TYPES OF FLOW

UNINTERRUPTED
Flow occurring at long sections of road where vehicles are not required to
stop by any cause external to the traffic stream.
INTERRUPTED
Flow occurring at intersections or driveways where vehicles are required
to stop by any cause outside the traffic stream such as traffic signs
(STOP or YIELD), traffic signal lights,etc.

MAJOR TRAFFIC VARIABLES

*Uninterrupted flow can be described using any of the following traffic variables:
1. Flow rate or volume
2. Speed
3. Density or concentration

Flow Rate or Volume

-is defined as the number of vehicle passing a point during a specified period of
time. It is often referred to as volume when measured over an hour.

q=

N
T
Again if the observation period T is set to one hour, q is called volume and will
have a unit of vehicles per hour. In general, flow rate have units like vehicles per
minute or vehicles per day.

Speed

-is defined as the rate of motion in distance per unit time. When describing traffic
strea, two types of speed are used: time mean speed and space mean speed.
a) Time mean speed
Also called spot speed, time mean speed is simply the arithmetic
mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point within a given interval of
time. Strictly speaking, distance or length of road must be known in order
to measure speed. However, with the use of speed radar, spot speed can
be measured at a certain point on the road. Also, spot speed can be
reasonably measured if a point is approximated by a short distance say
15-50 m of road. This distance is normally called trap length.

ui=

x
ti

Where:

ui

= speed of vehicle I, in kilometre per hour

ti

= time it takes for vehicle to traverse the trap length

= trap length, in meters

Knowing the individual speeds of n vehicles observed within the time T, the mean
speed or spot speed of the traffic stream is given by
n

ui

ut = i =1
n

b) Space Mean Speed

-is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic stream within a given
section of road. It is the speed based on the average travel time of
vehicles in the stream within the section. It is also called the harmonic
mean speed.
If n vehicles are observed at an instant of time t, the space mean speed is
computed as follows:
n
us = n
u1
i=1 i

Density or Concentration

-is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point
in time. If n vehicles are found within the section L, density k is computed as:
k=

n
L

OTHER TAFFIC VARIABLES

There are other variables used to describe traffic flow. These variables, however,
are simply variants of the three variables described previously.
1. Time Headway
2. Spacing
3. Time Occupancy

Time Headway
-is defined as the time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles at a
specified point on the road with a unit of time per vehicle.
1
ht =
q

Spacing
-is the distance between two vehicles measured from front bumper of vehicle to
that of another. Similar to the estimation of time headway, if there are n vehicles
within a given road section, the sum of (n-1) spacing s, will be almost equal to L.
Average spacing, therefore, may be computed as the inverse of density.
1
s=
k

Time Occupancy
-it can only be measured, however, if a detector is installed at a specific point on
the carriageway. It is defined as the total time a detector is occupied divided by
the total time of observation.

*Assuming that n vehicles were observed during the total time of

observation T, the time occupancy Ot ,is given by
n

ti

Ot= i=1 x 100

T
Where ti is the detection time of the ith vehicle.
Relationship of flow, speed, and density
A relationship exists among the three most important traffic variables: flow rate, space
mean speed, and density. A dimensional analysis of the units will show that flow rate
(veh/hr) is simply the product of density (veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr) , or
q=kxu,
As mentioned earlier , density is the most difficult variable to measure. It can be
obtained indirectly using this relation.

3.3.1 Observed Relations

It is oftentimes useful to determine the relation between any two variables. Surveys at
the South Luzon Expressway were conducted. Scattered plots of the data are shown in
figure 3.5.

Volume-Speed-Density relations for the inner lane of South Luzon Expressway

3.3.2 Empirical Relations

Speed-density relation
Figure 3.5a shows that as density increases, speed decreases. Looking at the scatter
plot, it is easy to visualize that a linear relations may be assumed between the two
variables.(Note that othr highways may exhibit a trend other than linear.) This linear
relation was first investigated by Greenshield (Gerlough and Huber 1975). To describe
this line, the density corresponding to zero speed will be called jam density (k j) and the
speed corresponding to zero density will be called free flow speed (u f). Theoretically ,
density is not zero since at least one vehicle must be present.

us

k
ui=(1 )
k

Type equation here .

The equation of the line that gives the relation between speed and density can be easily
determined by ratio and proportion.
ui = uf(1-k/kj)

Determine the relation between density and speed.

Solution:
A common way of analyzing relation of two variables is through linear regression.
The so-called best fit line represents the data points with the least error. A scatter
diagram of the data points would show that a linear equation may be well suited for the
analysis.

The regression line takes the form

u = a + bk

where
u speed
k density
a, b constants to be determined

The constants a and b are determined using the following formulas. ( The reader
is advised to refer to any statistics books for the derivation of these formulas. See Ang
and Tang 1975.)

b=

k i u in ku
k 2i n k2

a=ub k

The correlation coefficient r is given by:

r=b

sk
su

Where

s 2u=

1
1
(u iu )2s 2k =
(k k )2

n1
n1 i

Are the variances of u and k, respectively.

The two variables will have a very good correlation if the absolute value of r is close to
1.0.
To perform the regression analysis, it is convenient to prepare the table as shown:

Point

Ku

K2

(k-83)2

(u-42.5)2

1
2
3
4
Sum
Mean

b=

75
1
142
100
332
83

45
85
10
30
170
42.5

3375
1275
1420
3000
9070

5625
225
20164
10000
36014

64
4626
3481
289
8458

6.25
1806.25
1056.25
156.25
3025

k i u in ku = 90704 ( 83 )( 42.5 ) =0.5959

2
360144 ( 83 )
k 2i n k 2

a=ub k=42.5(0.5959 ) ( 83 )=91.96

1

( uiu ) = 41 3205=1008.33

1
s=

n1
2
u

s u=31.75
1

( k ik ) = 3 8458=2819.33

1
s=

n1
2
k

s k =53.10
r=b

sk
53.10
=0.5959
=0.9964
su
31.75

This is almost close to -1.0, which means that the correlation between the two variables
is very high.
There negative sign confirms that as density increases, speed decreases.

Example 3.7

Using the results of the previous example, determine the free flow speed and jam
density.

Solution:
The density-speed relation obtained from the previous example is

u = 91.96-0.5959 k

Free flow speed occurs when density k = 0.

uf-0.5959(0) = 93.96 kph

Jam density occurs when speed u = 0.

0 = 91.96 0.5959 kj
Kj = 91.96

or

0.5959 = 154.32 veh/km

Volume-density relation
Substituting equation 3.9 to the general relation (equation 3.8):
q = ku4 = k uj(1-k/kj) = uj(k-k2/kj)

(3.10)

This equation expresses the relation of q and k as parabolic.This can be drawn as

shown:

Due to the symmetry of the figure, it can be said that the maximum flow q max occurs
when the density has a value km equal to half of jam density kj . However , when the
relation cannot be easily identified, it is useful to differentiate the function and equate to
zero to get the value of km corresponding to maximum flow, as follows:

2 km
dq
=u f 1
=0
dk
kj

k m =k j /2

Volume-speed relation
From equation 3.9, it can also shown that
ui
uf

( )

k =k j 1

(3.11)

Substituting this in equation 3.8 gives a parabolic relation between q and u i:

q = ku1 = kj(u1-u3 2/uf)

(3.12)

This relation is illustrated below:

Again, it can be shown that maximum flow qmax occurs at speed um equal to half
of the free flow speed uf.
Therefore, the value of the maximum flow, also called capacity is
q max=k m x um =

k j uf k juf
x =
2 2
4

Going back to the speed density relation, qmax is shown to be the shaded area
of the rectangle.

Example 3.8
In the previous example ,determine the capacity of the rural highway in
one direction.

Solution:
As already shown, the density-speed relation can be moldeled by a straight line.
The formula for qmax can be used to compute for the capacity.
q max=

k j u f 154.32 91.96
x =
x
=3,547.82 vehicle /hr
2 2
2
2

CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway
during a given period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. On the
other hand, level of service (LOS) is a qualitative description of how a certain facility is
performing.Traffic engineers rely on capacity and level of service analysis to determine
the width and number of lanes when planning for new facilities or when expanding
existing facilities that are already experiencing congestion problems.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual (PHPM) developed by the Planning
service of the DPWH provides a methodology to carry out the process of such
analysis.The LOS concept uses qualitative measures that characterize operational
conditions within a traffic stream and perception of these conditions by motorists and
passengers.
Six levels of service are defined for each type of facility and are given letter
designation from A to F, with A representing the best operating conditions and F the
worst. Each level represents a range of operating conditions defined by quantitative
factors known as measures if effectiveness. In the PHPM method, LOS is defined
based on the computed volume and capacity ratio and the space mean speed of the
traffic flow. The volume referred to is the hourly demand volume. This method was
similar to the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) method of 1965. The latest HCM now
considers density as the main variable in determining LOS.
LEVEL OF
SERVICE
A

DESCRIPTION
Free flow, with low volumes and high speeds. Drivers are virtually
unaffected by the presence of others. Little or no restriction in

maneuverability and speed.

B

LEVEL OF
SERVICE
A
B
C
D
E
F

The level of comfort and convenience provided is somewhat less

than at LOS A. Zone of stable flow with operating speeds
beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers
will have reasonable freedom to select their speed but there is a
decline in freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream from LOS
A.
Still in zone of stable flow, but speed and maneuverability are
most closely controlled by higher volumes. Most of the drivers are
restricted in the freedom to select their own speed. The level of
comfort and convenience declines noticeably at this level
Approaches unstable flow. Speed and freedom to maneuver are
severely restricted, and driver experiences a generally poor level
of comfort and convenience. Small increases in traffic flow will
generally cause operational problems.
Flow is unstable, and there may be stoppages of momentary
condition. Represents operating conditions at or near capacity
level. All speeds are reduced to allow but relatively uniform value.
Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely
restricted , and it is generally accomplished by forcing a vehicle to
give way to accommodate such maneuver.
Forced or breakdown flow. The amount of traffic approaching a
point exceeds the amount that can traverse the points. Queues
from behind such locations. Operation within the queue is
characterized by stop-and-go waves, and is extremely unstable. It
is the point at which arrival flow causes the queue to form.

VOLUME-CAPACITY RATIO
Less than 0.20
0.21 0.50
0.51 0.70
0.71 0.85
0.86 1.00
Greater than 1.0
Measure of Effectiveness for Different Types

Type of Facility

Measure of Effectiveness

Basic expressway segments

Weaving areas
Ramp junctions
Multilane highways
Two-lane highways
Signalized intersections

Density (passenger car/km/lane)

Average Travel Speed (km/hr)
Flow Rates (passenger car/hr)
Density (passenger car/km/lane)
Percent Time Delay ( % )
Average Individual Stopped Delay
(sec/veh)
Reserve Capacity (passenger car/hr)
Average Travel Speed (km/hr)

Unsignalized intersections
Arterials

3.5 HYDRODYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC MODELS OF TRAFFIC

Using fluid flow analogy, models that are used to describe traffic flow will be
developed in this section. Consider two points on a one-way road assumed to be
homogeneous:

Let
Ni number of cars passing station i during time interval
qi flow (volume) passing station I during

distance between stations

duration of simultaneous counting at stations 1 and 2.

By definition,
qi =

Ni
t

(3.13)

Suppose N1 > N2 (means traffic is building up).

Let

N =( N 2N 1)

With

Let k :

q=

N
; N = q t
t

increase in density between stations 1 and 2 during period

Then,

k=

( N 2N 1 ) N
=
;( period for building)
x
x

N= k x

(3.15)

Or equating equation 3.14 and equation 3.15:

q t= k x

q k
+
=0 (3.16)
x t

If the medium is considered continuous and finite elements are allowed to

become infinitesimal:
q k
+ =0
x t
This is well known as the continuity equation.

With q = uk

(uk ) k
+ =0
x
t

(3.17)

Recall that u = f(k)

Expanding :

k
k
u
+u
+k
=0 ;
t
x
x

(3.18)

Applying chain rule:

du ' u x u
k
=u =
; =u'
dk
xk x
x

(3.19)

Substituting equation 3.19 in equation 3.18:

'
k
k
+u
+k u x =0;
t
x

k
k
+ ( u +k u' ) =0
t
x

(3.20)

Analogous to fluid flow, the equation of motion expressing the acceleration of

traffic stream at a given place and time is given by

du c 2 k
=
dt
k x

(3.21)

Where c is a constant of proportionality.

If

k
x

is positive, then traffic flow has a tendency to slow down.

On the other hand , if

k
x is negative, the traffic flow tends to faster.

Let us generalize the fluid-flow analogy equation:

du
k
=c 2 k n
dt
x

(3.22)

With speed u = f (x, t) .

du u x u t du
u
=
+
= u+
dt x t t t dx
t

Combining the above with the general equation,

u u 2 n k
u+ +c k
=0
x
t
x
but
u u k ' k
=
=u
x k t
x
k

'
u
k
u+u t +c 2 k n
=0
x
x

Using equation 3.19:

u'

k
k 2 n k
u+u '
c k
=0
x
t
x

Dividing the above equation by u :

k
c2 kn k
+ u+ '
=0
t
u x

(3.23)

This exactly has the same form as equation 3.20. Equating equations 3.20 and
3.23 :

k
c k k k (
k
+ u+ '
= + u+ k u' ) =0
t
x
u x t

c k
u+ ' =( u+k u' )
u

(u' )2 =c 2 k n1 ; u' =

du
=c k (n1)/2
dk

Considering that u and k always have an inverse relationship, the negative sign
is added on the right side of the equation.
du
=ck (n 1)/ 2
dk

(3.24)

We can now consider some specific models, the first of which is the
Greenshields model (n=1).
du
0
=c k =c ; du=cdk
dk
u=ck + a
When k=0 ; u = uf . Therefore a = uf .
u = uf ck

also when u = 0 , k = kj. Therefore

c=

uf
kj

This gives the u-k relationship for Greenshields model :

u=u f (1

k
)
kj

Two more models can be easily identified:

Greenbergs model : n = -1

(3.25)

Parabolic model : n = 0

Table 3.4 summarizes the different macroscopic models depending on the value
of n:

Table 3.4
Macroscopic Models
Element

n-1

n=-1

n=0

n>-1

Constant of
proportionality

uf
kj

um

uf

(n+1)u f
2 k (nj +1)/2

u-k relation

u=u f (1

2k
k
)
kj

1/2
j

k
u=u m (ln j )
k

k 1 /2
1( )
kj
]
u=uf

Optimum
density , kn

kj
2

kj
e

4
k
9 j

Optimum
speed, Un

uj
2

uj
3

3.6

k
u=u f [1
kj

( )

k j(

n+1
2

n+3 2 /(n +1)

)
2

QUEUING THEORY

Queuing at a gasoline station or at the toll gate, falling un line to transact

business at the bank or just to get a movie pass, queuing at a busy parking lot, jet

n+1
)u
n+3 f

planes waiting before being given the signal land or takeoff-these are everyday
occurrences that would surely test ones patience.
Queuing analysis provides was assessing the impacts of these activities by
knowing the magnitude of vehicular delay and the extent of queue propagated. The
models that will discussed in this section are derived based on some assumptions
related to arrival and departure patterns and the prevailing queue discipline. Consider
the system shown in figure 3.7.

Service station
Input

Output

Figure 3.7
Queuing system
The input is normally characterized by some form of arrival pattern usually given
by its arrival distribution. The output generally depends on the queue discipline and the
service mechanism at the service station. The most common type of queue discipline is
the so-called FIFO or first-in first out, i.e., the first one that arrives at the service station
gets served first and therefore the first to leave the system as well. (Another type of
queue discipline, which has limited application to traffic flow, is the so-called LIFO or
last-in first-out. Typical examples of this discipline are the following: the last rider of an
elevator normally gets out first; the last document piled on top gets signed first-not a
recommended practice!) Service mechanism refers to the manner customers are served
at the station. For example, a toll booth that charges a single fee, accepts only a fixed
amount, and does not give back any change will have a fairly uniform service rate
compared to a booth that charges variable toll fees and gives back change up to the last
centavo.
Kendalls notation is popularly used to describe queuing system. It takes the form
A B C (n)
Where
A represents the input or arrival pattern

B represents the service mechanism

C represents number of servers
n represents the limit of the queue or users
Arrivals and departures may either follow a random or deterministic pattern.
Markov (M) is used for random processes while Deterministic (D) is used for processes
that are characterized by regular or constant arrivals or departures. Typical examples of
these processes are:

M M 1()

random arrival and departure (service rate); one or single

server; infinite queue (no limit)

M M N ( ) - random arrival and departure; N or multiple servers; infinite

queue
D D 1(100) - regular arrival; regular service rate or departure; single server;
limit of queue is 100
A combination of Markov and deterministic processes, say M/D/1 may also
be used.
3.6.1 D/D/1 Queuing
Due to the regularity of both arrivals and departures, it is more convenient to
analyse a D/D/1 queuing system graphically. Arrivals and departures are easily
represented by straight lines with the slopes corresponding to their rates.

3.6.2 M/D/1 Queuing

The M/D/I queuing system assumes that the arrival of vehicles follow a negative
exponential distributions, a probability distribution characterized by randomness.
Departure is assumed to be regular as in the D/D/1. The reader is advised to refer to
other books on queuing theory for the derivation of formulas.
Let - arrival rate; and - departure rate.
Then

= / is the traffic density or utilization factor.

<1

Note that if

then

< , which means that the system is stable.

Otherwise, queue becomes longer and longer (unstable condition).

Basic formulas for M/D/1
a. Average length of queue
2

2
m=
2(1)
b. Average waiting time
w=

2 (1 )

c. Average time spent in the system

t =

2
2 (1)

3.6.3 M/M/1 Queuing

The M/N/1 queuing system assumes negative exponential for both arrival and
departure distributions.
Basic formulas for M/M/1:
A. Average length of queue

m=

2
()

B. Average waiting time

w=

( )

C. Average time spent in the syste

t =

1
( )

3.6.4 M/M/N Queuing

When there is more than one server, such as in a toll gate shown in figure 3.9, an
arriving vehicle will be able to proceed to a vacant gate, if available.

Otherwise the driver may have to wait in queue if all gates are full. Again the
arrivals are assumed with a rate of and the service rate per server is . is still
defined as

. However,

is defined as the utilization factor.

For M/M/N , the value of may be greater than 1 but

must be less than 1

for stable condition.

Basic formulas for M/M/N:

a. Average length of queue

N +1

m=

Po
[
N!N

1
N

(3.32)

Where
Pw = N 1

n=0

1
N
N !(1

p
)
N

Is the probability of no units in the system.

(3.33)

b. Average waiting time

w=

+ m
1

(3.34)