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THEODOLITE
THEODOLITE
An optical theodolite, manufactured in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used for
topographic surveying
Transit refers to a specialized type of theodolite developed in the early 19th century. It
featured a telescope that could "flip over" ("transit the scope") to allow easy back-sighting
and doubling of angles for error reduction. Some transit instruments were capable of reading
angles directly to thirty seconds. In the middle of the 20th century, "transit" came to refer to a
simple form of theodolite with less precision, lacking features such as scale magnification
and micrometers. Although precise electronic theodolites have become widespread tools, the
transit still finds use as a lightweight tool on construction sites. Some transits do not measure
vertical angles.
The builder's level is often mistaken for a transit, but it measures neither horizontal
nor vertical angles. It uses a spirit level to set a telescope level to define a line of sight along a
level plane.
Concept of operation:
Both axes of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can be read through
magnifying lenses. (R. Anders helped M. Denham discover this technology in 1864) The
vertical circle which 'transits' about the horizontal axis should read 90° or 100 grad when the
sight axis is horizontal, or 270° (300 grad) when the instrument is in its second position, that
is, "turned over" or "plunged". Half of the difference between the two positions is called the
"index error".
Diagram of an Optical Theodolite
The horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite must be perpendicular, if not then a
"horizontal axis error" exists. This can be tested by aligning the tubular spirit bubble parallel
to a line between two footscrews and setting the bubble central. A horizontal axis error exists
if the bubble runs off central when the tubular spirit bubble is reversed (turned through 180°).
To adjust, remove half the amount the bubble has run off using the adjusting screw, then
relevel, test and refine the adjustment.
The optical axis of the telescope, called the "sight axis", defined by the optical center
of the objective lens and the center of the crosshairs in its focal plane, must also be
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. If not, then a "collimation error" exists.
Index error, horizontal axis error and collimation error are regularly determined by
calibration and are removed by mechanical adjustment. Their existence is taken into account
in the choice of measurement procedure in order to eliminate their effect on the measurement
results.
Operation in surveying:
U.S. National Geodetic Survey technicians observing with a 0.2 arcsecond resolution
Wild T-3 theodolite mounted on an observing stand. Photo was taken during an Arctic field
party (circa 1950).
Modern triangulation as, e.g., practiced by Snellius, is the same procedure executed
by numerical means. Photogrammetric block adjustment of stereo pairs of aerial photographs
is a modern, three-dimensional variant.
In the late 1780s Jesse Ramsden, a Yorkshireman from Halifax, England who had
developed the dividing engine for dividing angular scales accurately to within a second of
arc, was commissioned to build a new instrument for the British Ordnance Survey. The
Ramsden theodolite was used over the next few years to map the whole of southern Britain
by triangulation.
The American transit gained popularity during the 19th century with American
railroad engineers pushing west. The transit replaced the railroad compass, sextant and octant
and was distinguished by having a telescope shorter than the base arms, allowing the
telescope to be vertically rotated past straight down. The transit had the ability to 'flip' over
on its vertical circle and easily show the exact 180 degree sight to the user. This facilitated
the viewing of long straight lines, such as when surveying the American West. Previously the
user rotated the telescope on its horizontal circle to 180 and had to carefully check the angle
when turning 180 degree turns.
Modern theodolites:
In today's theodolites, the reading out of the horizontal and vertical circles is usually
done electronically. The readout is done by a rotary encoder, which can be absolute, e.g.
using Gray codes, or incremental, using equidistant light and dark radial bands. In the latter
case the circles spin rapidly, reducing angle measurement to electronic measurement of time
differences. Additionally, lately CCD sensors have been added to the focal plane of the
telescope allowing both auto-targeting and the automated measurement of residual target
offset. All this is implemented in embedded software.
Also, many modern theodolites, costing up to $10,000 apiece, are equipped with
integrated electro-optical distance measuring devices, generally infrared based, allowing the
measurement in one go of complete three-dimensional vectors — albeit in instrument-defined
polar co-ordinates, which can then be transformed to a pre-existing co-ordinate system in the
area by means of a sufficient number of control points. This technique is called a resection
solution or free station position surveying and is widely used in mapping surveying. The
instruments, "intelligent" theodolites called self-registering tacheometers or "total stations",
perform the necessary operations, saving data into internal registering units, or into external
data storage devices. Typically, ruggedized laptops or PDAs are used as data collectors for
this purpose.
Gyrotheodolites:
A gyrotheodolite will function at the equator and in both the northern and southern
hemispheres. The meridian is undefined at the geographic poles. A gyrotheodolite cannot be
used at the poles where the Earth’s axis is precisely perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the
spinner, indeed it is not normally used within about 15 degrees of the pole because the east-
west component of the Earth’s rotation is insufficient to obtain reliable results. When
available, astronomical star sights are able to give the meridian bearing to better than one
hundred times the accuracy of the gyrotheodolite. Where this extra precision is not required,
the gyrotheodolite is able to produce a result quickly without the need for night observations.
Construction of theodolite:
The theodolite consists of a telescope pivoted around horizontal and vertical axes so
that it can measure both horizontal and vertical angles.
The upper plate PP is bored centrally to receive a parallel or conical pillar which
supports the lower circle of the theodolite or the arm of the level which carries the telescope.
In the theodolite the edge of the piate is beveled and divided into 360 or 400 degrees,
and to half degrees, or to 20 minutes or 10 minutes, according to the size of the instrument.
Though for sketch maps the compass or graphic techniques are acceptable for
measuring angles, only the theodolite can assure the accuracy required in the framework
needed for precise mapping.
To verify the reliability of the Survey of some map, we decided to test the angular
distances between monuments using a theodolite. a tall multi-storied building was selected as
the base of the theodolite readings. The roof offers a good view of all the main monuments.
The theodolite was calibrated and aligned to magnetic north (MN) with a compass
and positioned on the south-east corner of the building. Readings were taken in clockwise
order from MN, starting with site no. 1. The angular difference between a) two monuments
and b) the gross offset from MN was measured and recorded. Due to obstruction by a water
tank of the field of view between angles 240° and 350° along the Western horizon, the
theodolite was repositioned on the NW corner of the building, reset and re-calibrated with the
standard reference and the NS baseline. Due to these adjustments, both theodolite positions
can be taken as one, called TP. Interestingly, no monuments were found in line with magnetic
north or south, such that the north-south is not emphasised. In contrast, the east-west line is
prominently represented in both the terrestrial and celestial schemes. To us, this suggests that
the east-west line is the more important basis of calculation in astronomy.
The laser beam represents and it is almost ideal a direct basic line in space concerning
which it is possible to make measurements at exact installation of equipment, civil work and
so forth.
For last twenty years there was a new quantum leap which can be named the second
revolution in a geodesy. There were the global satellite systems which have cardinally
changed a situation in a geodesy and navigation. They allow at once, without any preliminary
measurements, to define coordinates of any points on a surface of the Earth and to find
distance between them with high accuracy.
Similar systems now two: system GPS developed in the USA (Global Positioning
System - global system of definition of a site) and domestic system GLONASS (GLOBAL
NAVIGATING Satellite System). Both GPS, and GLONASS are constructed, in general, by
the same principle though differ in some details.
The space complex represents system from twenty four satellites placed: in GPS - in six
orbital planes developed through 60 on a longitude; in system GLONASS - in three planes
through 120 at height of the order of 20 thousand kilometers. It allows observing constantly
in any point of globe not less than four satellites of each system. On all satellites there are
standards of frequency with long-term stability of the order 10-12 - 10-13. Satellites radiate
radiowaves on two frequencies (with lengths of waves of the order of 20 centimeters) which
"bear” the complex coded signals.
The ground complex of system defines coordinates of satellites and transfers them
aboard where they are pawned in a signal sent to the Earth, synchronizes satellite "hours" and
verifies them with a ground basic time scale. For this purpose at the central station there is a
hydrogen standard of frequency with stability 10-14 that corresponds to leaving for 0,3
seconds for one million years.
Signals from satellites accept and the equipment in item of measurement processes.
Receivers can work in two modes which have received the name of code and phase
measurements. Code measurements name also absolute as at once define coordinates of item
in geocentrically to system of coordinates. It is done as follows. The radiowaves radiated
from the satellite, are modulated on a phase so-called rangemeter by a code, and the same
code is developed in the receiver. (two codes - "rough", accessible to everything, and "exact"
are stipulated, access to which should be authorized). By comparison of these two code
signals define time of distribution of a signal from the satellite up to the receiver in view of a
difference of indications of their hours concerning basic time. If simultaneously to measure
distances up to four satellites, the system from four equations with four unknown - three
coordinates and a difference in time which decision find required coordinates will turn out.
The mode of code measurements gives "navigating" accuracy - the order of several
tens meters. That it to rise, use two receivers. One establish on item with known coordinates,
define in it differences of the measured and calculated ("reference") sizes and transfer them
on mobile the receiver for correction of measurements. Such way reduces a mistake to size up
to one meter.
To the geodetic purposes apply much more exact mode of phase measurements at
which define not time of distribution of a signal from the satellite up to the receiver, and shift
of a phase of the bearing frequency radiated by the satellite. Carry out them with two carried
receivers and define differences of their coordinates on which it is possible to calculate
distance between receivers to within millimeters. And if one of them to place in a point with
known coordinates that is usual and it is done, it is possible to receive easily and absolute
coordinates of the second receiver at a centrimetric level of accuracy.
The primary goal here, as well as in ground phase range finders, is exact definition of an
integer of lengths of the waves which have "kept within" on a line the satellite - the receiver
or GPS Total Station. This that number about which it was spoken above, but in this case it is
much more and to define of it much more difficultly. As the distance up to the satellite
equally approximately to 20 thousand kilometers, and length of a wave - about 20
centimeters, number of lengths of waves N turns out the order of one million; to measure this
it is necessary absolutely precisely: the mistake on unit will give a deviation on range on 20
centimeters. Some ways of the decision of this problem are now developed, but with it
failures in work of system more often are connected.
By present time in the different countries many types of GPS Total Station differing
by the opportunities are developed. As a matter of fact, the majority of geodetic problems can
be solved at use of two basic measuring means: global satellite system and Total Station.
Theodolite Setup:
Remove the theodolite from its case and loosen the lower clamp so that the leveling
plate and leveling head can be rotated independently of the centers.
If the theodolite is in use for a long period of time it may require re-leveling
periodically due to temperature effects on the tripod and theodolite base.
Theodolites functionality:
The Diagonal Eyepiece is for use in areas where large buildings or obstacles prevent
an ideal working distance between the Theodolite and target object.
With the eyepiece, any target can be measured as long as the distance is at least 4-1/4'
(1.3m) between the instrument and target.
The Solar Filter is used on the Theodolite to prevent glare under bright sunlit
conditions, or when the sun must be sighted to determine position.
The theodolite's 22-power non-inverting telescope has two focusing adjustments; one
for the precision reticule focus and another for focusing the target.
The teak tripod contains a second round spirit level and the height is adjustable to a
maximum height of 5 feet, 9 1/2 inches (177 cm) with a maximum eye height of 5 1/2 feet
(168 cm).
The high-quality optics, the exact and reliable mechanics, well thought over
ergonomics and absolute security from external influences are supplemented in modern
theodolites with the built in microprocessor and laser techniques.
As a result - theodolites gives new consumer qualities of the equipment (GPS total station),
and, as consequence, - theodolites gives essential increase of labour productivity of
geodesists, topographers and builders.