The job characteristic model (Hackman and Oldham, etc.

) was developed as
a guide to managers about how to enrich jobs redesign. Present your views
about this model or similar job redesign models for the purpose of increasing
employees motivation.

GAYAL KANISHKA WARNAKULA

WAGKD143
MANAGEMENT MAN1100D
WEDNESDAY 8.30am 12.30am: CLASS 2
DUE: 21ST JAN 2015
MR. GAYAN HADINNAPOLA
Word count: 2592
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Contents
1.

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4

2.

What is Employee Motivation? ............................................................................................................. 5

2.1 The concept of Motivation.................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 The importance of motivation ............................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Rewards............................................................................................................................................... 6

3.

Basic Theories of motivation................................................................................................................. 7

3.1 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs ............................................................................................................. 7
3.1.1 Physiological needs ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.2 Safety needs ................................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.3 Belongingness need ..................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.4 Esteem needs ............................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.5 Self- actualization needs .............................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Alderfers Modified Need Hierarchy Model (REG) theory .................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Existence needs............................................................................................................................ 9
3.2.2 Relatedness needs ....................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Growth needs............................................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory .......................................................................................................... 10
3.3.1Hygiene factors ........................................................................................................................... 10
3.3.1 Motivators.................................................................................................................................. 10

4.

Job characteristic model ..................................................................................................................... 11

4.1 Hackman and Oldhams job characteristic model (1976) ................................................................. 11
4.2 The five job characteristics (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) .............................................................. 11
4.2.1 Skill variety ................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2.2Task identity ................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2.3 Task significance......................................................................................................................... 12
4.2.4 Autonomy .................................................................................................................................. 12
4.2.5 Job feedback .............................................................................................................................. 12
4.3 Critical physiological states ............................................................................................................... 12
4.3.1 Experienced meaningfulness of the work .................................................................................. 12
4.3.2 Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work ............................................................... 13
4.3.3 Knowledge of the actual results of work activities .................................................................... 13
4.4 Personal and work outcomes........................................................................................................ 13
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4.5 Moderators ....................................................................................................................................... 13

4.5.1 Knowledge and skill.................................................................................................................... 13
4.5.2 Growth-need strength ............................................................................................................... 13
4.5.3 Context satisfaction ................................................................................................................... 13
4.6 Pros and Cons of Hackman and Oldhams (1976) model.................................................................. 14
5.

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 15

6.

References .......................................................................................................................................... 17

7.

Appendices .......................................................................................................................................... 18

1. Introduction
Every manager in organizations wants to improve their profits and expand their
organizations. To achieve this, organizations need to have motivated staff. The
most important duty of any organization is to motivate their staff in order to
achieve successful businesses. Hence, the concept of motivation plays a major role
inside any organizations.
Managers are not responsible only to handle finance, economics and information
systems of the organizations, they have to know what the employees think where it
is known as psychological aspect of the staff (Rodda, 1997). Motivation can be
taken as one of the main aspects of psychology (Rodda, 1997). Hence it is
managers duty to build up motivated teams to get the best from the human capital.
Managers can use different methods to increase motivation among individuals.
Among the best methods, in this report mainly consider on how the job
characteristic model helps to increase the motivation level of employees. Simply
this report describes the concept of motivation and how it can be increased by the
job characteristic model. According to Mullins (2007), motivation is described as
a driving force of individuals where they try to achieve their goal as to fulfill
their requirements.
The main aim to do this assignment is to explore the use of Job characteristic
model to increase employee motivation. To achieve this aim the following goals
are set.

To define Motivation
To explore the importance of motivated employees to an organization
To explore the basic concepts of motivation
To explore the Job characteristic model and its uses in motivating
employees
To identify both positive and negatives aspect of Job characteristic model.
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I have used library books and recommended journals to conduct my research.

Hence the data collection mainly through the secondary sources including journals
and books. I have used the recent books and some recent journals to get the new
updated information. I have used the knowledge which I gathered through the
lectures of this subject.
2. What is Employee Motivation?
2.1 The concept of Motivation
The main aim of the managers in any organization is to increase their productivity
and to expand their business across regions. To achieve these success mangers
need to motivate their workforce.
A motive means the reason to perform any tasks while motivate describes as to
supply with a motive (Nancy, 2006). Motivation simply describes the intention to
which an employee feels to perform in an organization.
2.2 The importance of motivation
To increase the productivity and profit of the organization: Davidman (1989) has
mentioned managers can increase organizational productivity as well as profit
through effective motivation. He has also mentioned that by creating a working
environment where people can work well makes productive people in return to the
organization.
To get the best use of resources: Human capital is the main resource for
the organization. Human capital can be utilized fully through a proper way
of motivating the staff.
To increase the willingness to work: Some people work just to fulfil their
task. But it is hard to build the willingness to work among them. However,

one could argue that motivation helps to build the willingness among
employees.
To face organizational change successfully: Business environment is so
turbulent where it always keeps changing due to the technological
development. Organizations have to quickly adapt to these changes to carry
out their wok. If the staff members are motivated, it would be easy to accept
the changes in the working environment.
To reduce employee turnover and absenteeism: Recruiting process is an
expense for the organization. Continuously recruiting people is wastage for
the organization. One could argue that motivation is the best way of keep the
staff ling time by reducing the turnover of the organization. As well as,
absenteeism occurs due to many problems including poor working
condition, less recognition among the colleagues and not having enough
rewards. Motivation helps to remove all these problems by creating a happy
place to work.
2.3 Rewards
Rewards are the main driving force of employees. Rewards can be two types.
These are intrinsic/internal rewards or extrinsic/external rewards. Intrinsic rewards
are based on one individual and it does not depend on other workers. Mullins
(2007) has mentioned intrinsic rewards are a reward type which is related to
psychological rewards. Extrinsic rewards are tangible rewards and external to the
person and also offered by a manger. Extrinsic rewards are normally in the form of
finance. The below table simply has given some examples for intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.

Intrinsic rewards

Extrinsic rewards

Personal achievement

Increase salary

Professional growth

Housing and vehicle loans

Personal recognition

Bonuses

Challenging working environment

Company uniforms and lunch

Having meaningful work

Overtime payments

Delegation of work

Scholarships for children

Valuable feedback through performance appraisals

Holiday packages

3. Basic Theories of motivation

Different theorists have emphasized different factors which motivate workers as
below.
3.1 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow is one of the greatest theorists who came up with this theory on
motivation. He described that people are motivated by five main categories of
needs including physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization
(Maslow, 1954). He also mentioned that these need exist in a hierarchical order as
shown in below diagram.
3.1.1 Physiological needs
This includes most basic needs such as air, water and food. When it comes to the
organization, people expect to have adequate heat, base salary and air.
3.1.2 Safety needs
Physically safe, painless, without threats and protection form the danger in the
environment can be come under safety needs. People expect safe job environment
with job security.

3.1.3 Belongingness need

This need reflects to be part of a group, making friendships with others. Workers
expect to have good relationship with their co-workers, participation in group
workers as well as good relationship with the managers.
3.1.4 Esteem needs
This is sometimes called as ego needs (Mullins, 2007). This mainly includes the
recognition, positive self-image and appreciations from other members. In the
organizational perspective, workers need recognition within the company,
appreciation form high-level mangers, high status and credit for their tasks form
the managers.
3.1.5 Self- actualization needs
This is the highest category where the needs of self-fulfillment. People need to
become better people with competencies. Workers expect challenging jobs,
opportunity for creativity and growth.
Note: Graphical representation of this concept can be found in the appendices
figure: 1

3.2 Alderfers Modified Need Hierarchy Model (REG) theory

Alderfer (1972) identified the hierarchy model. Alderfers model only contains
three levels when compares to Maslow hierarchical model. The three levels
including Existence needs, Relatedness needs and Growth needs.
3.2.1 Existence needs
In here it covers mainly the physiological and safety levels of Maslows hierarchy
of needs for including water, basic salary, food, safe and etc.
3.2.2 Relatedness needs
This level is more similar with the belongingness level of Maslows model. Mainly
people expect to have positive relationship with the colleagues.
3.2.3 Growth needs
Both the self-esteem and self-actualization levels are covered from this level.
Maslow (1954) mentioned that there is an order to fulfil these needs while Alderfer
(1972) said there is no any order in fulfilling theses needs.

3.3 Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg (2003) further reduced into two levels of needs which motivate
people named as Hygiene and Motivators.
3.3.1Hygiene factors
Hygiene factors including working conditions, salary, policies of the company
directly causes the job dissatisfaction among people. When the hygiene factors are
negative or poor, workers are dissatisfied. These factors are the lower level
motivators. However the presence of positive hygiene factors doesnt say that
people are motivated and satisfied. These factors simply help to reduce the
dissatisfaction.
3.3.1 Motivators
These factors influence on job satisfaction which is considered as higher level
motivated factors including job recognition, job title, responsibility, challenging
work environment and to name a few.
Herzberg argued that when motivators are not available, the work is neutral within
the workers and when the motivators are available; workers are highly satisfied
and motivated (Herzberg, 2003).
Note: Representation of table with the above three theories can be found in the
appendices figure: 2

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4. Job characteristic model

Researchers have found some strategies to motivate people inside the work. So
many scholars argued that by redesigning work can be helped to motivate workers.
4.1 Hackman and Oldhams job characteristic model (1976)
Hackman and Oldhams job redesigning framework is considered as one of the
best models where people are motivated inside the work environment to work
effectively. Work redesign is also named as job enrichment or job enlargement
(Hackman and Oldham, 1976) where it helps to increase the productivity as well as
better working condition for employees. Job redesign model in return helps to give
positive outcome for both employees as well as for the organization.
Herzbergs two factor theory has taken as the influential theory of satisfaction and
motivation which helped Hackman and Oldham to come up with the idea of job
redesign. As the essence, Herzberg two factor theory describes that the absence of
hygiene factors lead to dissatisfaction of work while the presence of motivators
help to increase the satisfaction and motivation among workers as above we have
discussed.
This model explains the relationship between job characteristics and the individual
work responses (Faturochman, 1997). This model is useful to create not only to
design enjoyable working environment but also to feel the employees as they are
doing a meaningful work (Fred, 2011). The model contains five main job
characteristics as explained below.
4.2 The five job characteristics (Hackman and Oldham, 1976)
4.2.1 Skill variety
Extent to which any job requires varieties of different activities when they perform
their work by combining different talents and skills. For instance administrative
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assistant who is very skillful may have to do tasks which are different as meetings
scheduling, booking airlines, customer meetings, booking hotels and do researches
(Fred, 2011).
4.2.2Task identity
People should recognize the importance of the work and responsible for the work
even though it is a part of the whole work.
4.2.3 Task significance
Degree to which the job has any substantial influence on the other peoples lives.
For example, the people who do research on finding a cure for a disease need to
understand the value importance of the society (Fred, 2011).
4.2.4 Autonomy
Extent to which the job provide substantial independence and freedom for the
employee when scheduling their work. Although employees should work within
the procedures of the organization, they want some freedom to a certain limit.
4.2.5 Job feedback
Degree to which an employee gets their direction and clear information based on
their job performance. Feedback shouldnt be late till the annual performance
appraisals.
4.3 Critical physiological states
Hackman and Oldhams (1976) model described that these five main job
characteristics have significance effect on various critical psychological states.
4.3.1 Experienced meaningfulness of the work
As shown in the figure below, the combination of skill variety, task identity and
task significance lead to a persons experienced meaningfulness of the work.

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4.3.2 Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work

Jobs that provide a better deal of autonomy leads to a persons experienced
responsibility for outcomes of the work.
4.3.3 Knowledge of the actual results of work activities
Finally proper job feedback provides knowledge of the actual results of work
activities of the employee.
4.4 Personal and work outcomes
This model shows work outcomes as the result of psychological states including
motivation of work, growth satisfaction, general job satisfaction, and effectiveness
of work. When workers do their jobs which provides high level of the five main
job characteristic, these workers should feel extremely motivated, highly job
satisfaction, and perform their work effectively.
4.5 Moderators
Hackman and Oldhams (1976) identified that all the individuals are not same in
the organization as everyone doesnt want a job with high level of five main job
characteristics. Hence they have given three attributes (moderators) which
influence on the way how people respond to job redesign.
4.5.1 Knowledge and skill
The employees who are inadequate with the knowledge and skills.
4.5.2 Growth-need strength
The employees who have the ability of self-learning, self-directing.
4.5.3 Context satisfaction
People who are unsatisfied with the hygiene factors including salary and working
condition.

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Figure2: Job characteristics model -Hackman and Oldhams (1976)

4.6 Pros and Cons of Hackman and Oldhams (1976) model

Most of the scholars have found that there is a relationship between five main job
characteristics and job satisfaction (Fred, 2011). As a result of job enriching, it is
found that job redesigning helps to decrease absenteeism and employer turnover
(Fried & Ferris, 1987). Automobile companies such as Volvo used autonomy and
feedback characteristics to improve satisfaction and productivity via job
enrichment (Fred, 2011).
However, Kelly (1990) found that job enrichment model works better in small
firms where less complex. One could argue that, job redesigning is not the always
total way to increase motivation among employees as employees may not perform
well with the additional work and sometimes safety needs and physiologically
needs like better salary may be so important than others. Simply some workers
may be motivated by hygiene factors and some workers may be motivated via
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motivators factors. Even though job characteristic model can be designed

according to the group of individuals level, there is a question that how can a
manager get to know the level of each individuals in the organization and one
could argue that it may take lots of time to implement.
5. Conclusion
This report has discussed the concept of motivation and the theories which
describes motivation by different authors. Then job characteristic model is
describes as a way of motivating workers inside the organization.
One could argue that different people are motivated from different factors. For
instance blue collar workers like maintenance staff and the those who are in the
lower level of the organizational hierarchy mainly motivated through benefits like
a proper salary, staff uniforms, staff lunch, extra bonuses. F. W Taylor who is
considered as the father of management has mentioned that workers are motivated
by paying the highest wages and it is the only way to increase the productivity and
efficiency. He believed economic needs are the main motivator for workers. This is
known as rational economic concept of motivation. Money can be the main
important motivator for bottom line workers (Mullins, 2007).
However, some people want the feeling of being recognized and value their status.
These people are not motivated through the money. These people want challenging
job and opportunities to grow. Hence, for these people, money is not that important
motivator. One could argue that white color workers like people who work in the
upper level of the organization are motivated through the motivator factors of
Herzbergs two-factor theory which explained above.
The concept of job redesigning is influenced by the Herzberg theory. Hackman and
Oldham (1976) has explained the job characteristic model to explain how people
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are motivated inside the work. As some theorists have proved from their findings
that job characteristic model helped to increase productivity (Fried & Ferris, 1987
& Fred, 2011) while some researchers have explained job characteristic model is
best suit for small companies (Kelly, 1990).
In conclusion, job characteristic model is one way of increasing motivation among
people in organizations. Due to the different work of individuals in organization,
managers have to best fit this model based on different job types. This model can
be useful for small firms hence managers can use this model for set of individuals
according to their level. But for a large organization, it may be tough. Hence this
model can increase motivation to a certain extend based on the individuals.

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6. Reference List
Alderfer, C.P. (1972). Existence, relatedness and growth: human needs in
organizational settings.
Davidmann, M. (1989). The will to work: What people struggle to achieve
(2nd ed.)
Faturochman, 1997. The job characteristics theory: A review
Fried, Y., & Ferris, G. R. (1987). The validity of the job characteristics
model
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of
work: Test of a theory, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,
Kelley, M. R. (1990). New process technology, job design, and work
organization: A contingency model. American Sociological Review
Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and Personality.
Mullins, L.J. (2007) Management and Organisational Behaviour. (Essex:
Pearson
Rodda, A (1997), Motivation in the workplace

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7. Appendices

Fig 1: Maslows hierarchy of needs (Mullins, 2007)

Fig 2: Comparison of motivation theories (Mullins, 2007)

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