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Bba 106
Bba 106
Lesson No. -
Vetter Mrs.Maneesha
01
Objective
1.1
Introduction
1.2
1.3
Summary
1.4
Key words
1.5
1.6
Suggested Readings
1.0
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to teach the students to write grammatically correct
sentences having a perfect harmony between the subject and the verb. After going
through the lesson and practicing the rules of the concord, they will be able to
avoid errors of verbs regarding their being singular or plural and use the correct
number and person of the verb in a sentence.
1.1
Introduction
Concord literally means harmony, agreement. Thus, it means harmony between
different members of a group. When we talk of sentences, concord means
Every sentence says something about a person or thing. The part of a sentence
that names the person or thing is called Subject or the part, which gives us
information about the Subject is called Predicate. The subject of a sentence thus
has a close relation to what is being said in the Predicate. The form of the verb
should be in direct relation to the number and person of the Subject.
1.2
The verb must agree with the subject in Number and Person.
When two or more singular subjects are joined together by and, plural verb is
used. e.g.,
Ram and Sham are playing a game. He and his friends have
arrived.
If two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular,
e.g.,
My friend and benefactor has come.
By the death of Gokhale a great statesman and patriot was lost to
India.
It should be noted that the article is used only once if the two nouns refer to the
same person. If different persons were referred to, the article would be used
before each noun and the verb would be plural. e.g.,
The orator and the statesman are dead.
If two subjects together express one idea, the verb will be in the singular, e.g.,
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
Slow and steady wins the race.
If singular subjects have each or every before them, the verb is usually
singular.
e.g.,
Every man, woman and child was lost.
Each day and each hour brings its duty.
Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either, neither or nor
take a verb in the singular, e.g.,
Neither Hari nor Ravi has come.
No nook or corner was left unexplored.
When the subjects joined by or, nor are of different numbers, the verb must be
plural, and the plural subject must be placed next to the verb. e.g.,
Hari or his brothers have done this.
Either the boy or his parents have gone there.
When the subjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the verb agrees in
person with the one nearest to it, e.g.,
Either he or I am mistaken.
Neither you nor he is to blame.
It should however be kept in mind that if the individuals of which the collective
noun is composed of are thought of, it can take a plural verb. e.g.,
The military work called out.
The crew were taken prisoners.
Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take a singular
verb,
e.g.,
The news is true.
Physics is a branch of natural science.
When a plural noun counts between a singular subject and its verb, the verb used
is singular in form. e.g.,
Each of the sisters is clever.
A variety of objects charms the eye.
The quality of the mangoes was not good.
When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, care should be taken to see that
the verb agrees in number and person with the antecedent of the relative. e.g.,
I, who am your friend, will guard you interest.
The title of a book, play, story, musical composition and the name of a country,
even though plural in form take a singular verb, e.g.,
Sons and Lovers is an interesting Novel.
The United States of America is a developed country.
1.3
Summary
The basic rules for writing grammatically correct sentences have been discussed.
In a sentence, the verb must agree with its subject with respect to its number and
person.
1.4
Key words
Subject, verb, predicate, noun, pronoun, singular, plural.
1.5
1.5.1 Set 1
Fill in the blanks with correct form of the verb:
1. Two and two four.
2. Bread and butter . take wholesome food.
3. Gullivers travels . written by swift.
4. A good man and useful citizen passed away.
5. Each of the boys.rewarded.
6. The jurydivided in their opinion.
7. He is one of the authors whodestined to be immortal.
8. Neither of the boys.quite at his ease.
9. The cost of these articlesrisen.
10. Every leaf and every flower..stripped off the tree.
11. The horse and trapbeen waiting for a long time.
1.5.2 Set 2
Correct the following sentences:
1. Sita as well as Ram like fruit.
2. The owner of these houses are very clever.
3. There is eleven players in the ground.
4. Rice and curry are his favourite dish.
5. Great Expectations are a good book.
6. Both of the books requires careful reading.
7. Neither Tina nor his friends is going there.
8. A doctor as well as a nurse are working in the hospital.
9. A doctor and a nurse is working in the hospital.
10. A number of books is missing.
1.6
Suggested Readings
J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar for Foreign
Students, Oxford University Press, India 1963.
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi, 1994
Lesson No. -
02
FORMS OF VERBS
STRUCTURE
2.0
Objective
2.1
Introduction
Forms of Verbs
Using Verb Tenses
2.3.1 Present tense
2.3.2 Past tense
2.3.3 Future tense
2.4
Moods
2.5
2.6
Phrasal Verbs
2.7
Summary
2.8
Key words
2.9
Introduction
A verb is a word or a group of words that denotes action, or the state in which a
thing or a person is, or joins the subject with the rest of the sentence. There has to
be at least one verb in the sentence to make it a sentence. A verb often consists of
more than one word. For example:
2.2
Forms of Verbs
Read the following sentences carefully:
1. Ram kills the snake.
2. The boy laughs loudly.
In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb kills passes over from the doer or
the subject Ram to the object snake. The verb kills is, therefore, called a
Transitive verb.
In sentence 2, the action denoted by the verb laughs stops with the doer i.e., the
boy, it does not pass over to any object. It does not affect any noun other than the
doer. The verb laughs is, therefore, called an Intransitive verb.
Most Transitive verbs take a single object, however, verbs such as give, ask,
offer, promise, tell, ... take on two objects after them an object that denotes the
person to whom something is given or for whom something is done, and a direct
object which is usually the name of things.
2.3
2.3.1
Present tense:
The verb describes an action that began in the past, continues in the
present and may continue into the future also.
It has been raining since morning.
He has been working for three hours.
2.3.2
Past tense:
1) The simple past (We went).
Form: second form of the verb.
The verb describes actions or conditions of the past.
of time.
She was crying.
The children were playing.
2.3.3
Future tense:
1) The simple future (We will go).
Form: will/shall + first form of the verb.
The verb describes actions or events of the future. It helps in making
predictions about the future, spontaneous reactions to events, making
promises and thinking about future possibilities.
It will rain tomorrow.
I think he will not attend the party.
Note: Sometimes, the simple present tense can express future time if there
is some other word in the sentence that clearly marks a future tense.
2.4
Moods
Verbs are used to express commands, make suppositions and to make statements
of fact. These modes in which verbs are used are called Moods. There are three
moods Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive.
2.5
2.0
A modal verb always has the same form. There is no -s ending, no -ing form and
no -ed form, e.g., he will, they will, etc.
3.0
Modal verbs and auxiliary verbs come before the subject to form questions. e.g.,
Will you come for the party?
4.0
They are used to form negatives by adding 'not' after them. e.g., I cannot/can't do
this.
5.0
Modal verbs are used to talk about someone's ability to do an action, an action
that is necessary and a situation that is possible.e.g.,
1.1
2.6
Phrasal Verbs
Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or adverbs, acquire
idiomatic sense. e.g., put out, get on, turn round, break down, run away, look
forward to, etc.
Phrasal verbs can be separable or inseparable and they can take an object or not.
Phrasal verbs which take objects can be separable or inseparable. e.g.,
I picked Tina up or I picked up Tina.
2.7
Summary
In this lesson, we have discussed about verb and its various forms. This
understanding will help the students to construct correct sentences.
2.8
Key words
Verb, tense, present tense, past tense, future tense, mood, indicative mood,
imperative mood, subjunctive mood, phrasal verb, auxiliaries, modal verbs, etc.
2.9
Lesson No. -
03
Objective
3.1
Introduction
3.2
3.3
Summary
3.4
Key words
3.5
3.6
Suggested Readings
3.0
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to teach the students the idiomatic use of
prepositions and conjunctions. After going through this lesson, the students will
develop an understanding of the idioms, phrasal verbs, words followed by
appropriate prepositions and conjunctions, and they will be able to use the
prepositions and conjunctions idiomatically in their sentences making their speech
or writing effective.
3.1
Introduction
An Idiom is an expression in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself
either grammatically or in having a meaning that cannot be derived from the
A Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun to show its relation
to some other word in the sentence. There is no hard and fast rule to explain why
a particular verb or adjective takes a particular preposition after it. In English the
use of preposition is largely a matter of convention, a matter of idiom. A
Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrase, clauses and sentences. Although
prepositional usage and is extremely difficult to master, the subject of preposition
is very important and can be learnt by careful reading and constant practice.
3.2
Abide by: a promise, a decision to stick to it: Once you have made a promise, you
ought to abide by it.
Abound with: to be infested with: The forest abounds with elephants and lions.
Absolve from: to free from, to acquit of: nothing can absolve you from your
responsibility.
Abstain from: to keep away from, to avoid, especially strong drinks: The doctor
advised the patient to abstain from liquor.
Access to: approach to: A financially sound person can manage an easy access to
the authorities.
Accord with: to agree: Your present statement does not accord with what you
said last week.
Accord to: to extend, to grant: (a) We accorded a hearty welcome to Dr. Rao
when he came to preside over our annual function. (b) The president accorded
sanction to the new bill.
Acquiesce in: to agree silently, passively: Dont just acquiesce in any proposal
brought forward; accept it only if you find it reasonable.
Acquitte of: free from: For want of any definite evidence against him, he was
acquitted of the charge.
Acquit one self in: to behave have: He acquitted himself creditably in the
discharge of his duties.
Act upon: an advice, order, etc: You must act upon this letter at once, or it will
be too late.
Adapt to: adjust with: Try to adapt yourself to your circumstances if you want
to be happy.
Addicted to: given to something usually evil: Being addicted to drinking and
gambling, he soon squandered away his property.
Adhere to: stick to: We must adhere to our principles at all costs.
Admit of: to allow, leave room for: Your conduct does not admit of any excuse.
Afflicted at: pained at, distressed at: She felt afflicted at the death of her only
son.
Afflicted with: The old man was afflicted with pain in the joints.
Agree with a person: They agreed with me that corruption is at the root of the
slow progress of our country.
Alight from: to get down from: The soldier alighted from the horse and saluted
his commander.
Alive to: conscious of: He is not alive to the weakness of his son.
Alliance with: union with: We desired a marriage alliance with a noble family
living in our neighbourhood.
Allude to: foreign to refer: He alluded to the partition of India in his speech.
Annoyed with a person: The teacher was annoyed with the students.
Anxious for or about: The child is quite safe, you need not feel anxious for him.
Appetite for a thing: How can the appetite for worldly reaches be appeased?
Applied to a person for something: He applied to the manager for the post of
clerk.
Apprise of: to inform: If you apprise me of the situation in time, I shall help you
to face it.
Aptitude for: talent for: Do not undertake any assignment unless you have an
aptitude for it.
Argue with a person on a subject, for or against something: Do not argue with
your elders.
Asked for: Go to the top floor and ask for Mr. Chopra.
Assent to: A bill has to be passed by both the houses before the president gives
his assent to it.
Authority over: I have no authority over this gentleman, I can only request him
to lend me his co-operation.
Atone for a fault: to make amends for it: He atoned for his earlier betrayal with
a lie long devotion.
Attribute to: to assigned to, to ascribe to: His success may be attributed to his
diligence.
Avail oneself of: to make use of: Unless you avail yourself of the opportunities
that fall your way, you can not be successful.
Award to: A prize was awarded to him for having won the rifle shooting
championship.
Aware of: to have knowledge of: Are you aware of the latest changes in the
syllabus.
B
Banish from: to expel: He was banished from the kingdom for having plotted
against the crown prince.
Blind to: Most people are usually blind to their own shortcomings.
Boast of: I agree that he is talented but he boasts of his talent a bit too much.
Born of: Jawahar Lal Nehru was born of his rich parents at Allahabad
Brood over: to think constantly of: It is no use brooding over past failures.
Call on a person.
Care of (care as a verb): You must care for what your parents say.
Celebrated for: famous for: Amritsar is celebrated for its Golden Temple.
Certain of: sure of: He is quite certain of getting a first class in the examination
hall.
Charge with: to accuse of: The treasurer was charged with having instigated
others against the manager.
Clamour for: To make a loud demand for: The workers are clamouring for
higher wages.
Coincide with: to accord with: His view in this matter does not coincide with
me.
Collide with: The tonga collided with a car and the horse was killed.
Common to: Human weaknesses like greed, pride, jealousy are common to all.
Compare with (used with things belonging to the same class): Compare this pen
with that.
Compatible with: consistent with, in agreement with: His actions are hardly
compatible with the tall moral claims he makes.
Compete with a person for something: Twenty candidates competed with each
other for the first prize.
Comply with: to agree to: My friend willingly complied with my request for
some financial assistance.
Conceal from: to hide from: Certain facts have to be concealed even from one's
dearest friend.
Condemn to: imprisonment, death, etc. for a crime: He was condemned to death
for having a committed a murder.
Condole with: to express sympathy with: His friends condoled with him in his
bereavement.
Conform to: to abide by: while making this furniture, you must conform to the
specifications given by me.
Congenial to: suitable to one's disposition: The atmosphere in this office is not
congenial to me.
Consent to: agree to: I can not consent to the proposal you have made.
Conspire against: to plot against: The rebels conspired against the government.
Convenient to: You may come to see me at any time convenient to you.
Convenient for: It is quite convenient for me to come to your place this Sunday.
Conversant with: well acquainted: I am quite conversant with the local politics.
Convey to: It has been conveyed to all the delegates that they are required to
produce identification cards.
Convince of: I do not fight for a cause unless I am fully convinced of its justness.
Cope with: to contend with, to be equal to: We need three more hands to cope
with the heavy rush of work.
Count on: to depend on: Don't count on others help, try to be self supported.
Crowned with: rewarded with: His efforts were crowned with success.
Deal with a person: to treat him: I had to be very patient while dealing with the
naughty child.
Deal out: to distribute: Deal out these cards thirteen each to the four players.
Demand for: There is a great demand for Indian handicrafts in some of the
western countries.
Desist from: To give up the idea of doing something: I desisted from helping
him with money when I came to know that he was a spendthrift.
Despair of: To give up hope: He did not despair of success despite his repeated
failures.
Destined to: preordained for, marked beforehand for: She was destined to be a
queen.
Deviate from: to digress from: No progress is possible unless one deviates from
the beaten track and explores new regions.
Devoid of: lacking common sense, good humour, manners, etc.: It is an amusing
irony that those who preach good manners are usually devoid of even ordinary
courtesy.
Differ with: Persons differ with each other: I differ with you on this subject.
Diligent in one's work: hard working: She is very diligent in her work.
Dispose of: to get rid of, to sell: I can not buy a new house unless I dispose of the
one I am now living in.
Dissent from: disagreement from: I express my dissent from the decisions taken
at this meeting and resign from the membership of the club.
Dissuade from: to advise to refrain from: I dissuaded him from taking up the
job of a clerk in a government office.
Distrust of: suspicion of: I have a distrust of him who does not express his
opinions frankly.
Divert from: to turn aside: He diverted my attention from the main point under
discussion.
Divide between two persons; divide among more than two; divide into two
parts.
Dwell on: to emphasis: The speaker dwelt on the subject of economic planning at
length.
E
Eager for: to have keen desire for: The boys are eager for success in the
examination.
Eligible for: fit to be selected for: Only graduates are eligible for this post.
Enamoured of: attracted with: The youngman was enamoured of her beauty at
the very first sight.
Endow with: to grant: Milton believed he had been endowed with a talent for
writing poetry.
Enter into an agreement: The two teams entered into a secret agreement.
Entitled to: to have a claim to: You are not entitled to damages unless you
possess a comprehensive insurance policy.
Entrust to: The job of making purchases from the market was entrusted to him.
Entrust with: He was entrusted with the job of making purchases from the
market.
Envious of: Feeling envious of the brilliant result of his cousin, he also started
working hard.
Esteem for: respect for: All my friends have a great esteem for my parents.
Excel in: to be very good at: She excels in singing classical songs.
Exempt from: free from: He was exempted from the payment of the college
dues.
Expose to: to lay open to: He was exposed to extreme cold because of which he
caught pneumonia.
Exult over a fallen enemy: A true sportsman will never exult over the defeat of
his rivals.
F
Faith in: One can work wonders in life if one has faith in oneself.
False to: You will be false to none if you are not false to yourself.
Fight against: We should not fight against our kith and kin.
Furnish with: to supply with: Kindly furnish me with a specimen copy of this
book.
Get over: to overcome: His perseverance helped him in getting over his
weakness.
Get at: to reach at: I could not get at the book you suggested.
Glance at: to cast a look at: He glanced at the messenger and dismissed him.
Glory in: to take pride in: We glory in the victory of our country.
Grapple with: to contend with; fight with: We should courageously grapple with
the difficulties of life.
Grasp at: to catch at: The child eagerly grasped at the butterfly.
Grumble at: He grumbled at the meagre allowance his father gave him every
month.
Grieve at something.
Hanker after money, fame, power etc.: Hankering after riches is not an idle
pursuit at least in the modern materialistic world.
Heedless of: without caring for: He persisted in his struggle heedless of the
consequences.
Heir to: The crown prince, heir to the throne, found his life in grave danger.
Hinge on: to depend on: My whole future hinges on my result in the degree
examination.
Hint at something.
Hostile to: opposed to: When he found even his friends hostile to his proposal, he
withdrew it.
I
Ignorant of: uninformed about, having no knowledge of: You can not be
absolved from a crime because you are the ignorant of the law.
Imbued with: inspired with: We need youngmen imbued with the spirit of selfsacrifice.
Impose on, upon: A heavy responsibility was imposed on him at a very early
age.
Impute to: to ascribe to, to attribute to: The loss of some confidential files from
the chief secretary table is being imputed to his peon.
Incentive to: an inspiration to: Poverty often acts as an incentive to hard work.
Indispensable to: necessary for: You might be a very suitable candidate for the
job, but do not think that you are indispensable to me.
Indulge in: to gratify, to give a free court to: One must not indulge in luxuries
until one can afford them.
Infer from: to deduce from: Nothing definite can be inferred from the
statements made by these culprits.
Inferior to: Goods made in India are no longer inferior to the imported ones.
Infested with: haunted by: This city is infested with rogues and rascals.
Influence over: The Chief Minister has no influence over his cabinet.
Injurious to: harmful to: Indulgence in anything may prove injurious to health.
Insight into: penetration into: A writer must have a deep insight into human
character.
Insist on, upon: She insisted on joining a hostel as, she said, she felt disturbed at
home.
Inspired with: Inspired with his initial success, he went ahead with the project.
Intent on, upon: bent upon: He seemed intent upon breaking their friendship
extended over a number of years.
Intimate with: close to: One should be intimate with a few well-tried friends
only.
Intrude on one's time: Do not intrude on my time after the office hours.
Introduce into a matter: It would be imprudent to intrude into the affairs that do
not concern one.
Invest money in some project: It isn't safe to invest one's entire savings in stocks
and shares.
Invite to: I could not attend his marriage though I had been invited to it.
Irrelevant to: having no concern with: His observations were mostly irrelevant
to the topic of the evening.
Irrespective of: without reference to: This post is open to all irrespective of
caste.
Jeer at: to laugh at: It is undesirable to jeer at others for what they can not help.
Join to: The doctor joined the broken bone to the limb.
Jump at: The offer appeared to be so attractive that he immediately jumped at it.
Jump to the conclusion: He hastily jumped to the conclusion that I was to blame
for all his losses.
Junior to: Being juniors to others in service does not necessarily mean being
inferior to them in the quality of work.
Keen on: He is keen on sending his son abroad for higher studies.
Keep from: to abstain from: Keep from excessive indulgence of any kind.
Keep to: If you always keep to the left, it will avert many accidents.
Kind to: Be kind to the bird and free it from the cage.
Lame of a leg.
Lead to: directs to: Where does this road lead to?
Lean against: rest against something: The tired traveller leaned against the tree.
Liable for: answerable for: The sun is liable for the debts of his father.
Listen to: If you listen to the singing you will appreciate her voice.
Long for: to be desirous of: I longed for the company of some friend.
Mad with: angry at: I was mad with rag at the disobedience of the students.
Match for: You are no match for him so far as physical strength is concerned.
Meddle with: to interfere in: I do not like anyone to meddle with my affairs.
Mourn for: to grieve at: The whole nation mourns for the national hero.
Moved at: I was moved to tears at the sad plight of the refugees.
Moved with pity: become sad: The old lady was moved with pity to see the child
crying with pain.
Object to: I am determined to adopt this course even if you object to it.
Occupied in: At the moment he is occupied in the work of putting his things in
order.
Occur to: to come into one's mind: It never occurred to him that the fault could
be his too.
Officiate for: In the absence of the principal, the vice-principal officiates for
him.
Overcome with: I was overcome with grief at the news of his sad, untimely
demise.
Painful to: It was painful to see her gradually straying into the path of evil.
Part from a person: The dying mother found it heart rending to part from her
children.
Partake of: to share: Kindly parttake of the humble meal we can offer.
Partial to: It pained us to see the umpire being partial to our rival team.
Pay for: to suffer: You will have to pay for your follies.
Pertinent to: to have a relation to: We found his comments very pertinent to the
point under discussion.
Pine for: to long for: The parents pined for the lost child.
Plead with a person for something: The lawyer pleaded with the judge.
Plunge into: to throw oneself into: He took to heart his losses in business and
plunged into grief.
Point at a person.
Point to something.
Ponder on or over a subject: to think on: We should carefully ponder over this
point before taking any action.
Prepared for: We should be prepared for the worst though the worst may not
happen.
Prevail over: to overpower: His enemies prevailed over him in his fight..
Prevent from: His parents prevented him from joining the army.
Prior to: before: prior to joining this newspaper as its editor, I was working in a
college.
Prohibit from: His sister prohibited him from going to the movies.
Provide with: He provided his son with money for the journey.
Pry into: to make enquiries into: I tried to pry into the secret but in vain.
Qualified for: He is well qualified for the post of the manager of a restaurant.
Rebel against: to revolt against: The angry tribals rebelled against their leader.
Refer to: All important cases have to be referred to the section Officer.
Reflect on: to meditate on: If you reflect on this subject with a cool mind, you
will realize your mistake.
Regard for: I have high regard for the nameless patriots who laid down their
everything at the altar of their country.
Regardless of: without paying any heed to: He undertook the new venture
regardless of the difficulties involved in it.
Related to: I would like to be provided with all statistics related to this case.
Rely on: to depend on: If you want to rely on others, you should first be reliable
to yourself.
Renowned for: famous for: He is renowned for the impartiality of his behaviour.
Repent of: If you want to repent of a sin, promise never to repeat it.
Rescue from danger: to save: A passer-by jumped into the well and rescued the
child from drowning.
Revel in: to take keen delight in: He has been revelling in drinking and gambling.
Revolt against: They decided to revolt against the arbitrary decisions of the
Governor.
Rid of: I can be rid of my worries only if you promise to support me.
Rob of: The thieves robbed him of all the valuables lying in the house.
Rule over: Ashoka ruled over his people with love and kindness.
Satisfied with: I am satisfied with the work done by our new manager.
Send for: The patient is serious; the doctor should be immediately sent for.
Show off: to pretend: I have a dislike for people who are in the habit of showing
off in public.
Sick of: I am sick of waiting or the bus for hours together yesterday.
Slave to: Those who are slaves to their own habits are victims of the worst kind
of slavery.
Slow at: He is rather slow at accounts; give him some other job.
Smile at: We could not help smiling at the innocent prattle of the child.
Sneer at: to make fun of: Only a cynic can sneer at virtue.
Stick to: to be steadfast at: Unless you stick to your decision, you cannot
progress in life.
Stoop to: to bend to: I never thought he would stoop to such meanness.
Subject to: The plan you have suggested is subject to approval by the
government.
Submit to: to yield to: If people do not submit to authority, there will be chaos in
the country.
Subscribe to: to contribute to: How much money did you subscribe to the flood
relief fund?
Surprised at: We were all surprised at the strict measures adopted by the
Government.
Taste for: liking for: He who has no taste for music should be kept at arm's
length.
Teem with: to abound in: This part of the sea teems with sharks.
Tend to: Simple living and high thinking tend to a happy life.
Triumph over: to win a victory over: He truimphed over his enemies with great
tact.
Vain of: proud of: He who is vain of being virtuous does not know what virtue is.
Vexed at: distributed at; distressed at: I was vexed at his opposition, for I had
expected quite acquiescence.
Vie with: to compete with: The hawkers vied with one another in making such a
loud noise.
Yearn for: to long for: Man has always yearned for eternal happiness.
Yield to: to surrender to: A man of spiritual strength will never yield to
hardships.
-2. Summary
It is seen that certain nouns, adjectives and verbs are idiomatically used with
particular prepositions and conjunctions, and lend a new meaning to the sentence.
This lesson will help the students to use prepositions and conjunctions
idiomatically in their sentences making their speech or writing effective
3.4
Key words
3.5
Suggested Readings
J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar for Foreign
Students, Oxford University Press, India 1963.
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University
Press, New Delhi, 1994
Thomas Lee Crowell, JR., A Glossary of Phrases with Prepositions, PrenticeHall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1981
Lesson No. -
04
Objective
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Phrasal verbs
4.3
Idioms
4.4
Summary
4.5
Key words
4.6
4.7
Suggested Readings
________________________________________________________________________
4.0
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to teach the students the use of phrasal verbs and
idioms. After going through this lesson, the students will develop an
understanding of idioms, phrasal verbs, and they will be able to use them in their
sentences and hence, lend a new vitality to their speech or writing.
4.1
Introduction
An Idiom is an expression in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself
either grammatically or in having a meaning that cannot be derived from the
4.2
Phrasal verbs
Abide by- keep to, adhere to: I expect him to abide by the rules.
Act (up) on- to do something definite about: You should act upon this letter at
once.
Agree with- have the same opinion; coincide with: I cannot agree with you on
this matter.
Allow for- make concessions for: We must allow for some relaxation in the
schedule.
Answer for- to be responsible for: The maid had to answer for the missing
articles.
Ask after- to seek information for: She asked after his health.
Back up- to support: I had hoped that he would back me up in the argument.
Bank upon- to depend upon: I am banking on you to help me find a good house.
Bear up- to carry on: He bore up well under his parent death.
Bear out- to support: I am afraid that the results bear out my suspicions.
Blow over- pass, vanish: It is a problem now, but I expect it to blow over.
Break away- rebel: The state has broken away from the union.
Break down- stop functioning; to burst into tears: The bus broke down on the
way.
Break into- enter illegally: The thief broke into the house.
Break off- sever, discontinue: They have broken off the negotiations.
Break out-appear, start suddenly: The first world war broke out in 1914.
Bring about-cause to happen: This accident was brought about by the truck
drivers recklessness.
Brush aside-discard: He brushed aside all our objections and went away.
Call for-demand: This job calls for a man of initiative and courage.
Call forth-demand: The emergency called forth reserves of energy, which she
did not know she possessed.
Call in-summon to a place: They decided to call in a doctor, because the child
had high temperature.
Call off-abandon: The workers have decided to call off their strike.
Carry off-gain: He was a great sportsman at school, and carried off all the
prizes.
Carry on-continue: The boys were told to carry on writing even though the bell
had rung.
Carry out- execute: The scientist was carrying out some interesting
experiments.
Carry through-execute completely: They carried the plan through to the last
letter.
Cash in on-exploit for profit: She shouldnt try to cash in on the fact that he likes
her.
Cash aside-throw away: She casts people aside like old clothes.
Cast away-jettison: The men cast away the things they would not need.
Cast off-leave: As soon as that man lost his wealth, he was cast off by his friends.
Catch on-become popular: This is a nice melody and I think itll catch on
quickly.
Catch up- succeed in pursuing: She just cant catch up with her work.
Chalk out- outline clearly: The leader began to chalk out a plan of campaign.
Clear away- vanish: The mist cleared away as the sun came out.
Come across- meet by chance: I came across him at the library one day.
Come down with- become ill from: She has come down with typhoid.
Come out with- say: he always comes out with some funny ideas.
Cry out against- reject loudly: The people are crying out against this injustice.
Cut down-reduce: We must cut down expenses, as our final resources are low.
Do away with-get rid of: They have done away with those old customs.
Drop out-to cease participation: Arun has dropped out and wont attend college
any more.
Eat away-destroy by: The rats have eaten the woodwork away.
End up-usually satisfactory: If you drive your motorbike like that, you will end
up in hospital.
Enter into-begin: They enter into negotiations with their business rivals.
Enter (up) on-begin: The young man was just entering upon his career in
teaching.
Fall away-diminish: The old custom has fallen away into disuse.
Fall back-recoil: She fell back in dismay when she saw the teacher.
Fall behind-fail to maintain a schedule: They fell behind with the rent and were
asked by their landlord to move out.
Fall for-accept as true: Everyone seems to fall for his charming manner.
Fall in with-accept: They have fallen in with the general policy of the firm.
Fall out-quarrels: I think the two neighbors have fallen out again.
Fall (up)on-attack: The robbers fell upon the unsuspecting travellers as they went
through the woods.
Get about-move or go about: He gets about quite well, despite his rheumatism.
Get away with-abscond with: He has got away with a huge sum in cash.
Get by-be tolerable: His work will get by but that is all.
Get down to-start to work seriously on: I really must get down to some study as
the examinations are near.
Get into-be involved in: The children are always getting into trouble.
Get off-escape punishment: The thief won't get off so easily next time.
Get on-make progress: I am afraid she isn't getting on very well at school.
Get round to-find time to do: I always wanted to write but have never got round
to it.
Get through-be accepted: All the candidates did not get through.
Give in-surrender: If we cannot continue with the struggle, we may as well give
in now.
Give out- come to an end: Her patience gave out long ago.
Give over- transfer: They give the building over for use as an office.
Give up- surrender: He gave up his seat on the bus to an old lady
Go along with- agree with: He could go along with the plan most of the way but
not entirely.
Go by- base a judgment on: To go by appearances, I would say all is not well.
Go in for- enter for: Seema has gone in for the beauty competition.
Go into- investigate: The police intend to go into the matter very carefully.
Go over- study: The auditors went over the accounts with care.
Go with- harmonize with: The colour of curtains goes with the colour of the
walls.
Go without- manage without: That old man often goes without food for days.
Hammer away- work hard: We shall hammer away at this problem till we get a
solution.
Hand down- to pass on: The story was handed down from generation to
generation.
Hand over- surrender: He does not want to handover the property to any of his
relatives.
Hang about- remain idling in a place: I wish she would stop hanging about and
do something useful.
Hang back- hesitate: She hung back from asking the reasons for her delay.
Hang on- wait upon: Our journey hangs on whether he is willing to help us.
Hang on to- retain: You should hang on to that painting because it may be worth
a lot of money.
Head back- go back: On the way to Madras we changed our minds and headed
back to Delhi.
Hit off- be friendly: He hit off with his neighbours from the start.
Hit out- attack violently: The workers are angry and ready to hit out in any
direction.
Hold back- keep a secret: We were sure he was holding something back from us.
Hold forth- make a speech: The chairman held forth on the dangers of delaying
the decision.
Hold on- endure: The soldiers managed to hold on in that isolated position until
reinforcements arrived.
Hold over- postpone: The meeting was held over until Friday.
Hold with- approve of: I don't hold with heavy drinking and wild parties.
Inquire after- ask for information about: He inquired after the children's health.
Inquire into-investigate: The police decided to inquire into the events leading up
to the accidents.
Jump at- accept with enthusiasm: She jumped at the offer of a job near her
house.
Keep back-withhold: They are keeping back the name of ancient victims
Keep from-abstain from: I hope you will keep from doing anything rash.
Keep off-stay away: I hope the rain keeps off we finish our shopping.
Keep out-provide insulation against: That heavy blanket should keep out the
cold.
Keep up-stay in position: The old boat couldn't keep up with the others.
Laugh away-dismiss with laugther: He laughed away the dangers that the
journey might involve.
Lay aside-abandon: He laid aside his scruples and joined the gang.
Lay down-give up: The old man has laid down his office.
Lay in-make a store of: She has laid in provisions against a shortage during the
festival season.
Lay off-dispense with: The factory has laid off workers because of the drop in
sales.
Lay on-provide: Gas and electricity are now being laid on in the new township.
Lead in-enter: A decision along these lines could lead into serious complications.
Leave behind-forget to take: He left behind a pair of glasses and some books.
Leave off-stop: I think we should leave off discussing the matter now and have
some coffee.
Let off-forgive: The thief was let off with a small fine.
Let on-admit: She never let on that she had met him in London.
Let up-diminish: As the rain began to let up, we decided to walk back home.
Lie back- recline: I just want to lie back and do nothing for a while.
Lie down- submit: I hope you don't expect me just to lie down and take his
insults.
Lie up- remain in hiding: The criminals are lying up somewhere in those woods.
Live down- survive: It will be difficult for him to live down his humiliation.
Live through- survive: I could not live through another day as hot as that.
Look after- take care of: She has looked after her elderly parents for many years.
Look at- view: He looks at life differently from you and me.
Look down on- disdain: She looks down on people who show off their wealth.
Look in- call, visit: I'll look in at your shop on my way home.
Look into- investigate: The police are looking into the matter.
Look on- watch: They stood looking on while the man was being beaten up.
Look out for- keep a watch for: I want you to look out for them at the meeting.
Look to- rely on: He looks to his parents when he needs help.
Look (up) on- regard: we look upon these people as our most dangerous rivals.
Make away with- murder secretly: They made away with their opponents in the
night.
Make off- escape: The thieves made off with the loot before the police arrived.
Make off with- steal: The manager has made off with the company's profit.
Make over- assign: He has made the estate over to his eldest son.
Make up to- flatter: She makes up to her boss all the time to get special
attention.
Pass away- vanish: The old cultural values have passed away.
Pass off- go away: I was feeling sick, but the feeling has passed off.
Pass on- move on: After discussing geography the students passed on to consider
history.
Pass up- forgo: You should never pass up opportunities like these.
Pick at- eat in any portions: The birds picked at the bread crumbs.
Pick on- single out or isolate for criticism: The teacher picks on Asha all the
time.
Pick out- choose: They have picked out the best items.
Play along- co-operate: She decided to play along with them and see what they
wanted.
Play down- depreciate: The newspapers ought to play down communal feelings.
Play off- oppose: He has played his enemies off against each other.
Play up to- flatter: She is always playing up to people who may be able to help
her.
Pull through- recover: He was badly injured, but the doctor says that he'll pull
through.
Put aside- save: The old woman managed to put aside a little money.
Put away- give up: I asked Neera to put away such foolish ideas.
Put down- suppress: The general was sure that he could soon put down the
rebellion.
Put forward- advance: He put forward several interesting ideas, but none was
accepted.
Put in- insert: He put in several more paragraphs before sending the script to the
press.
Put off- postpone: We have to put off the meeting because of the weather.
Put up- stay: He put up at a little hotel in the old part of the town.
Put up with- tolerate: I wouldn't put up with his nonsense if I were you.
Round off- finish off well: The debate was rounded off by the chairman.
Round up- gather in: The security forces are rounding up suspects.
Run away- flee: When the mob was lathi charged, the men began to run away in
all directions.
Run out- expire: My contract with their firm will soon run out.
Run out of- lose: With the rains failing two years consecutively, many areas are
running out of water.
Run through- rehearse: They can run through the scene again to get it right.
See about- attend to: He said he would see about the electricity bill tomorrow.
See in- investigate: The police are seeing into the matter.
See off- accompany t a place of departure: Her parents saw her off at the airport.
Set aside- reject: He set our objections aside and continued his work unaffected.
Set forth- lay out for inspection: She willingly set forth her opinions on the
matter.
Set off- enhance: This dress sets off her complexion very well.
Set on- encourage to act or attack: They will set the dogs on the intruders.
Set to- start work: Though new to the job, he set to enthusiastically.
Show up- turn up: Anil showed up when we least expected him.
Speak for- represent: We have asked Arun to speak for us at the committee
meeting.
Speak out- intensive of speak: I expect you to speak out against tyranny in any
form.
Speak up- speak louder: The teacher asked the shy little girl to speak up.
Spell out- state clearly and fully: I wish the Principal would spell out the
proposals for us.
Stand aside- stand out of the way: He stood aside meekly when the new policy
was proposed.
Stand for- represent: We must choose a symbol that stands for strength and
integrity.
Stand off- keep or stay at a distance: The ships stood off from the share and
waited for orders.
Stand out- be conspicuous by contrast: The bold print stands out very well.
Stand up to- resist: The little boy bravely stood up to the big bully.
Strike out- set out: The explorers struck out for the hills.
Strike up- start playing music: The band struck up with the national anthem.
Take after- resemble: The baby really takes after his father.
Take apart- dismantle: The mechanic took the engine apart to see what was
wrong.
Take down- write down: His secretary took down all the points he made.
Take in- understand: Things are happening so quickly, I can't take it all in.
Take off- leave hurriedly: They took off, abandoning all their belongings.
Take on- accept: She has taken on so many responsibilities that it is difficult for
her to cope with them.
Take over- assume responsibility for: He took the business over from his father.
Take up- occupy: This work is quite difficult and will take up a lot of my time.
Take up with- become friends with: I'm afraid she has taken up with bad
company.
Talk back- reply insolently: It is appalling the way that child talks back to his
parents.
Talk around- convince: They finally managed to talk her around into accepting
the job.
Tear away- force to move: I couldn't tear him away from that book.
Tell off- reprimand: He told them off severely for neglecting their work.
Throw off- escape: The men threw off their pursuers when they reached the
woods.
Throw up- eject: He has thrown up a perfectly good job and gone off
somewhere.
Turn down- reject: The committee has turned down his application, as he is not
qualified.
Turn in- hand over to the police: The householders caught the intruder and
turned him in.
Turn off- stop: The USA has turned off the supply of arms and ammunition to
our country.
Turn out- assemble: The people turned out in large numbers to see him.
Turn over- hand over: She turned him over to the police.
Turn up- arrive casually: They turned up at mid night with their suitcases.
Write off- clear from the records: The debt has been written off.
Write up- write as fully as possible: He wrote up his notes so that he would have
no difficulty studying for his examination.
4.3
Idioms
IDIOMS BASED ON ANIMALS, BIRDS & INSECTS
To make a bee line for something- to take the quickest and most direct way
towards it: The thirsty children made a bee line for the pitcher of water.
To kill two birds with one stone- to achieve two aims with only one effort:
Nisha killed two birds with one stone when she got a coat which was warm as
well as waterproof.
Birds eye view- a general view of something: I can not judge the merits of the
plan as I have just had a birds eye view of it.
Bird of passage- person who roams from one place to the other: There is no use
asking John for his address as he is a bird of passage.
To take the bull by the horns- to decide to face a problem: At last the school
boys decided to take the bull by the horns and thrash the cheat.
To let the cat out of the bag- to reveal a secret: The teacher was almost deceived
by the trick but Meera spoilt the whole plan by letting the cat out of the bag.
Cock- and- bull story- an absurd tale: Arun told a cock-and-bull story to
explain his late arrival at the office.
Dark horse- an unexpected winner: Asha never seemed good at studies but she
has proved a dark horse by standing first in the final examination.
A dog in the manger- someone who prevents others from using something:
Ashoka does not like movies, and he is a dog in the manger when his friends
want to go to the cinema.
To have other fish to fry- to have other, more important task to attend to: Anil
did not come to the party as he had other fish to fry.
A fly in the ointment- something that causes slight difficulty: The teachers
presence at the end of term party was like a fly in the ointment for the children.
Straight from the horse's mouth- of news, information etc. directly from the
person who knows most about it: I had to believe Aruns information when he
said that he had got it straight from the horse's mouth.
To smell a rat- to sense that something is wrong: Though Seema cleared up the
mess and assumed innocently before her mother came, her mother smelt a rat.
A wild goose chase- search with no hope of success: He went on a wild goose
chase all over the town looking for buried treasure but, of course, he did not find
it.
A feather in one's cap- to be proud of one's own actions: The successful staging
of Asiad 82 was a feather in the cap for India.
To feather one's nest- to provide oneself with money etc. for the future by
securing advantages, even if dishonestly: Official position is often misused by
people to feather their own nest.
To hold the reins- to be in control: Though India has a president, it is the prime
minister who holds the reins of government.
To keep a tight rein on someone- to control him/ it firmly, allow only a little
freedom: She keeps such a tight rein on her children that they dare not stay out
later than 5 in the evening.
To take someone under one's wing- to give him protection: Asha kindly took
the new student under her wing and prevented the other from teasing him.
Black and white- in writing: He gave his declaration in black and white.
Black and blue- bruises of these colors: The thief was beaten black and blue by
the people who caught him.
The black sheep- a person of whom the family is not proud, a betrayer or traitor:
Since Arun ran away with the money of the firm, he has been considered a black
sheep.
Not so black as one is painted- to be not so bad as people say one is: I am well
acquainted with Rajesh and I can confidently say that he is not so black as he is
painted.
Out of the blue- unexpectedly: It was wonderful when my uncle turned up out of
the blue.
A bolt from the blue- something unexpected: The attack from across the borders
was a bolt from the blue.
Once in a blue moon- rarely or never: Few people have rain coats in this region
as it rains once in a blue moon.
A bluecollar worker- factory worker, not an office worker: Though a bluecollar worker earns a good income these days, the young prefer to take up low
paid white collar jobs.
To give someone the green light- to give him permission: it was relief when the
Director gave the green light so that the plan could be put into action.
To be green- to be too trusting: The young man was too green not to be cheated
by his shrewd employer.
To see red- to become suddenly angry: I saw red when I heard of the little boy's
experience at the hands of the school bully.
A red letter day- an important or joyful occasion in one's life: July 15 was a red
letter day in John's life for he reached the peak of the Mt. Everest on that day.
To keep someone at arm's length (to avoid becoming too friendly with some
one): It is advisable to keep Hari at arm's length as he is of most inquisitive
nature.
To be up in arms (to protest strongly): The employees were up in arms over the
new rule forbidding payment for over time work.
A brain wave (a good thought which come unexpectedly): A brain wave can
change problems into solution.
To be all ears (to listen eagerly or curiously): She was all ears as her friends told
her about the latest development.
To be within earshot (to be within range of hearing): The mother told her child
to remain within earshot and not go wandering far away.
To see eye to eye with (to have the same opinion as someone about something):
One can remain friendly with a person even if one does not see eye to eye with
him on everything.
To have an eye for something (to be a good judge of or to have a good sense of
appreciation for something): I must ask Aruna to choose the furnishing as she has
an eye for colour.
To lose face (to be humiliated, to lose one's good reputation or the respect of
others): A politician very carefully avoids doing anything that might cause him to
lose face.
To keep a straight face (not to laugh although you find something very funny; to
hide amusement): It was difficult to keep a straight face on hearing the fat man
boast of his athletic powers.
To say something to someone's face (to say it openly and directly to him even if
it is unpleasant): Mary is a liar and I am ready to say so to her face.
On the face of it (as it seems to be from the facts): The project appears simple on
the face of it.
In the face of (in the presence of, e.g., difficulties or in spite of danger): His
success is more commendable in that he achieved it in the face of great
difficulties.
1. To pull a face (to show likes and dislikes by the expression on one's face):
Neera pulled a face on being told that she could not go out.
To have a finger in every pie (to be concerned with many matters often for
personal games): She finds it useful to have a finger in every pie.
To burns one's fingers (to suffer because of rash words or action): He burnt his
fingers by interfering in his neighbour's quarrel.
To put one's foot in it (to say something foolish or tactless without thinking):
Aruna put her foot in it by unknowingly criticising her boss in his hearing.
To feel one's feet (to begin to show ones abilities to become self confident): He
has taken a long time to feel his feet but now he will make a success of his life.
To stand on one's own two feet (to be independent and self confident): After
completing his studies he got a good job; at last he was able to stand on his own
two feet.
To let one's hair down (to have a care free time, to relax and enjoy oneself): It
was a relief to let her hair down after the ceremonial dinner party at the
embassy.
One's hair stood on end (one was very frightened): The ghost story made my
hair stand on end.
Not to turn a hair (not to show fear top remain calm): Arun did not turn a hair
though he was outnumbered by the robbers who waylaid him.
To have a hand in (to be involved in): I suspect Sunil to have had a hand in the
recent troubles.
Top take something in hand (to deal with it, to take control of it): After the riots
the army was called in to take the situation in hand.
To be out of hand (to become out of control): The situation got out of hand
when the striking employees became violent.
To live from hand to mouth (to live without saving money): Many labourers in
India earn so little that they can just live hand to mouth.
To have ones hand full (to have a lot of work): I have just taken up this job and
I have my hands full.
To win hands down (to win very easily): He is a very popular figure and won
the elections hand down.
Head over ears (completely): Arun does not want to be disturbed as he is head
over ears involved in work.
To be head and shoulders above (to be superior in skill): Though he has lost the
elections, he is head and shoulders above the winning candidates.
From the bottom of ones heart (sincerely): Arun thanked his friend from the
bottom of his heart for his timely help.
To pull someones leg (to tease him by telling him something which is untrue):
If he told you that you can travel free on buses today he was just pulling your leg.
To be on its last legs (total breakdown): It is a fallacy to think that the cast
system on its last legs in India.
To pay through the nose (to pay more money for something than it is worth): He
paid through the nose for that tiny house.
To give someone the cold shoulder (to ignore him): Meera has the bad habit of
giving people the cold shoulder after she has got her work done.
To be/keep on ones toes (prepared for difficulties): The defence forces of our
nation are on their toes always.
To hold ones tongue (to be silent): If only one of them had held his tongue, the
quarrel would not have taken such a serious turn.
To make a slip of the tongue (to make a mistake when speaking something
without noticing): Mr. Sharma must have made a slip of the tongue when he said
the school starts at 10 p.m.
From time to time (occasionally): A surprise check is carried out in the office
In the neck of time (just before it would have been too late): The helicopter
arrived in the neck of time to rescue the passengers just as their wrecked ship
sank.
To call it a day (to stop doing something): They decided to call it a day when all
of them felt tired.
At the eleventh hour (at the latest possible time): If she tells me at the eleventh
hour that she too wants to go on the journey, I cannot possibly get a ticket for her.
To the minute (exactly): He knows the details of the proposed trip to the minute.
On the spur of the moment (without hesitating): She decided on the spur of the
moment that she would also go on the pilgrimage.
To burn the midnight oil (to study): I will have to burn the midnight oil if I am
to give my examination this year.
MISCELLANEOUS IDIOMS
Apple pie order-perfectly neat and tidy: Arun was furious to see the mess his
friends had made in room which he had left in apple-pie order.
At daggers drawn-bitterly hostile: The two brothers are at daggers drawn about
their fathers will.
At someones back and call-to be continually at his disposal to carry out his
wishes, orders etc.: He is the teachers favourite as he is always at her back and
call.
Bag and baggage-with all the goods: He left the town bag and baggage at night.
Between you and me-speaking confidently between ourselves: Between you and
me, the new receptionist is no good at her job.
Between the devil and the black sea-between two dangers: I was between the
devil and the black sea with a cruel father at home and an unsympathetic teacher
at school.
Bird in the hand is worth two in the bush-something which one actually
possesses is worth more than something else which is only promised or hoped for:
Anil should take the job he has been offered now, rather than wait for something
else to turn up, a bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
Born with a silver spoon in ones mouth-born into a rich family: He has never
had to work hard in life as he was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.
Build castles in the air-imagine impossible things: You should give yourself aim
that you can achieve as there is no point in building castles in the air.
Break the ice-to say: The hostess broke the ice with a witty comment.
Burning question-matter being holy discussed somewhere: How to deal with the
law and order situation is one of the burning questions of the day.
By and by-gradually: After such a serious illness, she can recover only by and
by.
By leaps and bounds-at a rapid pace: After initial setbacks, the company is now
progressing by leaps and bounds.
By dint of-by virtue of: If Sheela stand first in the examination, it is by dint of
hard work.
Call a spade and spade-speak frankly and directly: If you think the plan is
ridiculous, say so; dont be afraid to call a spade and spade.
Change the face of-change completely: These new inventions will change the
face of offices and factories over the next thirty years.
Crocodile tears-sympathy which one does not feel: I think Rupa was shedding
crocodile tears when she said how sorry she was to see Seema go; everyone
knows that they hated each other.
Cry over spilt milk-sorry over a situation that cannot be helped: There is no use
crying over spilt milk; you have failed the test, so the best thing is to start
working now for the next one.
Eat ones cake and have it too-make a choice between one of two things and
still want the benefit of second thing: The Prime Minister said that if people had
higher wages, then they couldnt expect lower prices, they couldnt eat their cake
and have it too.
Eat ones word-to admit that one was wrong: When he found that he has wrongly
accused his colleague of stealing, he was ready to eat his words.
Every cloud has a silver lining-nothing is always bad: Arvind was most upset at
his uncles death, but every cloud has a silver lining, for his uncle had left him
all his money.
Far and near-distant places and also at places nearby: People came from far and
near to see the show.
Get ones figure burnt/burn ones figure-do something which causes one to
suffer pain: The last time when he invested in stock- market, he got his figure
burnt, for he lost all his saving.
Go without saying-to be plain and evident: It goes without saying that violence
is on the increase everywhere.
Hard and fast -definite: As there are no hard and fast rules in this matter, you
can plan your line of action.
Hit the nail on the head-say something that is exactly correct; I thought that the
chairmans suggestion hit the nail on the head.
Hue and cry-clamour or noise: She raised a hue and cry when she saw the
stranger entered the house.
In full string-fully started: By the time we arrived, the party was already in full
swing.
Make hay while the sun shine-take advantage of a fovourable situation while it
lasts: Enjoy yourself while you are young; make hay while the sun shines.
Read between the lines-to understand or sense more than the actual words
spoken or written appear to mean or express: One has to read between the lines
of many a poem for true enjoyment.
Turn the tide- steadily gets worse: We are losing the battle, but the arrival of
some extra reinforcement turned the tide in our favour.
Way of the world-way in which most people behave: When you are successful,
you have lots of friends and if you fail you have none; thats the way of the
world.
4.4
Summary
Idioms and phrasal verbs are a form of artistic expression. They are recognized
through experience as well as practice. Sometimes ordinary words fail to embody
the exact spirit of the situation. Idioms and phrasal verbs help the speaker or the
writer in situations by making their language rich.
4.5
Key words
Idioms, phrasal verbs, artistic expression.
4.6
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
With the rains failing two years consecutively, many areas are
running ________ water.
8.
9.
10.
4.7
Suggested Readings
J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar for Foreign
Students, Oxford University Press, India 1963.
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi, 1994
Thomas Lee Crowell, JR., A Glossary of Phrases with Prepositions, Prentice-Hall
of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1981
Objective
5.1
Introduction
5.2
The Infinitive
5.2.1 Uses of the infinitive
5.2.2 Self Assessment Questions
5.3
The Gerund
5.3.1 Uses of the Gerund
5.4
The Participle
5.4.1 Uses of the Participle
5.5
Narration
5.5.1 Direct and Indirect
5.5.2 Rules
5.6
5.7
Summary
5.8
Key words
5.9
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand about the
infinitive, gerund and the participle, narration and voice, and their usage.
5.1
Introduction
The infinitive, gerund and the participle are the forms of verb, and have special
use in English grammar. Although the infinitive and gerund are not, strictly speaking,
verbs, they
convey the idea of action. The participle is also commonly known as the
5.2
verb.
The Infinitive
The infinitive is that form of verb which is not influenced by the person and the
number of
2.
3.
4.
In sentences 1 & 2, the verb find has he and they as its subjects, respectively, and
is limited
finite verb. However, in sentences 3 & 4, 'to find' merely names the
action denoted by the verb find, and is, therefore, not limited by the person and number
of the subjects. Here, it is
Thus, the verb in this mood does not have any number or person.
Form: to + verb (to walk, to go)
35. The word 'to' is often used with the infinitive.
1.
2.
36. Infinitive is also used without 'to', sometimes. After verbs like bid, let,
make, dare, see, hear, etc., 'to' is not used.
1.
2.
37. Infinitive is also used without 'to', after verbs like shall, will,do, did,
should, would, must, can, could, may, might, etc.
1.
You shall do it
2.
2.
3.
1.
2.
He likes to dance.
2.
4. Object of a preposition.
1.
2.
2.
Note:
(b) The infinitive, with or without 'to', can also be used as follows:
To qualify a Noun.
1.
2.
2.
We eat to live.
To qualify an Adjective.
1.
2.
To introduce a parenthesis.
I am to tell you the fact tired of such activities.
Note:
Infinitive.
Active Infinitive.
I want to write a letter.
7.0
Passive Infinitive.
I want a letter to be written.
2.
2. He went to Delhi.
5.3
The Gerund
Verb + ing, when functions like a noun is called Gerund. Thus, a gerund is that
form of the verb which ends in -ing, and has the force of a Noun and a Verb. For
example,
1.
2.
3.
4.
In these sentences, the words reading, walking, swimming and becoming are
Gerunds, as
they are formed from the verb read + ing, walk + ing, swim + ing and
become + ing, respectively, and function as the noun. That is why, they are also known
as verbal nouns.
Subject of a verb.
1.
2.
2.
Object of a preposition.
1.
2.
Seeing is believing.
What I most like is sleeping.
(b) Both the Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of a noun and a verb, so
they are used in a similar manner. In sentences, either of the two may be used without
any special difference in meaning, as follows:
1.
Teach me to swim.
Teach me swimming.
2.
(c) The Gerunds are always preceded by the possessive case of nouns and
pronouns, as follows:
1.
2.
5.4
The Participle
A Participle is a word which is partly a Verb and partly an Adjective. For
example,
1.
2.
3.
He is an experienced teacher.
4.
5.
In sentences 1 & 2, the words carrying and rolling are verbs and are being used in
these sentences as adjectives to qualify the nouns girl and stone, respectively. These are
the
In sentences 3 & 4, the words experienced and injured are verbs and are being
used in these sentences as adjectives to qualify the nouns teacher and boy, respectively.
These are the examples of Past Participle, which represents a completed action.
Form of Past participle: verb + -ed / -d / -t / -en / -n,
adjective.
In sentence 5, the word having is the Perfect Participle and the word eaten is the
Past
Participle. The Perfect participle represents an action that was completed at some
past time.
I am working.
2.
He is going.
(b) The Past Participle is used to form the Perfect tenses (Active Voice) with
tenses of the verb have:
1.
I have worked.
2.
He has gone.
(c) The Passive Voice is formed from the Past Participle with tenses of the verb
be:
5.5
1.
2.
Narration
5.6.1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
When we quote the actual words of a speaker, it is called direct speech. When we
report someone's oral communication without using the exact words, we call it indirect
speech.
5.6.2
Rules:
When the reporting verb(main verb) is in the past, the direct speech changes
from simple present to simple past in indirect speech.
e.g. Direct: He exclaimed, I am truly blessed.'
Indirect; He exclaimed that he was truly blessed.
When we report questions, the verb in direct speech are 'enquired', 'asked',
etc.
5.6
something
done to it'.
A verb is in the active voice when its form shows that the person or thing denoted
by the subject 'does something' or 'it is doer of the action'.
Examples:
Kamala likes Shyam.
The boy is singing a song.
A verb is in the passive voice when its form shows that 'something is done' to the
person or
thing denoted by the subject. The person or thing denoted by the subject is
Example:
Shyam is liked by Kamala.
A letter was written by Mahesh
5.7
Summary
The lesson has discussed the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle, Narration,
Voice, and
their uses. Now, the students will be able to distinguish between the three
5.8
Key words
Infinitive, Gerund, Participle, Narration, Voice.
5.9
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(make)
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi,
1994
Objective
5.1
Introduction
5.2
The Infinitive
5.2.1 Uses of the infinitive
5.2.2 Self Assessment Questions
5.3
The Gerund
5.3.1 Uses of the Gerund
5.4
The Participle
5.4.1 Uses of the Participle
5.5
Narration
5.5.1 Direct and Indirect
5.5.2 Rules
5.6
5.7
Summary
5.8
Key words
5.9
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand about the
infinitive, gerund and the participle, narration and voice, and their usage.
5.1
Introduction
The infinitive, gerund and the participle are the forms of verb, and have special
use in English grammar. Although the infinitive and gerund are not, strictly speaking,
verbs, they
convey the idea of action. The participle is also commonly known as the
5.2
verb.
The Infinitive
The infinitive is that form of verb which is not influenced by the person and the
number of
2.
3.
4.
In sentences 1 & 2, the verb find has he and they as its subjects, respectively, and
is limited
finite verb. However, in sentences 3 & 4, 'to find' merely names the
action denoted by the verb find, and is, therefore, not limited by the person and number
of the subjects. Here, it is
Thus, the verb in this mood does not have any number or person.
Form: to + verb (to walk, to go)
38. The word 'to' is often used with the infinitive.
1.
2.
39. Infinitive is also used without 'to', sometimes. After verbs like bid, let,
make, dare, see, hear, etc., 'to' is not used.
1.
2.
40. Infinitive is also used without 'to', after verbs like shall, will,do, did,
should, would, must, can, could, may, might, etc.
1.
You shall do it
2.
2.
7.
1.
2.
He likes to dance.
2.
8. Object of a preposition.
1.
2.
2.
Note:
(b) The infinitive, with or without 'to', can also be used as follows:
To qualify a Noun.
1.
2.
2.
We eat to live.
To qualify an Adjective.
1.
2.
To introduce a parenthesis.
I am to tell you the fact tired of such activities.
Note:
Infinitive.
Active Infinitive.
I want to write a letter.
9.0
Passive Infinitive.
I want a letter to be written.
2.
7. He went to Delhi.
5.3
The Gerund
Verb + ing, when functions like a noun is called Gerund. Thus, a gerund is that
form of the verb which ends in -ing, and has the force of a Noun and a Verb. For
example,
1.
2.
3.
4.
In these sentences, the words reading, walking, swimming and becoming are
Gerunds, as
they are formed from the verb read + ing, walk + ing, swim + ing and
become + ing, respectively, and function as the noun. That is why, they are also known
as verbal nouns.
Subject of a verb.
1.
2.
2.
Object of a preposition.
3.
4.
Seeing is believing.
What I most like is sleeping.
(b) Both the Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of a noun and a verb, so
they are used in a similar manner. In sentences, either of the two may be used without
any special difference in meaning, as follows:
1.
Teach me to swim.
Teach me swimming.
2.
(c) The Gerunds are always preceded by the possessive case of nouns and
pronouns, as follows:
1.
2.
5.4
The Participle
A Participle is a word which is partly a Verb and partly an Adjective. For
example,
1.
2.
3.
He is an experienced teacher.
4.
5.
In sentences 1 & 2, the words carrying and rolling are verbs and are being used in
these sentences as adjectives to qualify the nouns girl and stone, respectively. These are
the
In sentences 3 & 4, the words experienced and injured are verbs and are being
used in these sentences as adjectives to qualify the nouns teacher and boy, respectively.
These are the examples of Past Participle, which represents a completed action.
Form of Past participle: verb + -ed / -d / -t / -en / -n,
adjective.
In sentence 5, the word having is the Perfect Participle and the word eaten is the
Past
Participle. The Perfect participle represents an action that was completed at some
past time.
I am working.
2.
He is going.
(b) The Past Participle is used to form the Perfect tenses (Active Voice) with
tenses of the verb have:
1.
I have worked.
2.
He has gone.
(c) The Passive Voice is formed from the Past Participle with tenses of the verb
be:
5.5
1.
2.
Narration
5.6.1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
When we quote the actual words of a speaker, it is called direct speech. When we
report someone's oral communication without using the exact words, we call it indirect
speech.
5.6.2
Rules:
When the reporting verb(main verb) is in the past, the direct speech changes
from simple present to simple past in indirect speech.
e.g. Direct: He exclaimed, I am truly blessed.'
Indirect; He exclaimed that he was truly blessed.
When we report questions, the verb in direct speech are 'enquired', 'asked',
etc.
5.6
something
done to it'.
A verb is in the active voice when its form shows that the person or thing denoted
by the subject 'does something' or 'it is doer of the action'.
Examples:
Kamala likes Shyam.
The boy is singing a song.
A verb is in the passive voice when its form shows that 'something is done' to the
person or
thing denoted by the subject. The person or thing denoted by the subject is
Example:
Shyam is liked by Kamala.
A letter was written by Mahesh
5.7
Summary
The lesson has discussed the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle, Narration,
Voice, and
their uses. Now, the students will be able to distinguish between the three
5.8
Key words
Infinitive, Gerund, Participle, Narration, Voice.
5.9
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(make)
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi,
1994
Objective
6.1
Introduction
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Summary
6.9
Key words
Objective
Most teachers of English in India have to devote much time to eradicate certain
constantly
English.
grammatically correct
6.1
sentences.
Introduction
Spotting Common Errors in English requires as awareness of the basic rules of
grammar
conjunction, etc.
6.2
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Words like dozen, score, head, pair, hundred, million when used after a numeral
are used as singular.
Wrong:
Right:
The nouns like socks, trousers, pyjamas, stockings, shorts, scissors, spectacles,
alms, ashes, assets, riches, remains, goods, etc. are always used in plural form.
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
2. The nouns like cattle, police, gentry, poultry, people, etc. are also used in
plural form.
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
6.2.3 Nouns used as both singular and plural in the same form:
1. The nouns like fish, sheep, deer, series, wages, etc. can be used as both
Right:
Right:
But wrong:
Right:
Right:
But wrong:
2. The nouns like jury, public, audience, team, committee, government, etc.
can be used as both singular and plural.
Right:
Right:
Plural
Sister-in-law
Sisters-in-law
Passer-by
passers-by
Commander-in-chief
Commanders-in-chief
(b) But s is used only for living things. For non-living things, we use of:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
3. When two nouns show common possession, s is added to the last one:
Correct
The scenery is
beautiful.
A seventy-year old
man was
the car.
3. Any of these tool will serve the purpose.
serve
the purpose.
4. The picture of my brother is very
My brothers picture is
very
charming.
5. I bought ten dozens apples.
charming.
I bought ten dozen
apples.
6. I like eating fruits.
have
decided
to
continue
my studies.
8. The jury is divided in its opinion.
their
Riches is a curse.
is green.
6.3
Nominative case
We
He
She
They
Who
(It comes before the verb as the subject of the sentence.)
Objective case
Me
Us
Him
Her
Them
My
Our
His
Her
Their
Myself
Ourselves Himself
Whom
(It comes after the verb)
Possessive case
Whose
Reflexive case
Themselves
Herself
When two singular pronouns are joined by and and refer to the
same thing, the pronoun will be singular:
You, he and I
or
He and I
The first person will come in the end. But in admitting a fault, we use
the first person first, then, the third, and the second person last of all.
It is I.
If I were he, I would not do it.
Let us go there.
Who is used for persons while which is used for animals and
lifeless objects; that can be used for both:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
great
Right:
was a great
Each other is used for two; one another, for more than two:
Verbs like pride, resign, enjoy, avail, apply, absent, assert, acquit are
followed by reflexive pronoun:
Wrong:
He resigned to fate.
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Verbs like stay, conceal, qualified, keep, rest, spread are never
followed by reflexive pronoun:
Wrong:
Right:
Correct
from
the college?
13. He failed to qualify himself for the
He failed to qualify
this.
the
purpose.
6.4
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
Wrong:
Right:
He is junior to me.
Kavita is inferior to Reena in intelligence.
Adjectives like preferable, likely, sure, certain, etc. are followed by to:
It is likely to rain.
Death is preferable to dishonour.
Little, a little and the little: Little denotes quantity and means not much
(hardly any). It has a negative meaning.
A little means at least some.
The little means the whole amount that is there.
Last, latest: Last refers to the final one; latest is last up to the present.
Older, elder: Older is used for both persons and things. It refers to age;
Elder is used for persons only. It conveys the idea of seniority or of the
first born in a family.
Later, latter: Later refers to time; latter means the second of the two
things.
Each, every:
6.4.1
Practice Set
Incorrect
Correct
the book.
4.This is the most unique plan.
He
is
cleverer
than
his
brother.
7.He is wiser than old.
rice.
book.
1. Adverbs of manner, place and time are usually placed after the verb or the
object:
2.0
Adverbs of frequency such as always, ever, never, often, seldom, usually, rarely,
etc. and some other adverbs like already, almost, just, quite, nearly, hardly, etc.
are placed between the subject and the verb:
I rarely go there.
He hardly knows her.
3.0
Too implies more than enough and therefore, should never be used in
place of very:
Wrong:
I am too lucky.
Right:
I am very lucky.
6.5.1
Practice Set
Incorrect
Correct
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It is also used before words beginning with consonant letter having the
sound of a vowel:
An M.L.A (M has the sound of em), an X-ray.
Note: This rule does not apply to the noun man when it refers to human race
as a
whole.
6.6.3 No article:
No article is used generally before the names of substances:
Silver is a poor substitute for gold.
6.6.4
Practice Set
Incorrect
Correct
1.
2.
3.
4.
sword.
5.
Both is followed by and, not by as well as; it is placed immediately before the
word the it refers to:
6.7.1
Practice Set
Incorrect
Correct
1.
2.
Both Sachin as well as Dravid will play. Both Sachin and Dravid will play.
3.
4.
She is as me.
5.
came.
got
6.8
distinction.
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt how to write grammatically correct, balanced and
complete
6.9
sentences.
Key words
Noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, articles, etc.
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi,
1994
Objective
7.1
Introduction
7.2
7.3
Capitalization
7.4
Summary
7.5
Key words
7.6
7.7
Suggested Readings
_____________________________________________________________
_______
7.0 Objective
The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand the use of
punctuation and
capitalization.
7.1 Introduction
Punctuation is the correct use of the various stops or marks in writing so as to make
the meaning of a sentence or a passage clear. The marks of punctuation are a great
help to the reader, e.g, compare the following two sentences:-
From the above example, it is quite clear that these marks of punctuation may alter
the sense of a sentence.
Punctuation has a single and practical purpose: to make writing clear and easy to
understand. Think of your writing as a set of information rather like a rail timetable
or a page on an internet website. All the information can be there but if it is badly
laid out it will be confusing and hard to understand. In writing, these marks do the
same job as the spaces, columns, and special signs on a timetable and the graphics
and other ways of organizing the information on a web page.
(.)
2. Comma
3. Semi-colon
(,)
(;)
4. Colon
(:)
5. Sign of Interrogation
(?)
6. Sign of Exclamation
(!)
7. Inverted Commas ( )
8. Apostrophe
(')
9. Dash
10. Hyphen
(_)
(-)
11. The full stop indicates the end of a complete sentence. It is used at the end
of all sentences except interrogative and exclamatory sentences:
Dont go there.
You should not lose your temper.
Note: Mr, Mrs and Ms can be written without a full stop, as these have come to be
considered as the full spellings.
To separate three or more words of the same parts of speech when only the last
are connected by and:
When words of the same class go together in pairs, each pair is separated by a
comma:
Rich and poor, high and low, young and old, all will die.
By night or by day, at home or abroad, he is a constant source of anxiety
to his father.
It is used to separate phrases in series. In this case, comma is also used before the
and preceding the last member of series.
It is used before and after a participle phrases when that phrase can be expanded
into a sentence:
Samudragupta, having defeated the neighbouring kings, led his armies into
Deccan.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, was a great
Vedic scholar.
A comma is used to separate words or word groups not necessary to the main idea
of a sentence:
Cricket, cricket, cricket, you dont have any other thing to talk about.
But it is not used before but and for when they are used as prepositions:
A comma is used when subordinate clause comes before the principal clause:
But, if the subordinate clause follows the principal clause, it will not be separated
by a comma:
A comma is used to separate a non defining relative clause from the rest of the
clause:
PRACTICE SET
Insert full stops and commas, wherever necessary in the following sentences:
A high bred man never forgets himself controls his temper does nothing in excess
and is courteous and dignified
I hope my friend that you will come and spend a week with us
Long long ago there lived in the land of Hindus a great king named Ashoka
No I dont want to go
COLON (:)
It represents a still longer pause than that indicated by the semi-colon. It is used:
4.0
Before enumeration:
5.0
6.0
7.0
PRACTICE SET
Insert full stops, commas, semi-colons and colons, wherever necessary, in the
following
sentences:
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
PRACTICE SET
INVERTED COMMAS ()
Inverted commas indicate the beginning and end of a quotation, or of the actual
words used by the speaker.
Inverted commas are used to enclose the direct words of a speaker:
She said, I will not go with him.
If the direct quotation is broken by explanatory words, an extra set of quotation
marks is
used:
He is not reliable, She said, I will not go with him.
If the first part of a broken quotation is a complete sentence, the second part will
begin with a capital letter:
Ram is going to Delhi, he said. He hasnt told you?
If a quotation has more than one paragraph, inverted commas will be used at the
beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph only.
In writing conversation, if there are two or more than two speakers, each speaker
will have a paragraph to himself:
Will you go to see her? she asked.
No, never! he replied.
But she is your mother you should go to her. She said.
A single quotation mark is used for a quotation within a quotation:
This, she said, is clearly a case of tit for tat.
The inverted commas are used to enclose the titles of books, magazines,
newspapers, poems, stories, songs, etc.:
d)
8.0
The inverted commas are used to draw special attention to a word or words:
Any word beginning with the prefix ab-is accented on the first syllable.
9.0
The full stop or comma at the end of a direct quotation is always placed inside
the inverted commas:
She said, I will not go.
I will not go, she said.
10.0
The semi-colon at the end of a direct quotation is always placed outside the
inverted commas:
11.0
She said, I cant carry on this relationship, then she started crying.
12.0
A quotation mark or an exclamation mark at the end of the direct, quotation will
be placed inside the inverted commas if it belongs to the quotation; but if it
belongs to the whole sentence, it will be placed outside:
13.0
Rama asked, Are you going to buy a car?
Did Rama say, Meenu is going to buy a car.?
PRACTICE SET
You say said the judge that the bag you lost contained one hundred
pounds yes your honour replied the man
May God forgive you said the saint Go your way
APOSTROPHE ()
DASH (-)
HYPHEN (-)
of a
7.3
The hyphen is a smaller stroke as compared to the dash. It is used to join the parts
compound word:
Brother-in-law,
Commander-in-chief,
Looker-on
Maid-servant
CAPITALIZATION
Capital letters are used in the following cases:
The first word of every sentence:
Man is mortal.
The first word of every line of a poem:
For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in.
The first letter of a quotation:
Ram said, She will go with me.
All proper nouns, proper adjectives and personified objects:
India, Russia
Indians, Russians
O Death, O Sleep
All nouns and pronouns used in reference to God:
O Lord, consider me Thy servant.
The pronoun I is written in capital.
The interjection O is written in capital.
Letters denoting abbreviation are written in capita:
L.L.B., B.Sc., M.A., M.Phil.
i) Names of the days of the week and of the months of the year:
Sunday, Monday, January, October
j) Names of books, newspapers, magazines, etc.:
Arms and the Man, Indian Express, India Today.
k) Important events:
The French Revolution, The Renaissance
PRACTICE SET
7.4
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt how to use full stop, comma, colon, semi-colon,
capital letter,
7.5
Key words
Punctuation, capitalization.
7.6
7.7
Suggested Readings
J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar for Foreign
Students, Oxford
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi,
1994
VOCABULARY BUILDING
STRUCTURE
8.0
Objective
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Formation of Adjectives
8.3
Formation of Nouns
8.4
Formation of Verbs
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
Summary
8.9
Key words
8.0
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to help the students expand their vocabulary by
learning about formation of nouns, adjectives and verbs, and also using one word
for a group of words.
8.1
Introduction
Language is a medium of self expression and one expresses oneself with the help
of
words. A person having good vocabulary is more confident than others and is able
to express himself better than others.
8.2
Formation of Adjectives
1. Adjectives formed by adding y:
Air
Ice
Fire
Fuss
Anger
Grass
Bulk
Mist
Mud
Airy
Icy
Fiery
Fussy
Angry
Grassy
Bulky
Misty
Muddy
Hair
Fog
Heart
Salt
Cloud
Sun
Star
Fun
Storm
Hairy
Foggy
Hearty
Salty
Cloudy
Sunny
Starry
Funny
stormy
Week
Month
Hour
Scholar
Weekly
Monthly
Hourly
Scholarly
Neighbour
Father
Friend
Elder
Neighbourly
Fatherly
Friendly
Elderly
Girl
Devil
Self
Snob
Girlish
Devilish
Selfish
Snobbish
Sheep
Fool
Slave
Child
Sheepish
Foolish
Slavish
Childish
God
Godlike
War
Warlike
Lady
Ladylike
Child
Childlike
Hand
Trouble
Whole
Handsome
Troublesome
Wholesome
Tire
Quarrel
Weary
Tiresome
Quarrelsome
Wearisome
Praise
Note
Praiseworthy
Noteworthy
Trust
Air
Trustworthy
Airworthy
Avoid
Memory
Consider
Reverse
Avoidable
Memorable
Considerable
Reversible
Advise
Admire
Bear
Sense
Advisable
Admire able
Bearable
sensible
Religion
Advantage
Vice
Price
Pity
Miracle
Ridicule
Industry
Volume
Religious
Advantageous
Vicious
Precious
Piteous
Miraculous
Ridiculous
Industrious
Voluminous
Space
Vigor
Office
Mystery
Adventure
Merit
Humour
Harmony
Fame
Spacious
Vigorous
Officious
Mysterious
Adventurous
Meritious
Humourous
Harmonious
famous
Ancestor
Autumn
Tribe
Verb
Dictator
Music
Type
Zone
Ancestral
Autumnal
Tribal
Verbal
Dictatorial
Musical
Typical
Zonal
Colony
Finance
Navy
Minister
Classic
Politics
Iron
Node
Colonial
Financial
Naval
Ministerial
Classical
political
Ironical
nodal
Angle
Circle
Moment
Angular
Circular
Momentary
Table
Muscle
Station
Tabular
Muscular
stationary
Broad
Wool
Gold
Broaden
Woolen
Golden
Length
Earth
Short
Lengthen
Earthen
shorten
Artist
Class
Hero
8.3
Artistic
Classic
Heroic
Base
Drama
Tragedy
Formation of Nouns
1. Nouns formed by adding -hood:
Basic
Dramatic
Tragic
Brother
Father
Sister
Brotherhood
Fatherhood
Sisterhood
Parent
Child
Girl
Parenthood
Childhood
Girlhood
Championship
Scholarship
Leadership
Relation
Partner
Friend
Relationship
Partnership
friendship
Free
King
Freedom
Kingdom
Wise
Martyr
Wisdom
Martyrdom
Good
Busy
Happy
Goodness
Business
Happiness
Holy
Sad
Fool
Holiness
Sadness
Foolishness
Wide
Die
Warm
Young
Weigh
width
Death
Warmth
Youth
Weight
Broad
Deep
Grow
Hot
See
Breadth
Depth
Growth
Eat
sight
Govern
School
Visit
Lead
Governor
Scholar
Visitor
Leader
Donate
War
Sing
Office
Donor
Warrior
Singer
officer
Magic
Electric
History
Motor
Arty
Tour
Magician
Electrician
Historian
Motorist
Artist
Tourist
Politics
Mathematics
Physics
Cycle
Science
Cartoon
Politician
Mathematician
Physician
Cyclist
Scientist
Cartoonist
Employ
Absent
Engine
Employee
Absentee
Engineer
Refuge
Mountain
Racket
Refugee
Mountaineer
racketeer
Enjoy
Pay
Fulfill
Commit
Arrange
Amaze
Enjoyment
Payment
Fulfillment
Commitment
Arrangement
Amazement
Amuse
Confine
Resent
Improve
Acknowledge
Require
Amusement
Confinement
Resentment
Improvement
Acknowledgement
Requirement
Admission
Solve
Solution
Decide
Revise
Separate
Combine
Cancel
Terminate
Decision
Revision
Separation
Combination
Cancellation
Termination
Extend
Permit
Inform
Select
Reveal
Extension
Permission
Information
Selection
Revelation
Enter
Assure
Obey
Exit
Rely
Confide
Resist
Endure
Entrance
Assurance
Obedience
Existence
Reliance
Confidence
Resistance
Endurance
Excel
Defy
Pretend
Repent
Reside
Assist
Appear
Occur
Excellence
Defiance
Pretence
Repentance
Residence
Assistance
Appearance
Occurrence
Deny
Refuse
Approve
Propose
Renew
Reverse
Denial
Refusal
Approval
Proposal
Renewal
reversal
Bury
Try
Dismiss
Arrive
Betray
Burial
Trial
Dismissal
Arrival
Betrayal
Carry
Post
Waste
Leak
Pass
Carried
Postage
Wastage
Leakage
Passage
Store
Use
Break
Marry
Storage
Usage
Breakage
Marriage
Poor
Scare
Vain
Necessary
Generous
Honest
Poverty
scarcity
Vanity
Necessity
generosity
honesty
Pure
Curious
Local
Able
Moral
Purity
Curiosity
Locality
Ability
Morality
Private
Secret
Privacy
Secrecy
Accurate
Vacant
Accuracy
Vacancy
Bear
Believe
Choose
Exceed
Hate
Know
Laugh
Respond
Strive
Birth
Belief
Choice
Excess
Hatred
Knowledge
Laughter
Response
Strife
16. Miscellaneous
Advise
Behave
Bind
Food
Float
Knit
Learn
Receive
Sit
8.4
Advice
Behavior
Bond
Feed
Fleet
Knot
Learning
Receipt
Seat
Formation of Verbs:
Hard
Harden
Soft
Soften
Length
Deep
Short
Lengthen
Deepen
Shorten
Strength
Loose
Thick
Strengthen
Loosen
Thicken
Pure
Beauty
Pace
Horror
Class
Example
Purify
Beautify
Pacify
Horrify
Classify
Exemplify
Terror
Intense
Identity
Just
Simple
Certain
Terrify
Intensify
Identify
Justify
Simplify
Certify
Tranquil
Pressure
Familiar
Special
Centre
Local
Tranquillize
Pressurize
Familiarize
Specialize
Centralize
Localize
Sympathy
Equal
Apology
Commercial
Memory
Sympathize
Equalize
Apologize
Commercialize
Memorize
Origin
Double
Office
Motive
Originate
Duplicate
Officiate
motivate
Table
Humble
Term
Tabulate
Humiliate
Terminate
Encircle
Encage
Empower
Camp
Bitter
Body
Encamp
Embitter
Embody
Prison
Bed
Imprison
Imbed
Peril
Imperil
Mean
Cry
Figure
Demean
Decry
Disfigure
8.5
QI
Face
Fame
Throne
Deface
Defame
Dethrone
Length, thick, pure, identity, center, critic, table, double, prison, short.
Q2
Q3
8.6
Abdicate
Ambassador
Anarchy
Anarchist
Answerable
Autocracy/
Despotism
Bureaucracy
Aristocracy
Autonomy
Democracy
Monarchy
Oligarchy
Plutocracy
Politics
Referendum
Redtapism
Revolution
Theocracy
Executive
14. Pertaining to Sciences & Arts:10. The study of all heavenly bodies and
the earth in relation to them
11. One who studies the sky and stars
12. The study of mankind/ the science which treats of man
13. The study of physical life or living matter
14. The study of plants
15. The art of beautiful hand-writing
16. The art of practiced by statesman and ambassadors
17. The science which deals with varieties of human race
18. The study of the origin and history of words
19. One who thinks of the welfare of women
20. The study of coins
21. The study of birds/ the science which treats of the birds
22. Stamp collection
23. The study of languages
24. The study of body/ the science which treats of the body
25. The study of human face
26. The art of making fireworks
27. One who studies plant & animal life
28. The study of speech sounder
29. One who amuses oneself by love-making
30. The science which treats of the earth
31. The science which treats of the animals
32. The sciences which treats of the earthquakes & their origin
33. Study of the relation of living things to environment
Astronomy
Astronomer
Anthropology
Biology
Botany
Calligraphy
Diplomacy
Ethnology
Etymology
Feminist
Numismatics
Ornithology
Philately
Philology
Physiology
Physiognomy
pyrotechnics
Naturalist
Phonetics
Philander
Geology
Zoology
Seismology
Ecology
Anonymous
Biography
Caption
Comedy
Catalogue
Diary
Dictionary
Directory
Epilogue
Epitome
Encyclopedia
Expurgate
Extempore
Harangue
Memoir
Memorandum
Manifesto
Prologue
Plagiarism
Plagiarist
Ambiguous
Illiterate
Philistine
Maiden
Obsolete
Reticent
Verbose
Irrefragable
Indescribable
Soliloquizing
Tragedy
Illegible
Bibliophile
Agnostic
Apostate
Atheist
Theist
Ascetic
Bigot
Blaspheme
Iconoclast
Idolatry
Monotheist
Consecrate
Polytheist
Omnipresent
Omniscient
Omnipotent
Humanitarian
Fanatic
Annihilate
Carrion
Cenotaph
Embalm
Epitaph
Autopsy/
Postmortem
Obituary
Legacy
Posthumous
Homicide
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
Infanticide
Fratricide
Sororicide
Matricide
Patricide
Parricide
Regicide
Suicide
Temporary/
transient
Martyr
18. Pertaining to Marriage/ Family/ Children:13 One who marries a second wife/ husband
while the legal spouse is alive
14 One vowed to a single or unmarried life
15 One engaged to be married
16 A children whose parents are dead
17 A hater of marriage
18 One having more than one wife or husband at a time
19 State of growth between boyhood & youth
20 Marrying one husband/ wife at a time
21 Marrying more than one husband at a time
22 Hater of mankind
23 Lover of mankind
24 Hater of women
25 Property inherited from ones father or ancestors
26 One who thinks of the welfare of women
27 A state of complete continence on the part of a woman
28 Allowance due to a wife from her husband after
separation
Bigamist
Celibate
Fiance
Orphan
Misogamist
Polygamist
Adolescence
Polygamy
Polyandry
Misanthrope
Philanthropist
misogynist
Patrimony
Feminist
Virginity
Alimony
Antiseptic
Anesthetic
Antidote
Anemia
Amputate
Convalescent
Diagnose
Epidemic
Endemic
Fumigate
Invalid
Immune
Panacea
Pandemic
X.
Author
Chandler
Chauffeur
Chiropodist
Confectioner
Collier
Dentist
Ferrier
Geologist
Hawker
Ironmonger
Jockey
Lexicographer
Oculist
Optician
Philatelist
Pilot
Aggression
Ammunition
Arsenal
Armistice
Amnesty
Annihilate
Belligerents
Besiege
Pertaining to Characteristics and Actions:14. One who devotes his life to the welfare of others
Altruist
Ambidexter
Assassin
Antiquary
Amateur
Censorious
Connoisseur
Contemporary
Cynic
Egotist
Egoist
Exile
Fugitive
Martyr
Misanthrope
Novice
Optimistic
Pessimist
Philanthropist
Patriot
Prophet
Recluse
Refugee
Somnambulist
Spendthrift
Stoic
Teetotaller
Troop
Fleet
XII. Miscellaneous
Loud enough to be heard
Not distinct enough to be heard
Fit for food
Unfit for human consumption
Fit to be chosen or selected
Not having the qualities of being chosen
Writing that is easy to read
Writing that is easy to decipher
Able to read
Unable to read
Born of married parents
Born of unmarried parents
To send back a person to his own country
To banish from ones country
To move from one country to another
One who leaves his country to settle in another
One who comes into a foreign country to settle there
Incapable of being redeemed from evil,
i.e., beyond correction
That which cannot be rubbed out or blotted out
That which cannot be conquered
Incapable of making errors
That which cannot be avoided or prevented
Incapable of being burnt
That which easily catches fire
That which cannot be seen
Unable to die
Increase the gravity of an offence
Ordinary or commonplace remark
That which cannot be satisfied
That which cannot be repaired
That which cannot be imitated
Persons that cannot be wearied
One who easy too much
To destroy completely
A statement open to more than one interpretation
A round about way of speaking
Cautions observation of events, etc.
Audible
Inaudible
Edible
Inedible
Eligible
Ineligible
Legible
Illegible
Literate
Illiterate
Legitimate
Illegitimate
Repatriate
Expatriate
Migrate
Emigrant
Immigrant
Incorrigible
Ineffaceable
Invincible
Infallible
Inevitable
Incombustible
Inflammable
Invisible
Immortal
Aggravate
Platitude
Insatiable
Irreparable
Inimitable
Indefatigable
Glutton
Annihilate
Ambiguous
Circumlocution
Circumspection
8.7
Invulnerable
8.8
Summary
Through this lesson, we have learnt the formation of words as well as to use one
word for a group of words or a sentence.
8.9
Key words
Noun. Adjective, verb, substitutes.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi, 1994
Objective
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Synonyms
9.2.1 Self Assessment Questions
9.3
Antonyms
9.3.1 Self Assessment Questions
9.4
Summary
9.5
Key words
9.6
9.7
Suggested Readings
_____________________________________________________________
9.0
Objective
This lesson will discuss the use of synonyms and antonyms in our language.
9.1
Introduction
Synonyms are the words that are similar in meaning; words denoting the same
thing as another but which is suitable to different context. Antonyms are the
words that are opposite in meaning. Now, we will study the synonyms and
antonyms of different words, one-by-one.
9.2
Synonyms
A
B
Bad: Evil
Barbarous: Uncivilized
Base: Low, mean
Baseless: Groundless
Bear: Tolerate
Beat: Hit, knock
Behavior: Conduct
Belief: Faith
Bewitching: Charming
Blame: Condemn, accuse
Bliss: Happiness, joy
Bravery: Gallantry
Brevity: Conciseness
Brutal: Savage, cruel
Brisk: Bright, lively
Business: Trade, occupation
C
Callous: Hard, cruel
Calm: Peaceful
Candid: Sincere, frank
Calamity: Disaster
Careless: Reckless
Casual: Uncertain
Catastrophe: Disaster
Category: Class
Caution: Warning
Cautious: careful
Celebrated: Famous
Celestial: Heavenly
Ceremony: Function
Chaos: Disorder
Cold: Frigid, indifferent
Civil: Polite
Colossal: Huge, enormous
Compassion: Pity, sympathy
Compatible: Consistent
Aversion: Hatred
Awkward: Clumsy
Complex: Complicated
Conceit: Pride,
Concise: Short
Conceal: Hide
Condense: Compress
Conquest: Victory
Concede: Grant
Conscious: Aware
Consequence: Result
Conspicuous: Noticeable
Contingent: Conditional
Conversant: Familiar
Cordial: Warm, friendly
Corrupt: Debased
Courage; Bravery
Courageous: Brave
Courteous: polite
Crafty: Cunning
Criterion: Standard, test
Crucial: Decisive
Crude: Unfinished
Cruel: Fierce, tyrannical
D
Damage: Loss, harm
Darling: Dear
Deadly: Fatal, destructive
Decay: Decline, fade
Deceive: Cheat
Decent: Respectful
Declaration: Announcement
Decorate: Adorn, embellish
Defence; Protection
Deficient: Lacking
Deformity: Malformation
Demise: Death
Denounce: Accuse, condemn
Desolate: Lonely, deserted
Destitute: Needy
Detrimental: Harmful
Deteriorate: Degenerate
Commence: Begin
Common: Ordinary
Diligent: Industrious
Discord: Conflict
Discriminate: Distinguish
Disgrace: Dishonour
Dissipate: Waste
Divine: Godlike
Divulge: Disclose
Disaster: Calamity
Dull: Stupid
E
Eager: Keen
Earnest: Serious
Eccentric: Odd
Economical: Frugal
Elegant: Refined, polished
Emancipate: Free, liberate
Emergency: Exigency
Emulate: Imitate
Encourage: Cheer
Enmity: Hostility
Enormous: Huge
Enquire: Ask
Error: Mistake
Eradicate: Destroy
Esteem: Honour
Evidence: Proof
Exceptional: Unusual
Exquisite: Fine, elegant
Extraordinary: Exceptional
Extravagant: Wasteful
Exultation: Joy
Eternal: Everlasting
F
Fabricate: Forge
Fallacious: Deceptive
False: Untrue
Fanciful: Imaginative
Fascinate: Charm
I
Fastidious: Particular
Fecund: Productive, fertile
Ferrocious: Fierce, savage
Fictitious: false, untrue
Immaterial: Unimportant
Imminent: Impending
Impetuous: Hasty
Imperious: Authoritative
Impertinent: Shameless
Implore: Pray
Impudent: Shameless
Imposter: Cheat
Imposture: Pretence
Inadvertent: Careless
Inanimate: Lifeless
Incessant: Continuous
Industrious: Diligent
Inexorable: Relentless, merciless
Indignant: Angry
Inference: Deduction
Ingenious: Clever, inventive
Ingenuous: Artless, sincere
Insidious: Cunning
Insolence: Arrogance
Insomnia: Sleeplessness
Irresolute: Undecided
Interrupt: Stop
Ironic: Satirical
J
H
Habit: Custom
Hamper: Hinder
Haughty: Arrogant
Haste: Hurry
Hazardous: Dangerous
Horrible: Terrible
Huge: Immense
Humane: Kind
Humility: Modesty
Jealous: Envious
Jolly: Merry, jovial
Jubilant: Joyful
Judicious: Discreet, prudent
Just: Fair
Juvenile: Childish
K
Kidnap: Abduct
Kind: Generous
Knowlegde: Learning
Idle: Lazy
Ignore: Disregard
Ignorant: Uneducated
Illiterate: Uneducated
Immaculate: Spotless
L
Laborious: Industrious
Lament: Grieve, mourn
Lasting: Permanent
Latent: Hidden
Lawful: Permissible
Laudable: Praiseworthy
Lenient: Mild, forbearing
Lethargy: Sluggishness
Liberal: Generous
Liberty: Freedom
Likeness: Similarity
Lively: Active
Loathe: Detest
Loyal: Faithful
Lofty: High
Logical: Reasonable
Low: Mean
Lucky: Fortunate
Luxuriant: Abundant
M
Madness: Insanity
Magnificent: Grand
Management: Organisation
Malady: Ailment
Malice: Spite
Marvellous: Wonderful
Maxim: Saying
Maximum: Most
Meagre: Small
Mean: Low
Mediocre: Average
Meditate: Contemplate
Melancholy: Gloomy, sad
Mockery: Ridicule
Morbid: Unhealthy
Murmur: Mutter
Mysterious: Unknown
N
Neat: Clean
Necessary: Essential
Negligent: Careless
Nice: Fine, pleasant
Notable: Remarkable
Notorious: Infamous
Noble: Great
Novel: New
Novice: Beginner
O
Obliterate: Destroy
Obscene: Indecent
Obsequious: Servile, submissive
Obsolete: Outdated
Obtrude: Intrude
Obstinate: Headstrong
Obtuse: Dull, stupid
Obvious: Clear
Odd: Strange
Opinion: View
Opportunity: Occasion
Opportune: Timely
Oral: Mouth
Oppose: Resist
Opt: Choose
Ordinary: Common
Oust: Expel
Overlook: Condone
Merciful: Pitiful
Mighty: Strong, powerful
Mingle: Mix
Misery: Sorrow
Misfortune: Calamity
Modest: Shy
Motive: Intention
Mourn: Lament
Mournful: Sorrowful
Pattern: Design
Pardon: Forgive
Peace: Harmony
Pensive: Thoughtful
Perennial: Permanent
Persuade: Induce, urge
Penalty: Punishment
Percieve: Comprehend
Period: Time, era
Persuade: Convince
Pious: Holy
Plentiful: Abundant
Portray: Sketch, draw
Precarious: Risky
Precocious: Premature
Precise: Exact
Predict: Foretell
Prejudice: Bias
Preserve: Save
Pretence: Pretext, excuse
Probable: Likely
Prodigal: Extravagant
Propitiate: Appease
Prolong: Extend
Prominent: Leading
Proud: Haughty
Polite: Courteous
Potency: Power
Pollute: Defile
Primitive: Ancient
Prior: Previous
Principal: Chief
Proclaim: Declare
Punctual: Timely
Ovation: Applause
Own: Possess
P
Pain: Agony
Parity: Similarity
Pathetic: Touching
Patience: Perseverance
R
Rapid: Fast
Rapture: Ecstasy
Rash: Reckless
Rational: Logical
Real: Genuine
Recognize: Identity
Recollect: Recall
Rectify: Correct
Recreation: Amusement
Redeem: Recover
Remarkable: Extraordinary
Renounce: Give up
Renown: Fame, reputation
Relish: Enjoy
Refuge: Shelter
Respect: Esteem
Resentment: Anger
Rich: Wealthy
Rival: Adversary
Reside: Dwell
Restore: Repair
Reply: Answer
Radiant: Bright, brilliant
Rebellion: Revolt
Refined: Elegant
Relevant: Pertinent
Remorse: Regret, repentance
Remote: Far, distant
Repudiate: Reject
Repulsive: Forbidding
Resistance: Opposition
Reticent: Silent
Ridiculous: Absurd, laughable
Q
Quaint: Queer, old, singular
Queer: Strange, odd
Quantity: Amount
Questionable: Doubtful
Quarrel: Dispute
Quest: Search
Quiet: Calm
Quit: Give up
Satiate: Satisfy
Savage: Wild
Scandal: Infamy, slander
Scanty: Meagre
Scold: Chide, rebuke
Seem: Appear
Sensual: Fleshly
Serene: Calm
Serious: Grave
Servile: Slavish
Shapely: Graceful
Shrewd: Astute
Shy: Bashful
Simple; Plain
Slender: Scanty
Solace: Comfort
Solicitous: Anxious
Solitary: Single
Sombre: Gloomy
Sordid: Dirty, ugly
Specimen: Sample
Splendid: Magnificent
Spurious: False
Squalor: Dirt
Squander: Waste
Static: Fixed
Stationary: Motionless
Sterile: Barren
Stiff: Rigid
Stubborn: Obstinate
Sublime: Elevated, exalted
Submission: Surrender
Suffocate: Choke
Righteous: Just
Rigid: Stiff
Ruin: Destruction
Ruinous: Destructive
S
Sacred: Holy
Sane: Sensible
Sanguine: Optimistic
Superficial: Shallow
Surplus: Excess
Synonymous: Equivalent
Synopsis: Summary
T
Talkative: Garrulous
Tame: Gentle, mild
Target: Goal
Tarnish: Spoil
Talent: Ability
Tedious: Wearisome
Temperate: Moderate
Temporal: Wordly
Tender: Delicate
Tentative: Experimental
Thankful: Grateful
Theatrical: Dramatic
Thin: Slim
Thoughtful: Pensive
Thrive: Prosper
Thrifty: Economical
Tidy: Clean
Topic: Subject
Tortuous: Deceitful
Tough: Hard, strong, difficult
Tragic: Sorrowful, distressing
Transient: Transitory, temporary
Tyrant: Despot, autocrat
U
Ugly: Repulsive
V
Vacant: Empty
Vaccinate: Inoculate
Vague: Not clear
Valiant: Brave
Value: Worth
Vanish: Disappear
Wholesome: Healthy, sound
Wise: Intelligent
Wisdom: Learning
Wicked: Sinful
Wickedness: Evil
Wild: Savage, untamed
Wrath: Anger
Wretched: Miserable
Wreck: Ruin, destroy
Y
Yarn: Thread
Yearn: Crave, desire
Yell: Scream
Yankee: American
Yield: Surrender
Yielding: Submissive
Young: Youthful
Z
Zeal: Passion, eagerness
Zenith: Apex, top
Zest: Enthusiasm
Waver: Hesitate
Warn: Caution
Wealthy: Rich
Weary: Tired
9.2.1
SET - 1
Uphold: Maintain
Usage: Practice
Usual: Ordinary
Find out the synonym for the italicized word from the options given below:
Q.1
He spoke impromptu on the occasion.
(a) eloquently
(b) without preparation
(c) without enthusiasm
(d) with great force
Q.2
The perpetual noise made it impossible for them to concentrate on the problems.
(a) irritating
(b) constant
(c) unlimited
(d) recurrent
Q.3
In spite of his best efforts the officer could not redeem his prestige.
(a) recover
(b) raise
(c) extend
(d) fulfill
Q.4
There is abundant supply of water for the crop.
(a) considerable
(b) plentiful
(c) adequate
(d) sufficient
Q.5
All his attempts to win the favour of his boss proved in fructuous.
(a) meaningless
(b) unnecessary
(c) redundant
(d) fruitless
Q.6
As she had never been in such a situation before, her apprehension was understandable.
(a) eagerness
(b) fear
(c) hesitation
(d) excitement
Q.7
You should not get paranoid about what others think of you.
(a) flattered by
(b) influenced
(c) obsessed with
(d) upset by
Q.8
I wonder if this intervention in the dispute will be of any help.
(a) interception
(b) interruption
(c) mediation
(d) meddling
Q.9
A strange mental aberration often made her forget her own name.
(a) eccentricity
(b) insanity
(c) disorder
(d)illusion
Q.10 He treats with disdain any one who goes to him for help.
(a) contempt
(b) disgust
(c) insolence
(d) displeasure
Q.11 As the speaker wandered in his talk and did not keep to the subject, the audience grew
impatient.
(a) deviated
(b) rambled
(c) swerved
(d) diagnosed
Q.12 His theatrical manner made even his sincere statements sound unconvincing.
(a) play acting
(b) dramaturgy
(c) histrionics
(d) actions
Q.13
The unbearably conceited behaviour of the servant made him lose his job whenever he got
one.
(a) indecent
(b) impatient
(c) insufferable
(d) insulting
Q.14 The civic authorities were at their wits end when, despite their best efforts, cholera was
unchecked and beyond control spread among citizens.
(a) endemic
(b) spreading
(c) epidemic
(d) rampant
Q.15 The flood of personal experience and first hand record of events written by the retired
military general, who had seen much action during war, became the best-seller in the late forties.
(a) memoirs
(b) reminiscences
(c) autobiography
(d) reports
Q.16 The total freedom from care enjoyed by the rich mans son made him unfit for any serious
work.
(a) careworn state
(b) insouciance
(c) carelessness
(d) complacence
Q.17 I could immediately identify you because of your face reminds me of your mother.
(a) is reminiscent of
(b) is a replica of
(c) is duplicate of
(d) is a prototype of
Q.18 The clever inspector saw through the whole game when the accused tried to evade telling
the whole truth.
(a) pretend
(b) prevaricate
(c) lie
(d) deceive
Q.19 The best way we can preserve from being forgotten the memory of a great man is to follow
his ideals, not merely erect a statue of him.
(a) perpetuate
(b) engender
(c) embalm
(d) perpetrate
Q.20 The king declared that his decision was final and unalterable.
(a) decisive
(b) conclusive
(c) irrevocable
(d) irredeemable
Solutions:
1 b
2 b
11 b 12 c
3 a
13 c
4 b
14 c
5 d
15 a
6 b
16 d
7 c
17 a
8 c
18 b
9 c
19 a
10 a
20 c
SET - 2
Find out the synonym for the italicized word from the options given below:
Q.1
He is a likely candidate to win the contest.
(a) popular
(b) likeable
(c) probable
(d) usual
Q.2
In spite of his best efforts, the farakkha problem continues to be contentious issue
between India and Bangladesh.
(a) friendly
(b) likely to cause argument
(c) ill-tempered
(d) hasty
Q.3
She was the first woman to enter Parliament and when she made her maiden
speech the house reverberated with loud applause.
(a) feminine
(b) beautiful
(c) excellent
(d) first
Q.4
Czechoslovakia is a fascinating country.
(a) large
(b) charming
(c) foreign
(d) communist
Q.5
I would not doubt his integrity for one moment.
(a) unity
(b) honesty
(c) faith
(d) courage
Q.6
The culprit was given rigorous punishment.
(a) powerful
(b) severe
(c) strong
(d) violent
Q.7
His application was given priority by the committee because he was an
outstanding sportsman.
(a) precedence in rank
(b) necessity
(c) urgency
(d) attention
Q.8
Our army is invincible.
(a) strong
(c) powerful
(b) unconquerable
(d) excellent
Q.9
It was a hazardous journey.
(a) haphazard
(b) dangerous
(c) horrible
(d) tiresome
Q.10 With the final exams come at hand, no student can afford to be complacent about
his studies.
(a) self-satisfied
(b) pessimistic
(c) ecstatic
(d) tolerable
Q.11
Q.12 Even today many people are guided by abstruse moral values.
(a) dangerous
(b) impracticable
(c) obscure
(d) irrational
Q.19 The international community may begin to doubt the credentials of the largest
democracy in the world.
(a) principles
(c) capacity to return loans
(b) dependability
(d) trustworthiness
9.3
Antonyms
A
Ability: Disability
Absurd: Rational, sane
Abundance: Dearth
Accept: Reject, refuse
Accord: Disaccord, disagreement
Acquit: Convict
Admire: Dislike
Adopt: Reject
Adversity: Prosperity
Affinity: Aversion
Amateur: Professional
Analysis: Synthesis
Ancient: Modern
Appreciate: Depreciate
Arrival: Departure
Arrogant: Humble
Artificial: Natural
Ascent: Descent
Attack: Defend
Attract: Repel
Authentic: Spurious
Awkward: Graceful
B
Barbarous: Civilized
Barren: Fertile
Base: Noble
Beautiful: Ugly
C
Callous: Soft, tender
Care: Neglect
Cautious: Rash
Censure: Praise
Certain: Uncertain
Chaste: Impure, unchaste
Cheap: Dear
Cheerful: Gloomy, depressed
Coarse: Fine
Comic: Tragic, serious
Compare: Contrast
Competent: Incompetent
Compress: Expand
Concord: Discord
Condense: Lengthen, expand
Confess: Deny
Confidence: Diffidence, distrust
D
Danger: Safety
Belief: Disbelief
Benevolent: Malevolent
Bliss: Misery
Boisterous: Quiet, calm
Bold: Timid
Borrow: Lend
Brutal: Humane, kindly
Darkness: Light
Decrease: Increase
Deep: Shallow
Definite: Indefinite, vague
Delay: Haste
Delight: Displeasure, sorrow
Dense: Sparse
Descend: Ascend
Despair: Hope
Destruction: Construction
Diffident: Confident
Diligent: Lazy
Discourage: Encourage
Distant: Near
Dwarf: Giant
E
Early: Late
Earthly: Heavenly, celestial
Economy: Extravagance
Elevation: Depression
Eligible: Ineligible
Emancipate: Enslave
End: Beginning
Enmity: Friendship
Energetic: Weak
Enthusiasm: Indifference
Equality: Inequality
Entrance: Exit
Exceptional: Ordinary
Experience: Inexperience
Explicit: Implicit
Extensive: Intensive
External: Internal
Exterior: Interior
Extraordinary: Ordinary
Extravagant: Economical
Extrinsic: Intrinsic
F
Fabulous: Actual, real
Fact: Fiction
Failure: Success
Fair: Foul
False: True
Familiar: Strange
Famous: Unknown, notorious
Fanciful: Practical
Ferocious: Mild, gentle
Fickle: Constant
Fictitious: True, genuine
Fine: Coarse
Flexible: Stiff, rigid
Folly: Wisdom
Foreign: Native
Freedom: Slavery
Fresh: Stale
Futility: Utility
G
Gaiety: Mourning
Gain: Loss
General: Particular
Generosity: Stinginess
Genuine: False
Gloomy: Gay
Good: Bad, wicked
Growth: Decline
Guilty: Innocent
H
Happiness: Sorrow, sadness
Hard: Soft
Haughty: Humble
Help: Hinder
Heavy: Light
Honest: Dishonest
Honour: Dishonour
Hope: Despair
Humane: Cruel
Humble: Proud
Humility: Arrogance
Hypocrisy: Sincerity
M
I
Imperative: Optional
Import: Export
Include: Exclude
Increase: Decrease
Indolent: Active, energetic
Inhale: Exhale
Industrious: Lazy
Inferior: Superior
Interested: Disinterested
Interesting: Uninteresting
J
Joy: Sorrow ,sadness
Joyful: Sad, depressed
Joint: Separate
Junior: Senior
Justice: Injustice
K
Keen: Indifferent
Kind: Cruel
Knowing: Ignorant
Knowledge: Ignorance
L
Lack: Plenty
Languid: Energetic, vigorous
Legal: Illegal
Legible:Illegible
Liberty: Slavery
Light: Heavy
Liquid: Solid
Long: Short
Loose: Tight
Love: Hate
Loyal: Treacherous
Mad: Sane
Major: Minor
Malice: Goodwill
Master: Servant
Material: Spiritual
Maximum: Minimum
Meager: Plentiful
Melancholy: Gaiety
Merit: Demerit
Mighty: Weak
Mild: Harsh, stern
Miserly: Generous
Moral: Immoral
Motion: Rest
N
Native: Foreign
Natural: Artificial
Neat: Untidy
Noble: Base, ignoble
Normal: Abnormal
Notorious: Reputable
O
Obstinate: Yielding
Obedient: Disobedient
Offensive: Pleasing, defensive
Ominous: Auspicious
Optional: Compulsory
Oral: Written
Outward: Inward
P
Part (n): Whole
Part (v): Join
Partial: Fair, impartial
Particular: General
Passion: Coolness
Pathetic: Joyous
Peace: War
Permanent: Temporary
Persuade: Dissuade
Physical: Spiritual, mental
Please: Displease
Pleasure: Displeasure
Plenty: Scarcity
Polite: Impolite, rude
Poor: Rich. Wealthy
Practicable: Impracticable
Praise: Condemn, defame
Precious: Cheap, worthless
Premium: Discount
Pride: Humility
Profit: Loss
Prospect: Retrospect
Prosperity: Imprudent
Public: Private
Punishment: Reward
Pure: Impure
Q
Quarrelsome: Peaceful, friendly
Quick: Slow, tardy
Quiet: Noisy
R
Raise: Lower
Rapid: Slow, tardy
Rare: Common, ordinary
Rash: Steady, cautions
Real: False
Rear: Front, van
Receive: Give
Rectify: Falsify
Reject: Accept, admit
Relevant: Irrelevant
Religious: Irreligious, secular
Relish: Dislike
Remember: Forget
Remote: Near
Repulsive: Attractive
Rich: Poor, needy
Right: Wrong
Rise: Fall
Rough: Smooth
S
Sacred: Unholy, profane
Safety: Danger
Sane: Insane
Satisfaction: Dissatisfaction
Savage: Civilized
Scanty: Plentiful
Secret: Open, public
Sensible: Insensible, senseless
Sensitive: Insensitive
Separate: Joint
Service: Disservice
Severe: Mild
Sharp: Blunt
Shy: Bold, impudent
Silence: Noise
Sin: Virtue
Smart: Dull, slow
Smile: Frown
Sober: Excited, drunk
Soft: Hard, stubborn
Solid: Liquid
Sophisticated: Nave
Sorrow: Joy
Special: Ordinary
Speedy: Slow
Spiritual: Material
Stale: Flesh
Stationary: Moving
Straight: Crooked
Sublime: Ridiculous
Success: Failure
Sufficient: Insufficient
Superior: Inferior
Surplus: Deficit
Swear: Forswear
Sweet: Bitter, sour
Swift: Slow
Synonym: Antonym
T
Tame: Wild
Teach: Learn
Tedious: Lively
Temporary: Permanent
Temperate: Intemperate
Tender: Hard, strong
Terminate: Begin
Thankful: Thankless
Theory: Practice
Thin: Fat, stout, thick
Thrifty: Extravagant
Thrive: Decline
Timid: Bold
Tolerance: Intolerance
Tough: Easy
Tragic: Comic
Tranquil: Agitated
Transient: Lasting, permanent
Transparent: Opaque
True: False
Trust: Doubt
Tight: Loose
Total: Part
Top: Bottom
V
Vacant: Occupied
Vague: Definite
Valiant: Cowardly
Vain: Modest
Verbal: Written
Vertical: Horizontal
Veteran: Novice
Vice: Virtue
Vigorous: Frail
Vigilant: Careless
Violent: Gentle
Visible: Invisible
Vulgar: Refined
W
Wane: Wax
Want: Abundance
Warm: Cool
Wake: Sleep
War: Peace
Warmth: Coolness
Wearisome: Refreshing
Weighty: Light
Wild: Civilised
Woeful: Cheerful
Work: Idleness
Wrong: Right
U
Y
Ugly: Beautiful
Unanimity: Dissent
Uniform: Variable
Uniformity: Variety
Unify: Diversify
Union: Disunion, Split
Urban: Rural
Use: Disuse
Useful: Useless
Usual: Unusual
Yield: Resist
Youth: Age
Z
Zeal: Indifference
Zenith: Nadir
Zealous: Listless
Zigzag: Sraight
9.3.1
SET - 1
Find out the antonym for italicized word from the options given below:
Q.1 Luscious
a) fickle
c) insipid
b) languid
d) retrograde
Q.2 Merciless
a) obscure
c) urgently
b) injurious
d) compassionate
Q.3 Denigrate
a) speak of
c) scandalize
b) praise
d) befriend
Q.4 Bleak
a) bright
c) discouraging
b) open
d) sound
Q.5 Pessimist
a) theist
c) optimist
b) believer
d) vocalist
Q.6 Meagre
a) excessive
c) extravagant
b) plentiful
d) average
Q.7 Leap
a) immerse
c) sink
b) fall
d) plunge
Q.8 Smooth
a) hard
c) awkward
b) rough
d) plunge
Q.9 Rear
a) forward
c) foreground
b) forehead
d) front
Q.10 Native
a) foreigner
c) stranger
b) newcomer
d) alone
Q.11 Coarse
a) neat
c) beautiful
b) fine
d) simple
Q.12 Solemnly
a) lavishly
c) carelessly
b) flippantly
d) dispassionately
Q.13 Reckless
a) wild
c) casual
b) considerable
d) cautious
Q.14 Nominal
a) large
c) minimal
b) exorbitant
d) costly
Q.15 Indigenous
a) strange
c) unlawful
b) native
d) alien
Q.16 Retard
a) hinder
c) hasten
b) disturb
d) facilitate
Q.17 Concrete
a) imperfect
c) incorrect
b) inexact
d) abstract
Q.18 Indigent
a) rich
c) weak
e) undecided
b) splendid
d) poor
Q.19 Enthusiasm
a) Zeal
c) fervour
e) excitement
b) zest
d) apathy
Q.20 Vertical
a) Parallel
b) horizontal
c) slanting
e) straight
Solutions:
1 d
2 d
11 b 12 b
3 b
13 d
d) oblique
4 a
14 b
5 c
15 b
6 b
16 c
7 c
17 d
8 b
18 a
9 d
19 d
10 a
20 b
SET - 2
Find out the antonym for italicized word from the options given below:
Q.1 The new boss is well known for his rigid approach to all problems.
a) swift
b) logical
c) sympathetic
d) flexible
Q.2 Adversity is the source of numerous vices.
a) wealth
b) prosperity
c) luxury
d) money
Q.3 His repulsive behaviour could not be ignored.
a) attractive
b) mild
c) lovely
d) admirable
Q.4 He is an amateur photographer.
a) average
b) skilled
c) experienced
d) professional
Q.5 The witness affirmed on oath that he was an eyewitness to the crime under study.
a) disputed
b) denied
c) contradicted
d) opposed
Q.6 On the hillside, he could see the vague shapes of sheep coming through the mist.
a) clear
b) transparent
c) plain
d) apparent
Q.7 His casual remarks were taken note of by all members of the board.
a) careful
b) precise
c) sincere
d) flawless
Q.8 If you pamper the child you will regret it.
a) scold
c) scorn
b) discourage
d) neglect
b) loving
d) mild
c) feasible
d) alternate
9.4
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt about synonyms and antonyms, and their uses.
9.5
Key words
Synonyms, antonyms.
9.6
Suggested Readings
Michael McCarthy & Felicity O'Dell, English Vocabulary in Use, University
Press, New Delhi, 2001
John Seely, Words, Oxford University Press, India, New Delhi.
J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar for Foreign
Students, Oxford University Press, India 1963.
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
Raymond Murphy, Intermediate English Grammar, Cambridge University Press,
New Delhi, 1994
10.0 Objective
The objective of this lesson is to help the students expand their vocabulary by
learning about Prefixes and Suffixes.
10.1 Introduction
Many words in English are formed by combining word elements. These word
elements are the prefixes and the suffixes that are added to words to form new
words with a different meaning. Recognizing them can help us to understand the
meaning of the new word.
10.2 Prefixes
Prefixes are those word elements that are added to the beginning of a word to form
a new word.
I
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
a-
to be without something
ananti-
to be without something
against, opposite
contra-
against
de-
dis-
the opposite of
in-
imilir-
mispseudo-
bad, improper
false
non-
not
un-
not, opposite of
obocofopsewith
counter-
against
against
against
against
away, aside
away, against
opposite
sine-
without
mischance, misdemeanor
pseudonym, pseudo-secularism,
pseudo-classic
noncommittal, non- cooperation,
nonsense, nonentity
unnatural, unhappy, undo, unkind,
unfold, uncover
obloquy
occlude
offend
opponent
secede, seclude, seduce, separate
withstand, withdraw, withhold
counteract, counterattack,
counterrevolution
sinecure
7
badly
badly
out of
II
malevolent, malcontent
dyspepsia, dysentery
exodus, eccentric, exit
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
Arch-
highest, first
DemiExtraExtroHyper-
partly
outside, beyond
------- do -----excess, above
Hypo-
below
MiniMacroOutMegaSuper-
little
large, long
beyond
great, million
above, more
superfluous,
MicroParaSub-
small
beyond
under
SemiUltraUnder-
partly
beyond
below
Meta-
beyond
111
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
AnteExFore-
before
former
before
Post-
after
Pre-
before
Re-
back, again
IV
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
Bi-
two
Mono-
one
Multi-
many
PolyTriUnidioligquadr-, quadri-four
deca-, dechemi-
many
three
one
two
few
ten
half
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
Inter-
between
Sub-
beneath
TransTele-
across
far
RetroProtoPro-
backward
first
forward, in favour of
PrimIntraIntroDia-
first
within
within
across
primary, primordial
intramural
introvert
diagonal, diameter
Ad
abs
a
ad
ac
af
ag
al
an
ap
ar
as
at
cata
circum
away from
away from
avail
away from
away from
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
to, forward
down
around
com
co
col
con
cor
perivice-
with, together
with, together
with, together
with, together
with, together
around
deputy
theoforgaininovertounderbenepenanaapoepieu
of God
thoroughly
against
in
beyond
this
below
well
almost
up
from
upon
well
adit, adjoin
accord
affliction, affect
aggregation, aggrieve
allege
annexation, announce
appease, appoint
arraignment, arrest
assumption, assign
attendance, attach
catastrophe, cataract, catapult
circumspect, circumscribe,
circumnavigate
combine
coeditor
collateral
conference
corroborate
peripheral, perimeter
vice-chancellor, vice-principal,
vice-president
theology
forgive, forgo, forbear
gainsay
income, inland
overflow, overcharge
today, tomorrow
undergo, underground
benevolent, benefit, benediction
penultimate, peninsula
anachronism, analysis
apology, apostate
epilogue, epic-epitaph
eulogy, euphony
10
VI
Miscellaneous prefixes
Prefix
Meaning
Illustration
BeEnEmCom
AutoAmbiCo-
completely
cause to be
cause to be
together
self
both
with, together
MisNeoPer-
hated
new
completely
Sub
Suc
Suf
Sug
Sup
Sus
subjugate
succumb
suffuse
suggest
supper
suspend, suspicion
under,
less
Syn
Sym
Syl
Sys
with,
together
synchronize
sympathize
syllogism
system
a
anteby-
equigeo
homo
equal
of the earth
same
10.3 Suffixes
A suffix is a syllable or a letter or a group of letters that is added to the end of a
word. Occasionally it changes the meaning of the word; more frequently, it serves
to change the grammatical form of the word e.g., noun to adjective, adjective to
noun, noun to verb. A large number of suffixes are used in English language. For
our convenience and easy understanding we can classify them as follows:
11
Suffix
-ity
Meaning
state of being
Illustrations
credulity,sagacity, possibility,
Adversity, vitality, vulgarity,
Superiority, probability
cleverness, boldness, kindness,
Sadness, happiness, goodness
truth, depth
accuracy, literacy, constancy,
democracy, obstinacy
dictionary, honorary, luminary
capitalism, socialism, monotheism,
fanaticism, Hinduism, Budhism
psychosis, hyposis
fortitude, magnitude, certitude,
gratitude, solitude
-ness
-th
-cy
-ary
-ism
-osis
-tude
II
Suffix
Illustration
-al
-y
-less
-ish
-ful
-ive
narrative,
derivative
tragic, patriotic, aquatic, poetic,
analytic, domestic
cardiac, meniac
disciplinarian
canadean
courteous, piteous
superstitious, famous, dangerous
glorious, superstitious
audacious, avaricious
-ic
-ac
-arian
-ean
-eous
-ous
-ious
-scious, icious
12
-ly
-like
-some
-esque
-ing
-ed
womanly, miserly
godlike, ladylike
handsome, quarrelsome, wholesome
picturesque, picaresque
burning, helping
learned, stained, starred, gifted.
-ible
-able
-ese
-an
-ant, ent
-ary
-escent
-fic
-iferous
-il, ile
-oid
-ose
-len
-ee
negligible, reversible
considerable, remarkable, portable
Nepalese
Russian, American, Puritan
eloquent, suppliant
honorary
evanescent, pubescent
terrific, soporific
pestiferous, vociferous
ceil, puerile
ovoid, anthropoid, spheroid
verbose
hopeless, shameless, fearless, endless
trainee, employee, addressee, devotee,
Payee
growth, health, stealth
portal, logical, proposal, withdrawal,
refusal, arrival, approval
mutineer, engineer, volunteer
author, inspector, protector, actor,
debtor
youngster, gangster, spinster
painter, baker, swimmer, rider
examination, irritation, admiration,
preservation, sterilization, adoration
slurring, smoking, walking,
-th
-al
-eer
-or
-ster
-er
-ation
-ing
counseling
-ant
-ment
-ent, ant
-dom
-ship
-let
-hood
13
-ess
-ful
-ery
-ry
-ian
-age
-ice
-ate
-ence\-ance
-ure
-ion
-ist
-ling
-ock
-kin
-ed
-el (-le)
III
Suffix
Illustration
-ize, ise
-er
-en
-ify
-ate
-se
IV
Suffix
Illustration
-way
-wise
-ward
-long
-ly
straightway, always
likewise, otherwise
wayward, upward, toward(s)
headlong, sidelong
badly, kindly, nearly
10.4 Summary
14
In this lesson we have discussed about prefixes and suffixes, which will help the
students, expand their vocabulary.
1.5.2 Set 2
Q
N.D.V Prasada Rao, Learners' English Grammar and Composition, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1998.
Michael Swan, Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, Oxford University Press,
India, New Delhi, 1992
15
16
Lesson No. -
11
11.0 Objective
The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand the subtle shades of
the meaning in a given text and his overall grasp of the subject. After studying this
lesson, they will be able to comprehend and summarize long pieces of writing.
17
11.1 Introduction
Comprehension means to comprehend; to understand. The purpose of a
comprehension exercise is to test students ability to understand a given text.
Comprehension questions on an unseen passage test the students understanding of
a passage given to him. He is required to read a passage and answer a few questions
based on it.
The skill of comprehension needs to be supplemented by another equally important
skill, that of Precis writing. A precis can be defined as a restatement in shortened
form of the main ideas and points in a piece of writing. Now we will discuss,
comprehension and precis, one-by-one,
11.2 Comprehension
Comprehension is a two-fold process; it requires understanding what is presented,
and reproducing it as comprehended. This skill can be developed with intelligent
effort like any other skill.
The comprehension process involves speedy reading, quick understanding and
precise reproduction. The following points should be carefully noted while
attempting this question:
21.0
Read the passage carefully and try to get a general idea of the subject it deals with.
22.0
Read the passage again, this time more thoroughly, taking a mental note of the
various points discussed.
23.0
Now take each question in turn and make sure of its import. Read the passage again
and make out the answer.
24.0
Having answered all the questions, re-read the passage and make sure that you have
answered the questions correctly and that your answers are brief and to the point
and they do not overlap.
25.0
18
26.0
Dont give your opinions expressed in the passage unless comments are asked for.
Remember that your job is simply to comprehend the passage and not to quarrel
with ideas it contains.
27.0
Dont explain or elaborate any point with illustrations of your own. Keep yourself
quite close to the passage.
Example 1
Read the following passage, and answer the questions that follow it. Answers should be
brief, to the point and in your own words:
The great advantage of early rising is the good start it gives us for our days work.
The early riser has done a large amount of hard work before other men have got out of bed.
In the early morning the mind is fresh, and there are few sounds or other distractions, so
the work done at the time is generally well done. In many cases the early riser also finds
time to take some exercise in the fresh morning air, and this exercise supplies him with a
fund of energy that will last to do thoroughly all the work he can be accepted to do, and is
not tempted to hurry over any part of it. All his work being finished in good time, he has a
long interval of rest in the evening before the timely hour when he goes to bed. He gets to
sleep several hours before midnight, at the time when sleep is most refreshing and after a
sound nights rest rises early next morning in good health and spirits for the labours of a
new day.
It is very plain that such a life as this is far more conducive to health than that of
the man who shortens his waking hours by rising late, and so can afford in the course of
the day little leisure for necessary rest. Anyone who lies in bed late, must, if he wished to
do a full days work, go on working to a correspondingly late hour, and deny himself the
hour or two of evening exercise that he ought to take for the benefit of his health. But, in
19
spite of all his efforts, he will probably not produce as good results as the early riser,
because he misses the best working hours of he day.
Why is the early riser not tempted to hurry over his days work?
(b) Early rising gives a good start to the days work. An early riser has accomplished a
good deal of work while the others are still asleep.
(c) In the early hours of the morning, work is done very efficiently. It being quiet all
around, there are no distractions. Secondly, mind is still very fresh.
(d) By rising early, he adds to his hours of work. He gets ample time to do full justice to
each one of the jobs assigned to him, and hence he doesnt have to hurry over anything.
(e) The early riser is able to finish his days work in time. He does not have to keep awake
till late hours in order to finish his work. Thus he can go to bed at the proper time.
(f) The late riser gets fewer hours of work. He gets no rest during the day, no time for
exercise in the evening and has to keep awake till late hours in order to finish his work.
And still whatever work is done is done satisfactorily.
20
(g)
(i) Distraction = Something that draws the attention aside in different directions.
(ii) Fund of energy = Store of energy
(iii) Conducive = having power to promote; advantageous
(iv) Refreshing = something that makes one fresh again, something that gives one
new vigour.
Bleeding ceases naturally when blood stops flowing and forms a clot. First-aid
treatment should therefore aim to stop blood flowingby pressing on the place where the
blood is coming fromelevating limbs, that is lifting up arms and legsaiding clot
formation by rest, because movement breaks up the blood clot.
If you find a casualty, who is bleeding from a wound: tell him to lie down. Press
firmly over and around the bleeding area or wound. Use the cleanest thing that is
availablea wound dressing if you have one, or a clean handkerchief, towel, or other item
of clean linen. If nothing is available in emergency, press with your bare hand and fingers.
You can always stop bleeding by pressing on the bleeding spot and by keeping the pressure
on. If the bleeding is from the arm or the leg, lift up the arm or the leg after you have tied a
firm dressing in the place or while you are holding the bleeding point with your hand to
stop the bleeding. This makes the bleeding less severe. If the bleeding continues through
the dressing you have applied, put another one over the one that is already there and tie it
21
on even more firmly. Never remove the dressings which are already in placethis disturbs
any clot and can easily make bleeding worse. Reassure the casualty that bleeding has
stopped. A casualty who is worried or agitated will not lie still and will therefore tend to
bleed more severely. Send the casualty to hospital soon.
Questions:
Find one word substitute for the following phrases from the passage:
Lifting up or raising.
1.5.2 Set 2
In modern business management, conferences, meetings and group discussions
have come to occupy an important place with the result that oral communication by means
of simple, direct, natural, forceful and purposeful speech has gained very much in
importance. This requires training, because without training, one cannot present ones
ideas clearly and to the satisfaction of the group. And unless this is done, one cannot stand
out as the leader of the group. If one has the knowledge but cannot express adequately, one
cannot make ones mark in the world of business executives. Ideas must be expressed in
such a way that they influence and persuade others. This quality is the very essence of
22
leadership. Only when people are influenced by ones speech, one can expect to get things
done through them. Besides, mastery in making a speech gives one a feeling of confidence
and personal satisfaction, which is very essential to modern business transaction. In the
ultimate analysis, one must know how to talk effectively. The speech should be well
organized so that it is acceptable to listeners and it must move to a definite objective.
Questions:
By means of
To stand out
To make a mark
quickly and precisely, but also helps him in the acquisition of a clear, pointed style
of expression. This is why prcis writing requires intensive brain- work.
Step 1:Read the passage thoroughly. Ask yourself what the author wants to say in the
passage. That will help you in getting the general idea of the passage.
Step 2:Try to write down the general idea of the passage and sum it up in a suitable
heading.
Step 3:Re-read thee passage. Detailed study of this kind is necessary because by missing a
single sentence, a phrase, or even a single word can miss the whole.
Step 4:Separate the essential parts of the passage from comparatively unimportant parts.
This can be done by underlining the important ideas.
Step 5:Take brief notes in your own language. With the help of these notes put down the
sum and substance of the passage in a well - connected readable paragraph. It is not
likely that this will be a complete success. The draft will probably be too long.
Step 6:24
Count the words in the rough draft. A precis should be about one third of the length
of the original passage. Now make necessary changes in the rough draft to get the
required length.
Step 7:After writing the precis, mention the total number of words of the precis.
Points to be remembered :
34. The precis should be written in ones own language.
35. The phrases, idioms, examples, quotations used by the author shouldnt be used
in the precis.
36. It should also be noted that one has to reproduce the original passage without
giving ones own comments about the passage.
37. A precis should be a self-contained unit. It should be fairly intelligible even to a
person who has not gone through the passage.
Example I:
While India is an agricultural country and at least seven-tenth of the boys living today will
eventually become farmers, the tendency of education has often been to discourage rather
than prepare them for farming. The average youth still looks to education as an escape
from agriculture instead of preparation for it. Eventually, as it often occurs, the way to a
salaried position is closed, and he is forced to take up agriculture as an occupation. He
considers himself unfortunate and his parents speak of the time and money spent in school
as wasted. While it is not desirable that the teacher should attempt to make future farmers
of the boys in his class, it is the strange paradox that knowledge of agriculture as an
occupation should be withheld from them in nearly all schools. As far as possible, a school
boy should be free to choose the occupation for which he is best fitted, but without some
knowledge and guidance during his years in school, he is not in a position to choose
wisely.
25
(174)
21. Read the passage carefully. What is it about?
From the first sentence to the last, its about the present system of education.
22. The main points are:
23. India is an agricultural country.
24. A majority of our school going boys will take to farming later on.
25. Our system of education does not prepare the boys for becoming farmers.
26. The educated boys want salaried jobs.
27. They take to farming when they fail to get a job.
28. They curse themselves, and their parents feel that the money spent on
education has been wasted.
29. Education should give knowledge about agriculture.
30. Teachers do not have to make their boys farmers, but they must tell them
that agriculture is also an option available to them.
31. Having this knowledge a boy can choose his profession wisely.
With the help of these points, a rough draft can be made. The final precis may be
something like this:
Its strange that in an agricultural country like India, education makes boys averse to
farming. Service is the aim; but jobs being limited, many fail to get them and become
farmers, unwillingly. Time, energy and money spent on education looks wasted. Education
must give knowledge of agriculture to help boys choose their profession wisely.
= 54
26
Example II:
Speech is a great blessing, but it can also be a great curse, for while it helps us to make our
intensions and desires known to our fellows, it can also, if we use it carelessly, make our
attitude completely misunderstood. A slip of the tongue, the use of an unusual word, or of
an ambiguous word, and so on, may create an enemy where we hoped to win a friend.
Again, different classes of people use different vocabularies, and the ordinary speech of an
educated man may strike to an uneducated listener as sowing pride, unwittingly we may
use a word, which bears a different meaning to our listener from what it does to men of our
own class. Thus speech is not a gift to use lightly without thought, but one that demands
careful handling; only a fool will express himself alike to all kinds and conditions of men.
(151)
PRECIS
Speech: A Boon or a Bane
Speech is a valuable gift, but if we are to make ourselves understood, it should be used
carefully, since we may distort our meaning not only by a careless use of words, but also
by ignoring the fact that words do not always mean the same thing to all people.
= 50
Write a precis of the following passages and give a suitable title to them.
27
Most people when asked what spiritual quality is needed to rebuild civilization,
will reply love. Men must love one another, they say; nations must do likewise.
Respectfully, but firmly, I disagree. Love is a great force in private life; but love in
public affairs does not work. It has been tried again and again; and it has always failed.
The idea that nations should love one another, or that marketing boards should love one
another, or that a man in Portugal should love a man in Peru of whom he has never heard is
absurd, unreal, dangerous. It leads us into perilous and vague sentimentalism. Love is
what is needed, we chant, and then sit back and the world goes on as before. The fact is
that we can only love what we know personally. And we cannot know much. In public
affairs, in the rebuilding of civilization, something much less dramatic and emotional is
needed, namely, tolerance. Tolerance is a very dull virtue. No one has written an ode to
tolerance, or raised a statue to her. Yet this is the quality that is most needed. This is the
sound state of mind that we are looking for. This is the only force, which will enable
different races and classes and interests to settle down together to work of reconstruction.
11.5.2 Set 2
Broken friendship, like that with China may be repaired, but the break will always
show. Friendship is a precious thing too precious a treasure to be carelessly broken or
thrown away. The world handles the word friend lightly; its true, real, deeper meaning is
forgotten, and the acquaintance of an hour or the chance-comer is designated by the term,
which in itself bears a wealth of meaning. Your friend is the one who appreciates you
your faults as well as virtues, who understands and sympathises with your defeats and
victories, your aims and ideals, your joys and temptations, your hopes and
disappointments, as no one else does or can. It is your friend to whom you turn for counsel,
for comfort, for praise; he may not be as learned as some or as wise as others, but it
suffices that he understands you, and even his quiet listening gives strength and renewed
courage.
Blessed is the man or woman into whose life has come the beauty and power of
such a friendship. Prize it well. Do all in your power to keep such a friendship unbroken.
28
Avoid the break, for when it comes it cannot be mended and the jarring note mars the
harmony. It is not just the forgiveness, rather the hurt in the heart that will not readily heal
and the confidence that will not fully return.
11.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt how to attempt the question related to comprehension
of unseen passage and precis writing.
29
Lesson No. -
11
11.0 Objective
The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand the subtle shades of
the meaning in a given text and his overall grasp of the subject. After studying this
lesson, they will be able to comprehend and summarize long pieces of writing.
30
11.1 Introduction
Comprehension means to comprehend; to understand. The purpose of a
comprehension exercise is to test students ability to understand a given text.
Comprehension questions on an unseen passage test the students understanding of
a passage given to him. He is required to read a passage and answer a few questions
based on it.
The skill of comprehension needs to be supplemented by another equally important
skill, that of Precis writing. A precis can be defined as a restatement in shortened
form of the main ideas and points in a piece of writing. Now we will discuss,
comprehension and precis, one-by-one,
11.2 Comprehension
Comprehension is a two-fold process; it requires understanding what is presented,
and reproducing it as comprehended. This skill can be developed with intelligent
effort like any other skill.
The comprehension process involves speedy reading, quick understanding and
precise reproduction. The following points should be carefully noted while
attempting this question:
28.0
Read the passage carefully and try to get a general idea of the subject it deals with.
29.0
Read the passage again, this time more thoroughly, taking a mental note of the
various points discussed.
30.0
Now take each question in turn and make sure of its import. Read the passage again
and make out the answer.
31.0
Having answered all the questions, re-read the passage and make sure that you have
answered the questions correctly and that your answers are brief and to the point
and they do not overlap.
32.0
31
33.0
Dont give your opinions expressed in the passage unless comments are asked for.
Remember that your job is simply to comprehend the passage and not to quarrel
with ideas it contains.
34.0
Dont explain or elaborate any point with illustrations of your own. Keep yourself
quite close to the passage.
Example 1
Read the following passage, and answer the questions that follow it. Answers should be
brief, to the point and in your own words:
The great advantage of early rising is the good start it gives us for our days work.
The early riser has done a large amount of hard work before other men have got out of bed.
In the early morning the mind is fresh, and there are few sounds or other distractions, so
the work done at the time is generally well done. In many cases the early riser also finds
time to take some exercise in the fresh morning air, and this exercise supplies him with a
fund of energy that will last to do thoroughly all the work he can be accepted to do, and is
not tempted to hurry over any part of it. All his work being finished in good time, he has a
long interval of rest in the evening before the timely hour when he goes to bed. He gets to
sleep several hours before midnight, at the time when sleep is most refreshing and after a
sound nights rest rises early next morning in good health and spirits for the labours of a
new day.
It is very plain that such a life as this is far more conducive to health than that of
the man who shortens his waking hours by rising late, and so can afford in the course of
the day little leisure for necessary rest. Anyone who lies in bed late, must, if he wished to
do a full days work, go on working to a correspondingly late hour, and deny himself the
hour or two of evening exercise that he ought to take for the benefit of his health. But, in
32
spite of all his efforts, he will probably not produce as good results as the early riser,
because he misses the best working hours of he day.
Why is the early riser not tempted to hurry over his days work?
(b) Early rising gives a good start to the days work. An early riser has accomplished a
good deal of work while the others are still asleep.
(c) In the early hours of the morning, work is done very efficiently. It being quiet all
around, there are no distractions. Secondly, mind is still very fresh.
(d) By rising early, he adds to his hours of work. He gets ample time to do full justice to
each one of the jobs assigned to him, and hence he doesnt have to hurry over anything.
(e) The early riser is able to finish his days work in time. He does not have to keep awake
till late hours in order to finish his work. Thus he can go to bed at the proper time.
(f) The late riser gets fewer hours of work. He gets no rest during the day, no time for
exercise in the evening and has to keep awake till late hours in order to finish his work.
And still whatever work is done is done satisfactorily.
33
(g)
(i) Distraction = Something that draws the attention aside in different directions.
(ii) Fund of energy = Store of energy
(iii) Conducive = having power to promote; advantageous
(iv) Refreshing = something that makes one fresh again, something that gives one
new vigour.
Bleeding ceases naturally when blood stops flowing and forms a clot. First-aid
treatment should therefore aim to stop blood flowingby pressing on the place where the
blood is coming fromelevating limbs, that is lifting up arms and legsaiding clot
formation by rest, because movement breaks up the blood clot.
If you find a casualty, who is bleeding from a wound: tell him to lie down. Press
firmly over and around the bleeding area or wound. Use the cleanest thing that is
availablea wound dressing if you have one, or a clean handkerchief, towel, or other item
of clean linen. If nothing is available in emergency, press with your bare hand and fingers.
You can always stop bleeding by pressing on the bleeding spot and by keeping the pressure
on. If the bleeding is from the arm or the leg, lift up the arm or the leg after you have tied a
firm dressing in the place or while you are holding the bleeding point with your hand to
stop the bleeding. This makes the bleeding less severe. If the bleeding continues through
the dressing you have applied, put another one over the one that is already there and tie it
34
on even more firmly. Never remove the dressings which are already in placethis disturbs
any clot and can easily make bleeding worse. Reassure the casualty that bleeding has
stopped. A casualty who is worried or agitated will not lie still and will therefore tend to
bleed more severely. Send the casualty to hospital soon.
Questions:
Find one word substitute for the following phrases from the passage:
Lifting up or raising.
1.5.2 Set 2
In modern business management, conferences, meetings and group discussions
have come to occupy an important place with the result that oral communication by means
of simple, direct, natural, forceful and purposeful speech has gained very much in
importance. This requires training, because without training, one cannot present ones
ideas clearly and to the satisfaction of the group. And unless this is done, one cannot stand
out as the leader of the group. If one has the knowledge but cannot express adequately, one
cannot make ones mark in the world of business executives. Ideas must be expressed in
such a way that they influence and persuade others. This quality is the very essence of
35
leadership. Only when people are influenced by ones speech, one can expect to get things
done through them. Besides, mastery in making a speech gives one a feeling of confidence
and personal satisfaction, which is very essential to modern business transaction. In the
ultimate analysis, one must know how to talk effectively. The speech should be well
organized so that it is acceptable to listeners and it must move to a definite objective.
Questions:
By means of
To stand out
To make a mark
quickly and precisely, but also helps him in the acquisition of a clear, pointed style
of expression. This is why prcis writing requires intensive brain- work.
Step 1:Read the passage thoroughly. Ask yourself what the author wants to say in the
passage. That will help you in getting the general idea of the passage.
Step 2:Try to write down the general idea of the passage and sum it up in a suitable
heading.
Step 3:Re-read thee passage. Detailed study of this kind is necessary because by missing a
single sentence, a phrase, or even a single word can miss the whole.
Step 4:Separate the essential parts of the passage from comparatively unimportant parts.
This can be done by underlining the important ideas.
Step 5:Take brief notes in your own language. With the help of these notes put down the
sum and substance of the passage in a well - connected readable paragraph. It is not
likely that this will be a complete success. The draft will probably be too long.
Step 6:37
Count the words in the rough draft. A precis should be about one third of the length
of the original passage. Now make necessary changes in the rough draft to get the
required length.
Step 7:After writing the precis, mention the total number of words of the precis.
Points to be remembered :
38. The precis should be written in ones own language.
39. The phrases, idioms, examples, quotations used by the author shouldnt be used
in the precis.
40. It should also be noted that one has to reproduce the original passage without
giving ones own comments about the passage.
41. A precis should be a self-contained unit. It should be fairly intelligible even to a
person who has not gone through the passage.
Example I:
While India is an agricultural country and at least seven-tenth of the boys living today will
eventually become farmers, the tendency of education has often been to discourage rather
than prepare them for farming. The average youth still looks to education as an escape
from agriculture instead of preparation for it. Eventually, as it often occurs, the way to a
salaried position is closed, and he is forced to take up agriculture as an occupation. He
considers himself unfortunate and his parents speak of the time and money spent in school
as wasted. While it is not desirable that the teacher should attempt to make future farmers
of the boys in his class, it is the strange paradox that knowledge of agriculture as an
occupation should be withheld from them in nearly all schools. As far as possible, a school
boy should be free to choose the occupation for which he is best fitted, but without some
knowledge and guidance during his years in school, he is not in a position to choose
wisely.
38
(174)
32. Read the passage carefully. What is it about?
From the first sentence to the last, its about the present system of education.
33. The main points are:
34. India is an agricultural country.
35. A majority of our school going boys will take to farming later on.
36. Our system of education does not prepare the boys for becoming farmers.
37. The educated boys want salaried jobs.
38. They take to farming when they fail to get a job.
39. They curse themselves, and their parents feel that the money spent on
education has been wasted.
40. Education should give knowledge about agriculture.
41. Teachers do not have to make their boys farmers, but they must tell them
that agriculture is also an option available to them.
42. Having this knowledge a boy can choose his profession wisely.
With the help of these points, a rough draft can be made. The final precis may be
something like this:
Its strange that in an agricultural country like India, education makes boys averse to
farming. Service is the aim; but jobs being limited, many fail to get them and become
farmers, unwillingly. Time, energy and money spent on education looks wasted. Education
must give knowledge of agriculture to help boys choose their profession wisely.
= 54
39
Example II:
Speech is a great blessing, but it can also be a great curse, for while it helps us to make our
intensions and desires known to our fellows, it can also, if we use it carelessly, make our
attitude completely misunderstood. A slip of the tongue, the use of an unusual word, or of
an ambiguous word, and so on, may create an enemy where we hoped to win a friend.
Again, different classes of people use different vocabularies, and the ordinary speech of an
educated man may strike to an uneducated listener as sowing pride, unwittingly we may
use a word, which bears a different meaning to our listener from what it does to men of our
own class. Thus speech is not a gift to use lightly without thought, but one that demands
careful handling; only a fool will express himself alike to all kinds and conditions of men.
(151)
PRECIS
Speech: A Boon or a Bane
Speech is a valuable gift, but if we are to make ourselves understood, it should be used
carefully, since we may distort our meaning not only by a careless use of words, but also
by ignoring the fact that words do not always mean the same thing to all people.
= 50
Write a precis of the following passages and give a suitable title to them.
40
Most people when asked what spiritual quality is needed to rebuild civilization,
will reply love. Men must love one another, they say; nations must do likewise.
Respectfully, but firmly, I disagree. Love is a great force in private life; but love in
public affairs does not work. It has been tried again and again; and it has always failed.
The idea that nations should love one another, or that marketing boards should love one
another, or that a man in Portugal should love a man in Peru of whom he has never heard is
absurd, unreal, dangerous. It leads us into perilous and vague sentimentalism. Love is
what is needed, we chant, and then sit back and the world goes on as before. The fact is
that we can only love what we know personally. And we cannot know much. In public
affairs, in the rebuilding of civilization, something much less dramatic and emotional is
needed, namely, tolerance. Tolerance is a very dull virtue. No one has written an ode to
tolerance, or raised a statue to her. Yet this is the quality that is most needed. This is the
sound state of mind that we are looking for. This is the only force, which will enable
different races and classes and interests to settle down together to work of reconstruction.
11.5.2 Set 2
Broken friendship, like that with China may be repaired, but the break will always
show. Friendship is a precious thing too precious a treasure to be carelessly broken or
thrown away. The world handles the word friend lightly; its true, real, deeper meaning is
forgotten, and the acquaintance of an hour or the chance-comer is designated by the term,
which in itself bears a wealth of meaning. Your friend is the one who appreciates you
your faults as well as virtues, who understands and sympathises with your defeats and
victories, your aims and ideals, your joys and temptations, your hopes and
disappointments, as no one else does or can. It is your friend to whom you turn for counsel,
for comfort, for praise; he may not be as learned as some or as wise as others, but it
suffices that he understands you, and even his quiet listening gives strength and renewed
courage.
Blessed is the man or woman into whose life has come the beauty and power of
such a friendship. Prize it well. Do all in your power to keep such a friendship unbroken.
41
Avoid the break, for when it comes it cannot be mended and the jarring note mars the
harmony. It is not just the forgiveness, rather the hurt in the heart that will not readily heal
and the confidence that will not fully return.
11.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt how to attempt the question related to comprehension
of unseen passage and precis writing.
42
Thus an essay becomes a test, not only of knowledge, but of thoughts and
imagination. It reflects the writers personality as well as his or her ability to
weave disintegrated bits of information in to a thread of unity.
The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought and come to a definite
conclusion. The matter-the ideas/facts,-should be arranged into an attractive design.
The presentation of the matter should be clear. Language and sentence construction
should be simple and lucid.
An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the writer. However
idiosyncrasies had better not to be expressed. Nor should extreme or dangerous
opinions be expressed.
12.1.2
Now we come to the actual work of writing the essay. This involves a number of
steps, which are discussed below:
44
I Define the scope of the subject. Read the title and think about the subject you
have chosen. Ask yourself what the topic demands. Do not be misled by any one
word in the title. The scope of an essay on Indian Films is essentially different
from the scope of an essay on The influence of Indian Films on the Young. Your
essay will have to be of the length prescribed, and there is no place in it for
irrelevant matter. Having understood the precise scope of the subject, you must
decide upon the point of view from which it is to be treated. It may be helpful to jot
down the ideas, facts and illustrations that pass through your mind as you think over
the subject.
II
Make an outline. Arrange the facts and ideas according to some consistent
principle of organization. You may go from the general to the specific or from
specific to the general; or you may develop your essay along chronological lines.
Your organization of ideas will, to a large extent, depend upon the subject of the
essay. An outline will help you identify ideas which must be grouped together and
those that must be rejected as irrelevant or repetitious. The outline will also give you
an idea of what to develop in different paragraphs in the body of the essay.
III
will be written if paragraph are well constructed and related to one another
according to the direction of your outline. Construct a paragraph around a
topic sentence. Avoid excessively long and excessively short paragraphs.
Generally a paragraph should not have less than four or more than eight
sentences.
Each paragraph should have unity and coherence; and the paragraphs
in combination should contribute to the effect of unity and coherence
of
clear
purpose. The first line may sum up the topic or topic may be
strongly
implied through details in the entire paragraph. Sentence should deal with
details and
it
implies a
the
essay;
argumentative or expository
presented.
IV Style in writing
In matters of style, it is practice which makes prefect. Grammatical knowledge
is essential. Reading is bound to improve your vocabulary. You should develop
the art of using the right word in right place. Clarity in writing is a reflection of
clarity in thinking;so be perfectlyclear about what you want to say. Be sincere
and simple in what you express; avoid bombastic language and elaborate
metaphors. Use short sentences which are clear, compact and effective.
46
wishes
vigorous,
and
47
Example-1
IS LIFE WORTH LIVING?
There must be few of us in this world who have not, at some time or other,
considered whether life is worth living. Moments of joy fill us with an enthusiasm for life,
but moments of sufferings and depression prompt us to turn philosophical and query the
worth of life on this earth. Is life worth living? No unanimous Yes or No can answer
the question. Our answer depends on our views and vision of life as a whole. General
opinion on whether life is worth living is sharply divided between those who consider life
to be an unrelieved curse and those who feel that it is worth living for various reasons.
48
Many philosophers have often denied the fact that life is worth living and that life
is something to be actively sought. They have often wondered at the futility of the human
existence. Thomas hardy states that life is a general drama of pain and that happiness is
just a cessation of pain. Shakespeares Macbeth cries that life is a tale told by an idiot full
of sound or fury, signifying nothing. The early Greek philosophers were equally tragic in
their outlook. Silenius remarks that the best thing possible is not to be born, and since this
is impossible, the next best thing is to die young. Romantic poets of England emphasised
the thorns of life. Indian sages have regarded life on this earth as illusion or maya.
Opposed to the pessimistic denigrators of life, there are others who feel life is
worth living for various reasons. Hedonistic philosophers emphasise that it is only the
pursuit of personal pleasures that makes life worth living. Omar khayam, for example,
explains life mainly in terms of wine and sex. But it is obvious that the pleasures of the
body tend to grow distant in direct proportion to the amount of energy one bestows on their
pursuit. Thus, the pleasures of the flesh have a discouraging tendency to be ultimately selfdefeating.
Some thinkers emphasise the pleasures of the emotions. They speak of the beauty
of human relations, of the feelings of a friend, a parent or a lover. The sublimity of nature
or art is considered the only thing which makes life worth living. But it is also true that
emotions tend to get perverted. The maniacal desire to be loved, the desire to dominate
others and the need to possess objects and, in a way, people, is symptomatic of this.
Finally there are people who emphasise the pleasures of the mind. The satisfaction
felt in reading something beautiful exceeds pleasures of the body or emotions. It is in
developing a truly contemplative nature that their pleasure lies. The dangers of such a
cerebral existence are self evident. The denial of the body does not make it non existent.
Similarly, a dispassionate involvement in life is a truncation of the full potential of man.
We cannot deny an element of truth in any of the views expressed. But none of
them by itself is totally accepted. It is not realistic to negate lifes worth in a pessimistic
manner and for most of us life as maya seems a somewhat difficult proposition to act upon.
Life can hold much joy and happiness. However, lifes worth is not also to be found in the
exclusive pursuit of physical, emotional, or intellectual delights. It is when we can
49
harmoniously coalesce the three dimensions-the physical, the emotional and the
intellectual-and become receptive to all kinds of experience-sad, joyful, hateful-that we
begin to firmly believe that life is worth living.
The question of lifes worth is ultimately to be faced at the level of each individual
and the answer depends on ones view or the version of life. Anyone who sees life as a
whole will have no hesitation in saying, Yes, Life is worth living.
Example-2
LIFE IS ACTION NOT CONTEMPLATION
50
profession like public relations of a firm or a gregarious person becomes a teacher. In this
situation, the person tends to develop his natural interests through hobbies. Thus, a civil
servant may take to gardening. Person whose profession requires excessive activity
develop a taste for such pass-time as music or reading. Similarly, people in relatively quiet
professions tend to socialise a lot. In addition to developing a hobby to suit their natural
propensities, people also tend to develop active interests in pass-times which compensate
for the exclusive emphasis of their professions. A doctor may spend his evenings reading
or listening to music purely because his profession does not allow him to do this as part of
its duties.
This brings to the fore an important point. Every person has impulses towards both
dimensions simultaneously. Both action and contemplation are essential dimensions of life.
Any preoccupation with one aspect is compensated for by an inclination towards the other.
Overwhelming occupation with one aspect stunts the full growth of the person and results
in a semi-developed human-being. Acting without thinking is foolish and in many cases
would lead to difficulties. Similarly, excessive contemplation without action will lead
nowhere. In society, a preoccupation with either dimension will lead to an alienated human
being, resulting in the sociological phenomenon called anomic whereby the individual
opt out of the social stream. Society may also collapse because of its excessive emphasis
on one aspect. Thus an excessively active western society in modern times develops a
counter-culture in the hippies, or a predominantly cerebral Greek civilization in the ancient
times fell to the robust Romans. Consequently at both the levels-of the individual and of
the collective consciousness-actions as well as contemplation are important. The
dichotomy developed between two is not only false but also hazardous. Life, it may be
averred, is both action and contemplation. The one without the other will be detrimental to
human growth.
maintains the personal touch so required in keeping relations alive and serves
as a record. In the business world, a great deal of skilfull letter writing is required
to maintain customer relations and handling problems. For writing good letters, one needs
knowledge of language and must develop a clear and
adopting
a systematic approach, we can use the limited time at our disposal more efficiently, and
produce letters that are personal, professional and
preperation. Time spent now, before putting pen to paper, is time saved later- both for you
and your reader.
Every letter, even the most routine, has a purpose. It could be
42. To sell or persuade
43. To get something done
44. To enquire about something
45. To answer an enquiry
46. To complain
47. To answer a complaint
48. To create a good impression of ourselves and our organisation
Heading: The heading is usually printed at the top of the letter head. It includes the name
of the company, it's business; emblem; postal, telegraphic, and e-mail addresses;
telephone, telex, and fax numbers.
Date: The date is placed two line spaces below the heading.Year is separated from the date
and month by a comma. The date can be written either of the following ways :16 June, 2007
June 16, 2007
Note: Now-a-days, we do not use numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. to write date.
The date is usually placed two line spaces below the heading, on the right.
Reference number: It gives the letter no., file no., and other filing details; a letter is filed
and the reference no. helps to locate the file among office records. It appears on the left on
the level with the date. The words for ref. no. may be printed or written. We may also write
our ref. no. and your ref. no. on the letter.
Inside address: It is the name and address of the receiver. The address should be complete
in all respect. Due care must be taken not to abbriviate any part of the address on our own.
Attention line: It is used only if, from previous communication, we know the name of the
person in the organisation, who is handling the matter about which we are writing. In this
case, the letter is addressed to the organisation, but directed to the attention of the
individual, by name, so that the letter reaches him without delay. The attention line is
placed after the inside address aligned at the margin or in the center.
53
Subject line: The purpose of this line is to let the reader know immediately what the
message is about. Thus, it gives an immediate indication of the subject of the letter. It gives
a clear idea of a long letter. Make sure, it is short but meaningful. It is placed either above
or below the salutation. It may be placed at the center when written after the salutation. It
has to be introduced by the word subject. The subject line must either be underlined or
bold typed. When there is an attention line in a letter, the subject line is placed after the
salutation.
Salutation: It is like greeting a person when you meet him. It is placed two spaces below
the attention line, if any, otherwise, two spaces below the inside address.
When addressing a firm, a company, a board etc., we use Dear Sirs. While writing to an
officer, we write Dear Sir or Dear Madam, as the case may be. In the USA, they use
'Gentlemen' for Dear Sirs, but in India, this is rarely used. It should be noted that the use of
the word Dear is purely formal, and is a mere polite expression, not necessarily implying
any special affection. If you know the reader's name, use it. The form of the name will
depend on how they have addressed you or signed themselves, or on how well you know
them. Business contacts, even if they have never previously communicated, now
increasingly just name;
Dear Satish...
Dear Mohan...
The more formal style of salutation is normally reserved for customers or members of the
public;
Dear Mr. Mehta...
Dear Mrs. Sharma...
If the marital status of a female reader is unclear, and you cannot use her first name, use
Ms. Pronounced as /miz/.
Body of the letter: The main purpose of a letter is to covey a message and main purpose
of the message is to produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done through the
body of the letter. It, therefore, becomes important to organise the material very carefully.
54
Complimentary Close: The complimentary close is written two linw spaces below the last
line of the text of the letter. The most common form is:
Yours faithfully, or Faithfully yours,
Yours truly, or Truly yours,
If the addressee's name is used in the salutation, the complimentary close is
Yours sincerely, or Sincerely yours.
'Respectfully yours' is used only when writing to a high public official.
Signature: The signature is placed just below the complimentary close. The name of the
signatory is written in brackets below the signature.
Enclosures: Enclosures are related documents sent with the letter; cheques, quotations,
brochures, etc. The enclosures are indicated in the letter by writing Enc(s) or Encls: at the
bottom corner of the letter, after the signature.
55
Reference No.
Date
To
Inside Address,
Subject:
Salutation,
Body of the letter
Complimentary Close
Signature
(Name)
Encls:
56
The word 'To' is written along the left margin; no comma after 'To'.
The inside address comes in the indented form in the line next to 'To'; with a
comma after each line.
The salutation will be alligned with the left margin, exactly below 'To', with a
comma after it.
The complimentary close will be alligned with the right margin, with a comma
after it.
The signature will also be alligned with the right margin below the complimentary
close.
II Block Style with Mixed Punctuation: The block style coupled with mixed
punctuation is the most desirable form of writing business letters. Mixed
punctuation means that we use punctuation marks at some places, and at
others,
we don't.
Ref No.
Date
Inside Address
Subject:
Salutation
Body of the letter
57
2nd Para
3rd Para
Complimentary close
Signature
(Name)
Encls.:
In the block style, the date is alligned with the right margin, without a comma
in the end.
35.0
The inside address is to be alligned with the left margin, without commas and fullstop after each line.
36.0
The salutation will be alligned with the left margin, without a comma.
37.0
The body of the letter will be divided into paragraphs that will begin with the left
margin. One-line space should be left after each paragraph, and the paragraphs
should not be indented.
38.0
The closing will be alligned with the right margin without a comma after it.
III Complete Block Style with Open Punctuation: Although this style is
very common in America, it is not a favourite with the Indians, as it becomes
heavy and unbalanced on the left side:
COMPLETE BLOCK STYLE WITH OPEN PUNCTUATION
Heading
Ref. no.
Date
Inside Address
Subject:
Salutation
58
Complimentary close
Signature
(Name)
Encls:
29
30
The inside address is to be alligned with the left margin, exactly below the date.
31
32
The salutation, without comma, is also alligned with the left margin.
33
34
The complimentary close will also be alligned with the left margin, without
comma.
35
The signature should also be alligned with the left side, below the closing.
36
As every thing is written on the left side, it looks heavy on the left side.
In a routine letter of
enquiry, state simply, clearly and concisely what you want general
information, a catalogue or price list, a sample, a quotation, an estimate
and so on. When making an enquiry, observe the following rules:
Begin with the question you want to ask; this would immediately indicate
what the enquiry is about.
Put your request in the form of a question, not a statement.
59
EFFICIENT FOOTWEAR
Connaught Place, New Delhi 110 001
24 August, 2007
To
The Metro Shoe Co.,
219, Grand Road,
Mumbai 400 007.
Subject: Information regarding hand-made goods.
Dear Sirs,
We learnt from the American embassy that you are planning to export hand-made
shoes and gloves in pure hide and other natural materials.
There is a steady demand here for high-class goods of this type, especially in
bright colours. Although the sales are not high, but a good price can be obtained for
fashionable designs.
Will you please send us your catalogue and full details of your export prices and
terms of payment, together with any samples? We look forward to hearing from you soon.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
60
September 1, 2007
A copy of our illustrated export catalogue will be sent to you today, together with a range
of samples of the various skins used in the manufacture of gloves and shoes. We think the
colours will be just what you want for the fashionable trade, and the beauty and elegance
of our designs, coupled with the superb workmanship, should appeal to the discriminating
buyer.
Our representative, Mr. Sharma, will be in Delhi next week and he will be pleased to call
on you with a full range of samples of our goods. He is authorised to discuss the terms of
an order with you or to negotiate a contract.
61
SANJAY TRADERS
Subhash Road, Meerut.
10 September 2007
Dear Sirs
Subject: Quotation for goods.
Please send us your quotation for the following:
12 doz. Men's wool coats in large and small sizes
12 doz. Women's coats in mixed sizes
12 doz. Pairs of pants
The above are required for part of an indent and should have the quality to compete with
German-made goods. But, as good quality is the essential point, we rely upon you to offer
good value in order to secure future business in this connection. We expect you to offer us
goods regularly, and of the same quality for repeat orders.
The goods would be delivered to our Indore Packers for enclosure. Please put us on your
very best terms as regards discount.
Thanking you
62
Yours truly
18 September 2007
M/S Sanjay Traders
Subhash Road
Meerut
Dear Sirs
Thank you very much for your enquiry and interest in our products. We are pleased to
quote as follows:
12 doz. Men's wool coats in large and small sizes
Rs......................
Rs......................
Rs......................
Less 10% discount and 2.5 % extra for prompt cash payment
You will observe that the above prices are well within your limits, and, we offer you this
line of goods because we are known to be the best in the market. These goods would be
made in a German Finish, and we guarantee that there will be no shrinkage. These would
be easy-to-wear and easy-to-maintain. They could be easily cleaned by washing and
rinsing without causing the messing up of the fabric.
63
We are confident that, in view of the above advantages, combined with the moderate
prices, you will find them the most desirable.
You have not mentioned anything about the colours you desire, but we presume you would
prefer the usual natural shades. When ordering, please state the shade.
We await your esteemed orders, which will receive our most careful attention.
NOTE: The students are advised to use Block Style for writing
Business letters.
2. Placing the Orders and their Execution: Unlike quotations and sales
letters, correspondence concerning placing the orders is largely routine.
there is no correspondence at all; instead, buyers use the printed
Sometimes
printed acknowledgements.
The essential qualities of an order-letter are accuracy and clarity. When sending
an order by letter:
include full details of description, quantity, and prices, and quote catalogue
numbers, if any;
state your requirements as to delivery-place, date, mode of transport and
whether to be sent carriage-paid, or carriage-forward;
confirm the terms of payment agreed during negotiations.
Example 1: (Using Block Style) Placing an order of books.
64
12 October 2007
M/S Vee Kumar Publication (P) Ltd
507, Vikram Tower, Rajendra place
New Delhi
Dear Sir
We thank you for your prompt reply regarding our enquiry for books. Please supply us the
following books and forward the documents through courier.
Sr.No. Title of the book
Author
41. Punctuation
Publisher
No. Of Copies
42. Words
John Seely
-do-
Michael Swan
-do-
10
10
43. Basic English Usage
10
44. Vocabulary
McCarthy
Cambridge
Univ
Press
10
45. English Grammar R. Murphy
-do-
10
We shall appreciate if you acknowledge the acceptance of our order. The payment will be
made through cheque on receipt of the books.
25 October 2007
Dear Sir
We thank you for your order dated 12 October, 2007, and have the pleasure in sending you
herewith our invoice for the books despatched today by rail.
We will appreciate an early remittance of Rs............./- Being the account of the invoice.
This is the first occasion when we have the pleasure to execute an order from you and we
heartily welcome you. We assure you that you will always find our goods satisfactory and
hope this trial order will lead to an enduring relationship with you.
Thanking you
Yours faithfully
66
Complaints: No matter how good our intentions may be, there are
bound to be occasions when it is necessary to deal with a complaint, or
make one. Complaints may be necessary for reasons like wrong goods
received, poor service, bad quality of goods, damaged goods, etc. When
you have a genuine complaint, don't get angry, but keep your calm. Do not
delay and let the supplier know of the complaint.
ABC COMPANY
................City
24 October 2007
M/S ..........................
..................................
......................City
Dear Sirs
On 12 August I ordered 12 copies of Background Music by H. Lowery under my order
number FT567.
On opening the parcel received this morning I found that it contained 12 copies of History
of Music by the same author. I regret that I cannot keep these books as I have an adequate
stock already. I am therefore, returning the books by parcel post for immediate
replacement, as I have several customers waiting for them.
67
I trust you will credit my account with the invoiced value of the returned copies including
reimbursement for the package cost.
Yours faithfully
(ABC)
This mistake is entirely our own and we apologise for the inconvenience it is causing you.
This occurred because of the staff shortage during this unusually busy season and also the
fact that these books have identical bindings.
12 copies of the correct title have been despatched by parcel post today.
Your account will be credited with the invoiced value of the books and the cost of return
postage, too. Our credit note is enclosed.
(XYZ)
68
Dear Madam
Interest -
What would you say to a gift that gave you a warmer and more
comfortable home, free from draughts, and a saving of over 20% in
fuel costs?
Desire -
You can enjoy these advantages, not just this year but every year,
simply by installing our SEALITE panel system of double glazing.
Can you think of a better gift for your entire family? The enclosed
brochure will outline some the benefits which make SEALITE the
most completely satisfactory double-glazing system on the market;
thanks to a number of features not provided by any other system.
69
Win
Remember that the panels are precision-made by experienced confidence craftsmen to fit your own particular windows. Remember too that you
will be dealing with a well established company which owes its
success to the satisfaction given to scores of thousands of customers.
Action -
There is no need for you to make up your mind right now. First why
not let us give you a free demonstration in your own home without any
obligation whatsoever. If you are looking for an investment with an
annual average return of over 20%, then here is your opportunity. If
you post the enclosed card to reach us by the end of this month, we can
complete the installation for you in good time.
(ABC)
12.3 Summary
After studying this lesson the students will be able to write creatively. They
will know how to write essays and deal with business letters.
70
Writing,
71