponents
[496]
lift components.
These conventional mode takeos
and landings cause an unacceptable wear rate to the air- to the idea counter that embarking enough F-35Bs to be
crafts poorly designed tires.[497] USMC Lt. Gen. Robert eective requires abandoning the ships amphibious caSchmidle has said that the vertical lift components would pability and would make the pseudo-carriers more valuonly be used a small percentage of the time to transfer able targets, modications would be required to make the
the aircraft from carriers to land bases.[498] On 3 Octo- ight deck capable of handling vertical-landing thrust and
to increase fuel and ordnance capacity for sustained opber 2011, the F-35B began its initial sea-trials by performing a vertical landing on the deck of the amphibious erations, and that the F-35B project itself has been the
most expensive and most problematic of the Joint Strike
assault ship USS Wasp,[499] to continue in 2015.[500] Pro[517][518][519]
bation status was reportedly ended by Defense Secretary Fighter variants.
Leon Panetta in January 2012 due to progress made.[78] A The U.S Marine Corps plans to disperse its F-35Bs
heat-resistant anti-skid material called Thermion is being among forward deployed bases to enhance survivability
tested on Wasp, also useful against the V-22 exhaust.[501] while remaining close to a battlespace, similar to RAF
The Royal Air Force and Royal Navy plan for the F- Harrier deployment late in the Cold War which relied on
35B is to replace the Harrier GR9s, which were retired the use of o-base locations that oered short runways,
in 2010. One of the Royal Navy requirements for the F- shelter, and concealment. Known as distributed STOVL
35B design was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Land- operations (DSO), Marine F-35Bs would sustain operaing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight tions from temporary bases in allied territory within the
to bring back unused ordnance by using wing lift during range of hostile ballistic and cruise missiles, but be moved
landing.[502][503] In July 2013, Chief of the Air Sta, Air between temporary locations inside the enemys 24-48
Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that 617 hour targeting cycle. This strategy accounts for the FSquadron would be the rst operational Royal Air Force 35Bs short range, the shortest of the three variants, with
squadron to receive the F-35.[504][505] The second opera- mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-Farps)
tional squadron will be the Fleet Air Arms 809 NAS.[506] accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to
As of June 2013, the Royal Air Force has received three rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea
aircraft of the 48 on order, the three aircraft were based links of mobile distribution sites on land. M-Farps could
at Eglin Air Force base.[507] The aircraft are projected to be based on small airelds, multi-lane roads, or damaged main bases, while F-35Bs would return to U.S. Navy
be operational in 2018.[508][509]
ships, rear-area U.S. Air Force bases, or friendly carriIn 2011, the Italian Navy was preparing Grottaglie Air ers for scheduled maintenance; metal planking would be
Station for F-35B operations; they are to receive 22 air- needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35Bs encraft between 2014 and 2021, with the aircraft carrier gine exhaust, which would be moved between sites by heCavour set to be modied to operate them by 2016.[510] licopters, and the Marines are studying lighter and more
Commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps, General James heat-resistant products.[520]
372
33.5.3
F-35C
Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C carrier variant features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger
wing and tail control surfaces for improved low-speed
control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier
arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger
tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables. The larger
wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload.
33.6. OPERATORS
higher voltage systems than traditional ghters.
Storing of new weapons not previously employed on
carrier aircraft.
Large quantities of classied data generated during
missions shall require additional security.
In February 2014, Lockheed said the F-35C was on
schedule for sea trials after the tailhook was redesigned.
The new tailhook has a dierent shape to better catch
arresting wires. Testing on land achieved 36 successful
landings. Sea trials are scheduled for October 2014.[534]
On 3 November 2014, an F-35C of VX-23, one of the
Navys ight test units, made its rst landing on an aircraft carrier when it recovered aboard USS Nimitz; this
started a 2 week deployment of a pair of aircraft for the
initial at sea Development Testing I or DTI, the rst of
three at sea tests planned for the F-35C.[535][536] The initial deployment was completed on November 14.[537]
The U.S. Navy may use the F-35C as part of its UCLASS
eort to operate a carrier-based unmanned aerial vehicle. Though it has been suggested that the UCLASS could
carry air-to-air weapons, an unmanned aircraft lacks situational awareness and is more vulnerable to electronic
countermeasures than manned aircraft, and autonomy for
deploying lethal weapons is not under development. With
the F-35C as the center of a network of naval systems, it
could feed information to the UCLASS and order it to re
on a certain target. Large numbers of F-35Cs operating
in contested environments can generate a clear picture of
the battlespace, and share it with unmanned assets that
can be directed to attack.[538]
33.5.4
373
IAI executive stated: There is a known demand for two
seats not only from Israel but from other air forces.[542]
IAI plans to produce conformal fuel tanks.[543] A senior
IAF ocial stated that elements of the F-35s stealth may
be overcome in 5 to 10 years, while the aircraft will be
in service for 30 to 40 years, which is why Israel insisted
on installing their own electronic warfare systems: The
basic F-35 design is OK. We can make do with adding
integrated software.[544] Israel is interested in purchasing
up to 75 F-35s.[545]
CF-35
Main article: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Canadian procurement
The Canadian CF-35 is a proposed variant that would
dier from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue
parachute and may include an F-35B/C-style refueling
probe.[546] Norway may also use the drag chute option,
as they also have icy runways.[287] Norway will be the
rst country to adopt the drag chute pod.[547] In 2012,
it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same
boom refueling system as the F-35A.[548] One alternative
proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for
its probe refueling and lower landing speed; the Parliamentary Budget Ocers report cited the F-35Cs limited performance and payload as being too high a price to
pay.[549]
33.6 Operators
Other versions
F-35I
Main article: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Israeli
procurement
The F-35I is an F-35A with Israeli modications. A senior Israel Air Force ocial stated the aircraft will be
designated F-35I, as there will be unique Israeli features
installed in them. Despite an initial refusal to allow such
modications, the U.S. has agreed to let Israel integrate
its own electronic warfare systems, such as sensors and
One of Australias rst two F-35As in December 2014
countermeasures, into the aircraft. The main computer
will have a plug-and-play feature to allow add-on Israeli
electronics to be used; proposed systems include an exterAustralia
nal jamming pod, and new air-to-air missiles and guided
bombs in the internal weapon bays.[539][540] Israeli pilots
are scheduled to start F-35 training in December 2016 at
Royal Australian Air Force (F-35A: 72 on order, up
Eglin AFB Florida with the rst squadron activated about
to 28 more planned for 2030)[550][551]
a year later.[541]
Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has considered playing
a role in the development of a proposed two-seat F-35; an
Israel
374
Norway
Turkey
Test
Royal Navy
Canada
375
South Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force (F-35A: 40
planned)[575][576][577]
33.7 Accidents
On 23 June 2014, an F-35A preparing to take o on a
training ight at Eglin Air Force Base experienced a re
in the engine area. The pilot escaped unharmed. The accident caused all training to be halted on 25 June, and all
ights halted on 3 July.[426][427][428] During the incident F-35B cutaway with LiftFan
investigation, engine parts from the burned aircraft were
discovered on the runway, indicating it was a substantial
engine failure.[578] The eet was returned to ight on 15
July with restrictions in the ight envelope.[429] Preliminary ndings suggests that excessive rubbing of the engine
fan blades created increased stress and wear and eventually resulted in catastrophic failure of the fan.[579]
Aircraft ying inverted shows external hard point stations, including the external Gatling gun pod.
General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 50.5 ft[583] (15.67 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft[N 4] (10.7 m)
Height: 14.2 ft[N 5] (4.33 m)
Wing area: 460 ft[261] (42.7 m)
Empty weight: 29,098 lb[584] (13,199 kg)
Loaded weight: 49,540 lb[240][N 6][585] (22,470 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 70,000 lb[N 7] (31,800 kg)
Powerplant: 1 Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan
Dry thrust: 28,000 lbf[586][N 8] (125 kN)
The rst of 15 pre-production F-35s
18,498 lb (8,382
376
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 1.6+[256][589] (1,200 mph,
1,930 km/h) (tested to Mach 1.61)[389]
Avionics
Armament
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems AN/AAQ37 Distributed Aperture System (DAS) missile
warning system
Missiles:
Air-to-air missiles:
AIM-120 AMRAAM
AIM-9X Sidewinder
IRIS-T
MBDA Meteor (pending
funding)[270]
Air-to-surface missiles:
AGM-88 AARGM[591]
AGM-158 JASSM[263]
Brimstone missile /
SPEAR[592]
Joint
Air-to-Ground
(JAGM)
Storm Shadow missile
SOM
Anti-ship missiles:
Joint Strike Missile (JSM)
Long Range Anti-Ship
(LRASM)[593]
further
MBDA
A TACAN system
Missile
A JPALS
33.11. REFERENCES
377
33.11.2 Citations
[1] http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/
us-marines-stick-to-f-35b-dates-despite-new-problems-410518/
[2] http://www.janes.com/article/50173/
f-35b-on-track-for-operational-readiness-despite-software-challenges
[3] http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/07/
us-lockheed-martin-fighter-airforce-idUSKBN0MY26Q20150407
[4] The Current Status of the F-35, in Three Charts. Intercepts - Defense News.
[5] King, Samuel Jr. First F-35 arrives at Eglin. U.S. Air
Force, 15 July 2011. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
[6] UK steps up F-35 preparations, Royal Aeronautical Society. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
[7] http://www.lockheedmartin.ca/content/dam/lockheed/
data/australia/documents/F-35FastFactsDecember2014.
pdf
[8] http://breakingdefense.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/
2014/04/F-35-2013-SAR.pdf
[9] About: Fast Facts: Cost - F-35 Lightning II. F-35 Lightning II. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
[10] F-35 Deal Targets Unit Cost Below $100 Million.
33.11 References
33.11.1
Notes
[11] Osborn, Kris (17 December 2013). Air Force Seeks Jets
Beyond C-17 and Even JSF. military.com. Military Advantage. Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
[3] Quote: Brigadier Davis was more forthright in his comments to media in Canberra, saying the Raptor lacks
some of the key sensors and the enhanced man-machine
interface of the F-35.[343]
[4] C is 51.5 ft (15.7 m)
[5] B is the same, C: 14.9 ft (4.54 m)
[6] F-35B: 47,996 lb (21,771 kg); F-35C: 57,094 lb (25,896
kg)
[7] C is same, B: 60,000 lb (27,000 kg)
[8] F-35B: vertical thrust 39,700 lbf (176 kN)
[9] F-35B: 13,326 lb (6,352 kg); F-35C: 19,624 lb (9,110 kg)
[10] F-35B: 7.5 g, F-35C: 7.5 g
[11] F-35B and F-35C have the cannon in an external pod with
220 rounds
[15] F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Lightning II. Global Security. Retrieved: 7 April 2010.
[16] Keijsper 2007, p. 119.
[17] Polmar 2005, p. 398.
[18] Parsch, Andreas. Designation Systems. Designation
Systems, 27 April 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
[19] Thompson, Mark. The Most Expensive Weapon Ever
Built. Time magazine, 25 February 2013, pp. 2630
(lack of 2-seat trainer variants cited on p. 27).
[20] Orlando, Dave (22 February 2013). USAF may not
be able to aord T-X jet trainer project. Flightglobal.
Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[21] Keijsper 2007, pp. 122, 124.
378
[44] Fulghum, David; Sweetman, Bill; Butler, Amy (8 February 2012). Chinas Role In JSFs Spiraling Costs. Aviation Week.
[28] Kent, John R.; Smith, John (7 July 2006). F-35 Joint
Strike Fighter was ocially named Lightning II.. Lockheed Martin. Archived from the original on 3 January
2013. (DOC) via jsf.mil
[30] Italy Wins JSF Final Assembly: U.K. Presses Maintenance, Support. Aviation Week, February 2013.
[47] Clark, Colin. Gates Fires JSF Program Manager. dodbuzz.com, 1 February 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
[31] Handling Specialty Turn Key Capabilities. handling.com. Retrieved: 16 November 2010.
[48] Cox, Bob (2 February 2010). Gates Criticizes F35 Progress, Fires Top Ocer (PDF). Star-Telegram
(Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas). Retrieved 24 June 2011.
[52] Thompson, Mark. The Costly F-35: The Saga of Americas Next Fighter Jet. Time, 25 March 2010.
[36] http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc31394/
m1/1/high_res_d/RL30563_2010Nov10.pdf
[54] Clark, Colin. Prez Panel Wants $100B DoD Cut; Freeze
Pay, Kill F-35B, EFV. DoDBuzz, 10 November 2010.
[55] $200 billion in illustrative savings point 47 National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, 10 November 2010.
[39] McPhedran, Ian. Stealth ghters cheap at $140m. Herald Sun, 25 August 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
[57] Tirpak, John A. Shorting the F-35. Air Force Association, 15 November 2010.
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[58] Thompson, Loren B. Rumor Of Marine F-35 Termination Talks Is Wrong. Lexington Institute, 15 November
2010.
[59] Thompson, Loren. Pentagon Factional Disputes Are A
Key Driver Of F-35 Cost Increases. Lexington Institute,
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[78] Marshall, Tyrone C. Jr. Panetta Lifts F-35B Probation.
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[79] Fulghum, David A. Repairing the F-35 Program. Aviation Week, 10 February 2011.
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2010.
[80] Majumdar, Dave. F-35 Tests Proceed, Revealing F/A18-Like Performance. Defense News, 16 May 2011.
[84] Israel eyes used F-15s to ll for F-35s. United Press International, 18 April 2011.
[65] Whittle, Richard. JSFs Build And Test Was 'Miscalculation,' Adm. Venlet Says; Production Must Slow. Aol
Defense, 1 December 2011.
[85] Australia may buy more Super Hornets amid F-35 delays:
report. Reuters, 13 May 2011.
380
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the Joint Strike Fighter is looking more and more like an
Lockheed prots. Star-Telegram, 24 July 2012.
ugly mutt. Macleans, 13 April 2012.
[122] Capaccio, Tony. Pentagon Withholds $47 Million From
Lockheed on F-35. Business Week, 26 October 2012.
[100] Pentagons F-35 Fighter Under Fire in Congress. PBS.
Retrieved 22 August 2010.
[123] Barber, Barrie (26 November 2012). Air Force accused
of wrong cost estimates to keep F-16s ying. Daytondai[101] 41st Parliament, 1st Session, Standing Committee on
lynews.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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[124] Robinson, Tim (20 June 2013). Paris Air Show 2013
Day 3. media.aerosociety.com. Archived from the origi[102] Shalal-Esa, Andrea. Government sees lifetime cost of
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F-35 ghter at $1.51 trillion. Reuters, 2 April 2012.
[103] Butler, Amy. USAF Reducing Possible JSF Basing Lo- [125] Lockheed lays o 110 workers at Fort Worth assembly
plant. The Business Journals. 10 January 2013.
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[104] Lockheed Martin Statement on 2011 SAR Report. [126] F-35 concurrency costs not as great as feared, ocial
says.. Janes. 5 February 2013.
Lockheed Martin. 31 March 2012.
[105] Williams, Peter. Quickstep nds cash harder to come [127] With 45 states plugged into F-35 program, stealth ghter
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[106] Weisgerber, Marcus. DoD Anticipates Better Price on
[128] Shalal-Esa, Andrea (12 March 2013). Pentagon vows to
Next F-35 Batch. Defense News. 8 March 2012.
'protect' funding for F-35 if possible. Reuters. Retrieved
18 July 2014.
[107] Four Corners By Andrew Fowler and Clay Hichens.
Pentagon general issues warning on JSF blow-outs..
Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
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February 2013.
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[108] 3-star: F-35 comments a shot across the bow..
[130] McGarry, Brendan (26 December 2013). Experts to
Study F-35 Software Delays. defensetech.org. Military
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393
Chapter 34
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B Harrier II is a single-engine ground-attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier Jump Jet
family. Capable of vertical or short takeo and landing
(V/STOL), the aircraft was designed in the late 1970s as
an Anglo-American development of the British Hawker
Siddeley Harrier, the rst operational V/STOL aircraft.
Named after a bird of prey,[8] it is primarily employed
on light attack or multi-role missions, ranging from close
air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance.
The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps
(USMC), the Spanish Navy, and the Italian Navy. A
variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II,
was developed for the British military, while another, the
TAV-8B, is a dedicated two-seat trainer.
394
34.1. DEVELOPMENT
395
34.1.2
396
introduced wing leading-edge root extensions and revised engine intakes, rst ew in April the following year;
the fourth followed in January 1984.[2] The rst production AV-8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 (VMAT-203) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point (MCAS Cherry Point) on 12 December
1983,[32] and ocially handed over one month later.[33]
The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line Marine Attack Squadron 331
(VMA-331).[2][34] The engine used for these aircraft was
the F402-RR-404A, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust;
aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.[2]
34.1.3
Upgrades
In June 1987, as a private venture, BAe, McDonnell Douglas, and Smiths Industries signed an MoU for the development of what was to become the AV-8B Plus, which
saw the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility. The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and,
after much consideration, the Spanish and Italian navies
developed a joint requirement for a eet of air-defense
Harriers.[42] The United States, Spain, and Italy signed an
MoU in September 1990 to dene the responsibilities of
the three countries and establish a Joint Program Oce to
manage the program. On 30 November 1990, the USN,
acting as an agent for the three participating countries,
awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the
improved Harrier.[43] The award was followed by an order
from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft,
and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft.[44] The Italians ordered
16 Harrier II Plus and two twin-seat TAV-8B aircraft,
while the Spaniards signed a contract for eight aircraft.[45]
Production of the AV-8B Harrier II Plus was conducted,
in addition to McDonnell Douglas plant, at CASA's facility in Seville, Spain, and Alenia Aeronautica's facility
in Turin, Italy. The UK also participated in the program
by manufacturing components for the AV-8B.[45]
During the initial pilot conversion course, it became apparent that the AV-8B exhibited ight characteristics that
diered from the AV-8A. These dierences, as well as
the digital cockpit tted instead of the analog cockpit of
the TAV-8A, necessitated additional pilot training.[35] In
1984, funding for eight AV-8Bs was diverted to the development of a two-seat TAV-8B trainer. The rst of the A Spanish Navy AV-8B Plus in-ight. The nose houses the
28 TAV-8Bs eventually procured had its maiden ight on Hughes APG-65 pulse-Doppler radar.
21 October 1986.[35][36][N 2] This aircraft was delivered
to VMAT-203 on 24 July 1987;[35][37] the TAV-8B was
also ordered by Italy and Spain.[36]
Production was authorized on 3 June 1992. The maiden
With export interest from Brazil, Japan, and Italy serving ight of the prototype (BuNo 164129) took place on 22
as a source of encouragement to continue development of September, marking the start of a successful ight-test
the Harrier II, McDonnell Douglas commenced work on program.[45] The rst production aircraft was delivered to
a night-attack variant in 1985.[38] With the addition of an St. Louis and made its initial ight on 17 March 1993.[46]
infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements,[39] Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to
the 87th production single-seat AV-8B became the rst 1995.[47] At the same time, the plan to remanufacture exHarrier II to be modied for night attacks, leaving the isting AV-8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded. On 11
McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987. Flight March 1994, the Defense Acquisition Board approved
tests proved successful and the night attack capability was the program,[48] which initially involved 70 aircraft, with
validated. The rst of 66 AV-8B(NA)s was delivered to four converted in nancial year 1994.[49] The program
the USMC in September 1989. An equivalent version aimed to use new and refurbished components to rebuild
of the AV-8B(NA) also served with the RAF under the aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones.[49]
designation GR7; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently Conversion began in April 1994, and the rst aircraft was
delivered to the USMC in January 1996.[7]
upgraded to GR7 standards.[40][41]
34.2. DESIGN
34.1.4
397
End of production and further im- Harriers have more service life left than USMC F/A-18
Hornets.[60] However, by 2014 the USMC had decided to
provements
Design
Overview
In the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe
amalgamate with other defense companies to form BAE
Systems. Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all
models were delivered.[51] In 2001, Flight International
reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a
short take o and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft by
purchasing AV-8Bs, outtted with the F-16 Fighting Falcon's APG-66 radar. A Taiwanese purchase would have
allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005.[52]
Despite the possibility of leasing AV-8Bs,[53] interest in
the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to Underside of an AV-8B Harrier II
procuring the F-35 and upgrading its eet of F-16s.[54][55]
Although there have been no new AV-8B variants, in
1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began
discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV-8B and
the next generation of advanced STOVL aircraft. The
Harrier III would have presented an evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft, as many
of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV-8B
would be used.[56] The wing and the torsion box were to
be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to
improve the aircrafts endurance. Due to the increase in
size, the wing would have had folding wingtips. To meet
the heavier weight of the aircraft, Rolls-Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have
produced 4,000 lbf (18 kN) more thrust than the latest
production variant at the time. The Harrier III would have
carried weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM132 ASRAAM missiles.[56][57][58] Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s,
when the project was abandoned.[59]
In 2013, the USMC was studying potential enhancements
to keep the AV-8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned
retirement, such as a helmet-mounted cueing system. It is
also predicted that additional work on the aircrafts radars
and sensor systems may take place. The Marines Corps
Harrier II eet was planned to remain in service until
2030, owing to delays with the F-35B and the fact that the
398
and a combat radius of 300 mi (556 km).[51][67] The AV8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe-and-drogue system. The British Aerospace
Harrier II, a variant tailored to the RAF, uses dierent
avionics, and has one additional missile pylon on each
wing.[68]
The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout
of the rst-generation Harriers, although each outrigger
landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid-span
for a tighter turning radius when taxiing.[69] The engine
intakes are larger than those of the rst-generation Harrier, and have a revised inlet. On the underside of the
fuselage, McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement
devices, which capture the reected engine exhaust when
close to the ground, giving the equivalent of up to 1,200
lb (544 kg) of extra lift.[69][70]
The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier
II, compared with the original Harrier, signicantly reduce the workload on the pilot. The supercritical wing,
hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) control principle,
and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to y.[71][72] Ed Harper, general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program, summarized: The AV-8B looks a lot
like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating
fundamentals. It just uses them a lot better.[73] A large
cathode-ray tube multi-purpose display, taken from the
F/A-18, makes up much of the instrument panel in the
cockpit. It has a wide range of functions, including radar
warning information and weapon delivery checklist.[67]
The pilots sit on UPC/Stencel 10B zero-zero ejection
seats, meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary
aircraft at zero altitude.[74][75]
34.2.2
Airframe
Most of the rst day attack AV-8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards, with the remainder being withdrawn from service.
The AV-8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing
of Direct Voice Input (DVI), which allows the pilot to
use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft,
using a system developed by Smiths Industries.[82] The
main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the
nose-mounted Hughes AN/ASB-19 angle-rate bombing
system.[66] The system combined a TV imager and laser
tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability.
Defensive equipment include several AN/ALE-39 chawarning receiver,
Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing, the are dispensers, an AN/ALR-67 radar
[81]
and
an
AN/ALQ-126C
jammer
pod.
objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV-16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the The trainer version of the AV-8B is the TAV-8B, seating
AV-8A.[78] Engineers designed a new, one-piece super- two pilots in tandem. Among other changes, the forward
critical wing, which improves cruise performance by de- fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in (1.19 m) extension to aclaying the rise in drag and increasing lift-to-drag ratio.[78] commodate the second cockpit.[36] To compensate for the
399
400
401
1990s, Liberia (1990, 1996, and 2003), Rwanda (1994), craft were quickly replaced by those from VMA-231.[128]
Central African Republic (1996), Albania (1997), Zaire On 27 July 2014, the USS Bataan began deploying
(1997), and Sierra Leone (1997).[111][112]
USMC AV-8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of
During its service with the USMC, the Harrier has had Islamic State (IS) forces. Surveillance operations continan accident rate three times that of the Corps F/A-18s. ued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against
The AV-8 was dubbed a "widow maker" by some in the IS militants. In early September 2014, a USMC Harrier
military.[99][113] The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha
that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major ac- Dam in Iraq, marking the rst time a USMC unit dropped
cidents among military aircraft in service then, with 148 ordnance in the operation.[129]
accidents and 45 people killed.[114] Lon Nordeen notes
that several other USMC single-engine strike aircraft, like
the A-4 Skyhawk and A-7 Corsair II, had worse accident 34.3.2 Italian Navy
rates.[115] The Harriers high accident rate is largely due
to the higher percentage of time it spends taking o and In the late 1960s, following a demonstration of the
Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy (Marina
landing, which are the most critical times in ight.[116]
Militare) helicopter carrier Andrea Doria, the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the
Harrier.[130] Early eorts were hindered by a 1937 Italian
law that prohibited the navy from operating xed-wing
aircraft because they were the domain of the air force.
In early 1989, the law was changed to allow the navy to
operate any xed-wing aircraft with a maximum weight
of over 3,300 lb (1,500 kg).[131][132] Following a lengthy
evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV-8B, an order was
placed for two TAV-8Bs in May 1989. Soon, a contract
for a further 16 AV-8B Plus aircraft was signed.[132] After
the TAV-8Bs and the rst three AV-8Bs, all subsequent
Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia
Aeronautica from kits delivered from the US.[133] The
two-seaters, the rst to be delivered, arrived at Grottaglie
An AV-8B of VX-31 during a test ight over China Lake, 2011 in August 1991. They were used for proving ights with
the navys helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carThe AV-8B is to be replaced by the F-35B version of rier Giuseppe Garibaldi.[130][134]
the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which had been
slated to enter service in 2012.[117] The USMC had sought In early 1994, the initial batch of US-built aircraft arrived
a replacement since the 1980s,[118][119] and has argued at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training. The
Harrier was rolled out the followstrongly in favor of the development of the F-35B. The rst Italian-assembled
ing year.[133] In mid-January 1995, Giuseppe Garibaldi
Harriers performance in Iraq, including its ability to
use forward operating bases, reinforced the need for a set o from Taranto to Somalia, with three Harriers on
board, to maintain stability following the withdrawal of
V/STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal.[105] In Novem[135]
The Harriers, own by ve Italian pilots,
ber 2011, the USN purchased the UKs eet of 72 retired UN forces.
accumulated more than 100 ight hours and achieved
BAe Harrier IIs (63 single-seat GR.7/9/9As plus 9 twinseat T.12/12As)[120] and replacement engines to provide 100 percent availability during the three-month deployment, performing reconnaissance and other missions.
spares for the existing USMC Harrier II eet.[121][122] Al[130][133][136]
though the March 2012 issue of the magazine AirForces The squadron returned to port on 22 March.
Monthly stated that the USMC intended to y some of the In 1999, Italian AV-8Bs were used for the rst time
ex-British Harrier IIs, instead of using them just for spare in combat missions when they were deployed aboard
parts,[120] the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) Giuseppe Garibaldi, which was participating in Operation
has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans Allied Force in Kosovo. Italian pilots conducted more
to operate those Harriers.[123]
than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft, attacking
On 14 September 2012, a Taliban raid destroyed six AV- the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing
with conventional and laser8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were the countrys infrastructure
[137]
(LGB).
guided
bombs
parked on the tarmac at Camp Bastion in Afghanistans
Helmand Province. All of the aircraft belonged to VMA211. The two damaged AV-8Bs were own out of
Afghanistan in the hours after the attack.[124][125][126] The
attack was described as the worst loss of U.S. airpower in
a single incident since the Vietnam War.[127] The lost air-
In 2000, the Italian Navy was looking to acquire a further seven remanufactured aircraft to equip Giuseppe
Garibaldi and a new carrier, Cavour. Existing aircraft,
meanwhile, were updated to allow them to carry AIM120 AMRAAMs and JDAM guided bombs.[59][133] From
402
November 2001-March 2002, eight AV-8Bs were embarked aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi and were deployed
to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring
Freedom. The aircraft, equipped with LGBs, operated
throughout January and February 2002, during which 131
missions were logged for a total of 647 ight hours.[138]
In 2011, Italian Harriers, operating from Giuseppe
Garibaldi, worked alongside Italian Euroghters and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unied Protector, as part of the 2011 military intervention in
Libya.[139] They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya, using the
LITENING targeting pods while armed with AIM-120
AMRAAMs and AIM-9 Sidewinders.[139] In total, Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and
missiles during sorties: Italian Air Force Tornados and
AMX ghter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles,
while the eight Italian Navy AV-8Bs ying from Giuseppe
Garibaldi dropped 160 guided bombs during 1,221 ight
hours.[140]
Following the decommissioning of the Prncipe de Asturias in February 2013,[149] the sole naval platform from
which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the Juan Carlos
amphibious assault ship.[150]
403
34.4 Variants
9a Escuadrilla
present)[155]
Aeronaves
(1987
of
Spades
(1985
Flying
Nightmares
(1987
[153]
Spanish Navy
(1991
AV-8B
BuNo 161396 National Museum of the Marine
Corps, Triangle, Virginia.[167]
BuNo 161397 Carolinas Aviation Museum,
Charlotte, North Carolina.[168]
404
Armament
Missiles:
Air-to-air missiles:
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder or similar-sized
infrared-guided missiles
6 AIM-120 AMRAAM (on radar
equipped AV-8B Plus variants)
Air-to-surface missiles:
6 AGM-65 Maverick; or
2 AGM-84 Harpoon; or
2 AGM-88 HARM
Bombs:
34.12. REFERENCES
405
Others:
up to 4 300/330/370 US Gallon drop tanks
(pylon stations No. 2, 3, 4, & 5 are wet
plumbed)
Intrepid Tiger II electronic jammer[170]
Avionics
remanufactured USMC Harrier IIs, meaning 337 newbuilt AV-8Bs were manufactured. Two YAV-8B prototypes were also converted from AV-8As.[4] Quote from St.
Louis Post-Dispatch (2003): Boeing and its predecessor
in St. Louis, McDonnell Douglas Corp., have been building or modifying a second-generation Harrier -- known
as the Harrier II or AV-8B -- since 1981. Collectively,
they've produced about 340 of the aircraft.[5]
[2] According to Lon Nordeen, the rst TAV-8B ew on 21
November 1986.[37]
34.12 References
[1] Nordeen 2006, p. 49.
[2] Wilson 2000, p. 29.
[3] Nordeen 2006, Appendix A.
[4] Nordeen 2006, pp. 48, 165.
[5] Carey, Christopher (6 December 2003). Final Harrier
Aircraft Rolls o Boeings St. Louis Production Line.
St. Louis Post-Dispatch (HighBeam Research (subscription required)). Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[172]
Related lists
34.11 Notes
[1] According to Lon Nordeen, 507 Harrier IIs had been completed, including 96 British Aerospace Harrier IIs and 74
406
[18] Is The AV-8B Advanced Harrier Aircraft Ready For FullScale Development? (PDF). General Accounting Oce
(Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Oce). 30 January 1979. p. 1. OCLC 4711266.
[19] Nordeen 2006, pp. 4143.
[20] Jenkins 1998, pp. 6970, 7273.
[21] Wilson 2000, p. 28.
[22] Flight International 1978, p. 1844.
[23] Flight International 1979, p. 1743.
[24] Nordeen 2006, pp. 4849.
[25] Nordeen 2006, p. 46.
[51] Harrier II Plus (AV-8B) VSTOL Fighter and Attack Aircraft, USA. Airforce-technology.com. Archived from
the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
34.12. REFERENCES
407
[79] For the wings sweep, see Harrier II: a look at the Mc- [101] Nordeen 2006, pp 127128.
Donnell Douglas/AV-8B. Advanced Materials & Processes. HighBeam Research (subscription required). 1 [102] Nordeeen 2006, p. 111.
March 2003. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
[103] Nordeen 2006, pp. 14451.
For the wing conguration and take-o distance,
[104] Cordesman 2003, p. 333.
see Walker 1986, pp. 2425.
[105] Cordesman 2003, p. 334.
For the wing area, see Warwick 1979, p. 2127.
Also see Wilson 2000, pp. 2627 and Eden 2004, [106]
p. 289.
[107]
[80] Wilson 2000, pp. 2627.
[108]
[81] Harrier II: a look at the McDonnell Douglas/AV-8B.
Advanced Materials & Processes. HighBeam Research
(subscription required). 1 March 2003. Retrieved 10
November 2013.
[112] Burns, Robert (26 July 2003). Bush orders ships to head
to Liberia. The Record (HighBeam Research (subscription required)). Retrieved 7 October 2013.
408
[122] Perry, Dominic (24 November 2011). UK Harrier eet [141] Nativi, Andy; Menon, Jay; Sweetman, Bill (5 April
sold as 115 million worth of spare parts. Flightglobal.
2012). Navies Worldwide Invest In Sea-Based AirArchived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved
power. Aviation Week & Space Technology (New York:
7 December 2011.
Penton Media). ISSN 0005-2175.
[123] Majumdar, Dave (9 June 2012). USMC hopes new [142] Wilson 2000, p. 46.
method for tracking fatigue life will help extend Harrier
to 2030. Flightglobal. Archived from the original on 10 [143] Eden 2004, p. 294.
June 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
[144] Frost, Patricia (11 May 2000). Boeing to Produce Remanufactured Harriers for Spanish Navy (Press release).
[124] Timperlake, Ed (21 September 2012). Tribute To Camp
Boeing. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012.
Bastion Fallen; Taliban Targeted Harriers, Their 'Biggest
Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Threat'". Breaking Defense. Archived from the original
on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
[145] Cook, Kathleen; LeMond-Holman, Ellen (5 December
[125] Camp Bastion assault: Details emerge of Taliban attack.
2003). Nations Pursue Joint Program Oce to Manage
BBC News. 24 September 2012. Archived from the origGlobal Boeing Harrier II Fleet (Press release). Boeing.
inal on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 24 September
Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Re2012.
trieved 2 August 2011.
[126] Londono, Ernesto (22 September 2012). Slain Ma- [146] Goodman, Al (18 March 2003). Spain: No combat role
rine commanders actions in Afghanistan called heroic.
in Iraq war. CNN. Archived from the original on 30 AuWashington Post. Archived from the original on 20 June
gust 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
[147] Wolf, Jim (27 February 2009). Lockheed says interest
[127] Attack on Camp Bastion: The Destruction of VMAgrowing in F-35 ghter. Reuters. Archived from the
211. Defense Media Network. 20 September 2012.
original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Re[148] Hoyle, Craig (20 July 2010). Farnborough: Face the
trieved 24 September 2012.
Facts with Steve O'Bryan. Flightglobal. Archived from
[128] Gresham, John D. (27 September 2012). Attack on
the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 31 October
Camp Bastion: VMA-211 Is Back in the Fight. Defense
2011.
Media Network. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
[149] Espaa se queda sin el portaaviones Prncipe de Asturias. Tradicin Digital (in Spanish). 6 February 2013.
[129] Stewart, Joshua (10 September 2014). Marine Harrier
Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Restrikes Islamic State near Haditha Dam. Marine Corps
trieved 21 December 2013.
Times. Springeld, Virginia: Gannett Government Media. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. [150] Landing Ships and Helicopter Docks: New Designs for
Retrieved 25 September 2014.
Multiple Duties. Armada International. Bangkok, Thailand: Media Transasi. 1 August 2013. ISSN 0252[130] Eden 2004, p. 295.
9793. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013.
Retrieved 25 December 2013. With the retirement of
[131] Geisenheyner 1986, p. 34.
the 17,700-tonne Principe de Asturias carrier on February 2013, the Buque de Proyeccin Estratgica (BPE) or
[132] Wilson 2000, p. 44.
strategic projection ship Juan Carlos I will be Spains sole
[133] Wilson 2000, p. 45.
aircraft carrier.
[134] Spinelli 1992, p. 27.
34.13. BIBLIOGRAPHY
409
34.13 Bibliography
Britain abandoning AV-16A?". Flight International (Surrey, UK: IPC Transport Press) 105
(3405): 762. 713 June 1974. ISSN 0015-3710.
Archived from the original on 12 October 2013.
First YAV-8B ies. Flight International (Surrey,
UK: IPC Transport Press) 144 (3635): 1844. 12
18 November 1976. ISSN 0015-3710. Archived
from the original on 23 December 2013. Retrieved
23 December 2013.
YAV-8B second prototype lost. Flight International (Surrey, UK: IPC Transport Press) 116
(3688): 1743. 1824 November 1979. ISSN 00153710. Archived from the original on 22 December
2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
British Aerospace and McDonnell Douglas to build
400 AV-8Bs. Flight International (Surrey, UK:
IPC Transport Press) 120 (3774): 705. 30 August
5 September 1981. ISSN 0015-3710. Archived
from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 12
October 2013.
AV-8B Harrier II lifts o. Flight International
(Surrey, UK: IPC Transport Press) 120 (3784):
1456. 814 November 1981. ISSN 0015-3710.
Archived from the original on 25 December 2013.
Retrieved 25 December 2013.
BAe and MDC talk Harrier III. Flight International (London, UK: Reed Business Information)
138 (4233): 12. 1218 September 1990. ISSN
0015-3710. Archived from the original on 8 October 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
Ashley, Stephen (October 1988). Jump Jet.
Popular Science (Winter Park, Florida: Bonnier
Corporation) 233 (4): 5659, 112, 114. ISSN
0161-7370.
Cordesman, Anthony H. (2003). The Iraq War:
Strategy, Tactics, and Military Lessons. Washington,
D.C.: Centre for Strategic and International Studies.
ISBN 0-89206-432-3.
Donald, David; March, Daniel J., eds. (2004).
Boeing/BAE systems AV-8B Harrier II. Modern
Battleeld Warplanes. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1-880588-76-5.
Doyle, Andrew (2127 August 2001). Taiwans
STOVL need could extend Harrier production.
Flight International (London, UK: Reed Business
Information) 160 (4794): 26. ISSN 0015-3710.
Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
410
411
Chapter 35
35.1 Development
35.1.1
Origins
In January 1965, McNamara asked the Air Force to consider a new low-cost tactical ghter design for short-range
roles and close air support to replace several types like
the F-100 Super Sabre and various light bombers then in
service. Two basic designs could ll this role; the Navy
favored designs like the A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II, pure attack aircraft, while the Air Force was more
interested in ghter-bombers like the Northrop F-5, ghters with a secondary attack capability. The former were
more capable in the tactical role, while the latter might
be less so but could defend themselves. If the Air Force
did choose an attack design, maintaining air superiority
would be a top priority. The next month, a report on light
tactical aircraft suggested the Air Force purchase the F-5
or A-7, and consider a new higher-performance aircraft
to ensure its air superiority. This point was driven home
after the loss of two F-105 Thunderchief aircraft to obsolete MiG-15s or MiG-17s on 4 April 1965.[8]
In April 1965, Harold Brown, at that time director of
the DDR&E, stated the favored position was to consider
the F-5, and begin studies of the F-X.[N 1] These early
studies envisioned a production run of 800 to 1,000 aircraft, and stressed maneuverability over speed; it also
stated that the aircraft would not be considered without
some level of ground attack capability.[9] On 1 August
Gabriel Disosway took command of Tactical Air Command (TAC) and reiterated calls for the F-X, but lowered
the required performance from Mach 3 to 2.5 to lower
costs.[10] Ultimately, the Air Force chose the A-7 over
the F-5 for the support role on 5 November 1965,[11] giving further impetus for an air superiority design as the
A-7 lacked any credible air-to-air capability.
An ocial requirements document was nalized in October, and sent out as a request for proposals (RFP) to
13 companies on 8 December 1965. Eight companies
responded with proposals. Following a downselect, four
companies were asked to provide further developments.
In total, they developed some 500 design concepts. Typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weighed over
60,000 pounds (27,000 kg), included a top speed of Mach
2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75.[12] When the proposals were studied in July 1966, the aircraft were roughly
the size and weight of the TFX, and like that aircraft,
a design that could not be considered an air superiority
412
35.1. DEVELOPMENT
ghter.[13]
35.1.2
Smaller, lighter
413
high speed, over Mach 2.8, which demanded the use of
stainless steel instead of aluminum in many locations on
the aircraft. The added weight demanded a much larger
planform to allow the aircraft to operate at the required
high altitudes. However, to observers, it appeared outwardly similar to the very large F-X studies, an aircraft
with high speed and a large wing oering high maneuverability; leading to serious concerns throughout the Department of Defense and the various arms that the US was
being outclassed. The MiG-23 was likewise a subject of
concern and it was generally believed this was a better aircraft than the F-4. The F-X would outclass the MiG-23,
but now it appeared that that MiG-25 would be superior
in speed, ceiling and endurance to all existing US ghters, even the F-X.[21] Thus, an eort to improve the F-X
followed.[22]
Both Headquarters USAF and the TAC continued to call
for a multipurpose aircraft, while both Disosway and Air
Chief of Sta Bruce K. Holloway pressed for a pure air
superiority design that would be able to meet the expected performance of the MiG-25. During the same
period, the Navy had ended its VFAX program and instead accepted a proposal from Grumman Aircraft for a
smaller and more maneuverable design known as VFX.
VFX was considerably closer to the evolving F-X requirements. The Air Force in-ghting eventually ended by the
worry that the Navys VFAX would be forced on them;
in May 1968 it was stated that We nally decided - and I
hope there is no one who still disagrees - that this aircraft
is going to be an air superiority ghter.[18]
By this time, the Navy had decided the F-111 would not
meet their requirements, and began development of a new
dedicated ghter design, the VFAX program. In May
1966, McNamara again asked the forces to study the designs and see if the VFAX would meet the Air Forces
F-X needs. The resulting studies took eighteen months,
and concluded that the desired features were too dierent; the Navy stressed loiter time and mission exibility, while the Air Force was now looking primarily for F-15A cockpit
maneuverability.[18]
In August 1968 a new SRP was prepared. The new requirements called for single-seat ghter having a maximum take-o weight of 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg) for
35.1.3 Focus on air superiority
the air-to-air role with a maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and
In 1967 the Soviet Union revealed the MiG-25 'Foxbat' at a thrust to weight ratio of nearly 1:1 at mission weight.[23]
the Domodedovo aireld near Moscow.[14][19] The MiG- It also called for a twin-engine arrangement as it was
25 was designed as a high-speed, high-altitude interceptor believed this would respond to throttle changes more
aircraft, and made many performance tradeos to excel rapidly, and might oer commonality with the Navys
in this role.[20] Among these was the requirement for very VFX program. However, details of the avionics were left
414
The Eagles initial versions were the F-15 single-seat variant and TF-15 twin-seat variant. (After the F-15C was
rst own the designations were changed to F-15A and
F-15B). These versions would be powered by new Pratt
& Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-toweight ratio in excess of 1:1. A proposed 25 mm FordPhilco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition suered
development problems. It was dropped in favor of the
standard M61 Vulcan gun. The F-15 used conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom. The
xed wing was put onto a at, wide fuselage that also provided an eective lifting surface. The rst F-15A ight
was made on 27 July 1972 with the rst ight of the twoseat F-15B following in July 1973.[27]
The F-15 has a "look-down/shoot-down" radar that can
distinguish low-ying moving targets from ground clutter.
The F-15 would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only
one pilot to save weight. Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15
has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward.
The USAF introduced the F-15 as the rst dedicated
USAF air superiority ghter since the North American
F-86 Sabre.[28]
USAF McDonnell Douglas F-15E arrives for the 2014 Royal International Air Tattoo, England
35.2. DESIGN
415
to the APG-63(V)1 to improve maintainability and to afterburners mounted side-by-side in the fuselage, fed by
perform similar to the APG-70. Existing F-15s were intake ramps. The cockpit is mounted high in the forward
retrotted with these improvements.[33]
fuselage with a one-piece windscreen and large canopy to
In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and F-15 radar manufac- increase visibility. The airframe began to incorporate adturer, Hughes, teamed to privately develop a strike ghter vanced superplastically formed titanium components in
version of the F-15. This version competed in the Air the 1980s.
Forces Dual-Role Fighter competition starting in 1982.
The Boeing F-15E strike variant was selected for production in 1984.[34] Beginning in 1985, F-15C and D models
were equipped with the improved P&W F100-220 engine
and digital engine controls, providing quicker throttle response, reduced wear, and lower fuel consumption. Starting in 1997, original F100-100 engines were upgraded to
a similar conguration with the designation F100-220E
starting.[35]
Beginning in 2007, 178 USAF F-15Cs were retrotted
with the AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned
Array (AESA) radar.[36] A signicant number of F-15s
are to be equipped with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS).[37] Lockheed Martin is working on
an IRST system for the F-15C.[38] A follow-on upgrade
called the Eagle passive/active warning survivability system (EPAWSS) was planned but remained unfunded.[39]
The EPAWSS upgrade will include sophisticated jamming, integrated digital RWR/ geo-location and electrooptical/ IR threat detection and decoy capabilities.[40]
35.2 Design
35.2.1
35.2.2 Avionics
Overview
A multi-mission avionics system includes a heads-up display (HUD), advanced radar, AN/ASN-109 inertial guidance system (INS), ight instruments, ultra high frequency (UHF) communications, and Tactical air navigation system (TACAN) and Instrument landing system
(ILS) receivers. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic warfare system, Identication friend or foe
(IFF) system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer.[43]
416
or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium range airto-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M
Sidewinder or AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal 20 millimetres (0.79
in) M61 Vulcan Gatling gun in the right wing root.[47]
AN/APG-63 radar
35.2.3
417
35.2.4
Upgrades
Anti-satellite trials
The ASM-135 missile was designed to be a stando antisatellite (ASAT) weapon, with the F-15 acting as a rst
stage. The Soviet Union could correlate a U.S. rocket
launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an
ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 ights.
From January 1984 to September 1986, two F-15As were
used as launch platforms for the ASAT missile. The F15As were modied to carry one ASM-135 on the centerline station with extra equipment within a special centerline pylon.[59][60] The launch aircraft executed a Mach
1.22, 3.8 g climb at 65 to release the ASAT missile at an
altitude of 38,100 ft (11,600 m).[61][62] The ight computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile
release.
The third test ight involved a retired P78-1 solar observatory satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit, which
was destroyed by kinetic energy.[61] The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. Doug Pearson, became the only pilot to
destroy a satellite.[62] The ASAT program involved ve
test launches. The program was ocially terminated in
1988.[59][62]
418
35.4. VARIANTS
419
released on 10 January 2008. The report stated that analysis of the F-15C wreckage determined that the longeron
did not meet drawing specications, which led to fatigue cracks and nally a catastrophic failure of the remaining support structures and breakup of the aircraft in
ight.[76] In a report released on 10 January 2008, nine
other F-15s were identied to have similar problems in
the longeron. As a result of these problems, General
John D. W. Corley stated that the long-term future of
the F-15 is in question.[77] On 15 February 2008, ACC
cleared all its grounded F-15A/B/C/D ghters for ight
pending inspections, engineering reviews and any needed
repairs. ACC also recommended release of other U.S.
F-15A/B/C/D aircraft.[78]
With the retirement of the F-15A and B models, the F15C and D models are being supplemented in U.S. service by the F-22 Raptor. However since F-22 production
has been halted, the F-15 may be in service in current
squadrons much longer than originally thought. As of
2013, regular Air Force F-15C and F-15D ghters are
based overseas with the Pacic Air Forces (PACAF) at
Kadena AB in Japan[86] and with the U.S. Air Forces
in Europe (USAFE) at RAF Lakenheath in the United
Kingdom.[87] Other Regular Air Force F-15s are operated by Air Combat Command as adversary/aggressor
platforms at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and by Air Force Material Command in test and evaluation roles at Edwards
AFB, California and Eglin AFB, Florida. All remaining
combat coded F-15Cs and F-15Ds are operated by the
Air National Guard.
35.3.4
USAF is upgrading 178 F-15C/Ds with the AN/APG63(V)3 AESA radar,[36] and upgrade other F-15s with the
Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System.[37] The Air Force
plans to keep 178 F-15C/Ds along with 224 F-15Es in
service beyond 2025. The F-15E will remain in service
for years to come because of the models primary air-toground role and the lower number of hours on the F-15E
airframes.[6]
Recent service
35.4 Variants
Basic models
420
35.4.2 Prototypes
35.5. OPERATORS
421
F-15A-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0286 First ew on 14 June F-15 STOL/MTD (AF Ser. No. 71-0290) The rst F1973 and was used for armament trials and testing
15B was converted into a short takeo and landexternal fuel stores.
ing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft.[93]
In the late 1980s it received canard ight surF-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0287 First ew on 25 August
faces in addition to its usual horizontal tail, along
1973 and was used for spin recovery, angle of attack
with square thrust-vectoring nozzles. It was used
and fuel system testing, it was tted with an antias a short-takeo/maneuver-technology (SMTD)
spin recovery parachute. The aircraft was loaned to
demonstrator.[94]
NASA from 1976 for engine development trials.
F-15 ACTIVE (AF Ser. No. 71-0290) The
F-15
S/MTD
was
later
converted
into
an
advanced
ight
F-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0288 First ew on 20 Octocontrol technology research aircraft with thrust
ber 1973 and was used to test integrated aircraft and
vectoring nozzles.[93]
engine performance, it was later used by McDonnell
Douglas as a test aircraft in the 1990s.
35.5 Operators
NASA F-15B Research Testbed, aircraft No. 836 (AF Ser. No.
74-0141). Note the Quiet Spike adaption to reduce and control
sonic booms
422
Israel
USA
United States Air Force operates 254 F-15C/D aircraft (114 Regular Air Force and 140 Air National
Guard) as of September 2010.[98][99]
NASA used F-15 #835 to test Highly Integrated
Digital Engine Control system (HIDEC) at Edwards
AFB in 1988.[100][101]
Two Israeli Air Force F-15I Ra'am from the 69th Squadron
Japan
Japan Air Self Defense Force F-15DJ and F-15J of the 306nd
TFS
Saudi Arabia
423
On 19 March 1990, an F-15 from the 3rd Wing sta On 27 August 2014, an F-15C operated by the 104th
tioned at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska accidentally red
Fighter Wing of the Massachusetts Air National
an AIM-9M Sidewinder missile at another F-15.
Guard crashed in Virginia during a ferry ight,[119]
The damaged aircraft was able to make an emerkilling the pilot.[120]
gency landing; it was subsequently repaired and returned to service.[107]
For accidents involving F-15E and related variants, see
On 22 November 1995, during air-intercept train- List of F-15 losses.
ing over the Sea of Japan, a Japanese F-15J own by
Lt. Tatsumi Higuchi was shot down by an AIM-9L
Sidewinder missile inadvertently red by his wingman. The pilot ejected safely. Both F-15Js involved were from JASDF 303rd Squadron, Komatsu
AFB.[108]
424
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barreled Gatling cannon, 940 rounds
Hardpoints: Total 11 (not including CFTs): two
under-wing (each with additional two missile launch
rails), four under-fuselage (for semi-recessed carriage of AIM-7 Sparrows) and a single centerline
pylon station, optional fuselage pylons (which may
include conformal fuel tanks, known initially as Fuel
And Sensor Tactical (FAST) pack for use on the C
model) with a capacity of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) and
provisions to carry combinations of:
Missiles:
Diagram of the F-15A Eagles weapon loadout
4 AIM-7 Sparrow
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder
8 AIM-120 AMRAAM
Bombs:
Mark 82
Mark 84
GBU-10
GBU-31
Other:
up to 3 600 US gallons (2,300 L) external drop tanks for ferry ight or extended
range/loitering time.
MXU-648 Cargo/Travel Pod to carry
personal belongings, and small pieces of
maintenance equipment.[91]
or
AN/APG-
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)1 or
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) or
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA)[126][N 3]
Countermeasures:
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems
AN/ALQ-131 electronic countermeasures
pod[128]
425
Hazeltine
AN/APX-76
or
Raytheon 35.8.5
AN/APX-119 Identify Friend/Foe (IFF)
F-15A
interrogator[129]
Magnavox AN/ALQ-128 Electronic Warfare
Warning Set (EWWS) part of Tactical Electronic Warfare Systems (TEWS)[128]
Loral AN/ALR-56 Radar warning receivers
(RWR) part of TEWS[130]
United Kingdom
United States
35.8.1
Germany
F-15A
74-0085 Spangdahlem AB.
[132]
35.8.2
Netherlands
Japan
F-15A
35.8.4
F-15A
35.8.3
Israel
F-15A
73-0098 Israeli Air Museum, Hatzerim.[136]
73-0107 gate guard at Tel Nof AB.[137]
426
Ten-
35.11. REFERENCES
35.11 References
Notes
427
[1] F-X should be read as Fighter, Unknown designation number, but is often translated as FighterExperimental.
[3] Both active AF and ANG F-15Cs will receive another (up
to) 48 V3 units between 20092015, over the existing 19
aircraft.
Citations
[15] Michael Gorn, Technology and the Air Force: A Retrospective Assessment, pp. 44-47. See also Harnessing
the genie: science and technology forecasting for the Air
Force.
428
Re-
[78] ACC issues latest release from stand down for F-15s. US
Air Force 15 February 2008.
[56] McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle air superiority ghter. aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[82] http://www.raytheon.com/
[83] Fornof, USAF Col. Terrence. Red Flag 20084: Lecture by USAF Col. Terrence Fornof. vayusena.indianmilitaryhistory.org 2008.
Retrieved: 24
September 2010.
[84] Correll, John. The Reformers. Air Force Magazine,
February 2008, Vol. 91 Number 2, p. 44.
[85] Hughel, Sta Sgt. John. Final F-15A model retired from
Oregon Guard. ng.mil, 13 October 2009. Retrieved: 26
August 2011.
[86] 18th Operations Group. Kadena Air Base, 11 September
2007. Retrieved: 2 February 2014.
[87] 48th Operations Group. RAF Lakenheath website, 1 August 2013. Retrieved: 2 February 2014.
[88] USAF weighs scrapping KC-10, A-10 eets. Defensenews.com. Retrieved: 15 September 2013.
[89] Sequester may force USAF to retire entire eets of aircraft. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved: 17 September 2013.
[67] Peeters, Sander. Dierent Middle Eastern air-to-air victories since 1964. acig.info. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[90] Pentagon proposes buying fewer ghters, unmanned aircraft in FY2015 budget. Flightglobal.com, 4 March 2014.
[68] Cikhart, Jakub. Damaged and lost allied planes and helos. dstorm.eu. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[96] F-15B Research Testbed fact sheet. Dryden Flight Research Center (NASA). Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
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[98] Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2011 USAF Al- [120] Military pilot killed in Virginia F-15 crash. The Washmanac, Fact and Figures. Air Force Magazine, May 2011.
ington Times, 28 August 2014.
Retrieved: 1 January 2012.
[121] F-15 Eagle fact sheet. U.S. Air Force, March 2008. Re[99] Organizational records. Air Force Historical Research
trieved: 1 September 2011.
Agency. Retrieved: 30 December 2010.
[122] Lambert 1993, p. 522.
[100] 71-0287 / 835. Highly Integrated Digital Engine Control
[123] Davies 2002, Appendix 1.
system (HIDEC). Flickr. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[101] NASA Dryden Past Projects: F-15 #835 Flight Research [124] http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/P&WEngines02.html
Facility. NASA Dryden. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
[125] Spick 2000, p. 137.
[102] Ranter, Harro. ASN Aviation Safety WikiBase: F-15.
[126] Schanz, Marc V., Assoc. Editor. F-15s to Get New
Aviation Safety Network . Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
Radars. Aerospace World: Air Force Magazine, Journal
of the Air Force Association Volume 90, Issue 6, p. 18,
[103] F-15. ejection-history.org.uk. Retrieved: 7 April 2015.
December 2007. ISSN 0730-6784.
[104] Jenkins 1998, p. 45.
[127] Parsch, Andreas. AN/APG: Airborne re control
[105] Easley, J. No Wing F-15 crew stories. ussradars. Designation-Systems.Net, 20 November 2008.
bennington.org. Retrieved: 31 July 2006.
Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
[106] F-15 ying with one wing by an Israeli pilot. YouTube. [128] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALQ Airborne CountermeaRetrieved: 24 September 2010.
sures Multipurpose/Special Equipment. Designationsystems.net, 9 October 2007. Retrieved: 27 September
[107] Jet pilot accidentally red live missile, Air Force says.
2010.
The New York Times 20 March 1990. Retrieved: 24
September 2010.
[129] Parsch, Andreas. AN/APX Airborne Identication
Radars. Designation-Systems.Net, 9 October 2007. Re[108] F-15 Eagle Losses and Ejections. Ejection-history.org
trieved: 27 September 2010.
Retrieved: 2 March 2008.
[130] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALR Airborne Countermea[109] Second body found at F-15 crash site. BBC 30 March
sures Receivers. Designation-Systems.Net, 20 November
2001. Retrieved: 8 March 2009.
2008. Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
[110] Air controller found not guilty. BBC, 25 February 2003. [131] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALE: Airborne countermeasures
Retrieved: 8 March 2009
ejectors.Designation-Systems.Net, 20 November 2008.
Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
[111] Crash controller 'partly blamed'. BBC, 6 February 2006.
Retrieved: 18 July 2009.
[132] F-15 Eagle/74-0085. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
[112] Air Force grounds F-15s in Afghanistan after Missouri
crash. CNN, 5 November 2007. Retrieved: 24 Septem- [133] F-15 Eagle/74-0109. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
ber 2010.
26 March 2013.
[113] Air Force suspends some F-15 operations. US Air Force, [134] F-15 Eagle/74-0083. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
4 November 2007. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
26 March 2013.
[114] Warwick, Graham.
F-15 operators follow USAF [135] F-15 Eagle/74-0088.
grounding after crash. Flight International, 14 November
26 March 2013.
2007. Retrieved: 1 September 2011.
[136] F-15 Eagle/73-0098.
[115] Wicke, Tech. Sgt. Russell. Ocials begin to clear F26 March 2013.
15Es to full-mission status. US Air Force, 15 November
[137] F-15 Eagle/73-0107.
2007. Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
26 March 2013.
[116] Lawsuit. CNN Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[138] F-15 Eagle/74-0131.
[117] White, Josh. 2 F-15 Jets Crash: 1 Pilot Dies. The Wash26 March 2013.
ington Post 21 February 2008.
[139] F-15 Eagle/76-0020.
[118] Sirak, Michael with Marc Schanz. Airman dies: Pilot
26 March 2013.
error blamed. Air Force Magazine, Volume 91, Number
11, November 2008, p. 20.
[140] F-15 Eagle/71-0280.
26 March 2013.
[119] Press Release: 104th Fighter Wing aircraft crash over
Shenandoah Valley Virginia. Air National Guard, 27 Au- [141] F-15 Eagle/71-0281.
gust 2014.
26 March 2013.
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
430
[142] F-15 Eagle/71-0283. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [166] F-15 Eagle/76-0040. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[143] F-15 Eagle/71-0285. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [167] F-15 Eagle/76-0048. McChord Air Museum. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[144] F-15 Eagle/71-0286. Octave Chanute Aerospace Mu- [168] F-15 Eagle/76-0063. Pacic Aviation Museum. Reseum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
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[145] F-15 Eagle/72-0119. warbirdregistry.org Retrieved: 26 [169] F-15 Eagle/76-0066. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[146] F-15 Eagle/73-0085. Museum of Aviation. Retrieved: [170] F-15 Eagle/76-0076. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[147] F-15 Eagle/73-0086. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved: [171] F-15 Eagle/76-0080. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[148] F-15 Eagle/73-0099. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
[172] F-15 Eagle/76-0088. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[149] F-15 Eagle/74-0081. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
[173] F-15 Eagle/76-0108. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[150] F-15 Eagle/74-0084. Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum.
[174] F-15 Eagle/76-0110. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
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26 March 2013.
[151] F-15 Eagle/74-0095. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
[175] F-15 Eagle/77-0068. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
26 March 2013.
[152] F-15 Eagle/74-0114. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
[176] F-15 Eagle/77-0090. Hill Aerospace Museum. Re26 March 2013.
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[153] F-15 Eagle/74-0117. warbirdregistry.org Retrieved: 26
[177] F-15 Eagle/77-0102. Pacic Coast Air Museum. ReMarch 2013.
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[154] F-15 Eagle/74-0118. Pima Air & Space Museum. Re[178] F-15 Eagle/77-0146. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
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26 March 2013.
[155] F-15 Eagle/74-0119. Castle Air Museum. Retrieved: 26
[179] F-15 Eagle/77-0150. Yanks Air Museum. Retrieved: 26
March 2013.
March 2013.
[156] F-15 Eagle/74-0124. Air Force Armament Museum. Re[180] F-15 Eagle/73-0108. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
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26 March 2013.
[157] F-15 Eagle/75-0026. National Warplane Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
[181] F-15 Eagle/73-0114. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
[158] F-15 Eagle/75-0045. USS Alabama Battleship Memorial
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[182] F-15 Eagle/77-0161. warbirdregistry.org. Retrieved:
26 March 2013.
[159] F-15 Eagle/76-0008. March Field Air Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
[183] Clancy, Tom. Fighter Wing: A Guided Tour of an Air
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[161] F-15 Eagle/76-0014. Evergreen Aviation Museum. Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
[162] F-15 Eagle/76-0018. Hickam Field.
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Neufeld, Jacob, The F-15 Eagle Origins and Development 1964- 1972, Air Power History, Spring
2001. See reprint in Todays Best Military Writing
Scutts, Jerry. Supersonic Aircraft of USAF. New
York: Mallard Press, 1989. ISBN 0-7924-5013-2.
Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2000. ISBN 07603-0893-4.
Chapter 36
36.1 Development
36.1.1
Origins
In March 1981, the USAF announced the Enhanced Tactical Fighter (ETF) program to procure a replacement for
the F-111. The program was later renamed the Dual-Role
Fighter (DRF) competition. The concept envisioned an
aircraft capable of launching deep air interdiction missions without requiring additional support by ghter escort or jamming.[12] General Dynamics submitted the F16XL, while McDonnell Douglas submitted the F-15E.
The Panavia Tornado was also a candidate, but since the
aircraft lacked a credible air superiority ghter capability, coupled with the fact that it is not American-made, it
was not seriously considered.[11]
The DRF evaluation team, under the direction of
Brigadier General Ronald W. Yates, ran from 1981
through 30 April 1983, during which the F-15E logged
more than 200 ights, demonstrated take o weight
of more than 75,000 pounds (34 t), and validated
sixteen dierent weapons-carrying congurations.[13][14]
McDonnell Douglas, to assist 71-0291 in the evaluation,
added to the program other F-15s, designated 78-0468,
800055 and 81-0063. The single-engine F-16XL was
a promising design which, with its radically redesigned
cranked-delta wing, greatly boosted performance; if selected, the single- and two-seat versions were to be designated F-16E and F-16F, respectively.[14] On 24 February
432
36.1. DEVELOPMENT
433
1984, the USAF chose the F-15E; key factors in the decision were the F-15Es lower development costs compared to the F-16XL (US$270 million versus US$470
million), a belief that the F-15E had future growth potential, and possessing twin-engine redundancy.[13][15] The Having a sturdier airframe rated for twice the lifetime of
USAF was initially expected to procure 400 aircraft, a earlier variants, the F-15E is expected to remain in sergure later revised to 392.[14][16]
vice past 2025.[24] As of December 2012, the USAFs
Construction of the rst three F-15Es started in July F-15E eet has an average age of 21 years and an aver1985. The rst of these, 86-0183, made its maiden ight age airframe ying time of 6,000 hours. In 2012, the Air
on 11 December 1986.[13][15] Piloted by Gary Jennings, Force was reportedly considering future options; there is
the aircraft reached a maximum speed of Mach 0.9 and no slated replacement for the F-15E. One choice is the Fan altitude of 40,000 feet (12,000 m) during the 75- 35 Lightning II, set to replace other attack aircraft such as
minute ight.[13] This aircraft had the full F-15E avionics the F-16 Falcon and A-10 Thunderbolt II; a F-35E varisuite and the redesigned front fuselage, but not the aft ant was studied. It would be complex, and thus expensive,
fuselage and the common engine bay.[13] The latter was to add a second seat to the F-35, especially to preserve its
featured on 86-0184, while 86-0185 incorporated all the stealth prole; providing for greater range and payload
changes of the F-15E from the F-15.[13] On 31 March would also be dicult tasks. Alternatively, the role could
1987, the rst ocially completed F-15E made its rst be covered by a combination of ghter and bomber aircraft, such as the planned Long Range Strike Bomber.
ight.[17]
The F-15E may also be replaced by a clean-sheet sixthThe rst production F-15E was delivered to the 405th
generation aircraft design.[25][26]
Tactical Training Wing, Luke Air Force Base, Arizona in
April 1988. The F-15E reached initial operational capability on 30 September 1989 at Seymour Johnson AFB 36.1.4 ALASA
in North Carolina with the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing,
336th Tactical Fighter Squadron.[15] Production contin- On 24 March 2014, Boeing won a $30.6 million conued into the 2000s with 236 produced for the USAF tract from DARPA as part of the Airborne Launch Assist
through 2001.[18]
Space Access (ALASA) program. The goal of the program is to cut the cost of putting microsatellites into orbit
by 66 percent through advances in launch systems. Under
36.1.3 Upgrade programs and replace- the 11-month contract, Boeing will build twelve 24 ft (7.3
ment
m) launch vehicles, each with a payload capability of up
to 100 lb (45 kg). An ALASA vehicle is to be tted under
The F-15E will be upgraded with the Raytheon APG-82 an F-15E, which will climb to 40,000 ft, then be released
Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar af- and re its four engines to reach low-Earth orbit. Awardter 2007, and the rst test radar was delivered to Boe- ing the contract to Boeing would make use of the F-15E
ing in 2010.[19] It combines the processor of the APG-79 as the carriage vehicle, as previous design contracts had
used on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with the antenna been given to Lockheed Martin to use the F-22 Raptor
of the APG-63(V)3 AESA being tted on the F-15C.[20] and Virgin Galactic to use their SpaceShip Two aircraft.
The new radar upgrade is to be part of the F-15E Radar DARPA had previously insisted they wanted to select an
434
36.2 Design
The F-15Es deep strike mission is a radical departure
from the original intent of the F-15, since the F-15 was
designed as an air superiority ghter under the mantra
not a pound for air-to-ground.[29] The basic airframe,
however, proved versatile enough to produce a very capable strike ghter. The F-15E, while designed for ground
attack, retains the air-to-air lethality of the F-15, and can
defend itself against enemy aircraft.[30]
The F-15E prototype was a modication of the two-seat
F-15B. The F-15E, despite its origins, includes signicant structural changes and much more powerful engines.
The aft fuselage was designed to incorporate the more
powerful engines with advanced engine bay structures
and doors. The advanced structures utilized Superplastic
forming and diusion bonding (SPF/DB) technologies.
The back seat is equipped for a Weapon Systems Ocer (WSO pronounced 'wizzo') to work the new air-toground avionics. The WSO uses multiple screens to display information from the radar, electronic warfare, or
Thermographic cameras, monitor aircraft or weapons status and possible threats, select targets, and use an electronic moving map to navigate. Two hand controls are
used to select new displays and to rene targeting information. Displays can be moved from one screen to another, chosen from a menu of display options. Unlike
earlier two-place jets (e.g. the F-14 Tomcat and Navy
variants of the F-4), whose back seat lacked ying controls, the back seat of the F-15E cockpit is equipped with
its own stick and throttle so the WSO can take over ying,
albeit with reduced visibility.[31]
435
F-15E cockpit
following cues displayed on a heads up display. This system also can be coupled to the aircrafts autopilot to provide hands o terrain-following capability. Additionally, the pod contains a forward looking infrared system
which is projected on the pilots HUD which is used dur- F-15Es parked during Operation Desert Shield
ing nighttime or low visibility operations. The AN/AAQThe F-15E saw action in response to Iraq's invasion of
13 Nav Pod is installed beneath the right engine intake.
Kuwait in August 1990 for Operation Desert Shield.
The targeting pod contains a laser designator and a track- The 336th Tactical Fighter Squadron ew to Seeb Air
ing system that mark an enemy for destruction as far away Base in Oman to begin training exercises in anticipaas 10 mi (16 km). Once tracking has been started, tar- tion of an Iraqi attack on Saudi Arabia; in December,
geting information is automatically handed o to infrared the 335th and 336th squadrons relocated to Al Kharj
homing air-to-surface missiles or laser-guided bombs. Air Base in Saudi Arabia, closer to Iraqs border.[39]
The targeting pod is mounted beneath the left engine in- Operation Desert Storm began on 17 January 1991; 24
take; congurations may be either the AN/AAQ-14 Tar- F-15Es launched an attack upon ve xed Scud instalget Pod, AN/AAQ-28 LITENING Target Pod or the lations in western Iraq; missions against Scud sites conAN/AAQ-33 Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod.
tinued through that night with a second strike consist of
The F-15E carries most weapons in the USAF inven- 21 F-15Es. At night-time, F-15Es ew hunter missions
tory. It is also armed with AIM-9 Sidewinders and AIM- over western Iraq, searching for mobile SCUD launch120 AMRAAMs. Since the Strike Eagle retains the ers. By conducting random bombings in suspected areas,
counter-air capabilities from its Eagle lineage, it is reg- it was hoped to deter the Iraqis from setting up for a Scud
ularly trained for counter-air missions, and fully capable launch.[40]
for Oensive-Counter-Air. Like the F-15C, the Strike On the opening night of the war, an F-15E red a AIMEagle also carries an internally mounted General Electric
9 Sidewinder at a MiG-29, which failed to hit its target.
M61A1 20 mm cannon with 650 rounds, which is eec- Other F-15Es simultaneously and unsuccessfully engaged
tive against enemy aircraft and soft ground targets.
the lone MiG-29, it was eventually brought down by a
The MIDS Fighter Data Link Terminal, produced by missile of unknown source.[41][42] The same night another
BAE Systems, improves situational awareness and com- ight was attacked by a MiG-29. A low altitude engagemunications capabilities via the Link 16 datalink.[34]
ment ensued and the MiG-29 hit the ground. On 18 JanSince 2004, South Korean rm LIG Nex1 has been man- uary, during a strike against a petrol oil and lubricant plant
ufacturing the F-15s Head-up display; a total number of near Basrah, an F-15E was lost to enemy re, the pilot and
150 HUDs were delivered by 2011.[35][36] LIG Nex1 had WSO were killed. F-15E crews described this mission
been a participant in the F-15K program as a subcontrac- as the most dicult and dangerous of the war as it was
tor to Rockwell Collins.[35][36] LIG Nex1 is also prepar- heavily defended by SA-3s, SA-6s, SA-8s and Rolands as
ing to manufacture F-15s new multi-function display well as by anti-aircraft artillery. Two nights later, a secand ight control computer.[35] Also since 2004, Korea ond and nal F-15E was downed by an Iraqi SA-2; the
Aerospace Industries (KAI) has produced the wings and crew survived and managed to evade capture for several
forward fuselages of the F-15; in 2008, KAI established days and even made in contact with coalition aircraft, but
another production line for Singapores F-15SG.[37] KAI rescue was unable to be launched due to security issues,
codes.
is involved in the development and manufacture of the one airman failed to identify himself with proper[43]
The
two
airmen
were
later
captured
by
the
Iraqis.
Conformal Weapons Bay (CWB) to be used on the F-15
Silent Eagle.[38]
436
437
438
439
Operation Inherent Resolve
F-15Es are being used by the U.S. in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State militants in Iraq and
Syria. In the early morning on 23 September 2014, Strike
Eagles and other American and Gulf Arab aircraft conducted attacks in Syria against ISIS ghters, training compounds, headquarters and command and control facilities, storage facilities, a nance center, supply trucks,
and armed vehicles.[77] The Pentagon has been releasing
videos of targets being hit by ordnance deployed from F15Es, taken by their own AN/AAQ-33 Sniper targeting
pods.[78][79] From the beginning of OIR in August 2014
to January 2015, F-15Es ew 37 percent of Air Force
sorties.[80]
36.3.2 Israel
Rear view of the F-15E
440
36.4.1
F-15E
36.4.3 F-15K
An IAF F-15I (Ra'am) of the No 69 Hammers Squadron maneuvers away after receiving fuel from a KC-135 during Red
Flag 2004
F-15K at Nellis AFB, Nevada, 2008 for the Red Flag 08-4 exercise
36.4. VARIANTS
441
36.4.4
F-15S and SA
442
replace the F-4G Wild Weasel in the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) role. The F-15G was studied in 1986. A proposed modication to F-15Cs for the
SEAD role was studied in 199495, but F-16Cs were
modied to perform this role instead.[118] F-15Es are capable of carrying ARMs such as the AGM-88 HARM
and performing the SEAD role.
F-15SE Silent Eagle is a proposed variant with fth generation ghter features, such as internal weapons carriage
and radar-absorbent material. The Silent Eagle features
conformal weapons bays (CWB) to hold weapons internally instead of conformal fuel tanks, the twin vertical
tails are canted outward 15 degrees to reduce radar cross
section; the majority of the CWBs area is for weapons
storage, a minority is used for fuel storage.[119] The F15SE is optimized for air-to-air missions, lacking allaspect stealth features for missions inside areas protected
by ground-based anti-aircraft systems.[120] The rst production F-15E, s/n 86-0183, was modied to become a
Silent Eagle demonstrator. It rst ew in July 2010 with
a left-side conformal weapons bay,[121] and successfully
launched an AMRAAM missile from the CWB in July
2010.[122] Potential customers were Saudi Arabia, Israel,
Japan, and South Korea;[119] however the Saudis choose
to procure the F-15SA,[123] while Israel,[124] Japan,[125]
and South Korea selected the F-35.[126]
36.5 Operators
Israel
Israeli Air Force - 25 F-15I "Ra'am" aircraft in use
as of January 2014[127]
Republic of Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force - 58 F-15Ks in service
in January 2014.[127] It ordered a combined 61 F15K Slam Eagle ghters including one lost in an
accident.[128]
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force - 70 F-15S Eagles in service
as of January 2014[127]
Singapore
Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) - 24 F15SGs in use as of January 2014.[127] It ordered 24
F-15SG ghters.[129]
United States
443
90th Fighter Squadron
Tactical Air Command
405th Tactical Training Wing/58th Tactical Training Wing - Luke AFB, Arizona 1988-92
461st Tactical Training Squadron
550th Tactical Training Squadron
48th Fighter Wing - RAF Lakenheath, England Main article: List of F-15 losses
1992-present
492d Fighter Squadron
494th Fighter Squadron
444
Maximum speed:
2,655+ km/h)
Air-to-air missiles:
4 AIM-7 Sparrow
4 AIM-9 Sidewinder
8 AIM-120 AMRAAM
Air-to-surface missiles:
6 AGM-65 Maverick
2 AGM-84 Harpoon
2 AGM-84H/K SLAM-ER
AGM-130
AGM-154 JSOW
AGM-158 JASSM
Bombs:
B61 or B83 nuclear bomb
Mark 82 bomb
Mark 84 bomb
CBU-87 or CBU-103 (CEM)
CBU-89 or CBU-104 (GATOR)
CBU-97 or CBU-105 (SFW)
CBU-107 Passive Attack Weapon
GBU-15
GBU-10 Paveway II
GBU-12 Paveway II
GBU-24 Paveway III
GBU-27 Paveway III
GBU-28 (Bunker buster)
GBU-31 or GBU-38 {8 GBU-31s or 16
GBU-38s} (JDAM)
GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb (SDB)
GBU-54 Laser JDAM (LJDAM)
Others:
up to 3 600 US gallons (2,300 L) external drop tanks for ferry ight or extended
range/loitering time.
Armament
Guns: 1 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan 6barreled Gatling cannon, 510 rounds of either M-56
or PGU-28 ammunition
Hardpoints: 2 wing pylons, fuselage pylons, bomb
racks on CFTs with a capacity of 23,000 lb (10,400
kg) of external fuel and ordnance
Missiles:
Radar:
Raytheon AN/APG-70
Targeting pods:
LANTIRN or Lockheed Martin Sniper XR or
LITENING targeting pods
Countermeasures:
36.9. REFERENCES
445
36.9 References
36.9.1 Notes
[1] Number built for F-15E= 237,[1] F-15I= 25,[1] F-15S=
72,[1] F-15K= 61, F-15SG= 24, and F-15SA= 1; total=
421.,<ref am D Unit cost 5
F-15E: US$31.1 million (yaway cost, 1998)[2]
F-15K: US$100 million (2006)} |sF-15E Eagle.
Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
36.9.2 Citations
LANTIRN pods mounted underneath the engine intakes of an F15E Strike Eagle, the AN/AAQ-13 navigation pod to the left with
the AN/AAQ-14 targeting pod to the right
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems [3] Boeing: F-15E Strike Eagle. Boeing Defense, Space &
Security. The Boeing Company. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
AN/ALQ-131 electronic countermeasures
pod[132]
[4] Davies and Dildy 2007, pp. 9, 15, 20, 35.
Hazeltine
AN/APX-76
or
Raytheon
AN/APX-119 Identify Friend/Foe (IFF) [5] Davies and Dildy 2007, inside cover.
interrogator[133]
[6] Spick 2000, p. 127.
Magnavox AN/ALQ-128 Electronic Warfare
Warning Set (EWWS) part of Tactical Elec- [7] Donald 1995, p. 40.
tronic Warfare Systems (TEWS)[132]
[8] Donald 1995, p. 42.
Loral AN/ALR-56 Radar warning receivers
[9] Davies 2003, pp. 1516.
(RWR) part of TEWS[134]
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems [10] Jenkins 1997, p. 42.
ALQ-135 Internal Countermeasures System
[11] Donald 1995, p. 44.
(ICS) part of TEWS[132]
Marconi AN/ALE-45 Cha/Flares dispenser [12] Rininger 2009, pp. 85, 88.
system part of TEWS[135]
[13] Jenkins 1998, p. 36.
446
[70] Hafemeister, Rob. Das Given Posthumous Awards: Former Amarilloan honored in death. Air Force Times, 18
August 2003. Retrieved: 4 September 2011.
[71] Das and Watkins. Unocial Arlington National Cemetery page. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
[72] http://www.f-15e.info/joomla/history/
2296-f-15e-losses#0-6-airframe-88-1694
[73] Crilly, Rob. Libya: US ghter jet crash lands in eld near
Benghazi. The Telegraph, 22 March 2011. Retrieved: 27
February 2011.
[74] U.S. F-15 ghter crashes in Libya. CNN, 22 March
2011. Retrieved: 27 February 2011.
36.9. REFERENCES
447
[98] Perrett, Bradley South Korea Nears F-X Phase 3 Decision. Aviationweek.com, 3 June 2013.
[85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
Iran. Reuters, 29 December 2011. Retrieved: 27 Febru[108] Singapore Seals Deal to Acquire Twelve F-15SG (Press
ary 2012.
release). Ministry of Defence (Singapore). 12 December
2005. Archived from the original on 25 March 2006.
U.S. Defense.gov Contracts for Tuesday, 26 June 2012
Retrieved 19 October 2013.
Boeing Presents First F-15SA of Saudi Arms Package.
[109] http://www.designation-systems.net/usmilav/
AIN Online
412015-L%28addendum%29.html
Fulghum, David A. Saudis Want Raytheon AESA Radar
[110] Notication to the US Congress about the Singapore FOn F-15s. Aviation Week, 16 August 2010.
15 FMS. DSCA. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
Trade Osets: An Instrument of Government Procurement. Blue Sky Management and Consultant, 30 June [111] F-15SG: Singapores RSAF Decides to Fly Like An Ea2011.
gle. Defense Industry Daily. 1 October 2014. Retrieved
4 December 2014.
KAI Major Programs: Airframe. Korea Aerospace Industries, 30 June 2011.
[112] Singapore Exercises Option for Additional F-15SGs.
Singapore Ministry of Defence, 22 October 2007.
Hanwha Corporation Aerospace Products. Hanwha
Corporation, 30 June 2011.
[113] Boeing Rolls Out 1st F-15SG to Singapore. Boeing, 3
November 2008.
Streetly, Martin. Aircraft Self-Protection Expands in
Asia. asianmilitaryreview, 13 July 2011.
[114] Singapores F-15 ghter jets are operationally ready:
Radar. tradeKo-
engines.
[116] Thirty new F-16 block 52+ aircraft for Greece. F16.net. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
F-15Ks First Flight Successful. Defense Industry Daily,
7 March 2005.
[117] Greece Buys 50 F-16s and 15 Mirage 2000s.
AeroWorldNet, 3 May 1999.
F-15K (in Chinese)Yonhap News. Retrieved: 27 February 2012.
[118] Jenkins 1998, p. 71.
Boeing F-15K Eagle, Flug Revue, 5 May 2008.
[119] Butler, Amy. Boeing Unveils New, Stealthy Silent EaBoeing Delivers 2 F-15K Slam Eagles to the Republic of
gle F-15. Aviation Week, 18 March 2009. Retrieved: 2
Korea. Boeing, 2 June 2011.
January 2013.
448
[121] Carder, Phillip and Mary Ann Brett. Boeing F-15 Silent
Eagle Demonstrator Makes 1st Flight. Boeing, 9 July
2010. Retrieved: 18 August 2010.
Davies, Steve. Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle, AllWeather Attack Aircraft. London: Airlife Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-378-4.
[122] Carder, Phillip and Mary Ann Brett. Boeing F-15 Silent
Eagle Demonstrator Completes 1st Weapon Launch.
Boeing, 20 July 2010. Retrieved: 18 August 2010.
Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Hinckley, UK:
Midland Publishing, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8.
[129] Speech by Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence Teo Chee Hean at the Inauguration of the F-15SG
149 Squadron. MINDEF press release, 5 April 2010. Retrieved: 20 April 2010.
Rininger, Tyson. F-15 Eagle at War. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2009. ISBN 0-7603-33505.
[130] http://www.f-15e.info/joomla/en/operators/
131-f-15e-unites
[131] Davies 2002, Appendix 1.
[132] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALQ Airborne Countermeasures Multipurpose/Special Equipment. Designationsystems.net, 9 October 2007. Retrieved: 27 September
2010.
[133] Parsch, Andreas. AN/APX Airborne Identication
Radars. Designation-systems.net, 9 October 2007. Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
[134] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALR Airborne Countermeasures Receivers. Designation-systems.net, 20 November
2008. Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
[135] Parsch, Andreas. AN/ALE Airborne Countermeasures
Ejectors. Designation-systems.net, 20 November 2008.
Retrieved: 27 September 2010.
36.9.3
Bibliography
Smallwood, William L. Strike Eagle: Flying the F15E In The Gulf War. London: Brasseys, 1994.
ISBN 978-1-57488-122-6.
Chapter 37
37.1.1 Origins
The U.S. Navy started the Naval Fighter-Attack, Experimental (VFAX) program to procure a multirole aircraft
to replace the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, the A-7 Corsair
II, and the remaining McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom
IIs, and to complement the F-14 Tomcat. Vice Admiral Kent Lee, then head of Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), was the lead advocate for the VFAX
against strong opposition from many Navy ocers, including Vice Admiral William D. Houser, deputy chief
of naval operations for air warfare the highest ranking
naval aviator.[3]
37.1 Development
The Northrop YF-17 Cobra was developed into the carriercapable F/A-18.
449
450
37.2. DESIGN
suits charging that McDonnell was using Northrop technology developed for the F-18L for foreign sales in violation of their agreement, and asked for a moratorium on
foreign sales of the Hornet via McDonnell Douglas. The
case was resolved in 1985 when McDonnell agreed to pay
Northrop $50 million for complete rights to the design,
with no admission of wrongdoing. By then Northrop had
ceased work on the F-18L, and most export orders were
captured by the F-16 or the F/A-18.[9]
37.1.4
Into production
451
37.2 Design
Canted vertical stabilizers are another distinguishing design element, one among several other such elements that
enable the Hornets excellent high angle of attack ability
include oversized horizontal stabilators, oversized trailThe rst production F/A-18A ew on 12 April 1980. Af- ing edge aps that operate as aperons, large full-length
ter a production run of 380 F/A-18As[12] (including the leading edge slats, and ight control computer programnine assigned to ight systems development), manufac- ming that multiplies the movement of each control surture shifted to the F/A-18C in September 1987.[8]
face at low speeds and moves the vertical rudders inboard
452
453
1979, Lt. Cdr. John Padgett became the rst Navy pilot
to y the F/A-18.[21]
Following trials and operational testing by VX-4 and VX5, Hornets began to ll the Fleet Replacement Squadrons
(FRS) VFA-125, VFA-106, and VMFAT-101, where pilots are introduced to the F/A-18. The Hornet entered
operational service with Marine Corps squadron VMFA314 at MCAS El Toro on 7 January 1983,[12] and with
Navy squadron VFA-25 in March 1983, replacing F-4s
and A-7Es, respectively.[8]
The initial eet reports were complimentary, indicating that the Hornet was extraordinarily reliable, a major change from its predecessor, the F-4J.[22] Other
squadrons that switched to F/A-18 are VFA-146 Blue
diamonds, and VFA-147 Argonauts. In January 1985,
the VFA-131 Wildcats and the VFA-132 Privateers
moved from Naval Air Station Lemoore, California to
Naval Air Station Cecil Field, Florida, and became the
Atlantic Fleets rst F/A-18 squadrons.
Both U.S. Navy F/A-18A/C models and Marine F/A18A/C/D models were used continuously in Operation
Southern Watch and over Bosnia and Kosovo in the
1990s. U.S. Navy Hornets ew during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 from carriers operating in the North
454
Australia selected the F/A-18 in October 1981.[35] Original dierences between the Australian and US Navys
standard F/A-18 were the removed nose wheel tie bar
for catapult launch (later re-tted with a dummy version
to remove nose wheel shimmy), addition of a high frequency radio, an Australian fatigue data analysis system,
an improved video and voice recorder, and the use of
ILS/VOR (Instrument Landing System/Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range) instead of the carrier
landing system.[37]
455
Finland is upgrading its eet of F-18s with new avionics, including helmet mounted sights (HMS), new cockpit
displays, sensors and standard NATO data link. Several
of the remaining Hornets are going to be tted to carry
air-to-ground ordnance such as the AGM-158 JASSM, in
eect returning to the original F/A-18 multi-role conguration. The upgrade includes also the procurement and
integration of new AIM-9X Sidewinder and AIM-120C7 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles. This Mid-Life Upgrade
(MLU) is estimated to cost between 11.6 billion and
work is scheduled to be nished by 2016. After the upgrades the aircraft are to remain in active service until
20202025.[55][56] In October 2014 the Finnish broadcaster Yle announced that consideration was being given
to the replacement of the Hornet.[57]
62 CF-18A and 18 CF-18B aircraft took part in the Incremental Modernization Project which was completed in
two phases. The program was launched in 2001 and the
last updated aircraft was delivered in March 2010. The
aims were to improve air-to-air and air-to-ground combat
abilities, upgrade sensors and the defensive suite, and replace the datalinks and communications systems on board
the CF-18 from the F/A-18A and F/A-18B standard to
Kuwait
the current F/A-18C and F/A-18D standard.[46][47]
In July 2010 the Canadian government announced plans The Kuwait Air Force (Al Quwwat Aj Jawwaiya Al
to replace the remaining CF-18 eet with 65 F-35 Light- Kuwaitiya) ordered 32 F/A-18C and eight F/A-18D Horning IIs, with deliveries scheduled to start in 2016.[48]
nets in 1988. Delivery started in October 1991 until August 1993.[58][59] The F/A-18C/Ds replaced A-4KU Skyhawk. Kuwait Air Force Hornets have own missions
Finland
over Iraq during Operation Southern Watch in the 1990s.
They have also participated in military exercises with the
The Finnish Air Force (Suomen ilmavoimat) ordered 64 air forces of other Gulf nations.[60] Kuwait had 39 F/AF-18C/Ds (57 C models, seven D models). All F-18D 18C/D Hornets in service in 2008.[61]
were built at St Louis, and then all F-18C were assembled
in Finland. Delivery of the aircraft started in November 1995 until August 2000.[49] The Hornet replaced the Malaysia
MiG-21bis and Saab 35 Draken in Finnish service. The
Finnish Hornets were initially to be used only for air de- The Royal Malaysian Air Force (Tentera Udara Diraja
fense, hence the F-18 designation. The F-18C includes Malaysia) has eight F/A-18Ds.[62] Delivery of the aircraft
456
The Spanish Air Force (Ejrcito del Aire) ordered 60 EF18A model and 12 EF-18B model Hornets (the E standing for Espaa, Spain), named respectively as C.15 and
CE.15 by Spanish AF.[65] Delivery of the Spanish version started on 22 November 1985 until July 1990.[12][66]
These ghters were upgraded to F-18A+/B+ standard,
close to F/A-18C/D (plus version includes later mission
and armament computers, databuses, data-storage set,
new wiring, pylon modications and software, new abilities as AN/AAS-38B NITE Hawk targeting FLIR pods).
In 1995 Spain obtained 24 ex-USN F/A-18A Hornets,
with six more on option. These were delivered from December 1995 until December 1998.[67] Before delivery,
they were modied to EF-18A+ standard.[68] This was
37.4. VARIANTS
37.3.3
457
Potential operators
37.4.1 A/B
In 1992, the original Hughes AN/APG-65 radar was replaced with the Hughes (now Raytheon) AN/APG-73,
Austria,
Chile,
Czech Republic,
Hungary,
[75]
[75]
[22]
Philippines,
Poland,
and Singapore
evaluated a faster and more capable radar. A-model Hornets that
the Hornet but did not purchase it. Thailand ordered four have been upgraded to the AN/APG-73 are designated
C and four D model Hornets but the Asian nancial cri- F/A-18A+.
sis in the late 1990s resulted in the order being canceled.
The Hornets were completed as F/A-18Ds for the U.S.
Marine Corps.[22]
37.4.2 C/D
[75]
[22]
[75]
[75]
The F/A-18C and D models are the result of a block upgrade in 1987[12] incorporating upgraded radar, avionics,
and the capacity to carry new missiles such as the AIM120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile and AGM-65 Maverick[8] and AGM-84 Harpoon air-to-surface missiles.
Other upgrades include the Martin-Baker NACES (Navy
Aircrew Common Ejection Seat), and a self-protection
jammer. A synthetic aperture ground mapping radar enables the pilot to locate targets in poor visibility conditions. C and D models delivered since 1989 also
have improved night attack abilities, consisting of the
Hughes AN/AAR-50 thermal navigation pod, the Loral
AN/AAS-38 NITE Hawk FLIR (forward looking infrared array) targeting pod, night vision goggles, and two
full-color (formerly monochrome) multi-function display
(MFDs) and a color moving map.[8]
In addition, 60 D-model Hornets are congured
as the night attack F/A-18D (RC) with ability for
reconnaissance.[77] These could be outtted with the
ATARS electro-optical sensor package that includes a
sensor pod and equipment mounted in the place of the
M61 cannon.[78]
Beginning in 1992, the F404-GE-402 enhanced performance engine, providing approximately 10% more maximum static thrust became the standard Hornet engine.[79]
Since 1993, the AAS-38A NITE Hawk added a designator/ranger laser, allowing it to self-mark targets. The later
AAS-38B added the ability to strike targets designated by
lasers from other aircraft.[80]
Production of the C- and D- models ended in 2000. The
458
37.4.3
37.4.4
G Growler
These designations are not part of 1962 United States TriService aircraft designation system.
The EA-18G Growler is an electronic warfare version of F-18L This was a lighter land-based version of the F/Athe two-seat F/A-18F, which entered production in 2007.
18 Hornet. It was designed to be a single-seat airThe Growler is replacing the Navys EA-6B Prowler and
superiority ghter and ground-attack aircraft. It was
carries a Naval Flight Ocer as a second crewman in an
originally intended to be assembled by Northrop as
Electronic Countermeasures Ocer (ECMO) role.
the export version of the F/A-18 Hornet. The F18L was lighter via removing carrier landing capability. Despite the advantages, customers preferred
37.4.5 Other US variants
the standard Hornet, and the F-18L never entered
mass production.[22]
F-18(R) This was a proposed reconnaissance version of
the F/A-18A. It included a sensor package that re(A)F/A-18A/B
placed the 20 mm cannon. The rst of two prototypes ew in August 1984. Small numbers were
(A)F/A-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for
produced.[78]
the Royal Australian Air Force.
RF-18D Proposed two-seat reconnaissance version for
the US Marine Corps in the mid-1980s. It was to
37.5. OPERATORS
F/A-18A was the original company designation, designations of AF-18A & ATF-18A
have also been applied. Assembled in Australia (excluding the rst two (A)F/A-18Bs) by
Aero-Space Technologies of Australia (ASTA)
from 1985 through to 1990, from kits produced by McDonnell Douglas with increasing
local content in the later aircraft. Originally
the most notable dierences between an Australian (A)F/A-18A/B and a US F/A-18A/B
were the lack of a catapult attachment, replacing the carrier tailhook with a lighter land arresting hook, and the automatic carrier landing system with an Instrument Landing System. Australian Hornets have been involved
in several major upgrade programs. This program called HUG (Hornet Upgrade) has had a
few evolutions over the years. The rst was to
give Australian Hornets F/A-18C model avionics. The second and current upgrade program
(HUG 2.2) updates the eets avionics even further.
459
KAF-18 Hornet
KAF-18C: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Kuwait Air Force[58]
KAF-18D: Two-seat training version for the Kuwait
Air Force[58]
F-18C/D Hornet
The Finnish Air Force uses F/A-18C/D Hornets,
with a Finland-specic mid-life update. The rst
seven Hornets (D models) were produced by McDonnell Douglas.[50] The 57 single-seat F-18C
model units were assembled by Patria in Finland.[82]
F-18C/D Hornet
Switzerland uses F-18C/D,[83] later Swiss specic
mid-life update. The Swiss F-18s had no ground
attack capability originally, until hardware was
retrotted.
CF-18 Hornet
CF-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Royal Canadian Air Force. The ocial Canadian
designation is CF-188A Hornet.
37.5 Operators
EF-18 Hornet
EF-18A: Single-seat ghter/attack version for the
Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force desig- U.S. Navy F/A-18C from VFA-131 launches from French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle o the Virginia Capes.
nation is C.15.
EF-18B: Two-seat training version for the Spanish For operators of F/A-18E and F Super Hornets and its
Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is export variants, see Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.
CE.15.
460
Australia
Fliegerstael 11[89][90]
Fliegerstael 17[89]
Fliegerstael 18[89]
Canada
37.5. OPERATORS
461
VFA-103 1952present (converted to F/A18E/F Super Hornet)
VFA-105 19902006 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-106 1984present
VFA-113 1983present
VFA-115 19962001 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-125 19802010 (Disestablished, aircraft transferred to VFA-122, Legacy Hornets
phased out by 2013)
VFA-127 19891996 (Disestablished)
VFA-131 1983present
VFA-132 19841992 (Disestablished)
VFA-136 1985present
VFA-137 19852003 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-146 1989present
VFA-147 19892007 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
United States
United States Navy[91][92] - 409 F/A-18A/B/C/D
Hornets in operation as of 2008[84]
VFC-12 1990present (Naval Air Reserve)
VFA-15 1992present
VFA-22 19902004 (initially converted to
F/A-18E Super Hornet, 20042007; subsequently converted to F/A-18F Super Hornet,
2007present)
VFA-25 1983present (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-27 19912004 (converted to F/A-18E
Super Hornet)
VFA-34 1996present
VX-5
VFA-37 1990present
VX-9
VX-23
VX-31
Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center
United States Marine Corps Aviation[93] - 238
F/A-18A/B/C/D Hornets in service as of 2008[84]
VMFA-112 1992present (Marine Air Reserve)
VMFA-115 1985present
462
NASA video of an F/A-18A aerial refueling operation, documenting behavior of the drogue basket, 2002.
VMFA-122 1986present
VMFA-134 19892007 (Marine Air Reserve;
placed in cadre status)
VMFA-142 19902008 (Marine Air Reserve;
placed in cadre status)
VMFA-212 19882008
VMFA-232 1989present
VMFA-235 19891996 (Disestablished)
VMFA-251 1987present
VMFA-312 1987present
VMFA-314 1982present
VMFA(AW)332
lished)
19932007
VMFA(AW)533 1992present
VMFAT-101 1987present
MAWTS-1 1990present
NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center - 4 F/A-18s
in use[94]
VMFA(AW)225 1991present
VMFA(AW)242 1991present
163486 - MCAS Beaufort, South Carolina. F/A18D painted as VMFA(AW)533 CO bird, aircraft
01 at the ocers club
463
Wingspan: 40 ft (12.3 m)
Height: 15 ft 4 in (4.7 m)
Wing area: 400 ft (38 m)
Airfoil: NACA 65A005 mod root, 65A003.5 mod
tip
Empty weight: 23,000 lb (10,400 kg)
Loaded weight: 36,970 lb (16,770 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 51,900 lb (23,500 kg)
Powerplant: 2 General Electric F404-GE-402
turbofans
General characteristics
464
Armament
in media
Air-to-surface missiles:
Anti-ship missile:
AGM-84 Harpoon
Bombs:
Related development
Northrop YF-17
37.11. REFERENCES
465
Euroghter Typhoon
Saab Gripen
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
Chengdu J-10
Mikoyan MiG-29M
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
List of ghter aircraft
37.11 References
37.11.1
Notes
Retrieved: 17
[41] Nelson, Brendan. Joint Strike Fighter. Defence Ministers & Parliamentary secretary Media Release, 1 February
2007. Retrieved: 4 July 2008.
466
[42] Nelson, Brendan. "$6 billion to maintain Australias regional air superiority. Defence Ministers & Parliamentary
secretary Media Release, 3 June 2007. Retrieved: 4 April
2008.
[65] Senior.
[69] Espaa enva a Italia cuatro aviones F-18 para participar en la operacin contra Gada (in Spanish). France
Presse (News Agency) via El Mundo, 18 March 2011.
[47] Ng, Allen. The CF18 Incremental Modernization Program In Detail 'Not Your Fathers Hornet the CF18
Incremental Modernization Program'. casr.ca, December 2003. Retrieved: 8 June 2010.
[48] Government Of Canada Strengthens Sovereignty While
Generating Signicant Economic Benets. Canada Department of National Defence, 16 July 2010, Retrieved:
26 July 2010.
[49] Senior, p. 33.
[50] Jenkins 2000, pp. 100101.
[51] Patria unveils twin-seat F-18 built out of single-seat F18 Hornet. Patria, 21 September 2009. Retrieved: 24
September 2009.
[52] PICTURES: Second accident spells end for Finlands
'Frankenhornet'". Flightglobal, 22 January 2010.
[53] Fighter jet crashes in forest. yle., 21 January 2010. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[54] Hornet-onnettomuuden taustalla vikaantunut ohjausjrjestelmn servosylinteri (Finnish). mil., 21 January
2010.
[55] Raivio, Jyri.
Hornetien uudistuksesta jttikulut
(Finnish). hs., 2 October 2008. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[56] Vuoristo, Pekka. Helsingin Sanomat (Finnish). hs., 2
October 2008. Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[57] Finnish Defence Forces to replace aging Hornet ghter
eet. Yle Uutiset.
[58] Jenkins 2000, pp. 9394.
[59] Senior, p. 31.
[60] Jenkins 2000, p. 96.
[61] Kuwait Air Force: Order of Battle. milaviapress.com.
Retrieved: 5 April 2010.
[62] Boeing Delivers Malaysian Hornets on Schedule. Boeing, 9 September 1997. Retrieved: 4 July 2008.
[63] Vatikiotis, Michael. Mix and match: Russia and US split
order for combat aircraft. faqs.org, 1993. Retrieved: 5
April 2010.
37.11. REFERENCES
467
[90] Fighter jet crashes in Switzerland, 2 crew missing RT [112] Martinez, Michael and Barbara Starr. Navy jet has
News. Rt.com. 23 October 2013. Retrieved 16 Novem'catastrophic mechanical malfunction,' hits apartments in
ber 2013.
Virginia. CNN, 6 April 2012. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[91] Strike Fighter Wing Pacic ,COMSTRKFIGHTWING- [113] Forer, Ben. F/A-18 Crashes Into Apartment Building in
PAC. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 19 September 2010.
Virginia Beach. ABC news, 6 April 2012. Retrieved: 9
April 2012.
[92] Strike Fighter Wing, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (COMSTRKFIGHTWINGLANT). globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 19 [114] Stanglin, Doug. Two Navy Hornets crash in Pacic., 12
September 2010.
September 2014.
[93] FY 2010 Marine Aviation Plan. marines.mil. Retrieved:
[115] F/A-18 Hornet strike ghter fact le. US Navy, 26 May
19 September 2010.
2009.
[94] NASA F-18 Mission Support Aircraft. nasa.gov. Re[116] Frawley, Gerald. Boeing F/A-18 Hornet. The Internatrieved: 5 April 2010.
tional Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003. Fyshwick ACT: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 2002. ISBN
[95] F/A-18 Hornet/160780. Virginia Air and Space Center.
978-1-875671-55-7.
Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
[96] F/A-18 Hornet/161353. Warbird Registry. Retrieved: [117] Spick, Mike, ed. F/A-18 Hornet. Great Book of Modern
21 March 2013.
Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2000.
ISBN 978-0-7603-0893-6.
[97] F/A-18 Hornet/161725. Hill Aerospace Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
[118] McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet - Air Power Provided
[98] F/A-18 Hornet/161749. Warbird Registry. Retrieved:
21 March 2013.
[99] F/A-18/161942. USS Lexington Museum. Retrieved: 21
March 2013.
[100] F/A-18 Hornet/162430. Palm Springs Air Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
[101] F/A-18 Hornet/162454. Warbird Registry. Retrieved:
21 March 2013.
[102] F/A-18 Hornet/162826. Fort Worth Aviation Museum.
Retrieved: 1 April 2014.
[103] F/A-18 Hornet/162901. San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum. Retrieved: 21 March 2013.
[104] F/A-18 Hornet/163119. Warbird Registry. Retrieved:
21 March 2013.
[105] F/A-18 Hornet/163157. Warbird Registry. Retrieved:
21 March 2013.
[106] Liewer, Steve, Sharon A. Heilbrunn and Angelica Martinez. Rubble, despair all that remain: Man returns to
site where jet crash killed his family. Sign on San Diego,
10 December 2008. Retrieved: 11 December 2008.
[107] Four dead in San Diego jet crash. BBC, 10 December
2008. Retrieved: 10 December 2008.
[108] Kucher, Karen and Susan Shroder. Two sailors remain
in hospital after Stennis jet re. Sign on San Diego, 30
March 2011. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[109] Occurrence # 121433. Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[110] 2011 Aviation Class A mishap listings. U.S. Naval Safety
Center. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
[111] Breaking: Jet crashes in Virginia Beach. WTR, 6 April
2012. Retrieved: 6 April 2012.
37.11.2 Bibliography
Donald, David. Carrier Aviation Air Power Directory. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2001. ISBN
978-1-880588-43-7.
Drendel, Lou. F/A-18 Hornet in action (Aircraft
Number 136). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal
Publications, 1993. ISBN 978-0-89747-300-2.
Elward, Brad.
Boeing F/A-18 Hornet (WarbirdTech, Vol. 31). Specialty Press, 2001. ISBN
978-1-58007-041-6.
Gunston, Bill. F/A-18 Hornet (Modern Combat
Aircraft 22). St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1985. ISBN 978-0-7110-1485-5.
Holmes, Tony. RAAF Hornets at War. Australian Aviation. Canberra: Phantom Media, January/February 2006/No. 224. ISSN 0813-0876.
Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success
Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 9780-07-134696-2.
Miller, Jay. McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
(Aerofax Minigraph 25). Arlington, Texas: Aerofax Inc., 1988. ISBN 978-0-942548-39-6.
Peacock, Lindsay. F/A-18 Hornet (Osprey Combat
Aircraft Series). London: Osprey Publishing, 1986.
ISBN 978-0-85045-707-0.
468
Chapter 38
38.1 Development
The A/MH-6 was started in 1960, when the U.S. Army issued Technical Specication 153 for a Light Observation
Helicopter (LOH) that could perform personnel transport, escort and attack missions, casualty evacuation, and
observation. Twelve companies took part in the competition and Hughes Tool Companys Aircraft Division submitted the Model 369. Two designs, those submitted by
Fairchild-Hiller and Bell, were selected as nalists by the
army-navy design competition board, but the army later
included the helicopter from Hughes as well.
The rst Model 369 prototype ew on 27 February 1963.
Originally designated the YHO-6A under the armys designation system, the aircraft was redesignated the YOH6A under the Department of Defense's new joint system in 1962. Five prototypes were built, tted with
a 252 shp (188 kW) Allison T63-A-5A,[1] and delivered to the U.S. Army at Fort Rucker, Alabama to compete against the other 10 prototype aircraft submitted by
Bell and Fairchild-Hiller. In the end, Hughes won the
competition[2] and the Army awarded a contract for production in May 1965. The initial order was for 714 aircraft, but that was later increased to 1,300 with an option
to buy another 114. Seventy helicopters were built in the
rst month.
This agile, unarmed helicopter is outtted with outboard
benches designed to ferry up to three commandos on
each side. There is also a gunship variant, the AH-6.
Painted black for nighttime operations, this small aircraft
can conduct rapid insertions and extractions of special operations forces into areas its larger brother, the MH-60
Black Hawk, cannot.
469
470
38.2.2
ships. The U.S. military deployed the MH-6 and AH6 aircraft from the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Operation Credible Sport was a joint project of the U.S. Regiment (SOAR) to provide surveillance and patrols in
military in the second half of 1980 to prepare for a second cooperation with other U.S. special operations units in
rescue attempt of the hostages held in Iran. It was can- Operation Prime Chance.
celed after the hostages were released on 20 January 1981 Two MH-6 and four AH-6 aircraft were initially deployed
and, for a short while, it looked as if the task force would and designated as Detachment 160 Aviation Group (DET
be disbanded and the personnel returned to their former 160 AVGP). The MH-6 aircraft carried Forward Lookunits. However, the Army decided that it would be more ing Infra-Red (FLIR) and a videotape system which
prudent to keep the unit. The task force, which had been gave them excellent ability to detect and identify tardesignated Task Force 158, was soon formed into the gets, then direct the armed AH-6s. The AH-6 heli160th Aviation Battalion. The OH-6A helicopters used copters were armed with 7.62 miniguns and 2.75-inch
for transporting personnel became the MH-6 aircraft of rockets. Initially, the aircraft patrolled in teams (call
the Light Assault Company and the armed OH-6As be- sign "SEABAT") that waited for U.S. Navy SH-2s to dicame the AH-6 aircraft of the Light Attack Company.
rect them to the targets. Later, to preserve the aircraft
38.2.3
and crews from fatigue and wear, the SEABAT teams remained on the ships deck until a contact was identied.
At 10 pm on 21 September 1987, the captain of the USS
Jarrett launched a SEABAT team (a MH-6 and two AH6s) to check out reports of Iranian minelaying. The team
found the Iran Ajr, an amphibious landing ship equipped
with minelaying racks. The MH-6 conrmed that the Iran
Ajr was laying mines, the AH-6s opened re, causing
the crew to abandon ship. The vessel was subsequently
boarded and captured.
On the evening of 8 October 1987, an Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps Boghammar and two Boston Whaler
boats were detected by an SH-2. The SEABAT team was
launched and as the MH-6 drew near to investigate, the
Boghammar opened re, the rst of a series of engagements by both AH-6s and the MH-6 (recently armed with
The OH-6s were own in USAF C-130 transport planes,
a minigun). The Boghammar launched two Stinger mistwo at a time, to nearby Barbados. From there they ew
siles at the helicopters, but eventually all three boats were
to Grenada.
sunk.
For the remainder of the operation, it was decided that
barges set up as mobile sea bases (MSB) would facilitate
the operation of the special operations forces. The HerBy 1983, 160th SOAR and its helicopters were heavily cules and the Wimbrown VII were leased to provide these
committed to supporting the contras, a United States- bases and the SEABAT teams began operating from the
subsidized military force. Specially adapted unmarked barges.
Hughes 500D helicopters from CIA Seaspray unit based In early 1988, it was decided that modied U.S. Army
in Fort Eustis also took part in this task .[3]
OH-58D helicopters, tted with weapons, would replace
38.2.4
Nicaragua
38.2.5
471
the search for General Manuel Noriega. Four MH-60s,
two MH-6s, two AH-6s, and two MH-47s were moved
to Ft. Sherman in the north for operations in and around
Colon.
The 160th conducted numerous air assault missions over
the next two weeks, and on 3 January 1990, the majority
of the force went back to Fort Campbell, Kentucky.
472
38.4 Operators
MH-6 helicopters were part of TF-145, as well as the rescue of three Italian contractors and Polish businessman
taken hostage by Iraqi insurgents in 2004.
38.2.9
United States
38.3 Variants
electronic
warfare,
38.7. REFERENCES
473
PZL SW-4
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
38.7 References
Notes
[1] FAA Document in PDF format
[2] The Hughes Companies US Centennial of Flight Commission
A fully laden Boeing AH-6I on static display at Singapore Air
Show 2010
Sources
Harding Stephen. U.S. Army Aircraft Since 1947.
Schier Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0190-X.
MD Helicopters Defender
Boeing AH-6
Chapter 39
Military helicopter
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A
military helicopters mission is a function of its design
or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters
can be modied or converted to perform other missions
such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even
armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specic missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters
and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.
39.1.1 Equipment
Armour, re suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection, as
a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have
been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example it has been
reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement
of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Mil Mi-17.[1] These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well
enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but
474
39.1.2
Attack helicopters
475
zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport
and land a large number of troops and equipment in a
relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and
overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of
air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the
helicopters to continually resupply the force during the
operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if
the mission dictates.
Transport helicopters
476
Observation helicopters
A Gazelle helicopter of the French ALAT.
39.1.5
Maritime helicopters
Maritime helicopters
A Royal Navy Merlin HM1 anti-submarine warfare
helicopter in 2007
A SH-60B Seahawk 2 helicopter
A Kamov Ka-27 shipborne helicopter, showing
its contra-rotating rotor system, and bulbous radar
radome
A Harbin Z-9
477
ight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the Nord
SS.11 and the Arospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed
and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the
United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for ring from
helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellre. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11
Falanga missile for ring from the Mil Mi-24.
In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout
helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter,
ying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and
to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include
laser designators to guide missiles red from the attack
helicopters. After nding a target, the scout helicopter
can locate it and then direct the attack helicopters missile where to re. The attack helicopters have only to
rise from cover briey to re their missiles before returning to a concealed location.[7] Late-development of attack
helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52,
and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for
scout helicopters.
An OH-58 and an AH-1 of the Hawaii ARNG, such a combination would have formed hunter-killer team during the Cold
War.[7]
39.2.1
478
39.5 Notes
39.3 Manufacturers
39.6 References
[1] Kanwa Defense Review No26, Is Chinas 20-year buildup Army Aviation Corps eective, February 2007.
[2] Give us an enemy to ght, says chief of Britains Apache
helicopter eet
[3] Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development
[4] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA
[5] Comanches Child: The ARH-70 Armed Reconnaissance
Helicopter
[6] Filling Comanches Shoes
Helibras HM-1 Pantera under construction in Brazil.
39.6.1
479
Further reading
Chapter 40
Airbus A400M
Airbus A310 MRTT
Airbus A330 MRTT
481
C-12 Huron
C-20 Gulfstream III
C-21 Learjet
C-32
UC-35
C-40 Clipper
VC-25A Air Force One
Antonov An-225 with Buran at Le Bourget 1989.
tary role
C-9 Skytrain II
Not all militaries are able to operate a full range of transport helicopters, so the medium transport type is probably
482
the most useful compromise and probably the most common specialist transport type. Medium transport helicopters are generally capable of moving up to a platoon of
infantry and are capable of being able to transport towed
artillery or light vehicles either internally or as underslung roles. Unlike the assault helicopter they are usually
not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone,
but are used to reinforce and resupply landing zones taken
by the initial assault wave. Examples include the unarmed
versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma, and CH-46 Sea
Knight.
Heavy lift helicopters are the largest and most capable
of the transport types, currently limited in service to
the CH-53 Sea Stallion and related CH-53E Super Stallion, CH-47 Chinook, Mil Mi-26, and Arospatiale Super Frelon. Capable of lifting up to 80 troops and moving small Armoured ghting vehicles (usually as slung
loads but also internally), these helicopters operate in the
tactical transport role in much the same way as small
xed wing turboprop air-lifters. The lower speed, range
and increased fuel consumption of helicopters are more
than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere.
Kazakh Mi-17 helicopter; some members of the Mil
Mi-8 family can carry both weapons and troops
CH-53 with possible internal load
CH-54B carrying an M551 Sheridan tank
Chapter 41
41.1 History
41.2 Multirole
The term had originally been reserved for aircraft designed with the aim of using a common airframe for multiple tasks where the same basic airframe is adapted to
a number of diering roles. Multirole has also been applied to one aircraft with both major roles, for example:
a primary air-to-air combat role
a secondary role like air-to-surface attack.
The rst use of the term was by the multinational European project named Multi-Role Combat Aircraft,
which was formed in 1968 to produce an aircraft capable of tactical strike, aerial reconnaissance, air defense,
and maritime roles. The design was aimed to replace a
multitude of dierent types in the cooperating air forces.
The project produced the Panavia Tornado, which used
More roles can be added, such as aerial reconnaissance, forward air control, and electronic-warfare aircraft. Attack missions include the subtypes air interdiction, suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD), and close
air support (CAS).
The main motivation for developing multirole aircraft is
cost reduction in using a common airframe.
483
484
41.3 Swing-role
Some aircraft are called swing-role, to emphasize the ability of a quick role change, either at short notice, or even
within the same mission. According to the Military Dictionary : the ability to employ a multi-role aircraft for
multiple purposes during the same mission.[2]
According to BAE Systems, an aircraft that can accomplish both air-to-air and air-to-surface roles on the same
mission and swing between these roles instantly oers
true exibility. This reduces cost, increases eectiveness
and enhances interoperability with allied air forces.[3]
Capability also oers considerable cost-of-ownership
benets to and operational commanders.[4]
41.4 Gallery
41.4.1
Active
41.6 References
[1] Military-Dictionary.org; both Wiktionary and Cambridge
Dictionary only list multirole, and not multi-role.
[2] Denition Of: swing-role
[3] BAE SYSTEMS delivers Swing Role Radar capability to
Euroghter Typhoon
[4] Euroghter Typhoon, Mission conguration, Swing Role
Chapter 42
Next-Generation Bomber
This article is about the next-generation USAF bomber. that the next generation bomber might be hypersonic and
For next generation Russian bomber, see PAK DA.
unmanned.[9] However, these were put to rest when US
Air Force Major General Mark T. Matthews, head of
ACC Plans and Programs stated that available technolThe Next-Generation Bomber (NGB; formerly called
at a May 2007
the 2018 Bomber) was originally a program to develop ogy indicates a manned subsonic bomber
Air Force Association sponsored event.[10] He later stated
a new medium bomber for the United States Air Force.
The NGB was originally projected to enter service around that a manned subsonic bomber provides the best value
to meet the required range and payload performance by
2018 as a stealthy, subsonic, medium-range, medium
[11]
The 2018 bomber was expected to serve as a
payload bomber to supplement and possiblyto a limited 2018.
stop-gap until the more advanced "2037 Bomber" entered
degreereplace the U.S. Air Forces aging bomber eet
[12]
(B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer). The NGB pro- service.
gram was superseded by the Long-Range Strike-B (LRS- The 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), directed
B) heavy bomber program.
the Air Force to develop a new long-range precision strike
On 24 June 2010, Lieutenant General Philip M. capability by 2018. Since then, the Air Force and Strateis
Breedlove said that the term next-generation bomber gic Command have decided that the best initial option
[13][14]
to
pursue
a
manned
bomber
to
be
designated
B-3.
was dead and that the Air Force was working on a longrange strike family that would draw on the capabilities
of systems like the F-35 and F-22 to help a more aordable and versatile bomber complete its missions.[2] On 13
September 2010, U.S. Air Force Secretary Michael Donley said that long range strike would continue cautiously
with proven technologies and that the plan to be submitted with the 2012 budget could call for either a missile or
an aircraft.[3][4] The bomber will be nuclear-capable, but
not certied for nuclear use until later. On 24 February
2012, Air Force Secretary Michael Donley announced
that a competition was under way with a target delivery
in the mid-2020s.[5]
42.1 Development
42.1.1
2018 Bomber
The sinking of ex-USS Schenectady as a test during Operation Resultant Fury in 2004 demonstrated that heavy
bombers could successfully engage naval targets on their
own. This led to the requirement for a new bomber that
could survive against modern defenses.[6][7] In 200406,
the USAF Air Combat Command studied alternatives
for a new bomber type aircraft to augment the current
bomber eet which now consists of largely 1970s era
airframes, with a goal of having a fully operational aircraft on the ramp by 2018.[8] Some speculation suggested
485
486
familiar with the companies plans.[19] Northrop Grumman, another major defense contractor, received $2 billion in funding in 2008 for restricted programs also
called black programs for a demonstrator that could y
in 2010.[20] On 1 March 2010, Boeing said that the joint
project with Lockheed Martin had been suspended.[21]
42.1.2
Long-range strike
range, nuclear-capable bomber, also to be optionally remotely piloted. He also said the aircraft will be designed and developed using proven technologies, an approach that should make it possible to deliver this capability on schedule and in quantity. It is important that we
begin this project now to ensure that a new bomber can
be ready before the current aging eet goes out of service.
The follow on bomber represents a key component of a
joint portfolio of conventional deep-strike capabilities
an area that should be a high priority for future defense
investment given the anti-access challenges our military
faces.[43] In July 2011, Joint Chief Vice Chairman James
Cartwright called for a large UAV instead of a manned
aircraft, including for the nuclear mission.[44] Retired Air
Force colonel and Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments analyst Mark Gunzinger has called for an optionally manned bomber, stating that purely unmanned
bombers would be at a disadvantage without direct human pilot awareness and vulnerable to communication
disruption.[45]
In March 2011, the Air Force intended to purchase
from 80 to 100 of the aircraft.[46][47] The Global Strike
Command has indicated that one requirement upon the
bomber is to carry a weapon of similar eect to the existing Massive Ordnance Penetrator.[48][49] In addition
to the strategic bombing, tactical bombing, and prompt
global strike roles typical for a long-range bomber, the
aircraft is to be part of a family of systems to be
responsible for ground surveillance and electronic attack.[50] The Obama Administration in its 2012 budget
request asked for $197 million and a total of $3.7 billion over ve years to develop the bomber, which is to
include modular payload options for intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), electronic attack (EA), and
communications.[51][52] The bomber is to be nuclear capable, but shall not be certied for the role until older
bombers are set to retire.[53][54][55]
42.1. DEVELOPMENT
487
interfere with plans to reuse an existing engine.[56] Reportedly, the two most likely engines are the Pratt &
Whitney PW9000 engine, which uses a combination of
Pratt & Whitney F135 and commercial turbofan technology, and a derivative of the General Electric/Rolls-Royce
F136.[57][58] In May 2011, Air Force Undersecretary Erin
Conaton announced that a program oce was being set
up for the bomber.[59]
man has the most recent experience with the stealthy B2. At the time of the announcement, the only ocial
details about the LRS-B were that it will likely be optionally manned and use stealth technology.[67] Although
Northrop Grumman has not ocially announced that it
will compete for the LRS-B contract, on 30 January 2014
they revealed they intend to spend money on developing new technology that the bomber would need which
could include stealth designs, mission management sysThe USAF asked for $292 million for the program in its
[68]
[60]
2013 budget request.
The program has also been re- tems, and autonomous controls.
ferred to as Long-Range Strike-B (LRS-B).[61] In 2012, In January 2014, former Air Force Chief of Sta Norton
former Pentagon weapons tester Thomas P. Christie spec- Schwartz said that the Pentagon should abandon plans to
ulated that the bomber program had been initiated so that outt the F-35 with nuclear weapons and give the role
the Air Force would have a sacricial program to of- to the LRS-B. A 2010 Nuclear Posture Review stated
fer during anticipated defense budget shortfalls.[62] The that replacement of the F-16 with the F-35 would retain
USAF seems committed to the program, given a lack dual conventional and nuclear delivery capabilities for
of other non-nuclear options to deal with deeply buried Air Force ghters. The Congressional Budget Oce has
and/or hardened targets,[63][64] and committed two per- determined that upgrading the F-35 for nuclear deploycent of their investment budget to the project, compared ment capabilities would cost $350 million over the next
decade. Schwartz said that without nancial support from
to three percent to sustain existing bombers.[65]
As of August 2013, the Air Force believes that the LRS- NATO, where some nuclear-capable Lightnings would be
B can reach Initial Operating Capability (IOC) in 2025. deployed, those funds should be transferred to the LRSReportedly, the main risk to the program is funding, par- B eort. This occurred at the same time that Congress
ticularly in light of the F-35 Lightning II's acquisition dif- cut funding for the B61 nuclear bomb, stripping $10 milculties and the lack of an urgent threat. Prior bomber lion from F-35 integration and $34.8 million for service
programs have been hindered due to lack of funding, as life extension. Schwartz believes that life extension for
be deonly 21 B-2 Spirits were produced out of 132 planned the B61 must continue but that the weapon should
[69]
ployed
from
the
LRS-B
instead
of
the
F-35.
and fewer B-1 Lancers were built than were envisioned;
both programs were scaled down due to spiraling per
aircraft costs. Research funding has been allocated, as
stealthy technologies to counter anti-access/area-denial
threats were spared from budget cuts. The Air Force
has said the LRS-B is a top priority as it is believed that
China will overcome the B-2s low-observable features by
the 2020s. Where possible, the use of existing technologies and proven subsystems will be undertaken in order
to keep the program within budget, instead of developing new and riskier ones. Components such as engines
and radars may be o-the-shelf or adaptions of existing
models; derivative technologies of the F-35 may also be
adopted. The LRS-B is intended to perform any long
range mission, rather than have any one specialized mission, which drove up the cost of the B-2. The Air Force
expects the plane to cost $1 billion each with development costs factored in, and aims for a per-aircraft cost of
$550 million, which is considered reasonable for a limited production run military aircraft.[66]
On 25 October 2013, Boeing and Lockheed Martin announced they would be teaming up for the Long Range
Strike Bomber program. Boeing will be the prime contractor. The two companies previous joined together for
the program in 2008, but the partnership ended in 2010
when requirements shifted. Boeing believes that because
the program had evolved since then, they can readdress
their partnership to specically address Air Force requirements. The team has Boeings bomber experience
and Lockheeds stealth experience. Northrop Grum-
488
42.1.4
Competitive phase
42.4. REFERENCES
Airelds available for American use have declined
since the Cold War.
Hostile cruise and ballistic missiles could shut down
the few available airelds.
Fewer ghter aircraft will be available to escort the
bomber force.
Advanced ghter aircraft and surface to air missiles
are being made available to potentially hostile states.
The current USAF bomber force is small and largely
outdated.
489
Related lists
List of bomber aircraft
42.4 References
[1] Butler, Amy. Can USAF Buy A $550 Million Bomber?"
Aviation Week. 5 April 2012.
[21] Boeing, Lockheed Put Bomber Partnership on Ice. Defense news. 1 March 2010. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[22] Boeing, Lockheed to team up against Northrop for
bomber contract, Seattle Times (NW source).
[23] Gates says next-generation bomber might y without pilot, Congress Daily (Government Executive), 14 May
2009.
[24] Gates sees more changes to US weapons in 2011, Reuters.
[3] Air Force secretary: 'Make hard choices now'". Govexec. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[4] State of the Air Force (speech). US: U.S. Air Force.
2010. Archived from the original on Jul 19, 2012.
[27] RL34406, Air Force Next-Generation Bomber: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research
Service, 18 September 2009
490
13
[54] Majumdar, Dave. New Bomber Won't Be NuclearCapable at First: USAF Chief. Defense News, 2 November 2011.
[55] http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_
detailpage&v=YYdc2sVuOpA#t=5051s
[56] Bedard, Paul. Pentagon, Obama Bomb House Bid To
Revive Jet Engine. US News, 24 May 2011.
[57] Reed, John (2010-09-15). P&W Pitches Engine For
Long-Range Strike. Defense News. Retrieved 2013-0225.
[58] Next Gen Bomber Linked To Self-Funded F136.
Aviation Week. 2011-05-04.(subscription required)
[59] Majumdar, Dave (2011-05-11). DoD OKs USAF
Bomber Program Oce. Defense News. Retrieved
2013-02-25.
[60] Munoz, Carlo. DoD Fast Tracks New Bomber; 'Planning Number' is $550 Million Per Plane. Aol Defense.
15 February 2012.
[61] Butler, Amy. Amid Cuts USAF Cautiously Funds F-35,
Bomber. Aviation Week. 13 February 2012.
[62] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aordable Plane?" The Atlantic. 26 March 2012.
[63] U.S. Air Force Is 'Committed' To Long-Range Strike
Bomber.
[64] Air Force Wants A Bomber That Balances Cost With Capability.
[65] Sec. Donley: Why The Air Force Can't Delay Modern[45] http://www.csbaonline.org/
ization.
wp-content/uploads/2010/09/2010.09.
14-Sustaining-Americas-Strategic-Advantage-in-Long-Range-Strike.
[66] Budget Pressures Seen as Biggest Risk to Long
pdf
Range Bomber Program. Nationaldefensemagazine.org,
September 2013.
[46] Reed, John. Air Force Hopes to Buy 80 to 100 Next Gen
Bombers. DoD Buzz, 30 March 2011.
[67] Boeing, Lockheed Team on Long Range Strike Bomber Defensenews.com, 25 October 2013
[47] Erwin, Sandra. Air Force Chief: We Will Not 'Overdesign' the New Stealth Bomber. National Defense Indus- [68] Northrop to position for future bomber work as LRS-B
trial Association. 9 February 2012.
progresses - Flightglobal.com, 4 February 2014
[48] Trimble, Stephen. Penetrate faster, harder with new
AFRL weapon. Flight Global, 20 February 2011.
[49] A Slimmer MOP. AirForce Magazine, Daily Report,
25 June 2010.
[50] Majumdar, Dave (30 January 2010), Air Force can use
savings for bomber, ghters, Air Force Times, retrieved
31 January 2010
491
[72] General: 'Of course' new Air Force bomber will be more
than $550M per plane - Militarytimes.com, 5 March 2014
The 2018 Bomber and Its Friends, Air Force Magazine, October 2006.
[73] Air Force Keeps Bomber Price Tag at $550 Million DoDBuzz.com, 12 March 2014
[75] RFP for bomber coming soon, Air Forces top buyer says
- Militarytimes.com, 13 June 2014
[77] Air Force sends next-gen bomber requirements to industry, few details made public - AirForcetimes.com, 10 July
2014
[78] USAF launches competition for new bomber - Flightglobal.com, 11 July 2014
The Case For Long-Range Strike: 21st Century Scenarios (PDF), Center for Strategic and Budgetary
Assessments.
[79] Northrop Bomber Team Relieved Over California Legislation - Aviationweek.com, 15 August 2014
[80] Shrouded in Mystery, New Bomber Makes Waves - Defensenews.com, 19 January 2015
[81] Majumdar, Dave. U.S. Air Force May Buy 175
Bombers. Defense News, 23 January 2011.
[82] Grant, Greg. Air Force chief describes future bomber.
Government Executive, 31 October 2007.
[83] U.S. Air Force: No 2009 Money for Next-Gen Bomber.
Defensenews.com. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[84] Majumdar, Dave. New bomber could conduct longrange missions. AirForce Times, 12 February 2011.
[85] The 2018 Bomber: The Case for Accelerating the Next
Generation Long-Range Strike System
42.5 Bibliography
Grant, Dr. Rebecca (February 2007), Return of the
Bomber, The Future of Long-Range Strike (PDF),
Air Force Association.
Rose, William Bill (2010), Secret Projects: Flying
Wings and Tailless Aircraft, Hinckley, England, UK:
Midland.
Chapter 43
492
43.1. DEVELOPMENT
In 1974, DARPA requested information from U.S. aviation rms about the largest radar cross-section of an aircraft that would remain eectively invisible to radars.[11]
Initially, Northrop and McDonnell Douglas were selected
for further development. Lockheed had experience in
this eld due to developing the Lockheed A-12 and SR71, which included a number of stealthy features, notably
its canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall surface nish in
radar-absorbing paint. A key improvement was the introduction of computer models used to predict the radar
reections from at surfaces where collected data drove
the design of a faceted aircraft. Development of the
rst such designs started in 1975 with the hopeless diamond, a model Lockheed built to test the concept.[12]
Plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when
DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed
(XST) project. Northrop and Lockheed were awarded
contracts in the rst round of testing. Lockheed received
the sole award for the second test round in April 1976
leading to the Have Blue program.[13]
43.1.2
ATB program
493
Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study
contract for further work.[16] Both teams used ying wing
designs.[17] The Northrop proposal was code named Senior Ice and the Lockheed proposal code named "Senior
Peg".[18] Northrop had prior experience developing the
YB-35 and YB-49 ying wing aircraft.[19] The Northrop
design was larger while the Lockheed design included a
small tail.[17] In 1979, designer Hal Markarian produced
a sketch of the aircraft, that bore considerable similarities
to the nal design.[20] The Air Force originally planned to
procure 165 of the ATB bomber.[1]
The Northrop teams ATB design was selected over the
Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.[16][21]
The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and
the name Spirit. The bombers design was changed
in the mid-1980s when the mission prole was changed
from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The
redesign delayed the B-2s rst ight by two years and
added about US$1 billion to the programs cost.[15] An
estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research
and development on the B-2 by 1989.[22] MIT engineers
and scientists helped assess the mission eectiveness of
the aircraft under a ve-year classied contract during the
1980s.[23]
By 1976, these programs progressed to where a longrange strategic stealth bomber appeared viable. President 43.1.3
Carter was aware of these developments during 1977,
and it appears to have been one of the major reasons
the B-1 was canceled.[14] Further studies were ordered in
early 1978, by which point the Have Blue platform had
own and proven the concepts. During the 1980 presidential election in 1979, Ronald Reagan repeatedly stated
that Carter was weak on defense, and used the B-1 as a
prime example. In return, on 22 August 1980, the Carter
administration publicly disclosed that the United States
Department of Defense (DoD) was working to develop
stealth aircraft, including a bomber.[15]
During its design and development, the Northrop B2 program was a Gray Project before its reveal to the
public.[24] Unlike the Lockheed F-117 program, which
was a Black project, the type of military project of which
very few people knew even existed while it was being
designed and developed, more people within the United
States federal government knew about the B-2 and more
information about the project was available. Both during
development and in service, there has been considerable
importance placed to the security of the B-2 and its technologies. Sta working on the B-2 in most, if not all,
capacities have to achieve a level of special-access clear-
494
ance, and undergo extensive background checks carried operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.[34]
out by a special branch of the Air Force.[25]
In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build
For the manufacturing, a former Ford automobile assem- 20 additional aircraft with a yaway cost of $566 million
bly plant in Pico Rivera, California, was acquired and each.[35]
heavily rebuilt; the plants employees were sworn to comThe program was the subject of public controversy for
plete secrecy regarding their work. To avoid the possi- its cost to American taxpayers. In 1996, the General
bility of suspicion, components were typically purchased
Accounting Oce (GAO) disclosed that the USAFs Bthrough front companies, military ocials would visit out 2 bombers will be, by far, the most costly bombers
of uniform, and sta members were routinely subjected to operate on a per aircraft basis, costing over three
to polygraph examinations. The secrecy extended so far times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually)
that access to nearly all information on the program by and over four times as much as the B-52H (US$6.8 milboth Government Accountability Oce (GAO) and vir- lion annually). In September 1997, each hour of Btually all members of Congress itself was severely lim- 2 ight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn.
ited until mid-1980s.[26] Northrop (now Northrop Grum- Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the Bman) was the B-2s prime contractor; major subcontrac- 1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of
tors included Boeing, Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon), ight. A key reason for this cost is the provision of
GE, and Vought Aircraft.[7]
air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bombers
In 1984, a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh was
arrested for attempting to sell classied information to the
Soviet Union; the information was taken from Northrops
Pico Rivera, California factory.[27] Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in
2001.
The B-2 was rst publicly displayed on 22 November
1988 at United States Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. This viewing was heavily restricted, and guests were not allowed to see the rear
of the B-2. However, Aviation Week editors found that
there were no airspace restrictions above the presentation
area and took photographs of the aircrafts then-secret
planform and suppressed engine exhausts from the air,
to the USAFs disappointment. The B-2s (s/n 82-1066 /
AV-1) rst public ight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale to Edwards AFB.[28]
172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircrafts stealthy properties, particularly its lowobservable stealthy skins.[36][37] Maintenance costs are
about $3.4 million a month for each aircraft.[38]
The total military construction cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million
in 1997 dollars, based only on a eet cost of US$15.48
billion.[3] The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed
in GAO reports, which include spare parts and software
support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.[3]
43.1. DEVELOPMENT
495
y nancially.[42] In 1990, the Department of Defense to the weapon control systems to enable strikes upon nonaccused Northrop of using faulty components in the static targets, such as moving ground vehicles.[51]
ight control system; the threat posed by bird ingestion potentially damaging engine fan blades also required
redesigning.[43]
In time, a number of prominent members of Congress
began to oppose the programs expansion, including later
Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast
votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a
U.S. Senator, representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet
Union.[44] In October 1995, former Chief of Sta of the
United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and former
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional
action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft,[45] and
that the military had greater priorities in spending a limited budget.[46]
Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional aircraft would save money because B-2s would
be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and
use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than
expensive stando weapons. However, in 1995, the
Congressional Budget Oce (CBO), and its Director of
National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s
would reduce the cost of expended munitions by less than
US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the rst two weeks
of a conict, in which the Air Force predicted bombers
would make their greatest contribution; a small fraction of
the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that
the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.[47]
In 2013 the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2s
frequency awareness.[56] The Common Very Low Frequency Receiver upgrade will allow the B-2s to use the
same very low frequency transmissions as the Ohio-class
submarines so as to continue in the nuclear mission until
In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Ser- the Mobile User Objective System is elded.[57]
vices Committee and National Security Committee, ConIn July 2010, political analyst Rebecca Grant speculated
gressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), a long-time opponent of
that when the B-2 becomes unable to reliably penetrate
the bomber, cited ve independent studies and oered
enemy defenses, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning
an amendment to that years defense authorization bill to
II may take on its strike/interdiction mission, carrying
cap production of the bombers to the existing 21 aircraft;
B61 nuclear bombs as a tactical bomber.[58] However, in
[48]
the amendment was narrowly defeated.
Nonetheless,
March 2012, the Pentagon announced that a $2 billion,
Congress did not approve funding for the purchase of any
10-year-long modernization of the B-2 eet was to begin.
additional B-2 bombers.
The main area of improvement would be replacement of
outdated avionics and equipment.[59]
43.1.6
Further developments
496
ing nuclear war ghting, a new integrated processing unit, monitors the aircraft; extensive sleep cycle and fatigue
the ability to carry cruise missiles, and threat warning research was conducted to improve crew performance on
improvements.[63]
long sorties.[73][74][66]
43.2 Design
43.2.1
Overview
43.2. DESIGN
497
the B-2 and other platforms.[85] This is to be followed by To keep the B-2 relevant against increasingly sophisthe Long Range Stando Weapon which may give the B- ticated air defenses with greater computer processing
2 a stando nuclear capability for the rst time.[86]
power that may be able to detect the aircraft through its
stealth measures, the Air Force is working to upgrade
the Defensive Management System (DMS), which uses
sensors, passive receivers, and computers to alert crew
43.2.3 Avionics and systems
about the location of enemy air defense systems. Though
In order to make the B-2 more eective than previous it will not counter air threats, it will be more capable of
bombers, many advanced and modern avionics systems identifying and locating them before the aircraft enters
were integrated into its design, these have been modied strike range. The upgraded DMS will help detect radar
and improved following a switch to conventional warfare emissions from air defenses to allow changes to the automissions. One system is the low probability of intercept routers mission planning information while in-ight so it
AN/APQ-181 multi-mode radar, a fully digital naviga- can receive new data quickly to plan a route that minition system that is integrated with terrain-following radar mizes exposure to dangers. The DMS upgrade is slated
[6]
and Global Positioning System (GPS) guidance, NAS-26 to enter service by 2021.
astro-inertial navigation system (rst such system tested
on the Northrop SM-62 Snark cruise missile)[87] and
a Defensive Management System (DMS) to inform the 43.2.4 Flight controls
ight crew of possible threats.[82] The onboard DMS is
capable of automatically assessing the detection capabilities of identied threats and indicated targets.[88]
Vice President Dick Cheney inside a B-2 cockpit with pilot Capt.
Luke Jayne during a visit to Whiteman AFB, 2006
498
crafts ight envelope, the inner elevons are normally only Radar
in use at slow speeds, such as landing.[98] To avoid potential contact damage during takeo and to provide a Main article: Radar cross-section
nose-down pitching attitude, all of the elevons remain
drooped during takeo until a high enough airspeed has
Reportedly, the B-2 has a radar cross-section of about
been attained.[98]
0.1 m2 .[101] (for comparison, a surface-to-air missile has
roughly the same RCS, while a human has an RCS of
about 1 m2 , see Radar cross-section) The bomber does
not always y stealthily; when nearing air defenses pilots
stealth up the B-2, the details of which are secret. The
43.2.5 Stealth
aircraft is not seen by radar, except briey when the bomb
bay opens. The B-2s clean, low-drag ying wing conguration not only provides exceptional range but is also benecial to reducing its radar prole.[64][102] The ying wing
design most closely resembles a so-called innite at plate
(as vertical control surfaces dramatically increase RCS),
the perfect stealth shape, as it would lack angles to reect back radar waves (initially, the shape of the Northrop
ATB concept was atter; it gradually increased in volume
according to specic military requirements).[103]
The B-2s engines are buried within its wing to conceal the engines fans and minimize their exhaust signature
RCS reduction as a result of shape had already been observed on the Royal Air Force's Avro Vulcan strategic
bomber,[104] and the USAFs F-117 Nighthawk. The F117 used at surfaces (faceting technique) for controlling
radar returns as during its development (see Lockheed
Have Blue) in the early 1970s, technology only allowed
for the simulation of radar reections on simple, at surfaces; computing advances in the 1980s made it possible to simulate radar returns on more complex curved
surfaces.[105] The B-2 is composed of many curved and
rounded surfaces across its exposed airframe to deect
radar beams. This technique, known as continuous curvature, was made possible by advances in computational
uid dynamics, and rst tested on the Northrop Tacit
[106][107]
To reduce optical visibility during daylight ights, the B- Blue.
2 is painted in an anti-reective paint.[77] The undersides The leading edges of the wing converge at the nose of
are dark because it ies at high altitudes (50,000 feet), the aircraft, which prevents radar reections in the diand at that altitude a dark grey painting blends well into rection of ight; the W-shaped rear of the aircraft is for
the sky. It is speculated to have an upward-facing light similar reasons. The engine air intakes are placed on top
sensor which alerts the pilot to increase or reduce alti- of the fuselage to minimize reection to ground-based
tude to match the changing illuminance of the sky.[99] The radar. To avoid detection by look-down radars, engines
original design had tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemi- are buried within the B-2s wing (S-duct) to conceal the
cal, but this was replaced in production aircraft by a con- engines fans. The B-2 also carries all ordnance internally;
trail sensor that alerts the crew when they should change the aircrafts RCS becomes substantially larger while the
altitude.[100] The B-2 is vulnerable to visual interception bay doors are opens, making it temporarily easier to deat ranges of 20 nm/37 km or less.[66]
tect.
The B-2s low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics
enable the undetected penetration of sophisticated antiaircraft defenses and to attack even heavily defended targets. This stealth comes from a combination of reduced
acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures (Multispectral camouage) to evade the various detection systems that could be used to detect and be used to direct
attacks against an aircraft. The B-2s stealth enables the
reduction of supporting aircraft that are required to provide air cover, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses and
electronic countermeasures, making the bomber a "force
multiplier". as of September 2013, there have been no
instances of a missile being launched at a B-2.[66]
499
Infrared
A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000
nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km) for intercontinental sorties
The rst operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base,
Missouri, where the eet is based, on 17 December
1993.[114] The B-2 reached initial operational capability
(IOC) on 1 January 1997.[115] Depot maintenance for the
B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support
and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at
Tinker Air Force Base.[7] Originally designed to deliver
nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a
exible role with conventional and nuclear capability.[77]
The B-2s combat debut was in 1999, during the Kosovo
War. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected
Serbian bombing targets in the rst eight weeks of U.S.
involvement in the War.[7] During this war, B-2s ew
non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri
and back.[7] The B-2 was the rst aircraft to deploy GPS
satellite-guided JDAM smart bombs in combat use in
Kosovo.[116] The use of JDAMs and precision-guided
munitions eectively replaced the controversial tactic of
carpet-bombing, which had been harshly criticised due to
it causing indiscriminate civilian casualties in prior conicts, such as the 1991 Gulf War.[117] On 7 May 1999,
a B-2 dropped ve JDAMs on a target building that was
actually the Chinese Embassy, killing several sta.[118]
500
The B-2 saw service in Afghanistan, striking ground targets in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. With
aerial refueling support, the B-2 ew one of its longest
missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.[7] B-2s would be stationed
in the Middle East as a part of a US military buildup in
the region from 2003.[119]
The B-2s combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of full operational capability in December 2003.[7]
The Pentagons Operational Test and Evaluation 2003
Annual Report noted that the B-2s serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the
maintainability of the B-2s low observable coatings. The
evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite
had shortcomings with pop-up threats.[7][120]
43.4 Operators
In March 2011, B-2s were the rst U.S. aircraft into ac- drops 47 individual 500 lb (230 kg)-class Mark 82 bombs, which
tion in Operation Odyssey Dawn, the UN mandated en- is more than half of a B-2s total ordnance payload.
forcement of the Libyan no-y zone. Three B-2s dropped
40 bombs on a Libyan aireld in support of the UN no-y United States Air Force (20 aircraft in active inventory)
zone.[125] The B-2s ew directly from the U.S. mainland
across the Atlantic Ocean to Libya; a B-2 was refueled
Global Strike Command
by allied tanker aircraft four times during each round trip
mission.[126][127]
509th Bomb Wing Whiteman Air Force Base,
In August 2011, The New Yorker reported that prior to
Missouri (currently has 19 B-2s)
the May 2011 U.S. special forces raid into Abbottabad,
Pakistan that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden,
13th Bomb Squadron 2005
U.S. ocials had considered an airstrike by one or more
325th Bomb Squadron 19982005
B-2s as an alternative; an airstrike was rejected because
393d Bomb Squadron 1993
of damage to civilian buildings in the area from using a
394th Combat Training Squadron
bunker busting bomb.[128] There were also concerns an
1996
airstrike would make it dicult to positively identify Bin
Ladens remains and so concluding he was in fact dead
would be problematic.[129]
On 28 March 2013, two B-2s ew a round trip of 13,000
miles (20,800 km) from Whiteman Air Force base in
Missouri to South Korea, dropping dummy ordnance on
the Jik Do target range. The mission, part of the an-
501
hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion.[133][134] After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 eet o operational
status until clearing the eet for ight status 53 days later
325th Weapons Squadron 2005
on 15 April 2008.[135] The cause of the crash was later de(Whiteman)
termined to be moisture in the aircrafts Port Transducer
715th Weapons Squadron 200305
Units during air data calibration, which distorted the inAir National Guard
formation being sent to the bombers air data system. As
a result, the ight control computers calculated an inaccu 131st Bomb Wing (Associate) Whiteman Air rate airspeed, and a negative angle of attack, causing the
aircraft to pitch upward 30 degrees during takeo.[136]
Force Base 2009
In February 2010, another serious incident involving a B2 occurred at Andersen AFB. The aircraft involved was
AV-11 Spirit of Washington. The aircraft was severely
Air Force Materiel Command
damaged by re while on the ground and underwent 18
months of repairs in order to enable it to y back to the
412th Test Wing Edwards Air Force Base, Cali- mainland for more comprehensive repairs.[137][138] Spirit
fornia (has one B-2)
of Washington was repaired and returned to service in
December 2013.[139][140] At the time of the accident the
USAF had no training to deal with tailpipe res on the
419th Flight Test Squadron 1997
B-2s.[141]
420th Flight Test Squadron 1992
97
110th Bomb Squadron
43.5 Accidents
Main article: Andersen Air Force Base B-2 accident
On 23 February 2008, B-2 Spirit of Kansas crashed
502
The restored test aircraft is on display in the museums
Cold War Gallery.[144]
From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space
Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force
Base displayed the 10-short-ton (9-metric-ton) HondaStealth, a 60% scale mock-up of a stealthy bomber
which had been built by North American Honda in
1988 for an advertising campaign.[145] Honda donated
the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the
model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a dierent
example. The museum received a B-1 Lancer for display
(Ellsworth being a B-1 base) in 2005 and destroyed the
mock-up.[146][147]
2 internal bays for ordnance and payload with an ofcial limit of 40,000 lb (18,000 kg); maximum estimated limit is 50,000 lb (23,000 kg).[65]
80 500 lb class bombs (Mk-82, GBU-38)
mounted on Bomb Rack Assembly (BRA)
36 750 lb CBU class bombs on BRA
16 2,000 lb class bombs (Mk-84, GBU31) mounted on Rotary Launcher Assembly
(RLA)
16 B61 or B83 nuclear bombs on RLA
(strategic mission)
A B-2 in formation ight with eight U.S. Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets
General characteristics
Crew: 2: pilot and commander (co-pilot)
Length: 69 ft (21.0 m)
Wingspan: 172 ft (52.4 m)
43.11. REFERENCES
503
[2] Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures. Air Force Magazine, May 2009.
Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[3] B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues Letter Report,
14 August 1997, GAO/NSIAD-97-181. United States
General Accounting Oce (GAO). Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
Spirit of Indiana sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on
23 June 2006
B-2 in ight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with
the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background
43.11 References
43.11.1
Notes
504
[38] The Gold Plated Hangar Queen Survives. Strategyworld.com, 14 June 2010. Retrieved: 8 April 2011.
[59] Kelley, Michael. The Air Force Announced Its Upgrading The One Plane It Needs To Bomb Iran. Business Insider, 28 March 2012.
[39] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aordable Plane?" The Atlantic, 26 March 2012. Retrieved: 30
June 2012.
[61] Schogol, Je. Schwartz Defends Cost of USAFs NextGen Bomber. Defense News. 29 February 2012.
[62] Less, Eloise. Questions about whether the US needs another $55 billion worth of bombers. Business Insider, 27
March 2012.
[63] Osborn, Kris (25 June 2014). B-2 Bomber Set to Receive Massive Upgrade. www.dodbuzz.com (Monster).
Retrieved 25 June 2014.
[64] Croddy and Wirtz 2005, pp. 341342.
[65] Spick 2000, pp. 340341.
[66] Chiles, James R. (September 2013). The Stealth Bomber
Elite. Air & Space. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
[67] Sweetman 2005, pp. 7374.
[68] Boyne 2002, p. 466
[69] Fitzsimons 1978, p. 2282
[48] Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act. fas.org, 23 June 1997.
[71] "The B-2 Spirit stealth bomber" Military Heat, 2007. Accessed: 24 April 2014.
43.11. REFERENCES
505
[78] B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber Air Force Technology Web. [105] Rich 1994, p. 21.
28 Oct. 2014.
[106] Reeds Vol 14: Stealth Warship Technology. Christopher
[79] Richardson 2001, pp. 120121.
Lavers. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
[80] Rip and Hasik 2002, p. 201.
[81] Rip and Hasik 2002, pp. 242246.
[107] B-2: The Spirit of Innovation (PDF). northropgrumman.com. Northrop Grumman. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
[108] Radar, Cordless. RAND Report Page 37. Flight Inter[82] Air Force programs: B-2. Project On Government Overnational. Retrieved 2010-12-16.
sight (POGO), 16 April 2004. Retrieved: 13 September
2009.
[109] VI - STEALTH AIRCRAFT: EAGLES AMONG
SPARROWS?". Federation of American Scientist. Re[83] Evans 2004, p. 13
trieved 2008-02-21.
[84] Mayer, Daryl. Northrop Grumman and USAF Ver- [110] Croddy and Wirtz 2005, p. 342.
ify Proper Fit of 30,000 lb Penetrator Weapon on B2 Bomber. defpro.com, 22 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 [111] Lewis, Paul. B-2 to receive maintenance boost. Flight
September 2009.
International, 5 March 2002.
[85] AGM-158 JASSM Cruise Missiles: FY 2011 Orders. [112] Hart, Jim. Northrop Grumman Applies New Coating to
Defense Industry Daily, 14 May 2011.
Operational B-2. Northrop Grumman Integrated Systems, 19 April 2004.
[86] Kristensen, Hans M. (22 April 2013). B-2 Stealth
Bomber To Carry New Nuclear Cruise Missile. FAS [113] Fulghum, D.A. First F-22 large-scale, air combat exerStrategic Security Blog. Federation of American Sciencise wins praise and triggers surprise (online title), Away
tists. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
Game. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 8 January
2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[87] Inside the Stealth Bomber. p. 57. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
[114] Pace 1999, p. 66
[88] Sweetman 2005, p. 73
[115] Pace 1999, p. 73
[89] Siuru 1993, p. 118
[116] Hansen, Sta Sgt. Ryan. JDAM continues to be
[90] AIR WARFARE. Google Books (ABC-CLIO, Inc). Rewarghters weapon of choice. US Air Force, 17 March
trieved 2015-02-04.
2006. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[91] Page, Lewis. Upgrade drags Stealth Bomber IT systems [117]
into the 90s. The Register, 11 July 2008.
[118]
[92] Janes Aircraft Upgrades 2003, p. 1711f
[119]
[93] AN/APQ-181 Radar System. Raytheon. Retrieved: 11
August 2012.
[120]
[94] Moir and Seabridge 2008, p. 397.
[121]
[95] Moir and Seabridge 2008, pp. 256258.
[96] Flight Control Actuation System Integrator for the B-2 [122] US plans separate nuclear command. BBC News, 25 OcSpirit. Moog, Retrieved: 11 August 2012.
tober 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
506
[123] Air Force Global Strike Command ocials assume B-52, [144] Cold War Gallery. National Museum of the United States
B-2 mission. United States Air Force, 2 February 2010.
Air Force. Retrieved: 24 August 2011.
[124] Chavanne, Bettina H. USAF Creates Global Strike Com- [145] Honda- Stealth wfb4.com. Retrieved: 1 December
2010.
mand. Aviation Week, 24 October 2008. Retrieved: 13
September 2009.
[146] Cissell, Bill. Museum slices stealth display. rapidcityjournal.com, 24 October 2004. Retrieved: 1 December
[125] Martin, David. Crisis in Libya: U.S. bombs Qaddas
2010.
airelds. CBS News, 20 March 2011.
[126] Tirpak, John A. Bombers Over Libya. Air Force Maga- [147] Woodward, Laura. B-1 to go on display in museum.
rapidcityjournal.com, 4 February 2005. Retrieved: 1 Dezine, July 2011.
cember 2010.
[127] Marcus, Jonathan. Libya military operation: Who should
[148] Pace 1999, Appendix A.
command?" BBC News, 21 March 2011.
[128] Schmidle, Nicholas. Getting Bin Laden. The New [149]
Yorker, 8 August 2011.
[150]
[129] US had planned air strike to level Osamas Abbottabad
hideout : Americas, News - India Today. Indiato[151]
day.intoday.in. Retrieved 2013-12-21.
[130] US ies stealth bombers over South Korea Agence France- [152] B-2. fas.org. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
Presse, 28 April 2013.
[131] U.S. ies B-2 stealth bombers to S. Korea in extended
deterrence mission aimed at North CBS News, 2013-0328.
[132] B-2 Crashes on Takeo From Guam. Aviation Week, 23
February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
[133] Air Force: Sensor moisture caused 1st B-2 crash. USA
Today, 5 June 2008. Retrieved: 16 February 2009.
[134] B-2 crash video. Youtube.com. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
[135] Linch, Airman 1st Class Stephen. B-2s return to ight after safety pause. US Air Force, 21 April 2008. Retrieved:
1 December 2010.
[136] B-2 accident report released. US Air Force, 6 June 2008.
Retrieved: 20 March 2011.
[137] Keerigan, Kevin. B-2 Fire at AAFB Back in February of
2010 Was 'Horric,' Not 'Minor'. pacicnewscenter.com,
1 September 2011. Retrieved: 5 January 2012.
[138] Mayer, Daryl. Program oce brings home 'wounded
warrior'. wpafb.af.mil. Retrieved: 5 January 2012.
[139] This story was written by Candy Knight. ""Spirit of Washington rises from the ashes. Whiteman.af.mil. Retrieved 2013-12-21.
[140] Hennigan, W. J., The $105M resurrection of a B-2
stealth bomber, Los Angeles Times, 22 March 2014
[141] Hemmerdinger, Jon (27 March 2014). USAF updates
reghter training and equipment following B-2 tailpipe
re. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
[142] Factsheet: Northrop B-2 Spirit. National Museum of the
United States Air Force. Retrieved: 24 August 2011.
[143] B-2 fact page. National Museum of the United States Air
Force. Retrieved: 1 December 2010.
43.11.2 Bibliography
Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the
Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD96-192. US General Accounting Oce, September
1996.
Boyne, Walter J. Air Warfare: an International Encyclopedia: A-L. Santa Barbara, California: ABCCLIO, 2002. ISBN 1-57607-345-9.
Chudoba. Bernd. Stability and Control of Conventional and Unconventional Aircraft Congurations:
A Generic Approach. Stoughton, Wisconsin: Books
on Demand, 2001. ISBN 3-83112-982-7.
Crickmore, Paul and Alison J. Crickmore,
Nighthawk F-117 Stealth Fighter. North Branch,
Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2003. ISBN 0-76031512-4.
Croddy, Eric and James J. Wirtz. Weapons of Mass
Destruction: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy,
Technology, and History, Volume 2. Santa Barbara,
California: ABC-CLIO, 2005. ISBN 1-85109-4903.
Dawson, T.W.G., G.F. Kitchen and G.B. Glider.
Measurements of the Radar Echoing Area of the Vulcan by the Optical Simulation Method. Farnborough,
Hants, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment, September 1957 National Archive Catalogue le, AVIA
6/20895
Donald, David, ed. Black Jets: The Development
and Operation of Americas Most Secret Warplanes.
Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing Inc.,
2003. ISBN 1-880588-67-6.
507
Donald, David. The Pocket Guide to Military Aircraft: And the Worlds Airforces. London: Octopus
Publishing Group, 2004. ISBN 0-681-03185-9.
Spick, Mike. B-2 Spirit, The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
Eden, Paul. Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. New York:
Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Evans, Nicholas D. Military Gadgets: How Advanced Technology is Transforming Todays Battleeld and Tomorrows. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: FT Press, 2004. ISBN 0-1314-4021-7.
bomber
on
airforce-
Chapter 44
44.1 Development
Joint STARS evolved from separate United States Army
and Air Force programs to develop, detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of
troops. In 1982, the programs were merged and the U.S.
Air Force became the lead agent. The concept and sensor
technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the
Tacit Blue experimental aircraft. The prime contract was
awarded to Grumman Aerospace Corporation in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems.
44.1.2 Future
The Air Force began an analysis of alternatives (AOA)
in March 2010 for its next generation ground moving
target indication (GMTI) radar aircraft eet. The study
was completed in March 2012 and recommended buying a new business jet-based ISR aircraft, such as an Air
Force version of the Navy P-8 Poseidon, and the RQ4B Global Hawk Block 40. However, at a Senate Armed
Services Committee meeting on 20 March 2012, the Air
Force said it can not aord a new ISR platform. The E-8
is considered viable in the near and medium terms. As
of October 2012, a test plane has had a Hewlett-Packard
central computer installed, with work to begin on the rest
in 2013. Before the AOA started, Northrop Grumman
received funds for two batches of new engines. One set
of engines has own on a JSTARS test plane, and the
other set is in storage. The Air Force does not plan to
replace the engines of the 16-plane eet due to the scal
environment. The company wants to replace the aircrafts
data link, but the Air Force will not, due to cost and because they can still receive data through satellite links.
Northrop also wants to upgrade its communications with
Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below because
of the Armys shift towards the system. The Air Force
says JSTARS is in a phase of the capability improvements
and is expected to remain in operation through 2030.[4][5]
In late 2005, Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract for upgrading engines and other systems.[1] Pratt &
Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS),
will produce and deliver JT8D-219 engines for the E-8s.
Their greater eciency will allow the Joint STARS to
spend more time on station, take o from a wider range of
runways, climb faster, y higher all with a much reduced
cost per ying hour.
44.1.1
Upgrades
508
44.2. DESIGN
smaller and more ecient.[7] Current pre-decisional requirements are for an aircraft with a 10-13 person crew
with a 3.966.1 m (13.020.0 ft) radar array. Though
smaller than the crew and radar size of the E-8C, it could
be challenging to meet those demands in a typical business jet and could require a relatively large platform. The
stang and sensor requirements are comparable to the
cancelled Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A, which was
originally planned as the E-8s replacement. The Air
Force plans to award a contract at the end of FY 2016, a
relatively quick pace partly to avoid budget redistributions
to other programs. Replacing the E-8C avoids nearly $11
billion in operations and sustainment costs needed to keep
the eet relevant and airworthy.[8] The aircraft is to y at
38,000 ft for eight hours. Program managers are interested in integrating an FAA-certied ight deck, aerial
refueling capability, and potentially full motion video and
the joint range extension applications protocol to transmit data to joint agencies at further distances. Another
potential feature could be beyond-line-of-sight communications with unmanned aerial vehicles like the RQ-4
Global Hawk.[9]
509
44.2 Design
The E-8C is an aircraft modied from the Boeing
707300 series commercial airliner. The E-8 carries
specialized radar, communications, operations and control subsystems. The most prominent external feature is
the 40 ft (12 m) canoe-shaped radome under the forward
fuselage that houses the 24 ft (7.3 m) side-looking APY-7
passive electronically scanned array antenna.
The E-8C can respond quickly and eectively to support
worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jamresistant system capable of operating while experiencing
heavy electronic countermeasures. The E-8C can y a
mission prole for 9 hours without refueling. Its range
and on-station time can be substantially increased through
in-ight refueling.
The AN/APY-7 radar can operate in wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), xed target indicator (FTI) target classication, and synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) modes.
To pick up moving targets, the radar looks at the Doppler
frequency shift of the returned signal. It can look from a
long range, which the military refers to as a high stando capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side
of the aircraft for a 120-degree eld of view covering
nearly 50,000 km (19,305 mile) and can simultaneously
track 600 targets at more than 250 km (152 miles). The
510
Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and
control (O&C)subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians The 93d Air Control Wing, which activated 29 January
perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intel- 1996, accepted its rst aircraft, 11 June 1996, and deligence, communications and maintenance functions.
ployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in OcNorthrop Grumman has tested the installation of a MS- tober. The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group
177 camera on an E-8C to provide real time visual target monitored treaty compliance while NATO rotated troops
through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The rst production Econrmation.[14]
44.4. VARIANTS
511
44.4 Variants
512
44.5 Operators
United States
Embraer R-99B
Raytheon Sentinel
General characteristics
Crew: 4 ight crew
Capacity: 18 specialists (crew size varies according
to mission)
Related lists
List of active military aircraft of the United States
44.8 References
Citations
Height: 42 ft 6 in (12.95 m)
Empty weight: 171,000 lb (77,564 kg)
513
Bibliography
Eden, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London, UK: Amber Books, 2004.
ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
This article incorporates public domain material from
websites or documents of the United States Air Force.
[7] Boeing, Bombardier and Gulfstream attend JSTARS industry day - Flightglobal.com, 21 April 2014
[8] USAF reveals notional specications for JSTARS replacement - Flightglobal.com, 16 May 2014
[10] Gulfstream to pitch G650 for JSTARS replacement Flightglobal.com, 22 May 2014
[11] Boeing Eyes 737-700 Solution for New JSTARS - Defensenews.com, 12 September 2014
[12] Butler, Amy (15 September 2014). U.S. Air Force
Scrimps On Jstars Recap Program. Aviation Week. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
[13] Lockheed teams with Raytheon for JSTARS replacement
- Flightglobal.com, 19 February 2015
[14] Matthews, William Joint STARS Aircraft Tests U-2 Camera in Tandem With Radar Def News, 1 November 2010
[15] Coskuner, Nevin, Multimission Aircraft Design Study - Operational Scenarios. Air Force Institute of Technology
[16] http://defensetech.org/2012/01/27/
a-basic-mistake-that-trashed-a-jstars/ A Basic Mistake
that Trashed a JSTARS
[17] http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/E-8C_AOR_13Mar09.pdf Accident Report
[18] Failure To Use Radar Planes Against Taliban Is Foolish
[19] Analysts switch stirs tanker talk al.com
[20] DefenceNews, Issue November 23, 2009.
[21] Gilligan, Andrew (28 November 2010). North and South
Korea move close to war footing. The Daily Telegraph.
[22] Photo Release - Northrop Grummans Joint STARS is
Key Enabler in Success of U.S. Navy/Air Force Joint Surface Warfare Network-Enabled Weapon Joint Capability
Technology Demons... tradershuddle.com
[23] DoD 4120.15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace
Vehicles
[24] Factsheets : E-8C Joint Stars. U.S. Air Force. August
2013. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
Chapter 45
45.1. DEVELOPMENT
The switch from high-altitude to low-altitude ight proles severely aected the B-70, whose design was highly
tuned to provide the desired high-altitude performance.
Planners outlined a series of low-level proles for the B70, but higher aerodynamic drag at low level limited the
B-70 to subsonic speed while dramatically decreasing its
range.[7] The result would be an aircraft with somewhat
higher subsonic speed, but less range than the B-52 it was
meant to replace. Unsuited for the new low-altitude role,
and because of a growing shift to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) force, the B-70 bomber program
was canceled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy,[5][11]
and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic
research program.[12]
Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52s
exibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the
nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52s
huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for
longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition
of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal
with radars.[13] During the Vietnam War the concept that
all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head,
and the big belly modications increased the B-52s total bomb load to 60,000 pounds (27,000 kg),[14] turning
it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used
against ground troops along with strategic targets from
high altitudes.[10] The much smaller bomb bay of the B70 would have made it much less useful in this role.
45.1.2
Although eective, the B-52 was not ideal for the lowlevel role. This led to a number of aircraft designs known
as penetrators, which were tuned specically for longrange low-altitude ight. The rst of these designs to
see operation was the supersonic F-111 ghter-bomber,
which used variable-sweep wings for tactical missions.[15]
Similar aircraft also emerged for other users as well, notably the BAC TSR-2, and later, Panavia Tornado and
Sukhoi Su-24. A number of studies on a strategic-range
counterpart followed.
The rst post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known
as the Subsonic Low Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was
completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked
more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept
wing, T-tail and large high-bypass engines.[16] This was
followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft
(ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing planform,
then in vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned
a relatively small aircraft with a 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg)
payload and a range of 8,750 nautical miles (16,200 kilometres), with 2,500 nmi (4,600 km) being own at low altitudes. In August 1963 the similar Low-Altitude Manned
Penetrator (LAMP) design was completed, which called
for an aircraft with a 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) bomb
load and somewhat shorter range of 7,150 nmi (13,240
km).[17][18]
515
These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced
Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to
industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North
American.[19][20] In mid-1964, the USAF had revised
its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced
Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which diered from
AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed
high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing
Mach 2 class Convair B-58 Hustler.[21] Given the lengthy
series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that
the new name actually stood for Americas Most Studied Aircraft.[22][23]
The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B70 program had led some to question the need for a
new strategic bomber of any sort. The U.S. Air Force
was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the
nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense.
They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce
option because the bombers could be quickly launched
into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked.
However, the introduction of the SLBM mooted the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs (Minuteman III had the accuracy and
speed needed to attack point targets. During this time,
ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their
lower unit cost,[24] but development costs were much
higher.[7] Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force portion of
the deterrent force[25] and felt a new expensive bomber
was not needed.[26][27] McNamara limited the AMSA
program to studies and component development beginning in 1964.[27]
Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were
awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in
1968.[27][28] McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 eet and
adding nearly 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then
being lled by the B-58.[10][27] He again vetoed funding
for AMSA aircraft development in 1968.[28]
516
45.1. DEVELOPMENT
45.1.4
517
plicated eorts for the limitation of the strategic arms
race.[46] Western military leaders were generally happy
with the decision. NATO commander Alexander Haig
described the ALCM as an attractive alternative to the
B-1. French General Georges Buis stated The B-1 is a
formidable weapon, but not terribly useful. For the price
of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles.[46]
Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981. The program included 70 ights totaling 378 hours. A top speed of Mach
2.22 was reached by the second B-1A. Engine testing also
continued during this time with the YF101 engines totaling almost 7,600 hours.[51]
518
ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested
that the existing B-52 eet with ALCM would remain a
credible threat until 1985, as it was predicted that 75% of
the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets.[57] After this, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG31 interceptor and the rst Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B52 increasingly vulnerable.[58] During 1981, funds were
allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s
time-frame, this led to the Long-Range Combat Aircraft
(LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111
and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed
on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic
operations.[57]
In 1981, it was believed the B-1 could be in operation before the ATB, covering the transitionary period between
the B-52s increasing vulnerability and the ATBs introduction. Reagan decided the best solution was to procure
both the B-1 and ATB, and on 2 October 1981 Reagan
announced that 100 B-1s were to be ordered to ll the
LRCA role.[36][59]
In January 1982 the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the
development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers.[60]
Numerous changes were made to the design to make it
better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in
the new B-1B.[47] These changes included a reduction in
maximum speed,[56] which allowed the variable-aspect
intake ramps to be replaced by simpler xed geometry
intake ramps in the newer design. This reduced the B versions radar signature; the reduction in radar cross-section
was seen as a good trade o for the speed decrease.[36]
High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area
for the revised design,[56] and low-level speeds were increased from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92. The B-1B has a
maximum speed of Mach 1.25 at higher altitudes.[36][61]
The B-1Bs maximum takeo weight was increased to
477,000 pounds (216,000 kg) from the B-1As 395,000
pounds (179,000 kg).[36][62] The weight increase was to
allow for takeo with a full internal fuel load and for external weapons to be carried. Rockwell engineers were
45.2 Design
45.2.1 Overview
The B-1 has a blended wing body conguration, with
variable-sweep wing, four turbofan engines, triangular
n control surfaces and cruciform tail. The wings can
45.2. DESIGN
519
520
AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming
equipment,[82] which has three sets of antennas; one at
the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing
in the tail radome.[83][84] Also in the tail radome is
the AN/ALQ-153 Missile Approach Warning (PulseDoppler radar).[85] The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of
eight AN/ALE-49 are dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ184 avionics management system.[86] Each AN/ALE-49
dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B ares. The
MJU-23A/B are is one of the worlds largest infrared
countermeasure ares at a weight of over 3.3 pounds (1.5
kg).[87] The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE50 Towed Decoy System.[88]
The B-1 has been upgraded since production, beginning with the Conventional Mission Upgrade Program
(CMUP), which added a new MIL-STD-1760 smartweapons interface to enable the use of precision-guided
conventional weapons. CMUP began with Block A,
which was the standard B-1B with the capability to deliver non-precision gravity bombs. Block B brought an
improved Synthetic Aperture Radar, and upgrades to the
Defensive Countermeasures System and was elded in
1995. Block C provided an enhanced capability for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie
with modications made to 50 bomb racks.[91]
Block D added a Near Precision Capability via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities.[91] The rst
part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade added
Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), ALE-50 Towed
Decoy System, and anti-jam radios.[82][92][93] Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind
Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM154 Joint Stando Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158
521
pears to stem from an early newspaper article on the air- The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons;[36] its nucraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as B- clear capability was disabled by 1995 with the removal
ONE with the hyphen inadvertently omitted.[110]
of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware.[117]
522
one-third of its then eet into storage; this proposal resulted in several U.S. Air National Guard ocers and
members of Congress lobbying against the proposal, including the drafting of an amendment to prevent such
cuts.[67] The 2001 proposal was intended to allow money
to be diverted to further upgrades to the remaining B1Bs, such as computer modernization.[67] In 2003, accompanied by the removal of B-1Bs from the two bomb
wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to
retire 33 aircraft to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of remaining B-1Bs.[123] In 2004, a new
appropriation bill called for some of the retired aircraft
to return to service,[124] and the USAF returned seven
mothballed bombers to service to increase the eet to 67
aircraft.[125]
Crew members transferring a GBU-31 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B on 29 March
2007, in Southwest Asia
45.5. OPERATORS
523
45.5 Operators
United States
524
45.7.1
Crashes
On 29 August 1984, B-1A (AF Ser. No. 740159) stalled and crashed while performing minimum control speed tests at low altitude. The crew
used the escape capsule to leave the bomber, but the
parachutes deployed improperly, causing the capsule to hit nose down. The impact killed the B-1s
pilot, Rockwell test pilot Doug Beneeld, and seriously injured two other crew members.[157][158]
In September 1987, B-1B (s/n 84-0052) from the
96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training
Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near La Junta, Colorado while ying on a low-level training route. This
was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew
members aboard. The two crew members in jump
seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection
seats perished. The root cause of the accident was
thought to be a bird strike on a wings leading edge
during the low-level ight. The impact was severe
enough to sever fuel and hydraulic lines on one side
of the aircraft, the other sides engines functioned
long enough to allow for ejection. The B-1B eet
was later modied to protect these supply lines.[159]
In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0063) from the
96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess
AFB crashed near Tye, Texas after a re broke out
above the left engines. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft.[159]
525
On 18 February 1998, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the
7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Texas crashed near
Marion, Kentucky when a re detected by a cockpit
instrument panel shut down the aircrafts power.[162]
All four crew members were able to eject and were
rescued safely.[163]
In December 2001, B-1B (s/n 86-0114) from the
28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth
AFB, South Dakota, was lost over the Indian Ocean.
All four crew members successfully ejected and
were rescued.[164] The bomber was ying en route to
a long-range combat mission over Afghanistan when
the crew declared an in-ight emergency. The pilot, Captain William Steele, attributed the crash to
multiple malfunctions causing the bomber to go
out of control.[156] Because of the waters depth,
the structural data collector (SDC) or "Black Box"
was not recovered and the cause was not positively
determined. The aircraft had recently returned
from a routine Phase Inspection, and was on its
rst combat mission after returning to the island of
Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory.
This was the rst B-1B to be lost during combat
operations.[156][165]
On 4 April 2008, B-1B (s/n 86-0116) lost hydraulic
power while taxiing, then crashed into a concrete
barrier and caught re at Al Udeid AB, Qatar. The
crew safely evacuated the aircraft. The B-1B was
carrying two 2,000 lb bombs at the time, which did
not detonate. The aircraft was destroyed.[166]
On 19 August 2013, B-1B (AF Ser. No. 85-0091)
out of Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota crashed in a
remote area near Broadus, Montana. All four crew
members survived by ejecting before the aircraft
crashed.[167] A report found that the crash was due
to a mechanical failure leading to a fuel leak and
explosions.[168][169]
526
527
Fuel capacity, optional: 10,000 U.S. gal (38,000
L) fuel tank in 13 internal weapons bays each
Performance
Maximum speed:
At altitude: Mach 1.25 (721 kn or 830 mph
or 1,335 km/h) at 50,000 ft or 15,000 m altitude
At low level: Mach 0.92 (700 mph or 1,100
km/h) at 200500 ft or 61152 m altitude
Range: 6,478 nmi (7,455 mi; 11,997 km)
B-1B cockpit
Wingspan:
Swept: 79 ft (24 m)
Height: 34 ft (10.4 m)
Airfoil: NACA69-190-2
Empty weight: 192,000 lb (87,100 kg)
Loaded weight: 326,000 lb (148,000 kg)
Max. takeo weight: 477,000 lb (216,400 kg)
Powerplant: 4 General Electric F101-GE-102
augmented turbofans
30,780 lbf
528
[4] As per B-1B Weapons Loading Checklist T.O. 1B-1B33-2-1CL-12 Section 3.4 (Only six each in forward and
intermediate bays and three each in the aft bay)
[5] 96 if using four-packs, 144 if using six-packs. This capability has not yet been elded on the B-1
45.11.2 Citations
Avionics
Targeting
Pod
Related lists
45.11 References
45.11.1
Notes
45.11. REFERENCES
529
[57] Mitchell, Douglas D. IB81107, Bomber Options for Replacing B-52s. Library of Congress Congressional Research Service, via Digital Library, UNT, 3 May 1982.
Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
[32] Kocivar, Ben. Our New B-1 Bomber High, Low, Fast,
and Slow. Popular Science, Volume 197, Issue 5, November 1970, p. 86.
[33] Knaack 1988, p. 584.
[34] Rockwell International history 19701986. Boeing. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[35] Sorrels 1983, p. 27.
[36] Lee 2008, p. 13.
[37] Whitford 1987, p. 136.
[38] Schefter, Jim. The Other Story About The Controversial
B-1. Popular Science, Volume 210. Issue 5, May 1977,
p. 112.
[39] Spick 1986, pp. 3032.
[40] Knaack 1988, p. 586.
[58] Jumper, John P. Global Strike Task Force: A Transforming Concept, Forged by Experience. Aerospace Power
Journal 15, no. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 3031. Originally
published by Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base,
2001.
[59] Coates, James. Reagan approves B-1, alters basing for
MX. Chicago Tribune, 3 October 1981. Retrieved: 28
July 2010.
[60] Jenkins 1999, p. 62.
[61] Pace 1998, p. 64.
[62] Spick 1986, p. 28.
[63] Casil 2003, p. 7.
[43] Willis, David K. Japans scrutiny of Soviet jet jars detente. Christian Science Monitor, 16 September 1976.
Retrieved: 23 May 2010.
[75] CFM delivers 20,000th engine. CFM International. Retrieved: 25 January 2010.
530
[104] La Rue, Nori. B-1 Sniper pod aims to hit summer target. US Air Force, 4 June 2008. Retrieved: 8 October
2009.
[105] Wicke, Russell. ACC declares small diameter bomb initially operational. US Air Force, 5 October 2006.
[106] Rivezzo, Charles. B-1B Lancer upgrade will triple payload. USAF, 11 April 2011. Retrieved: 31 August 2011.
[107] Air Force Begins Massive B-1B Overhaul - Defensetech.org, 21 February 2014
[87] Humphries, J. A. and D. E. Miller. AIAA-1997[108] Pace 1998, pp. 62, 69.
2963:
B-1B/MJU-23 are strike test program.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, [109] Jenkins 1999, p. 83.
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference
and Exhibit, 33rd, Seattle, Washington, 69 July 1997. [110] Jenkins 1999, p. 67.
Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[111] Jenkins 1999, p. 116.
[88] B-1B USAF fact sheet. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 8
[112]
October 2009.
[113]
[89] Radar Cross Section Measurements (8-12 GHz)
[114]
[90] Cunningham, Jim. The New Old Threat: Fighter Upgrades and What They Mean for the USAF, p. 7. Illinois [115]
State University, 3 December 1997.
[91] Skaarup 2002, p. 19.
[116]
[92] Boeing Completes Block E Avionics Upgrade of B-1
Bomber Fleet. Boeing, 4 December 1998. Retrieved: 8 [117]
October 2009.
[118]
[93] Adams, Charlotte. Building Blocks to Upgrade to B-1B.
Avionics Magazine, 1 August 2002. Retrieved: 24 June [119]
2010.
[120]
[94] Boeing 2006 Block E Upgrades. Boeing, 27 September [121] History B-1 Lancer Bomber. Boeing. Retrieved: 31
2006. Retrieved: 14 August 2010.
July 2010.
[95] Block F Upgrades. US Air Force, 21 January 2003. Re- [122]
trieved: 24 June 2010.
[123]
[96] Young, Susan H. Gallery of USAF Weapons. Air Force
Magazine, May 2009. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[124]
[97] Maull, Lisa and Forrest Gossett. Boeing B-1 Upgraded
With Fully Integrated Data Link Completes 1st Flight.
Boeing, 13 August 2009. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[125]
[98] US Air Force Receives 1st B-1 Equipped with Boeing
Integrated Battle Station. Boeing
[99] Boeing Awarded B-1B Upgrade Contract. September [126] Hanley, Charles J. Air Force Quietly Building Iraq Pres2011. AirForces Monthly. Issue 282. p. 14.
ence. commondreams.org, 14 July 2007. Retrieved: 30
June 2011.
[100] Dyess receives rst operational IBS-upgraded B-1.
USAF, 24 January 2014.
[127] Wicke, Tech. Sgt. Russell, B-1 performs as never envisioned after 20 years. US Air Force, 17 April 2008. Re[101] Rivezzo, Charles V. New upgrades revitalize B-1B
trieved: 8 October 2009.
Lancers. USAF, 2 June 2012.
[128] Door 2010, pp. 4045.
[102] Hernandez, Jason. 419th FLTS demonstrates Sniper pod
capability. US Air Force, 23 February 2007.
[129] Bates, Matthew. B-1B achieves rst supersonic ight using synthetic fuel. Air Force News, 20 March 2008.
[103] Pate, Capt. Kristen. Sniper ATP-equipped B-1B has
combat rst. US Air Force, 11 August 2008. Retrieved: [130] Ellsworth Airmen join Operation Odyssey Dawn. Rapid
8 October 2009.
City Journal, 29 March 2011.
45.11. REFERENCES
531
[131] The Air Force in Facts and Figures 2013 USAF Al- [150] B-1B Lancer/83-0067. sdairandspacemuseum.com.
manac. Air Force Magazine, Journal of the Air Force AsRetrieved: 10 October 2010.
sociation, Vol. 96, Issue 5, May 2013.
[151] B-1B Lancer/83-0068. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
[132] Hebert, Adam J. The 2018 Bomber and Its Friends. Air
May 2013.
Force magazine, October 2006. Retrieved: 14 August
[152] B-1B Lancer/83-0069. Museum of Aviation. Retrieved:
2010.
31 July 2010.
[133] Shachtman, Noah. The Air Force Needs a Serious Upgrade, Brookings Institution, 15 July 2010. Retrieved: 31 [153] B-1B Lancer/83-0070. Hill Aerospace Museum. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
August 2011.
[134] Axe, David. Why Can't the Air Force Build an Aord- [154] B-1B Lancer/83-0071. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
May 2013.
able Plane?" The Atlantic, 26 March 2012. Retrieved: 30
June 2012.
[155] B-1B Lancer/84-0051. National Museum of the United
States Air Force. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
[135] Budget cutting axe may fall on the U.S. bomber force.
Reporter News. Retrieved: 25 July 2010.
[156] Bomber Crew Rescued from Sea. USA Today, 12 De[136] Gosan, Angelo. Neugebauer ghting to preserve B1 procember 2001. Retrieved: 18 July 2006.
gram. Gosanangelo.com, 5 May 2011. Retrieved: 31 Au[157] Jenkins 1999, p. 63.
gust 2011.
[137] Mehta, Aaron (24 April 2015). Bomber, Sixth-Gen Take [158] Pace 1998, p. 37.
Cuts in Chairmans Markup. Defense News (Gannett).
Retrieved 26 April 2015. It will eventually replace the [159] Jenkins 1999, pp. 114116.
eet of B-52 and B-1 bomber eets. Although technical [160] Air Force suspends Mondays combat training ights.
specications are largely unknown, it is expected the deCNN, 20 September 1997. Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
sign will be stealthy, with optionally manned capability.
[161] B-1 bomber crash blamed on crew. CNN, 9 September
[138] Brook,Tom Vanden. B-1 bomber mission shifts from
1997. Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
Afghanistan to China, Pacic. USA Today, 11 May 2012.
[162] 4 survive B-1B bomber crash in Kentucky. CNN, 18
[139] The 24/7 Bone Over Afghanistan. Strategypage.com, 15
February 1998. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
August 2012.
[163] Crew parachutes from B-1B bomber just before crash.
[140] U.S. Air Force tests B-1B Lancer bomber for maritime
CNN, February 1998. Retrieved: 16 July 2011.
environment & anti-ship missions - Navyrecognition.com,
19 September 2013
[164] Morris, Ted. Call Sign ICECUBE 44." zianet.com, 24
August 2010. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
[141] Sputnik (23 September 2014). United States, Arab Allies Hit IS Targets in Syria: Reports. ria.ru. Retrieved 1 [165] Aircraft Accident Investigation: B-1 (S/N 86-0114). Air
April 2015.
Force Legal Operations Agency, 12 December 2001.
[142] A-10 Performing 11 Percent of Anti-ISIS Sorties - De- [166] Rolfsen, Bruce. Brake failure caused B-1B crash in
fensenews.com, 19 January 2015
Qatar. Air Force Times, 6 October 2008; includes photographs and video. Retrieved: 8 October 2009.
[143] Donald 1997, p. 723.
[144] Lewis, Paul and Erik Simonsen. Oering Unique Solu- [167] B-1 bomber crashes in Montana - Stripes.com, 19 August
2013
tions for Global Strike Force. All Systems Go, (Boeing)
Vol. 2, Issue 2, 2004. (copy on Archive.org) Retrieved: 8
[168] Report: Mechanical malfunction led to Aug. bomber
October 2009.
crash. www.usatoday.com. AP. 1 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
[145] Hebert, Adam J. Long-Range Strike in a Hurry. Air
Force Magazine, November 2004. Retrieved: 8 October
[169] https://timeswampland.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/
2009.
19-aug-13-b-1-aib-final-report-part-1.pdf
[146] B-1A Lancer/74-160. Wings Over The Rockies Air &
[170] Target Lock: B-1B : Squadron Service 1985 to 1992.
Space Museum. Retrieved: 31 July 2010.
targetlock.org.uk. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[147] B-1A Lancer/76-174. Strategic Air Command Museum.
[171] Dorr, Robert F. 7th Bombardment Group/Wing, 1918Retrieved: 28 January 2013.
1995, pp. 2245. Paducah, Kentucky. : Turner Publishing Company, 1996. ISBN 1563112787.
[148] B-1B Lancer/83-0065. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
May 2013.
[172] Stemple, Master Sgt. John. Andersen, Tinker rebuild B[149] B-1B Lancer/83-0066. joebaugher.com. Retrieved: 20
1. andersen.af.mil, 12 March 2007. Retrieved: 25 July
May 2013.
2010.
532
[173] Report: pilot error caused B-1B crash. Air Combat Command Public Aairs, USAF, 18 September 2006. Retrieved: 1 December 2006.
(2004), The Pocket Guide to Military Aircraft: And the Worlds Airforces, London: Octopus,
ISBN 0-681-03185-9.
45.11.3
Bibliography
(June 2010), Lancer Force, Combat Aircraft Monthly (London: Ian Allan).
Gunston, William 'Bill' (1978), F-111, New York:
Charles Scribners Sons, ISBN 0-684-15753-5.
Jenkins, Dennis R (1999). B-1 Lancer: The Most
Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-134694-5.
Knaack, Marcelle Size (1988). Post-World War II
Bombers, 19451973 (PDF). Washington, DC: Ofce of Air Force History. ISBN 0-16-002260-6.
Lee, Tae-Woo (2008). Military Technologies of the
World 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0275-99535-6.
Pace, Steve (1998). Boeing North American B-1
Lancer. North Branch, MN: Specialty Press. ISBN
1-58007-012-4.
(1999). B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War
Machine on the Planet. New York: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-134433-0.
Schwartz, Stephen I (1998). Atomic Audit: The
Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons
since 1940. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution
Press. ISBN 0-8157-7773-6.
Skaarup, Harold A (2002). South Dakota Warbird Survivors 2003: A Handbook on Where to Find
Them. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse. ISBN 0-59526379-8.
Sorrels, Charles A. U.S. Cruise Missile Programs:
Development, Deployment, and Implications for
Arms Control. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
ISBN 0-08-030527-X.
Spick, Michael 'Mike' (1986), B-1B, Modern Fighting Aircraft, New York: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13055237-2.
Spick, Mike, ed. (1987). The Great Book of Modern
Warplanes. New York: Salamander Books. ISBN
0-517-63367-1.
533
Chapter 46
46.1 Development
46.1.1
46.1.2 H-53E
In October 1967, the US Marine Corps issued a requirement for a helicopter with a lifting capacity 1.8 times that
of the CH-53D that would t on amphibious assault vessels. The US Navy and US Army were also seeking similar helicopters at the time. Before issue of the requirement Sikorsky had been working on an enhancement to
the CH-53D, under the company designation S-80, featuring a third turboshaft engine and a more powerful rotor system. Sikorsky proposed the S-80 design to the
Marines in 1968. The Marines liked the idea since it
promised to deliver a good solution quickly, and funded
development of a testbed helicopter for evaluation.[3]
Background
534
46.2. DESIGN
535
46.1.3 CH-53K
Main article: Sikorsky CH-53K King Stallion
The US Marine Corps had been planning to upgrade most
of their CH-53Es to keep them in service, but this plan
A production CH-53E during ight demonstration showing the stalled. Sikorsky then proposed a new version, originally
three engines and the nal tail assembly
the CH-53X, and in April 2006, the USMC signed
a contract for 156 aircraft as the CH-53K.[5][6] The
The initial production contract was awarded in 1978, and Marines are planning to start retiring CH-53Es in 2009
service introduction followed in February 1981.[3] The and need new helicopters very quickly.[7]
rst production CH-53E ew in December 1980.[4] The
In August 2007, the USMC increased its order of CHUS Navy acquired the CH-53E in small numbers for ship53Ks to 227.[8] First ight was planned for November
board resupply. The Marines and Navy acquired a total
2011 with initial operating capability by 2015.[9]
of 177.[3]
The Navy requested a version of the CH-53E for the
airborne mine countermeasures role, designated MH53E Sea Dragon. It has enlarged sponsons to provide
substantially greater fuel storage and endurance. It also
retained the in-ight refueling probe, and could be tted with up to seven 300 US gallon (1,136 liter) ferry
tanks internally. The MH-53E digital ight-control system includes features specically designed to help tow
minesweeping gear.[3] The prototype MH-53E made its
rst ight on 23 December 1981. MH-53E was used by
the Navy beginning in 1986. The MH-53E is capable
of in-ight refueling and can be refueled at hover.[4] The
Navy obtained a total of 46 Sea Dragons and is converting
the remaining RH-53Ds back to the transport role.[3]
46.2 Design
536
Although dimensionally similar, the three engine CH53E Super Stallion or Sikorsky S-80 is a much more powerful aircraft than the original Sikorsky S-65 twin engined
CH-53A Sea Stallion. The CH-53E also added a larger
main rotor system with a seventh blade.
The CH-53E can transport up to 55 troops or 30,000 lb
(13,610 kg) of cargo and can carry external slung loads
up to 36,000 lb (16,330 kg).[3] The Super Stallion has a
cruise speed of 173 mph (278 km/h) and a range of 621
miles (1,000 km).[10] The helicopter is tted with a forward extendable in-ight refueling probe and it can also
hoist hose refuel from a surface ship while in hover mode.
It can carry three machine guns: one at the starboard side A pair of Super Stallion helicopters receive fuel from a KC-130
crew door; one at the port window, just behind the copi- Hercules while transporting Humvees over the Gulf of Aden
lot; and one at the tail ramp. The CH-53E also has chaare dispensers.[3]
The MH-53E features enlarged side mounted fuel spon- in eastern Afghanistan, 2010.
sons and is rigged for towing its mine sweeping sled
from high above the dangerous naval mines. The Sea
Dragon is equipped with mine countermeasures systems, 46.3 Operational
including twin machine guns. Its digital ight-control system includes features specically designed to help towing 46.3.1 1980s
mine sweeping gear.[3]
Upgrades to the CH-53E have included the Helicopter
Night Vision System (HNVS), improved .50 BMG (12.7
mm) GAU-21/A and M3P machine guns, and AAQ-29A
forward looking infrared (FLIR) imager.[3]
history
46.5. OPERATORS
537
ment in 1983 when four CH-53E helicopters from HMH- CH-53E Super Stallion United States military designa464 deployed aboard USS Iwo Jima as part of the 24th
tion for the S-80E heavy lift transport variant of the
Marine Amphibious Unit (24th MAU). During this defor the United States Navy and Marine Corps, 170ployment Marines were sent ashore in Beirut, Lebanon
built.
as peace keepers and established perimeters at and near
the Beirut International Airport. On 23 October 1983 a MH-53E Sea Dragon United States military designation for the S-80M mine-countermeasures variant
truck bomb detonated by terrorists destroyed the Marine
for the United States Navy, 50-built.
barracks in Beirut, killing nearly 240 service members
as they slept. CH-53E helicopters from the 24th MAU
VH-53F Proposed presidential transport variant, notprovided critical combat support during this operation.
built.
46.3.2
1990s
In 1991, two CH-53Es along with several CH-46 Sea S-80M Export variant of the mine-countermeasures
Knight helicopters were sent to evacuate U.S. and forvariant, 11-built for Japan.
eign nationals from the U.S. embassy in Mogadishu,
SomaliaOperation Eastern Exitas violence enveloped the city during the Somalian Civil War.[11]
46.5 Operators
46.3.3
2000s
46.4 Variants
YCH-53E United States military designation for two
Sikorsky S-65E (later S-80E) prototypes.
Japan
538
United States
HMH-461[19]
HMH-462[20]
HMH-464[21]
HMH-465[22]
HMH-466[23]
HMH-769[24]
HMH-772[25]
United States Navy
[16]
HM-12
HM-14[26]
HM-15[27]
46.6 Accidents
Between 1969-1990, more than 200 servicemen had been
killed in accidents involving the CH-53A, CH-53D and
CH-53E.[28] The MH-53E Sea Dragon is the U.S. Navys
helicopter most prone to accidents, with 27 deaths from
1984 to 2008. During that timeframe its rate of Class A
mishaps, meaning serious damage or loss of life, was 5.96
per 100,000 ight hours, more than twice the Navy helicopter average of 2.26.[29] A 2005 lawsuit alleges that
since 1993 there were at least 16 in-ight res or thermal incidents involving the No. 2 engine on Super Stallion helicopters. The suit claims that proper changes
were not made, nor were crews instructed on emergency
techniques.[30][31]
On 1 June 1984, a CH-53E based at Tustin was lifting a truck from the deck of a ship during an exercise
when a sling attached to the truck broke. This sent a
shock wave into the aircraft and caused major damage. Four crew members died in the accident.[32]
On 19 November 1984, a CH-53E on a routine
training mission at Camp Lejeune, NC, was lifting
a seven-ton howitzer before it crashed. Six people
were killed, and 11 injured.[32] It experienced a loss
of tail rotor function, lost control and impacted the
ground. The cabin area was quickly consumed by
the ensuing re.[33]
On 13 July 1985 a CH-53E from a Tustin squadron
was on a ight in Okinawa when it struck a logging
cable and exploded. Four people were killed.[32]
539
International Performance
General characteristics
Crew: 5: 2 pilots, 1 crew chief/right gunner, 1 left
gunner, 1 tail gunner (combat crew)
540
Guns:
2 .50 BMG (12.7 x 99 mm) windowmounted GAU-15/A machine guns
1 .50 BMG (12.7 x 99 mm) ramp mounted
weapons system, GAU-21 (M3M mounted
machine gun)
Other: Cha and are dispensers
[3] S-80 Origins / US Marine & Navy Service / Japanese Service. Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[4] CH-53A/D/E Sea Stallion AND MH-53E Sea Dragon.
US Navy, 15 November 2000.
[5] Sikorsky Awarded $3.0B Development Contract For
Marine Corps CH-53K Heavy-Lift Helicopter. Sikorsky
Aircraft, 5 April 2006.
[6] Sikorsky Aircraft Marks Start of CH-53K Development
and Demonstration Phase. Sikorsky Aircraft, 17 April
2006.
[7] S-80 Upgrades / CH-53K. Vectorsite.net, 1 December
2009.
[8] Marines Up Order for New Heavy Lifter, Rotor &
Wing, 1 August 2007.
[9] US Marines in desperate need of new CH-53K. Flight
Daily News, 21 June 2007.
[10] CH-53D/E page. USMC. Accessed 3 November 2007.
Related development
46.10 References
[1] Sikorsky Giant Helicopters: S-64, S-65, & S-80, Vectorsite.net, 1 December 2009.
[2] Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of Military
Aircraft, p. 148. Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2002.
ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
541
[53] http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2014/01/08/
22229858-one-crewman-dead-after-navy-helicopter-goes-down-off-va-onelite
[54] U.S. military personnel rescued at sea after helicopter
crash near Djibouti. CNN. CNN. 1 September 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
[55] CH-53A/D/E Sea Stallion and MH-53E Sea Dragon, US
Navy.
[56] Donald, David ed. Sikorsky S-65, The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
[57] "About the GE T64" BGA-aeroweb, May 17, 2012. Accessed: April 10, 2014.
rsky.com
[41] http://www.stripes.com/news/
sigonella-pays-tribute-to-four-victims-of-sea-dragon-crash-1.
HELIS.com Sikorsky S-80/H-53E Super Stallion
9958
Database
Chapter 47
543
part in a massive humanitarian relief eort in early 2005
in Sri Lanka to help victims of the tsunami.[5] In the fall
of 2005, Pave Hawks from various Air Force commands
participated in rescue operations of Hurricane Katrina
survivors, rescuing thousands of stranded people.[4]
Pave Hawks have regularly operated during Operation
Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and continue to
be operated in Operation Enduring Freedom, supporting
Army and Marine Corps ground combat operations and
standby search and rescue support for U.S. and Coalition xed-wing combat aircraft supporting those ground
operations.[4]
47.2.1 Replacement
Sri Lankan relief workers unload vegetables from a USAF HH60G during an Operation Unied Assistance mission.
544
vored the Black Hawk and did not reward their aircrafts
capabilities.[12][13] The Air Force argued that the competition was not written to favor Sikorsky, and that the terms
were clear as to the capabilities they wanted and could
aord. The $6.8 billion contract was delayed to the rst
quarter of FY 2014 to complete an independent cost estimate and the impact of government furloughs. Sikorsky
was the only bidder remaining, with Lockheed Martin as
a subcontractor. Sikorsky and the Air Force conducted
an extensive evaluation of their submission, the CRH-60,
a variant of the MH-60 Black Hawk special operations
helicopter.[14]
47.4 Operators
47.3 Variants
HH-60A: Prototype for the HH-60D rescue helicopter. A modied UH-60A primarily designed for
combat search and rescue. It is equipped with a rescue hoist with a 200 ft (60.96 m) cable that has a 600
lb (270 kg) lift capability, and a retractable in-ight 56th Rescue Squadron landing at the US Embassy in Beirut,
refueling probe.[21]
Lebanon in 2008.
HH-60D Night Hawk: Prototype of combat rescue
variant for the US Air Force.
HH-60E: Proposed search and rescue variant for the
US Air Force.
HH-60G Pave Hawk: Search and rescue helicopter
for the US Air Force. UH-60A Credible Hawk were
updated to the HH-60G conguration as part of the
rst phase in a two-phase program.
United States
United States Air Force[26]
33d Rescue Squadron[27]
41st Rescue Squadron[28]
55th Rescue Squadron[29]
56th Rescue Squadron[30]
66th Rescue Squadron[31]
545
Max. takeo weight: 22,000 lb (9,900 kg)
[33]
Performance
[38]
General characteristics
Length: 64 ft 10 in (17.1 m)
Rotor diameter: 53 ft 8 in (14.1 m)
Height: 16 ft 8 in (5.1 m)
546
[8] USAF HH-60 Personnel Recovery Recapitalization Program (HH-60 Recap) sources sought notice. fbo.gov, Released 23 March, Revised: 8 April 2010.
Related development
Sikorsky S-70
[10] Air Force Releases RFP for Next Search And Rescue Helicopter Af.mil, 22 October 2012.
47.7 References
Notes
[1] Eden, Paul. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books,
2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[2] Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Osprey,
2008. ISBN 978-1-84176-852-6.
[3] Young, Susan H.H., Sta Editor (May 2008). ""HH-60G
Pave Hawk, 2008 USAF Almanac Gallery of USAF
Weapons (PDF). Air Force Magazine (Air Force Association) 91 (5): 155156. ISSN 0730-6784.
[4] HH-60G Pave Hawk. United States Air Force. 4 February 2004. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[5] Gempis, Master Sgt. Val. Kadena Airmen help Sri
Lanka tsunami victims. Air Force Print News, 18 January 2005.
[6] Sikorsky eyes federal budget amid uncertainty over combat rescue helicopter - Flightglobal.com, 19 December
2013
[7] Trimble, Stephen. USAF abandons large helicopter for
rescue mission, proposes buying 112 UH-60Ms. Flight
International. 24 February 2010.
Bibliography
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk: The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. MBI, 2003.
ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
547
Chapter 48
48.1 Development
Chosen to replace the HH-3F Pelican, the HH-60J was
based on the United States Navys SH-60 Seahawk and a
member of the Sikorsky S-70 helicopter family. Compared to its predecessor, the HH-3F, the HH-60J is
lighter, faster, and equipped with more sophisticated
electronics and more powerful engines.[1] The HH-60J
was developed in conjunction with the U.S. Navys HH60H Rescue Hawk.[6]
The USCG began converting its 42 HH-60Js to MH60Ts in January 2007. This avionics and capabilities upgrade is part of the USCGs Integrated Deepwater System
Program and will provide a glass cockpit, an enhanced
electro-optic/infrared sensor system as well as a radar
sensor system and airborne use of force capability.[8][9]
The airborne use of force package includes both weapons
Sikorsky began development in September 1986 and air- for ring warning and disabling shots and armor to pro548
48.4. VARIANTS
tect the aircrew from small arms re.[2][10] The MH-60T
upgrades were completed in February 2014.[11]
48.2 Design
With a fuel capacity of 6,460 lb (2,930 kg), the HH-60J
is designed to y a crew of four up to 300 mi (483 km)
oshore, hoist up to 6 additional people on board while
remaining on-scene for up to 45 minutes and return to
base while maintaining an adequate fuel reserve. Normal
cruising speed of the HH-60J is 135 kn (155 mph) to 140
kn (161 mph) and the aircraft is capable of reaching 180
kn (207 mph) for short durations. The HH60J can y at
140 kn (161 mph) for six to seven hours.[3]
The HH-60J uses the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System as its primary long range navigational aid, using a
Collins RCVR-3A radio to simultaneously receive information from four of the NAVSTAR systems 18 worldwide satellites.
549
missions, along with other missions such as maritime patrol and drug interdiction.[12] Coast Guard cutters with
their HH-60Js and other helicopters performed security
and interdiction in the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of
Operation Desert Storm and also in 2003 for Operation
Enduring Freedom.[12]
In January 2011, Juneau Mountain Rescue volunteers,
working with the Alaska State Troopers and the Coast
Guard, rescued an injured hiker on Ripikski Mountain,
near Haines. A Coast Guard MH-60 Jayhawk helicopter,
dispatched from Sitka, transported the hiker to Bartlett
Regional Hospital in Juneau, Alaska.[13]
On 29 October 2012, Jayhawk number 6031 (70-1790)
was used during the oshore rescue of the crew of HMS
Bounty during Hurricane Sandy.
48.4 Variants
48.5 Operators
Victims from the 2010 Haiti earthquake are unloaded from a
HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6039) at U.S.
Naval Hospital Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
In 1990, HH-60J Jayhawks began replacing HH-3F Pelican and CH-3E Sea King helicopters in service with the
US Coast Guard. HH-60Js perform search and rescue
United States
550
48.6 Accidents
As of July 2010, three Jayhawks have been involved in HH-60J Jayhawk (USCG Registration Number 6022) retrieving
a rescue swimmer.
crashes, including two fatal crashes.[15][16][17]
48.9. REFERENCES
48.9 References
[1] HH-60J Jayhawk"". Naval Supply Systems Command
website. Naval Supply Systems Command. Archived
from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
Jayhawks have replaced the Sikorsky HH-3F Pelican helicopters ...
[2] Acquisition Directorate - MH-60T Medium Range Recovery Helicopter. United States Coast Guard. November 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 201007-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. All 42 H-60 aircraft are
scheduled to be modernized by 2015
[3] Thirteenth Coast Guard District Public Aairs Oce
(2003-04-21). Jayhawk - HH-60J Helicopter (PDF).
United States Coast Guard website. United States Coast
Guard. Retrieved 2010-07-07. ...carry out the Coast
Guards search and rescue, law enforcement, military
readiness and marine environmental protection missions...
[4] SH-60F to MH-60T Conversion Process, United States
Coast Guard, 4 April 2014
[5] MH-60T: Jayhawk. U.S. Coast Guard
[6] Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World Class
Helicopter, pp. 212-213. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
[7] Sikorsky HH-60J Jayhawk. Helis.com. Archived from
the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. 42
delivered from 1990. 1 written o.
551
[8] Acquisition Directorate - Medium Range Recovery Helicopter. United States Coast Guard website. United States
Coast Guard. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07.
Retrieved 2010-07-07. The MH-60T project will upgrade
42 in-service HH-60J helicopters ...
[9] Aviation Update newsletter.
uary/February 2007.
[10] Acquisition Update: T It Up: First Production MH60T Medium Range Recovery Helicopter Delivered to
Coast Guard. United States Coast Guard website. United
States Coast Guard. 2009-06-09. Archived from the original on 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2010-07-08. The AUF
package equips the MH-60T with a 7.62mm machine gun
for ring warning shots and a .50 caliber long range rie
for precise targeting...
[11] Acquisition Update: Final Jayhawk Completes Conversion to MH-60T Model. U.S. Coast Guard, 19 February
2014.
[12] Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk, pp. 74-74. MBI,
2003. ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
[13] Coast Guard Medevacs Injured Hiker From Ripikski
Mountain. Coast Guard News. January 6, 2011. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
[14] Oce of Aviation Forces (CG-711) Jayhawk"".
uscg.mil. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
[15] Freeze, Ken. Fatal Coast Guard Aircraft Accidents.
check-six.com. Check Six. Archived from the original
on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. Date of incident:
8 December 2004....Aircraft type and Coast Guard tail
number: Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk, 6020
[16] Liesik, Geo (2010-03-05). U.S. Coast Guard team to
probe Uinta Mountains crash. Deseret News. Salt Lake
City, UT: Deseret News Publishing Co. Archived from
the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. The
Jayhawk that crashed was one of two returning to North
Carolina from Washington state.... It was last heard from
just before 10 a.m. Wednesday.
[17] Green, Sara Jean (2010-07-07). 3 dead in Coast Guard
copter crash o La Push. Seattle Times. Seattle, WA:
The Seattle Times Company. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07. The MH-60
Jayhawk helicopter crashed around 9:30 a.m. o James
Island near the mouth of the Quillayute River at the northwest tip of Washington state.
[18] S-70B Seahawk Technical Information, 2001.
[19] S-70B Seahawk Helicopter Technical Information S70064 1438 3C. Sikorsky Aircraft. January 2008.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
[20] Pike, John. HH-60J Jayhawk Specications. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
552
Chapter 49
The Navy based its requirements on the Armys UT- M60D/M240 7.62 mm (0.30 in) machine gun or GAUTAS specication to decrease costs from commonality.[3] 16 .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun.
553
554
A standard crew for a SH-60B is one pilot, one ATO/CoPilot (Airborne Tactical Ocer), and an enlisted aviation warfare systems operator (sensor operator). Operating squadrons are designated Helicopter Anti-Submarine
Squadron, Light (HSL).
The SH-60J is a version of the SH-60B for the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force. The SH-60K is a modied version of the SH-60J. The SH-60J and SH-60K are
built under license by Mitsubishi in Japan.[7][8]
49.1.3
SH-60F
After the SH-60B entered service, the Navy began development of the SH-60F to replace the SH-3 Sea King.[9]
Development of this variant began with the award of a
contract to Sikorsky in March 1985. An early-model SH60B (Bu. No. 161170) was modied to serve as a SH60F prototype.[10] The company was contracted to pro- The HH-60Hs standard crew is pilot, copilot, an enlisted
duce seven SH-60Fs in January 1986 and the rst exam- crew chief, and two door gunners. The HH-60H is operated by Helicopter Antisubmarine (HS) squadrons with a
ple ew on 19 March 1987.[11]
standard dispersal of four F-models and three H-models.
The SH-60F primarily serves as the carrier battle groups
In Iraq, HH-60Hs were used by the Navy, assisting the
primary antisubmarine warfare (ASW) aircraft. The heliArmy, for MEDEVAC purposes and special operations
copter hunts submarines with its AQS-13F dipping sonar,
missions. As the Navy transitions its Helicopter Antisuband carries a 6-tube sonobuoy launcher. The SH-60F
marine (HS) squadrons to the MH-60S, remaining HHis unocially named Oceanhawk.[11] The SH-60F can
60Hs are being transferred to its East and West coast specarry Mk 46, Mk 50, or Mk 54 torpedoes for its oencial operations squadrons (HSC-84 and HSC-85, respecsive weapons, and it has a choice of fuselage-mounted
tively).
machine guns, including the M60D, M240D, and GAU16 (.50 caliber) for self-defense. The standard aircrew
consists of one pilot, one co-pilot, one tactical sensor op- 49.1.5 MH-60R
erator (TSO), and one acoustic sensor operator (ASO).
49.1.4
HH-60H
555
in 27 January 2000 and it began ight testing later that
year. The CH-60S was redesignated MH-60S in February 2001 to reect its planned multi-mission use.[18] The
MH-60S is based on the UH-60L and has many naval SH60 features.[19] Unlike all other Navy H-60s, the MH-60S
is not based on the original S-70B/SH-60B platform with
its forward-mounted twin tail-gear and single starboard
sliding cabin door. Instead, the S-model is a hybrid, featuring the main fuselage of the S-70A/UH-60, with large
sliding doors on both sides of the cabin and a single aftmounted tail wheel; and the engines, drivetrain and rotors
of the S-70B/SH-60.[20][21]
556
A west coast Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS), He- Jacksonville shortly before being formally delivered to the Royal
licopter Maritime Strike Squadron (HSM) 41, received Australian Navy in December 2013
the MH-60R aircraft in December 2005 and began training the rst set of pilots. In 2007, the R-model success- Spain ordered 12 S-70B Seahawks for its Navy.[34] Spain
49.3. VARIANTS
557
49.3 Variants
49.3.1
U.S. versions
SH-60F Oceanhawk:
Carrier-borne antisubmarine warfare helicopter, equipped with
dipping sonar; 76 built for the U.S. Navy.[59]
558
S-70C-6 Super Blue Hawk: Search-andrescue helicopter for Taiwan, equipped with
undernose radar, plus provision for four external fuel tanks on two sub wings.
S-70C-14: VIP transport version for Brunei;
two built.
S-70A (N) Naval Hawk: Maritime variant that
blends the S-70A Black Hawk and S-70B Seahawk designs.
S-70L: Sikorskys original designation for the SH60B Seahawk.
MH-60R Seahawk:
YCH-60S Knighthawk:
49.4 Operators
MH-60S Knighthawk:
HH-60/MH-60 Jayhawk: U.S. Coast Guard version, developed from HH-60H.
49.3.2
Export versions
S-70B Seahawk: Sikorskys designation for Seahawk. Designation is often used for exports.
S-70B-1 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version
for the Spanish Navy. The Seahawk is congured with the LAMPS (Light Airbone Multipurpose System)
S-70B-2 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version
for the Royal Australian Navy, similar to the
SH-60B Seahawk in U.S. Navy operation.
S-70B-3 Seahawk: Anti-submarine version Hellenic Navy S-70B-6 Aegean Hawk with Penguin missile
for the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force.
Also known as the SH-60J. The JMSDF ordered 101 units, with deliveries starting in
1991.
S-70-4 Seahawk: Sikorskys designation for
the SH-60F Oceanhawk.
S-70-5: Sikorskys designation for the HH60H Rescue Hawk and HH-60J Jayhawk.
S-70B-6 Aegean Hawk: the Greek military
variant which is a blend of the SH-60B and F
A JMSDF SH-60J lands onboard USS Russell (DDG 59)
models, based on Taiwans S-70C(M)1/2.
S-70B-7 Seahawk: Export version for the
Royal Thai Navy.
S-70B-28 Seahawk:
Turkey.
Australia
559
Turkish Naval Forces[60]
United States
Japan
See SH-60J/K
Singapore
Republic of Singapore Navy[60]
Spain
Spanish Navy[60]
Crew: 34
Capacity: 5 passengers in cabin, slung load of
6,000 lb (2,700 kg) or internal load of 4,100 lb
(1,900 kg) for B, F and H models; and 11 passengers
or slung load of 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) for S-model
Length: 64 ft 8 in (19.75 m)
Rotor diameter: 53 ft 8 in (16.35 m)
560
Height: 17 ft 2 in (5.2 m)
Mitsubishi H-60
Piasecki X-49
Boeing-Vertol YUH-61
Range: 450 nmi (518 mi or 834 km) at cruise speed Related lists
Service ceiling: 12,000 ft (3,580 m)
Rate of climb: 1,650 ft/min (8.38 m/s)
Armament
49.7 References
[1] MH-60R Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) (PDF), US Department of Defense, 31 December 2011, p. 11, retrieved
2013-04-27
[2] MH-60S Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) (PDF), US Department of Defense, 31 December 2011, p. 14, retrieved
2013-04-27
[3] Leoni 2007, pp. 2034.
[4] Sikorsky S-70B Seahawk, Vectorsite.net, 1 July 2006.
[5] Eden, Paul. Sikorsky H-60 Black Hawk/Seahawk, Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft, p. 431. Amber
Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
[6] Leoni 2007, pp. 2069.
49.7. REFERENCES
561
[45] Korea MH-60S Multi-Mission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 22 July 2009.
[24] LaGrone, Sam. MH-60S underpowered for MCM towing operations, report nds. Janes Information Group,
21 January 2013.
[47] Tunisia Refurbishment of Twelve SH-60F MultiMission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation
Agency, 2 July 2010.
[25] U.S. Navy deploys its new Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS) for the rst time - Navyrecognition.com, 6 August 2014
[26] Donald 2004, pp. 156157.
[51] http://www.dsca.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2011/Qatar_
11-26.pdf
[30] MH-60R Helicopter Departs Lockheed Martin To Complete First Operational Navy Squadron. Lockheed Martin, July 30, 2008.
[52] Qatar MH-60R and MH-60S Multi-Mission Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 28
June 2012.
[32] Alford, Abbie (11 May 2015). Navy retires the SH-60B
Seahawk. San Diego: CBS 8.
[33] USS Gary Returns From Final Deployment; Also Last for
SH-60B Seahawks - News.USNI.org, 20 April 2015
[34] Leoni 2007, pp. 303-304.
[35] Spain Refurbishment of SH-60F Multi-Mission Utility
Helicopters. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency,
30 September 2010.
[36] Spain seeks more Seahawk helicopters.
2010-10-07.
Retrieved
[54] Waldron, Gregg (February 20, 2013). Singapore orders two additional S-70B helicopters. Flightglobal. Retrieved February 2, 2015.
[55] http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/
release/3/163865/us-approves-\protect\char"0024\
relax1.9bn-sale-of-mh_60r-helicopters-to-saudi-arabia.
html
[56] http://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/
kingdom-saudi-arabia-mh-60r-multi-mission-helicopters
[57] DoD 4120-15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace
Vehicles. US DoD, 12 May 2004.
[58] Donald, David, ed. Sikorsky S-70. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble Books, 1997.
ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
562
Bibliography
A1-H60CA-NFM-000 NATOPS Flight Manual
Navy Model H-60F/H Aircraft
Donald, David ed. Sikorsky HH/MH/SH-60 Seahawk. Warplanes of the Fleet. AIRtime, 2004.
ISBN 1-880588-81-1.
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. MBI, 2003.
ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
Chapter 50
proposals (RFP) in January 1972.[4] The RFP also included air transport requirements. Transport aboard the
C-130 limited the UTTAS cabin height and length.[5]
The UTTAS requirements for improved reliability,
survivability and lower life-cycle costs resulted in features
such as dual-engines with improved hot and high altitude performance, and a modular design (reduced maintenance footprint); run-dry gearboxes; ballistically tolerant, redundant subsystems (hydraulic, electrical and ight
controls); crashworthy crew (armored) and troop seats;
dual-stage oleo main landing gear; ballistically tolerant,
crashworthy main structure; quieter, more robust main
and tail rotor systems; and a ballistically tolerant, crashworthy fuel system.[6]
50.1 Development
50.1.1
Initial requirement
564
50.1.2
50.2 Design
565
50.3.1
United States
566
purchased 24 S-70C-2s, equipped with more powerful GE T700-701A engines for improved high-altitude
performance.[39] While designated as civil variants of the
S-70 for export purposes, they are operated by the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force.
50.3.3
rescue, and for medical evacuation. Colombia also operates a militarized gunship version of the UH-60, with stub
wings, locally known as Arpa (English: Harpy).[43][44]
The Colombian Army became the rst worldwide operator of the S-70i with Terrain Awareness and Warning
Capability (HTAWS) after taking delivery of the rst two
units on 13 August 2013.[45]
50.3.5 Mexico
Taiwan S-70C
50.3.4
Israel
Colombia
50.3.7 Brazil
Colombia rst received UH-60s from the United States
in 1987. The Colombian National Police, Colombian
Air Force, and Colombian Army use UH-60s to transport troops and supplies to places which are dicult to
access by land for counter-insurgency (COIN) operations
against drug and guerrilla organizations, for search and
50.4. VARIANTS
567
On 25 February 2013, the Indonesian Army announced
its interest in buying UH-60 Black Hawks as part of its
eort to modernize its weaponry. The army wants them
for combating terrorism, transnational crime, and insurgency to secure the archipelago.[70]
On 27 May 2014, Croatian Defence Minister Ante Kotromanovi announced the beginning of negotiations with
the US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel for the purchase of 15 used Black Hawks, the deal is expected to
completed by 2017.[71]
50.3.9
50.3.10
Sweden
The United Arab Emirates requested 14 UH-60M helicopters and associated equipment in September 2008,
through Foreign Military Sale.[64] It had received 20 UH60Ls by November 2010.[65] Bahrain ordered nine UH60Ms in 2007.[66][67]
In December 2011, the Royal Brunei Air Force ordered twelve S-70i helicopters, which are similar to the
UH-60M; four aircraft had been received by December Six UH-60L Black Hawks from B Company Lancers, 5th Bat2013.[68] On 12 June 2012, the U.S. Defense Security Co- talion, 101st Aviation Regiment, on an air assault mission in Iraq
operation Agency notied Congress that Qatar requested
the purchase of twelve UH-60Ms, engines, and associated
YUH-60A: Initial test and evaluation version for
equipment.[69]
568
EH-60C Black Hawk: UH-60A modied with special electronics equipment and external antenna.[78]
(All examples of type have been taken back to standard UH-60A conguration.)
EUH-60L (no ocial name assigned): UH-60L
modied with additional mission electronic equipment for Army Airborne C2.[78]
EH-60L Black Hawk: EH-60A with major mission
equipment upgrade.[78]
UH-60Q Black Hawk: UH-60A modied for
medical evacuation.[78][87] The UH-60Q is named
DUSTOFF for dedicated unhesitating service to
our ghting forces.[88]
HH-60L (no ocial name assigned):
UH60L extensively modied with medical mission
equipment.[78] Components include an external rescue hoist, integrated patient conguration system,
environmental control system, on-board oxygen
system (OBOGS), and crashworthy ambulatory
seats.[87]
HH-60M Black Hawk: UH-60M with medical mission equipment (medevac version) for U.S.
Army.[78][89]
HH-60W (no ocial name assigned yet): Modied
version of the UH-60M for the U.S. Air Force as a
Combat Rescue Helicopter to replace HH-60G Pave
Hawks with greater fuel capacity and more internal
cabin space, dubbed the 60-Whiskey. Deliveries
to begin in 2019.[90]
50.4. VARIANTS
569
MH-60 Black Hawk stealth helicopter: One of
two (known) specially modied MH-60s used in the
raid on Osama bin Laden's hideout in Pakistan on 1
May 2011 was damaged in a hard landing, and was
subsequently destroyed by U.S. forces.[104][105] Subsequent reports state that the Black Hawk destroyed
was a previously unconrmed, but rumored, modication of the design with reduced noise signature and
stealth technology.[19][20] The modications are said
to add several hundred pounds to the base helicopter
including edge alignment panels, special coatings
and anti-radar treatments for the windshields.[20]
MH-60K Black Hawk: Special operations modication rst ordered in 1988 for use by the U.S.
Armys 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Night Stalkers).[80] Equipped with the inight refueling probe,[94] and T700-GE-701C engines. More advanced than MH-60L, the K-model
also includes an integrated avionics system (glass
cockpit), AN/APQ-174B terrain-following radar,
color weather map generator, improved weapons caVH-60Ns used to transport the President of the United States
pability, and various defensive systems.[94][95]
MH-60L Black Hawk: Special operations modication, used by the U.S. Armys 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Night Stalkers), based
on the UH-60L with T700-701C engines. It was
developed as an interim version in the late 1980s
pending elding of the MH-60K.[96] Equipped with
many of the systems used on MH-60K, including FLIR, terrain-following radar, color weather
map generator, auxiliary fuel system,[97] and laser
rangender/designator.[96][98] A total of 37 MH60Ls were built and some 10 had received an inight refueling probe by 2003.[96]
MH-60L DAP: The Direct Action Penetrator
(DAP) is a special operations modication of the
baseline MH-60L, operated by the U.S. Armys
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment.[99]
The DAP is congured as a gunship, with no troopcarrying capacity. The DAP is equipped with ESSS
or ETS stub wings, each capable of carrying congurations of the M230 Chain Gun 30 mm automatic
cannon, 19-shot Hydra 70 rocket pod, AGM-114
Hellre missiles, AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles,
GAU-19 gun pods, and M134 minigun pods.[100]
M134D miniguns are used as door guns.[92]
MH-60M Black Hawk: Special operations version of UH-60M for U.S. Army. Features the
Rockwell Collins Common Avionics Architecture
System (CAAS) glass cockpit and more powerful
YT706-GE-700 engines.[101][102] All special operations Black Hawks to be moderized to MH-60M
standard by 2015.[103]
570
50.4.3
Export versions
50.4.4
S-70A
571
S-70A-27 Black Hawk: Search and rescue version for the Hong Kong Government Flying Service;
three built.
S-70A-30 Black Hawk: Export version for Argentine Air Force, used as a VIP transport helicopter by
the Presidential eet; one built.[123]
Australia
Australian Army Aviation[125]
Austria
Austrian Air Force[125]
Bahrain
Royal Bahraini Air Force[125]
572
U.S. Army National Guard UH-60 Black Hawk with snow-ski kit
Mexico
Brazilian Army
[125]
Mexican Navy[125]
Morocco
Brunei
Royal Brunei Air Force
[125]
Chile
Chilean Air Force
[126][127]
573
[40][125]
Turkey
Turkish Air Force (6 on order)[125]
Turkish Army[125]
United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates Air Force[125]
United States
Length: 64 ft 10 in (19.76 m)
Fuselage length: 50 ft 1 in (15.27 m)
574
Performance
Never exceed speed: 193 knots (222 mph; 357
km/h)
Maximum speed: 159 kn (183 mph; 294 km/h)
Cruise speed: 150 kn (170 mph; 280 km/h)
Combat radius: 368 mi (320 nmi; 592 km)
Ferry range: 1,380 mi[135] (1,200 nmi; 2,220 km)
with ESSS stub wings and external tanks[137]
Service ceiling: 19,000 ft (5,790 m)
Rate of climb: 1,315 ft/min[138] (4.5 m/s)
Disc loading: 7.19 lb/ft (35.4 kg/m)
Power/mass: 0.192 hp/lb (158 W/kg)
Armament
Sikorsky S-70
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk
Sikorsky HH-60 Jayhawk
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk
Piasecki X-49
Aircraft of comparable role, conguration and era
AgustaWestland AW149
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
Boeing-Vertol YUH-61
Denel Oryx
Guns:
2 7.62 mm (0.30 in) M240 machine guns[139]
2 7.62 mm (0.30 in) M134 minigun[137] or
2 0.50 in (12.7 mm) GAU-19 gatling
guns[137]
Hardpoints: 4, 2 per ESSS stub wings and provisions to carry combinations of:
NHIndustries NH90
Missiles:
AGM-114 Hellre laser Related lists
guided missiles, AIM-92 Stinger air-toair missiles[100][137]
List of helicopters
Other: 7.62 mm (0.30 in), 12.7 mm (0.50 in),
20 mm (0.787 in), or 30 mm (1.18 in) M230
List of utility helicopters
gun pods[137]
Bombs: Can be equipped with VOLCANO mineeld dispersal system.[137] See UH-60 Armament
Subsystems for more information.
50.9. REFERENCES
575
50.9 References
50.9.1
[19] Ross, Brian, Rhonda Schwartz, Lee Ferran and Avni Patel. Top Secret Stealth Helicopter Program Revealed in
Osama Bin Laden Raid: Experts. ABC World News, 4
May 2011.
Notes
50.9.2
Citations
[1] Sikorsky nally gets its own Blackhawk. ctpost.com. Retrieved: 24 October 2012.
[2] United States Department of Defense Fiscal Year 2012
Budget Request: Program Acquisition Costs by Weapon
System, p. 1-13. Oce of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)/CFO. February 2011.
[16] Sikorsky Aircraft Delivers 100th New Production UH60M BLACK HAWK Helicopter to U.S. ... Reuters, 25
March 2009.
576
[38] Report: Pakistan Granted China Access to U.S.'s TopSecret Bin Laden Raid Chopper. FoxNews.com, 15 August 2011. Retrieved: 15 August 2011.
Taiwanair-
Taiwanair-
[63] (English translation) Sverige kper 15 Black Hawkhelikoptrar"]. expressen.se. 9 April 2011.
[64] United Arab Emirates UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters (PDF). US Defense Security Cooperation Agency.
9 September 2008.
[65] Dubai Helishow: UAE increases Black Hawk eet. Rotorhub. 2 November 2010.
[68] Brunei receives rst S-70i helicopters. IHS Janes Defence Weekly. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 16 March
2014.
[69] Qatar UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters (PDF). US
Defense Security Cooperation Agency. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
[70] Indonesia to purchase UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.
Airrecognition.com. 26 February 2013.
[71] black Hawke. jutarnji.hr.
[72] Tunisia UH-60M Black Hawk Helicopters. DSCA,
24 July 2014.
[51] https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/
[73] http://www.tap.info.tn/en/index.php/politics2/
sikorskys-85-117b-multi-year-8-h-60-helicopter-contract-07465/
20282-us-will-soon-make-available-to-tunisian-air-force-12-blackhawk-hel
[52] Leoni 2007, pp. 278279.
[74] Abas, Marhalim (2015-01-23). RMAF getting Brunei
[53] Sikorsky UH-60 / S-70 Blackhawk (Yanshuf). Jewish
Blackhawks. Malaysian Defence. Retrieved 2015-01Virtual Library Retrieved: 18 November 2013.
25.
[54] Brazil Buys UH-60L Black Hawks. Defense Industry
Daily. 9 September 2012.
[75] http://www.janes.com/article/47907/
slovakia-considering-us-black-hawk-offer
[76] http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/
idAFKBN0NL1WQ20150430?=undefined
[59] Sikorsky wins Turkish utility helicopter battle. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
[80] Donald, David, ed. Sikorsky S-70. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
[60] Sweden makes surprise Black Hawk request. Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
50.9. REFERENCES
577
[82] Northrop To Upgrade U.S. Army UH-60L Cockpits - [107] Image of UH-60A RASCAL rst ight. at the Wayback
Aviationweek.com, 15 August 2014
Machine (archived November 26, 2006) NASA. Retrieved: 17 February 2012.
[83] Leoni 2007, pp. 233244.
[108] Autonomous Black Hawk Flight System Trialled.
[84] Sikorsky Aircraft Fully Equips First U.S. Army Unit
Armedforces-International.com, 6 December 2012.
With UH-60M BLACK HAWK Helicopters. Sikorsky
[109] Sikorsky achieves rst ight of manned/unmanned Black
Aircraft, 10 June 2008.
Hawk - Flightglobal.com, 23 April 2014
[85] Sikorskys UH-60M Upgrade Black Hawk Helicopter
[110] Optionally Piloted Black Hawk takes o - ShephardmeAchieves First Flight. Sikorsky, 29 August 2008.
dia.com, 23 April 2014
[86] New Army Black Hawk succeeds in combat. US Army,
[111] Bishop 2008, p. 45.
4 March 2010
[112] Leoni 2007, pp. 214215.
[87] Colucci, Frank. Modern Medevac Mobilized. Rotor &
[113] Mitsubishi Heavy Industries UH-60J page. Mhi.co.jp,
Wing, 1 October 2004.
31 March 2005. Retrieved: 24 September 2011.
[88] Leoni 2007, p. 224.
[114] Leoni 2007, pp. 270272.
[89] HH-60M Medevac Helicopter.' Sikorsky. Retrieved: 24
[115] Armed BLACK HAWK Demonstrator Completes Test
October 2012.
Program Customer Demo Shows Sikorsky Helicopters
Weapons in Action. Sikorsky, 14 December 2009.
[90] "'Whiskey' to perform personnel recovery mission.
AF.mil, 24 November 2014.
[116] Battlehawk. Sikorsky public relations video, 2012.
[91] Tomajczyk 2003, pp. 2123.
[92] Bishop 2008, pp. 20, 22.
[93] Tomajczyk 2003, p. 23.
[94] Tomajczyk 2003, pp. 2629.
[117] UAE Seeks Weaponized UH-60M Battlehawk Helicopters. DefenseIndustryDaily.com, 12 January 2012.
[118] Korean Air/Sikorsky announce Black Hawk production
agreement. (UH-60P military helicopters) Defense
Daily |HighBeam Research FREE trial. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved: 24 September 2011.
[120] ADF Serials list of Australian Black Hawks. ADF Serials. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.
578
50.9.3
Bibliography
Bishop, Chris. Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84176-8526.
Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk, The Story of a World
Class Helicopter. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. ISBN
978-1-56347-918-2.
Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2003. ISBN 0-7603-1591-4.
Chapter 51
Special operations
Special operations (S.O.) are military operations that minent threatsspecial operations leaders readily admit
are considered special (that is, unconventional), usually that they should not be the central pillar of U.S. milcarried out by dedicated special forces units.
itary strategy.[2] Instead, Special Operations commanders stated that grand strategy should include their indiSpecial operations are performed independently or in
conjunction with conventional military operations. The rect approach, which meant working with non-U.S. partners to accomplish security objectives. Special Operaprimary goal is to achieve a political or military objective where a conventional force requirement does not ex- tions forces forge relationships that can last for decades
with a diverse collection of groups: training, advising,
ist or might adversely aect the overall strategic outcome.
Special operations are usually conducted in a low-prole and operation alongside other countries militaries, police
[2]
manner that aims to achieve the advantages of speed, sur- forces, tribes, militias or other information groups.
prise, and violence of action against an unsuspecting target. Special ops are typically carried out with limited
numbers of highly trained personnel that are able to oper51.2 Special operations forces
ate in all environments, utilize self-reliance, easily adapt
to and overcome obstacles, and use unconventional combat skills and equipment to complete objectives. Special Main article: Special forces
operations are usually implemented through specic, tailored intelligence.[1]
Special operations forces (SOF) is a term primarily used
in the West. It is an all encompassing term that denes
a nations specialized units. The term special forces is
51.1 Use and eciency
age old and used by countries around the world to describe their specialized unit(s). Examples of special operations include: special reconnaissance/military intel51.1.1 United States
ligence, unconventional warfare, and counter-terrorism
The decade 20032012 saw U.S. national security strat- actions. Special operations are sometimes associated
egy rely on special operations to an unprecedented de- with unconventional warfare, counter-insurgency (opergree. Identifying, hunting, and killing terrorists became ations against insurgents), operations against guerrillas or
a central task in the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT). irregular forces, low-intensity operations, and foreign inLinda Robinson, Adjunct Senior Fellow for U.S. National ternal defense. Special operations may be carried out by
Security and Foreign Policy at the Council on Foreign Re- conventional forces but are often carried out by special
lations, argued that the organizational structure became operations forces (SOF), which are military units that are
atter and cooperation with the intelligence community highly trained and use special equipment, weapons, and
was stronger, allowing special operations to move at the tactics. They are sometimes referred to as elite forces,
speed of war.[2] Special Operations appropriations are commandos, and special operators.
costly: Its budget went from $2.3 billion in 2001 to $10.5
billion in 2012.[2] Some experts argued the investment
was worthwhile, pointing to the raid in May 2011 that
killed Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan. Others
claimed that the emphasis on Special Operations precipitated a misconception that it was a substitute for prolonged conict. Raids and drone strikes are tactics that
are rarely decisive and often incur signicant political and
diplomatic costs for the United States. Although raids
and drone strikes are necessary to disrupt dire and im-
In the United States military, SOF includes Army Special Forces (Green Berets), Army Rangers, Navy
SEALs, Air Force Pararescue, Marine Special Operations (MARSOC), select specially trained Military Intelligence/Counterintelligence units, Civil Aairs (active
duty), Military Information Support Operations (MISO)
(formerly Psychological Operations (PSYOP)) personnel, and Special Operations Aviation units under the
umbrella of the United States Army Special Operations
Command. While not formally designated as Special
579
580
Operations Forces, there are several units whose missions and training are identical to SOF but operate in
support of conventional combatant commanders, to include: US Army Long Range Reconnaissance Companies/Detachments (LRSC/LRSD), US Army Pathnder
Companies (PFDR), Military Police Special Reaction
Teams (equivalent to civilian police SWAT teams), Marine Force Recon, Explosive Ordnance Disposal units
(EOD), and various sniper teams.
Other special operations forces include the British Special
Boat Service and Special Air Service, and Norwegian
Marinejegerkommandoen and FSK.
51.4 References
[1] https://web.archive.org/web/20131020230203/http:
//www.shadowspear.com/special-operations-research.
html ShadowSpear: About Special Operations
[2] Robinson, Linda (NovemberDecember 2012). The Future of Special Operations: Beyond Kill and Capture.
Foreign Aairs 91 (6): 110122.
Chapter 52
Utility aircraft
A utility aircraft is a general-purpose light aircraft or
helicopter, usually used for transporting people or freight,
but also for other duties when more specialized aircraft
are not required or available.
The term can also refer to an aircraft certied under
American, Canadian, European or Australian regulations
as a Utility Category Aircraft, which indicates that it is
permitted to conduct limited aerobatics. The approved
maneuvers include chandelles, lazy eights, spins and steep
turns over 60 of bank.[1][2][3]
In the United States, military utility aircraft are given the
prex U in their designations.
52.2 References
[1] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 535. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.
ISBN 1-56027-287-2
[2] Federal Aviation Administration (July 2011). Title 14:
Aeronautics and Space PART 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart A General. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
[3] Transport Canada (July 2011). Part V - Airworthiness Manual Chapter 523 - Normal, Utility, Aerobatic
And Commuter Category Aeroplanes. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
581
582
Text
583
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Boeing CH-47 Chinook Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_CH-47_Chinook?oldid=662523004 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Peter
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587
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Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Bugatti35racer, TiRoMa, Deepayan Sen, BelleauWood, Apple1312 and Anonymous: 442
Boeing E-4 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-4?oldid=659694303 Contributors: Gsl, Rlandmann, Danbirchall, David Newton, Nohat, Ed g2s, RadicalBender, Sekicho, PBP, Ancheta Wis, Jpo, Greyengine5, Wwoods, Proslaes, Bobblewik, Peter Ellis, Geni,
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Boeing E-6 Mercury Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-6_Mercury?oldid=661309970 Contributors: Gsl, Arpingstone,
Rlandmann, David Newton, Vt-aoe, Greyengine5, Vanished user 1234567890, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Discospinster, Guanabot,
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Anonymous: 47
Boeing VC-25 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_VC-25?oldid=651847746 Contributors: Rmhermen, Rlandmann, Cherkash,
Kierant, Averell23, BenFrantzDale, Jason Quinn, Peter Ellis, Oneiros, Hammersfan, Karl Dickman, Blanchette, Sarrica, Ylee, JustPhil,
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, Xqbot,
588
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Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_Vertol_CH-46_Sea_Knight?oldid=660488934 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Yooden, JohnOwens, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, Rlandmann, Alvaro, David Newton, Echoray, RadicalBender,
Riddley, DocWatson42, Paul Richter, Greyengine5, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Karl Dickman, Mtnerd, Ericg, N328KF, Rich Farmbrough,
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Winsanity, FOX 52, Rickleyl, ArmbrustBot, Marigold100, Balon Greyjoy, Nickphelps and Anonymous: 119
Close air support Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_air_support?oldid=663545904 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Isomorphic,
Sjorford, Kizor, PBS, RedWolf, Popsiq, Altenmann, Modulatum, Yosri, Philwelch, IRelayer, Everyking, Michael Devore, Sam Hocevar,
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Light Observation Helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Observation_Helicopter?oldid=491606771 Contributors:
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593
594
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KasparBot and Anonymous: 516
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy Source:
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Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_C-130J_Super_Hercules?oldid=
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Warrior Covert, Ashu00007 and Anonymous: 227
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor?oldid=663316760 Contributors:
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McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle?oldid=663540586 Contributors:
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599
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Anonymous: 792
McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle?oldid=
663701736 Contributors: Rmhermen, Michael Hardy, Arpingstone, Docu, Whkoh, Fredrik, PBP, Greyengine5, Meursault2004, Zigger, Fleminra, Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, Btphelps, H1523702, Clemwang, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, N328KF, Discospinster,
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McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F/A-18_Hornet?oldid=663121241 Contributors: The Epopt, Uriyan, Robert Merkel, Alex.tan, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Hephaestos, Edward, Tannin, Markonen, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Lupinoid, Whkoh, Macar~enwiki, David Newton, Dysprosia, Marshman, Morven, Cabalamat, Carbuncle, RadicalBender, Robbot, RedWolf, Stewartadcock, PBP, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Paul Richter, Greyengine5, Ferkelparade, Jrquinlisk, Serak,
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600
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and Anonymous: 682
MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD_Helicopters_MH-6_Little_Bird?oldid=637617051 Contributors: Rlandmann, PaulinSaudi, Xanzzibar, MFNickster, SElefant, Giraedata, Thatguy96, Arthena, Denniss, Wtmitchell, Alai,
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America789, Redalert2fan, FOX 52, Joshualovesnationalparks and Anonymous: 94
Military helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_helicopter?oldid=662737593 Contributors: Lowellian, Jason Quinn,
Woohookitty, Pol098, Hovea, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, Chwyatt, Cornellrockey, Arado, Saberwyn, Chris93, SmackBot, Flamarande, Tnkr111, Chris the speller, Neo-Jay, Colonies Chris, Will Beback, Willy turner, Levineps, Stewartp, Fnlayson, Barticus88, Bobblehead, BenTremblay, Darklilac, Born2ie, BilCat, Ekki01, Anaxial, R'n'B, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Tatrgel, VolkovBot,
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bogi, MilleniumBlue, Keijhae, KasparBot and Anonymous: 33
Military transport aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_transport_aircraft?oldid=662719624 Contributors: DocWatson42, ShakataGaNai, Karl Dickman, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Arado, MySchizoBuddy, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, Marc Lacoste,
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601
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HighSpeed-X, ObscureReality, Michaelmas1957, AktiNo,
, Jury978, Khazar2, AMikuchonis, Xphony, KasparBot and Anonymous:
32
Multirole combat aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multirole_combat_aircraft?oldid=662972028 Contributors: Xanzzibar,
Ericg, GraemeLeggett, Rajanala83, Mark83, Ahunt, Arado, Malcolma, TDogg310, Ospalh, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Persian Poet
Gal, Hibernian, DinosaursLoveExistence, The PIPE, MilborneOne, Henrickson, Mrsaad31, Fnlayson, Hebrides, DumbBOT, Kubanczyk,
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the Great, Tamlinwah, Achmad Fahri, Yati 43, Narutzy, GentleTypewriter, Xs9xxc49, Filedelinkerbot, Thegingerking, Israformales, Nicky
mathew, VandeMataram, Efram23, AChig and Anonymous: 101
Next-Generation Bomber Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-Generation_Bomber?oldid=662584116 Contributors: Leandrod,
Mcarling, Rlandmann, Cherkash, PaulinSaudi, Oneiros, Thorwald, Anthony Appleyard, Hohum, Pauli133, Crosbiesmith, GregorB, Revas,
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Rezin, Jakehoward2015 and Anonymous: 65
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit?oldid=663516220 Contributors:
Eloquence, Mav, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Alex.tan, Rmhermen, Enchanter, Boleslav Bobcik, Maury Markowitz,
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602
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AddWittyNameHere, Glcm1, LazyReader, Monkbot, People of awesomness, Bmcdev10, KingDeDeDe11, Asdklf;, Space Craze, Tabit
Harik, LucidityOfPower, Cheemzanski, Eriklbiehler, Revitalysis, Starke Hathaway, Encyclopediaexperiencelover, KasparBot, Ghazlanairplanes and Anonymous: 767
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_E-8_Joint_STARS?oldid=
653935467 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, Gsl, SimonP, JohnOwens, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Aarchiba, Nikola Smolenski, David Newton, Wik, ChrisO~enwiki, PBP, Dina, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Guanaco, Bobblewik, Calm, H1523702, Jimwilliams57,
Neutrality, Ojw, Karl Dickman, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, D6, N328KF, Noisy, Guanabot, Bobo192, Spalding, Stahlkocher1, Pearle,
QuantumEleven, Jigen III, Goki, Rwendland, Wtmitchell, Gene Nygaard, Mikeb4789, BlueWind, BlueWind2, Sylvain Mielot, Triddle,
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YFdyh-bot, Onepebble, Gautamh, How Shuan Shi, Bmcdev10 and Anonymous: 81
Rockwell B-1 Lancer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer?oldid=662923277 Contributors: The Epopt, The
Anome, Andre Engels, Danny, Boleslav Bobcik, Maury Markowitz, Michel.SLM, Leandrod, Edward, Patrick, Arpingstone, Ahoerstemeier,
Rlandmann, Aarchiba, Lommer, Timwi, PaulinSaudi, David Newton, Dysprosia, Katana0182, Greglocock, Topbanana, JonathanDP81,
Mackensen, Camerong, RadicalBender, Huangdi, Mrdice, Riddley, Robbot, Mustang dvs, Modulatum, Mirv, Postdlf, PBP, MaGioZal, Paul
Richter, Bogdanb, Mintleaf~enwiki, Greyengine5, Monedula, Elf-friend, Fleminra, Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, H1523702, MistToys, Oneiros,
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603
Bob80q, JW614, Sp33dyphil, Werieth, Natedogg1027, Cogiati, F, Dolovis, Redhanker, Prowler45, HammerFilmFan, Ltr,ftw, Orange
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Sacewo, CaptianNemo, NobodyMinus, Regicide1649, America789, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, Bryan3398, Khazar2, JYBot, Dexbot,
Mogism, Makecat-bot, RandomLittleHelper, Z07x10, Lgfcd, MarchOrDie, Alpha-60, Tentinator, Marigold100, Ginsuloft, UcAndy, UnbiasedVictory, Glcm1, Patcady, Monkbot, Dacblog, Student342, MadmanPeirce and Anonymous: 416
Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-53E_Super_Stallion?oldid=656720285 Contributors: The Cunctator, Rlandmann, Dysprosia, RadicalBender, PBP, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, MathKnight, Neuro, PlatinumX, Bobblewik, Gadum, Karl Dickman, Ericg, Esperant, N328KF, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, Dejitarob, Travisyoung, Krellis, Pearle, Interiot,
Andrewpmk, Sandstig, Denniss, Evil Monkey, Dziban303, Romeoslion, D.E. Watters, Rjwilmsi, XLerate, Durin, Ahunt, Coolhawks88,
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Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Cardfan5, Jcomiv, Xqbot, Plo Koon 1, Vertol-107, SchnitzelMannGreek, FrescoBot, Scottieshea, OgreBot,
Elite501st~enwiki, DrilBot, Edderso, Skyraider1, Julien1978, Megan4404, AHeneen, 777sms, Misakubo, TGCP, Three6right, ZroBot,
Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, Jetijonez, JamesChambers666, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mark Arsten, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyhbot, Mogism, Graphium, FOX 52, XFEM Skier, Happy8485, Xsinthis, Tamlinwah, SukhoiT50PAKFA, Llammakey, Piercedc, The1LieLui
and Anonymous: 142
Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_HH-60_Pave_Hawk?oldid=661904141 Contributors: The
Epopt, Koyaanis Qatsi, Mintguy, JohnOwens, Tannin, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Crissov, David Newton, Quoth-22, David.Monniaux,
Finlay McWalter, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Bobblewik, Jcw69, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Ericg, Huntster, Bobo192, Pearle,
Jonathunder, Hooperbloob, Jigen III, Schnell, Plumbago, Linmhall, UPH~enwiki, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, PatGallacher, Fxer, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Muppetauthor5, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, The Rambling Man, Mcneight, Welsh, Ospalh, Closedmouth, Mike Selinker, Chris
Cowart, Premkudva, SmackBot, Agentbla, Gjs238, Bluebot, Emt147, JollyGreen, Dual Freq, AzaBot, Wybot, Lisasmall, Ohconfucius,
MilborneOne, Andrwsc, Lahiru k, SJFriedl, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Trident13, NDCompuGeek, Headbomb, Hcobb, Tashtastic, Born2ie,
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Wiki, Reedmalloy, Lightbot, WikiDreamer Bot, The Bushranger, Evans1982, Matanya, AnomieBOT, 176thWingPublicAairs, Danno uk,
Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Kyteto, Nightsturm, RedBot, Julien1978, 777sms, Desagwan, DexDor, TeeTylerToe, Wayne Slam, Chesipiero,
ClueBot NG, Morgankevinj huggle, Helpful Pixie Bot, Blackberry Sorbet, America789, YFdyh-bot, , FOX 52, Faizan,
WPGA2345, Monkbot and Anonymous: 94
Sikorsky MH-60 Jayhawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_MH-60_Jayhawk?oldid=653062615 Contributors: Karl Dickman, N328KF, Thuresson, Jigen III, Lord Pistachio, Gene Nygaard, Kelly Martin, Fxer, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Jcmurphy, Coolhawks88,
Mcneight, Splamo, Jayhawkxer, Gaius Cornelius, SEWilcoBot, Saberwyn, Mike Selinker, SmackBot, Ariedartin, Cvdr, Chris the speller,
Jwillbur, Ligulembot, MilborneOne, Dl2000, Michaelh2001, Orca1 9904, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Skeet Shooter, Dawkeye, Signaleer, Mactin,
Akradecki, Born2ie, BilCat, Eliz81, New Hampshirite, VolkovBot, Safemariner, GimmeBot, Trashbag, SieBot, Bachcell, Lightmouse,
Spartan198, Hamiltondaniel, QueenofBattle, NiD.29, Suradnik13, The Founders Intent, Halgin, Addbot, Lightbot, The Bushranger,
AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Ch Th Jo, Merwat, Julien1978, 777sms, EmausBot, Sp33dyphil, TeeTylerToe, BattyBot, FOX 52,
NorthBySouthBaranof, Llammakey, POLICEMAN9172 and Anonymous: 25
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_SH-60_Seahawk?oldid=663555756 Contributors: The Epopt,
Leandrod, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tannin, Delirium, Arpingstone, Rlandmann, Alvaro, Bogdangiusca, Rossami, Jiang, Conti, David
Newton, SEWilco, Wernher, Thue, RadicalBender, Blainster, Greyengine5, IRelayer, Mark.murphy, Bobblewik, Hammersfan, Neutrality,
Karl Dickman, Mtnerd, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, Night Gyr, Amerika, Rcsheets, Krellis, Pearle, SPUI, Thatguy96, Jigen III, Interiot, Complex01, Mike Beidler, Evil Monkey, UPH~enwiki, Bobrayner, Kbdank71, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Ian Dunster, Eubot, Vegardw, Chinfo,
Gurch, Coolhawks88, Victor12, DVdm, Chwyatt, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, Mcneight, Jimp, RussBot, Arado, Marloth2000, Ve3,
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ANigg, SieBot, VVVBot, Chris826, Cobatfor, Atani, Lightmouse, Weemanorpope, Hamiltondaniel, YSSYguy, MenoBot, Binksternet, Helenabella, Suradnik13, Marlow10, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, GPS73, DumZiBoT, ApocalypseNow115, Carlbush, Salam32, Mimarx,
Nukes4Tots, Dave1185, Addbot, Magus732, Download, Lightbot, Zorrobot, The Bushranger, Legobot, Yobot, WikiDan61, Wikipedian2,
Troymacgill, Calhounjim, Skalee, AnomieBOT, Crecy99, Xsoundx, MauritsBot, Nardisoero, Captain Cheeks, Sharky2noy, Mark Renier,
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NG, Konstantinos19, ColMilGem, LofarMarc, Jetijonez, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sabre ball, Snow Blizzard, America789, Cyberbot II, Adnan
bogi, YFdyh-bot, FOX 52, Ionblast, JacobiJonesJr, Hsm-51, Achmad Fahri, UnbiasedVictory, Dslot424, Sierra-Hawk, Kioan, Nurse2Be,
Warren Edge and Anonymous: 213
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk?oldid=663165198 Contributors: Peter Winnberg, The Epopt, Esteban Franz Tichy~enwiki, Leandrod, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Dante Alighieri, Tannin, Delirium, Arpingstone, Emperor, Rlandmann, Netsnipe, Jiang, Reinhard Kraasch, Batura, David Newton, DJ Clayworth, Quoth-22, RadicalBender, Riddley,
Robbot, Fredrik, Nydigovoth, Sekicho, Rhombus, Rasmus Faber, Profoss, Casito, DocWatson42, Greyengine5, Gzornenplatz, Bobblewik,
Christopherlin, Joseph Dwayne, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Noisy, Pmsyyz, Autiger, Darren Olivier,
Paul August, Night Gyr, Bender235, JoeSmack, Chairboy, Meggar, Pearle, Hooperbloob, QuantumEleven, Thatguy96, Jigen III, Redxiv,
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604
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Mol~enwiki, Peter Horn, Andrwsc, Atakdoug, TwistOfCain, LeyteWolfer, JoeBot, Dp462090, Cadetmiller, Pjbynn, Davidbspalding,
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Keilana, Lightmouse, Kumioko, Spartan198, ZH Evers, Allmedia, Denisarona, Taco khan 5000, Solarguy17, Garysu, YSSYguy, Martarius,
ClueBot, Marcusroos, QueenofBattle, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Homan 056k, Davidsinn, Klm787, Max Mayr, Mt hg, Ericsboxx, Suradnik13, Niceguyedc, Paulcmnt, Homan05, Excirial, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, Arjayay, Acas7i11o, Iohannes Animosus,
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Luke85, Pajeron, GrouchoBot, O2riorob, Coltsfan, RibotBOT, T65k2lin, SCRECROW, Scalimani, Gend07000, Jkenny23, Kyteto,
Sabuell, The A master, Zcdrrm, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Poliocretes, Chumchum7, Sigge365, RedBot, Julien1978, Cnwilliams,
Rockinrolie, Jmantherealest, UrukHaiLoR, Bryan TMF, 777sms, KZMX, Mouath14, Aoidh, DFBHDbeat16, Sharkmkd, MegaSloth, Desagwan, RjwilmsiBot, Jackehammond, TGCP, FC Toronto, Three6right, Mztourist, EmausBot, Babak902003, MikeyTMNT, Starcheerspeaksnewslostwars, Sp33dyphil, 8r455, TeeTylerToe, Cedar T., ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Taztouz, SporkBot, KazekageTR, ChuispastonBot, Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, Embaentropy, Frietjes, Blackhawk67t, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, Stiivwn, 113727b, Tom Irvin,
Chuck40, Sn1per, Takahara Osaka, AUSG, BattyBot, America789, Cyberbot II, F111ECM, 86steveD, Adnan bogi, Khazar2, JYBot,
Vodavo, Charliefox71, Redalert2fan, FOX 52, Black houk, Aftabbanoori, Albert777MAX, Quochungedward, WPGA2345, Stamptrader,
Ancholm, Keijhae, MilitaryFlights, Psyberger83, Paulocesarocial, Datturds, Lt Jin Panganiban, DJ02 94, WarriorofShiism, ABDULLAH
MERT ENGL, Indonesia124, Junchuann, Molinaro787, Starcevicevnauk, Manny Cohen, KasparBot and Anonymous: 524
Special operations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_operations?oldid=661945794 Contributors: Jiang, Indefatigable,
Grant65, Joseph Dwayne, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Espoo, Apokrif, NebY, TexasAndroid, Imladros, Ray Chason, JDspeeder1,
Nick-D, SmackBot, Chris the speller, DouglasCalvert, Harej bot, Aldis90, Archangel1, VonZehle, Akradecki, Spartaz, Ispyhumany,
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TwoTwoHello, Timothysandole, 93, Faizan, Icemanwcs, Michael10067, Monkbot, Mack.sweeney and Anonymous: 27
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