WATER SUPPLY RESOURCES IN MALAYSIA

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses
of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water.

97% of water on the Earth is salt water, and only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over
two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly
found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is
steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as
the world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand. Awareness of the global
importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the
20th century, more than half the world’swetlands have been lost along with their valuable
environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster
than marine or land ecosystems.[3] The framework for allocating water resources to water users
(where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

1
River Basins and Water Resources

Peninsular Malaysia is drained by a dense network of rivers and streams (there are about
150 major river basins), the longest being the Pahang River which follows a course of 434 km
before reaching the South China Sea. It drains a catchment area of 29,000 km 2. Other major
rivers that also drain into the South China Sea are the Kelantan, Terengganu, Dungun, Endau,
and Sedili rivers. Major river basins in the east of Malaysia tend to be larger than those in
peninsula Malaysia. Malaysia's longest river is the Rajang River (563 kilometers) in Sarawak.

Out of an annual rainfall volume of 990 cubic kilometers (km3), 360 km3 (36 percent) are
lost to evapotranspiration. The total surface runoff is 566 km3, and about 64 km3 (7 percent of the
total annual rainfall) contribute to groundwater recharge. However, about 80 percent of the
groundwater flow returns to the rivers and is therefore not considered an additional resource. The
total internal water resources of Malaysia are estimated at 580 km3/year.

Major floods occurred in 1967, 1971, 1973 and 1983. Some 29,000 km 2 are considered as
flood-prone areas, affecting about 2.7 million people. The average annual economic damage
caused by floods was estimated at US$40 million in 1980.

There are three main sources of water:

1. Rain
2. Surface water : Oceans, Rivers and streams , tanks , ponds & lakes
3. ground water : shallow wells, Deep wells , Springs

1. Rain

Rain is the prime source of all water. A part of the rain water sinks into the ground to
form ground water; part of it evaporates back into atmosphere, and some runs off to form
streams and rivers which flow ultimately into the sea.

2
Some of the water in the soil is taken up by the plants and is evaporated in turn by the
leaves. These events are spoken of as "water cycle".

Characteristics of rain water:

Rain water is the purest water in nature. Physically, it is clear, bright and sparkling.
Chemically, it is very soft water containing only traces of dissolved solids (0.0005
percent).

Being soft, it has a corrosive action on lead pipes. Bacteriologically, rain water from
clean districts is free from pathogenic agents.

Impurities of rain water:

Rain water tends to become impure as it passes through the atmosphere. It picks up
suspended impurities from the atmosphere such as dust, soot and microorganisms and
gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and ammonia.

Gaseous sulphur and nitrogen oxides are emitted from power plants that use fossil fuels.
These gases react with atmospheric water, forming dilute solution of sulphuric and nitric
acid. The precipitation of these acids (acid rain) has begun to have serious impacts on
surface water quality and on plants etc..

2. Surface water

Surface water originates from rain water. It is the main source of water supply in many

3
areas. Examples of surface water include rivers, tanks, lakes, man-made reservoirs and
sea water.

Surface water is prone to contamination from human and animal sources. As such it is
never safe for human consumption unless subjected to sanitary protection and
purification before use.

Characteristics of surface water:

Surface water picks up the characteristics of the surface over which it passes. If water
flows across a parking lot, gasoline, oil, and other contaminants may be carried by or
dissolved into the water.

Water may pick up fertilizers, road salts, radioactivity, and biological contaminant from
farms, as well as countless other biological, physical, and chemical pollutants.

Rivers:

Many rivers furnish a dependable supply of water. The chief drawback of river water is
that it is always grossly polluted and is quite unfit for drinking without treatment.

Characteristics of river water:

River water is turbid during rainy season; it may be clear in other seasons. Clarity of
water is no guarantee that the river water is safe for drinking. River water contains
dissolved and suspended impurities of all kinds. The bacterial count, including the human
intestinal organisms may be very high.

4
Impurities of river water:

The impurities of river water are derived from surface washings, sewage and sullage
water, industrial and trade wastes, and drainage from agricultural areas.

Self-purification of river water:

Certain amount of self-purification occur in river water by natural forces of purification

such as dilution, sedimentation, aeration, oxidation, sunlight, plant and animal life ,but
these agencies are not sufficient to render the water potable. River water needs
purification before it can be used for drinking purposes.

Sea water:

Though this source is plentiful, it has great many limitations. It contains 3.5 percent of
salts in solution. Desalting and demineralization process involves heavy expenditure. It
adopted in places where sea water is the only source available.

3. Ground water

Rain water percolating into ground constitutes ground water. Water used by
humans comes mainly from land. It is now realised that there is a limit to ground water in
the world. Ground water is the cheapest and most practical means of providing water to
small communities. Ground water is superior to surface water, because the ground itself
provides an effective filtering medium.

Groundwater is an important source of irrigation water, especially for small-scale

irrigation projects. Because groundwater is only available below ground level, it must be

5
lifted, or pumped before it can be used. Pumping groundwater from wells is a well known
method of utilizing groundwater the world over.

To understand how groundwater functions, think of it as a series of lakes below

the surface of the earth. The earth is built up of different layers - sand, gravel, clay, rock,
etc. The layers of rock or compact clay cannot store water as they are solid, rather than
porous. The layers of coarse sand and gravel, on the other hand, contain many pores and
cracks, which allow rainfall to enter the soil and percolate from the surface. These porous
layers filled with water are called aquifers. Groundwater flows, in most cases, slowly to
the lower parts. Where the aquifer meets the surface, the groundwater flows out of the
soil into, for instance, a river or a spring as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14 - Cross section of groundwater layers

Groundwater may be found close to the surface or at profound depths. In coastal

plains the groundwater is often brackish or saline due to the proximity of the sea. Inland
groundwater may also be brackish in places where the soil contains many soluble salts.
Such water cannot be used for irrigation.

The advantages of ground water are:

i. It is likely to be free frompathogenic agents;

ii. It usually requires no treatment;

6
 iii. The supply is likely to be certaineven during dry season;
iv. It is less subject to contaminationthan surface water.

The disadvantages of ground water are:

i. It is high in mineral content, e.g.,salts of calcium and magnesium which increase

the water hard;

ii. It requires pumping or some arrangement to lift the water. Wells: Traditionally
wells are an important source of water supply. Even today, they are an important
source of water supply in many communities. Technically, wells are of two kinds-
shallow and deep.

i. Shallow wells:

shallow wells tap subsoil water i.e. the water from above the first impervious
layer in the ground. They provide limited quantities of water, and the water is
easy to be polluted unless care is taken in well construction.

ii. Deep wells:

A deep well is one which taps water from the water-bearing stratum below the
first impervious layer in the ground. Deep wells are usually machine-dug and
may be several hundred meters deep. Deep wells furnish the safest water, and
are often the most satisfactory sources of water supply.
Springs:

When ground water comes to the surface and flows freely under natural
pressure, it is called a "spring". Springs may be of two types------shallow
springs and deep springs. Shallow springs dry up quickly during summer

7
 months, whereas deep springs do not show seasonal fluctuations in the flow of
water.

In some geographic areas, springs constitute an important source of water.

Springs are simpler to exploit, as no pumping is needed to bring the water to
the surface. Springs are exposed to contamination. 

4. Under river flow

Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported
downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a
substantial contribution flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the
river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone. For many rivers in large valleys, this
unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often
forms a dynamic interface between surface water and true ground-water receiving water
from the ground water when aquifers are fully charged and contributing water to ground-
water when ground waters are depleted. This is especially significant in karst areas where
pot-holes and underground rivers are common.

5. Desalination

Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is

converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes
are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to
most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is
satisfied by desalination. It is only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as
household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most extensive use is in the Persian
Gulf.

8
 BASIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR COLD WATER SERVICES FOR MULTI-
STOREY BUILDINGS

Design of plumbing systems for multi-storey buildings

For plumbing purposes, the term “multi-storey” is applied to buildings that are too tall to
be supplied throughout by the normal pressure in the public water mains. These buildings have
particular needs in the design of their sanitary drainage and venting systems. Water main supply
pressures of 8–12 metres (25–40 feet) can supply a typical two-storey building, but higher
buildings may need pressure booster systems. In hilly areas, the drinking-water supply pressures
will vary depending on the ground elevation. In these cases, the water authority may have to
specify areas where particular supply pressures can be relied upon for the design and operation
of buildings. Where a building of three or more storeys is proposed a certificate should be
obtained from the drinking-water supply authority guaranteeing that the present and future public
drinking-water supply pressure will be adequate to serve the building. If the public water
pressure is inadequate, suitable means shall be provided within the building to boost the water
pressure.

Systems for boosting water pressure

Pressure-boosting systems can be of several different types:

i. pumping from a ground level or basement gravity tank to a gravity roof tank;
ii. pumping from a gravity storage tank or public water main into a hydro-pneumatic
pressure tank that uses captive air pressure to provide adequate drinking-water supply
pressure;
iii. installation of booster pump sets consisting of multiple staged pumps or variable
speed pumps that draw water directly from a gravity storage tank or the public water

9
 main. Multistage booster pump sets typically include discharge pressure regulating
valves to maintain a constant drinking-water supply pressure.

Written approval should be obtained from the appropriate authority before any pump or
booster is connected to the supply. Where booster pump sets are permitted to draw directly from
public water mains, the public drinking-water supply must be adequate to meet the peak
demands of all buildings in the area. Otherwise, there is a high risk of backflow and subsequent
contamination of the mains from buildings not equipped with a booster pump. Building booster
pumps are not a solution to the problem of inadequate drinking-water supply. Where public
drinking-water supply systems are overburdened and cannot provide adequate pressure on a
continuous basis, water must be stored on site during periods when adequate pressure is available
to fill a gravity storage tank. The size of the storage tank will vary according to the daily water
demand of the building, and the availability of adequate pressure available in the public water
mains. It should not be excessively oversized to avoid stagnation due to inadequate turnover.

Multi-storey buildings can usually be divided into zones of water pressure control. The
lower two to three storeys can generally be supplied directly from the pressure in the public
water main. Upper storeys, usually in groups of five to eight storeys, can be supplied from
pressure-boosted main risers through a pressure reduction valve for each group. Systems can be
up-fed or down-fed. Up-fed systems usually originate from a pressure booster pump set or
hydro-pneumatic tank in the basement of the building. Down-fed systems usually originate from
a rooftop gravity tank. Where a building is divided into water pressure zones, care must be taken
not to cross-connect the piping between two or more zones. This is a particular problem when
domestic hot water is recirculated from a central supply system.

Where hydropneumatic tanks are used for storage, the tank is filled to one third to a half
full by a float level device that controls the drinking-water supply source (a well pump or
pressure booster pump). The pressure is maintained at the desired operating level by an air
compressor. As the building uses water from the tank, the water level and air pressure drop.
When the water level drops to the “on” setting of the float level control, the well pump or booster

10
pump starts and raises the water level in the tank to the “off” level. This restores the pressure in
the tank. If some of the captive air above the water has been absorbed by the water, the air
compressor starts and restores the air charge, raising the system pressure to the normal level.
Hydropneumatic tanks are typically made of steel or fibre glass and must be rated for the system
operating pressure. Steel tanks must have a protective coating of suitable composition for
drinking-water contact on the inside to protect the tank from corrosion and avoid contaminating
the water. They should be checked on a regular basis to ensure that the protective coating is
intact and the water remains potable.

Smaller hydropneumatic tanks can also be used to help control pressure booster pumps,
allowing them to be cycled on and off by a pressure switch. The captive air within the tank keeps
the system pressurized while the pump is off. When the water pressure drops to the “on” pressure
setting, the pump starts and raises the volume and pressure of the water in the tank. No air
compressor is needed where tanks have a flexible diaphragm between the air and the water in the
tank, charged with air at initial start-up. The size of pressure tanks for booster pumps must match
the capacity of the pump and the peak system demand so that the pump “off” cycle is longer than
the “on” cycle and the pump does not cycle too frequently.

Cold water system for a multi-storey building

A cold water distribution system for a multi-storey building has a lower accumulator
provided in the building on a lower floor thereof and an upper accumulator provided on an upper
floor of the building. A water inlet pipe leads from an external mains water supply into the
building and is connected to the lower accumulator through an inlet non-return valve. A riser
leads from the lower accumulator to the upper accumulator and is provided with respective lower
and upper non-return valves adjacent the outlet from the lower accumulator and the inlet to the
upper accumulator. An electrically-driven pump is provided in the riser to pump water to the
upper accumulator and a water distribution pipe is connected to the upper accumulator for
supplying cold water to at least the upper floor of the building.

11
 Background to the invention

This invention relates to a cold water supply system for a multi-storey building, and also to
methods of supplying cold water around such a building.

b) Description of the Prior Art

Traditionally, in many countries it has been the practice when furnishing a building with a cold
water supply system to provide a relatively large capacity tank in the roof space of the building
and to feed cold water to that tank from the mains supply through a pipe fitted with a ball valve
sensing the water level in the tank. The various cold water faucets around the building are
connected by suitable distribution pipes to the tank, except for one faucet nearest the point at

12
which the cold water supply enters the building, which faucet is directly connected to the
incoming mains water pipe and so operates at mains water pressure.

An advantage of the above system is that it is possible to use a relatively small diameter
incoming mains water pipe, along which the flow rate is relatively restricted—and which flow
rate may well be lower than the maximum demand for example from a bath faucet. The pipe
work connecting the tank to the faucets may be of a larger size than that of the incoming mains
water pipe and so, for short periods, high flow rates may be achieved. Also, there is capacity in
the event that the mains supply is interrupted.

A further advantage of the traditional cold water supply system described above is that the hot
water system is also fed with cold water from the same cold water tank and so the water pressure
available at the hot and cold faucets at one basin or bath is essentially the same.

A very significant problem with the traditional system described above is that the tank in the roof
space rarely is serviced or cleaned out. The consequence is that various moulds, or other
bacterial matter may contaminate the water in the tank, leading to a risk of disease. In many
countries, regulations are being introduced for buildings to which the public has access, which
regulations specify frequent emptying and cleansing of the tank, in order to reduce the likelihood
of foreign organisms contaminating the cold water.

In the case of a multi-storey building, the mains water supply pressure may be insufficiently high
to supply the upper storeys of the building. In such a case, it is usual to install a storage tank
(usually referred to as a break tank) at the ground floor level and employ a local electrically-
driven pump set to pump water either to a roof storage tank or directly to the faucets throughout
the building, including on the upper storeys. The pump must be capable of meeting the
instantaneous demand from the faucets in the building and so must have a relatively large
maximum rate of pumping. As a consequence, the pump set arrangement must have a relatively
high electrical power requirement. For example, a pump set for even quite small buildings may
be rated at 5 hp or more.

An alternative cold water supply system, as widely used in Continental Europe, is to connect all
of the cold water faucets in a building directly to the incoming mains supply pipe, and so wholly

13
to obviate the use of a cold water storage tank. The disadvantage of this is that the flow rate
available at any given faucet is limited to the maximum possible flow rate through the incoming
supply pipe. In the event that more than one faucet is turned on, the maximum flow rate is
divided between the opened faucets. As a consequence, the incoming mains water supply pipe
usually must be of a significantly greater diameter to accommodate the maximum likely demand
flow rate, as compared to a system employing a storage tank in the roof space of the building.
This greatly increases the installation cost.

A further problem with a mains pressure supply system is that the hot water system must also
operate at mains water pressure and this means special measures must be taken to accommodate
the expansion of the water in the hot water system as the temperature of the water is raised, and
so to prevent the pressure building excessively in the hot water system. Also, measures must be
taken to prevent water being driven back down the incoming cold water supply pipe.

It will be appreciated that with a mains pressure cold water supply system as described above
when fitted to a multi-storey building, the pressure available at faucets on upper floors will be
less than the pressure available on lower floors. Thus, the pressure available at a bath (which
usually has the highest flow rate demand in a domestic dwelling) may be unacceptably low,
particularly if the bath is installed on the top floor of a building having more than two floors.

Summary of the Invention

The present invention aims at addressing the problems associated with the supply of cold water
to all of the floors of a multi-storey building, when employing a mains water pressure supply
system without the use of a roof space storage tank.

Accordingly, one aspect of this invention, provides a cold water supply system for a multi-storey
building having lower and upper floors and there being an external mains water supply for the
building, which system comprises:

a water inlet pipe leading into the building from said external mains water supply;

a lower accumulator provided in the building on a lower floor thereof;

14
an inlet non-return valve arranged adjacent the lower accumulator and said inlet pipe being
connected to the lower accumulator through said non-return valve;

an upper accumulator provided on an upper floor of the building;

a riser leading from the lower accumulator to the upper accumulator;

a lower non-return valve and an upper non-return valve disposed in said riser respectively
adjacent the outlet from the lower accumulator and adjacent the inlet to the upper accumulator;

a water distribution pipe connected to the upper accumulator for supplying cold water to at least
the upper floor of the building; and

an electrically-driven pump having a water inlet and a water outlet and arranged in the riser to
pump water to the upper accumulator.

According to a second aspect of this invention, there is provided a method of supplying cold
water to a multi-storey building having lower and upper floors, which method comprises:

supplying water through a water inlet pipe leading into the building from a mains water supply
external of the building;

supplying the water from the inlet pipe though an inlet non-return valve to a lower accumulator
provided in the building on a lower floor thereof, the inlet non-return valve being arranged
adjacent the lower accumulator;

pumping water from the lower accumulator with an electrically-operated pump into a riser
leading from the lower accumulator to an upper accumulator provided on an upper floor of the
building, there being respective lower and upper non-return valves disposed in the riser adjacent
the outlet from the lower accumulator and the inlet to the upper accumulator; and

supplying cold water from the upper accumulator to a water distribution pipe to distribute cold
water to at least the upper floor of the building.

15
It is of course known to buffer pressure variations in water supply systems by using an
accumulator. Though there are various designs of accumulator, a common type used in water
supply systems has a pressure vessel with a resilient diaphragm dividing the vessel into two
chambers. An inlet pipe communicates with one chamber and the other chamber is wholly sealed
from both the first chamber and the atmosphere. The supply of water under pressure to said one
chamber deforms the diaphragm and so compresses air in the other chamber. In this way, the
accumulator may accept water or discharge water, dependent upon the relative pressures within
the one chamber and in the pipe connected to that chamber, so smoothing variations in supply
pressure.

Brief Description for the Drawing

In order that the invention may better be understood, one specific embodiment of cold water
supply system arranged in accordance with the present invention will be described in detail in the
following, with reference to the accompanying drawing which shows a typical installation of the
invention in a three-storey building.

Description of the Preferred Embodiments

In its broadest aspects, the present invention contemplates the use of two accumulators in
the cold water supply system, with one accumulator on the lower floor and one accumulator on
the top floor of the building. The accumulators should have a relatively large volume, so as to be
capable of satisfying an expected demand—such as to fill a bath, when augmented by flow up
the riser. Each such accumulator may comprise two or more accumulators in parallel, so as to
obtain a sufficient accumulated volume for the intended installation. In the following, references
will be made solely to single accumulators, but it is to be understood that each such single
accumulator may comprise a plurality of accumulators, effectively in parallel, to obtain the
required capacity.

The pump serves to pump water up the riser to the upper accumulator, such that there will
be a sufficient capacity on the upper floors of the building to meet an expected demand for water,
on the or each floor served by the distribution pipe connected to the upper accumulator. The
selected pump used in the riser may be an in-line booster pump, preferably installed in the

16
vicinity of the lower accumulator and able to deliver static pressure when there is no flow
demand and also able to deliver flow when there is demand from the upper accumulator or from
faucets connected to the upper distribution pipe. By providing such a pump, and ignoring
pressure losses through the pipe work, the non-return valves and so on, it is possible for the
pressure available on the upper floors to be essentially the same as that on the lower floors of the
building.

The non-return valves prevent water flowing back from the upper accumulator to a lower
floor and so ensure that the maximum available flow rate can be achieved on an upper floor,
supplemented by the operation of the pump, even if a faucet has been opened on a lower floor.

Though the invention could be used with a building having only two floors, it is
anticipated that this would be done only when the incoming water mains has a very low pressure.
Normally, the invention would be used with a building having three or more floors. In the case of
a building having several floors, it would be possible to install a further accumulator on one or
more intermediate floors, for supplying water to that intermediate floor and perhaps some
intervening floors as well. Further, in the case of high-rise buildings, one or more additional
pumps may be provided in the riser, in the vicinity of the or each further accumulator. If further
pumps are installed as aforesaid along with associated accumulators, then non-return valves
should be fitted into the riser to prevent back-flow from the pump, to floors below the pump.

The operating characteristics of the pump should be selected dependent upon the
particular circumstances of the intended installation. Account must be taken of matters such as
the maximum flow rate and available pressure at the incoming mains supply, the capacity of the
accumulators of the cold water system, the number of floors which are to be served by the
system, and the expected average demand which is likely to be placed on the system by the
floors supplied with water from the upper accumulator.

Taking the foregoing into account, for a small block of faucets having three floors, a
typical pump may have a maximum volumetric throughput of the order of 50 to 100 liters per
minute, under low head conditions. An alternative way of looking at the capacity of the pump
might be by considering the capacity of the accumulators. In this case, the volumetric throughput

17
per minute might be in the range of 10% to 50% of the capacity of the lower accumulator, for a
situation where the pump is required to operate with only a small head.

Further, the pump must be capable of generating a static pressure, with essentially no, or
only very small, flow rates. Typically, under such conditions the pump may be capable of
generating a static pressure of the order of 2 to 3 bar. Then, the total pressure available at the
outlet from the pump, and so at the bottom of the riser, would be equal to the achievable static
pressure of the pump plus the pressure of the incoming mains, but less the losses in the system.
At the point at which there is no flow to the upper accumulator, a pressure will be achieved at the
upper accumulator equal to that at the bottom of the riser less the head of water thereabove.

In an attempt significantly to reduce the electrical power demand of the system when
used to supply cold water to a multi-storey building, particularly as compared to a system
employing a break tank and pump set, it is envisaged that solar power may be employed to
supply electricity to the pump. Current designs of solar panels can produce electricity even in
relatively dull conditions and so the pump may operate essentially continuously during the hours
of daylight. Further, by positioning the solar panel so as to be capable of collecting light from an
artificially lit area, the panel may still produce enough electricity to drive the pumps during the
hours of darkness. For example, a multi-storey building to which the cold water distribution
system of this invention might be fitted may have a car park associated with it, which park is
artificially lit throughout the hours of darkness. By appropriate positioning of the solar collector
panel, 24 hour operation of the pump may be achieved.

The embodiment of cold water supply system shown in the drawing will now be
described in detail. This system is intended for a multi-storey building, for example arranged as a
three-storey block of apartments, with two separate apartments on each of the ground floor 10 ,
an intermediate floor 10 A and on the top floor 11 . Each apartment has a bathroom, kitchen and
shower, which must be supplied with cold water. The standing mains water supply pressure may
typically be approximately 2 to 3 bar.

The water flows are shown in the drawing by arrows alongside the various pipes, as will
be discussed below. Water enters the building at ground floor level through an incoming mains

18
water supply pipe 12 fitted with a stop-cock 13 and downstream of which are two non-return
valves 14 , arranged in series, to prevent water flow from the building back into the supply
pipe 12 . The incoming supply pipe typically would be of at least 22 mm diameter, but probably
greater for a building of this kind.

The downstream side of the non-return valves 14 connect to a drain cock 15 and also to

an accumulator 16 , typically having a capacity of 500 liters. Though only a single accumulator
is shown, this accumulator may consist of a plurality of similar accumulators, all connected to
the downstream side of the non-return valves 14 , effectively in parallel.

The accumulator 16 comprises a pressure vessel with an internal elastomeric impervious

diaphragm 17 dividing the interior of the vessel into two chambers. The upper chamber is sealed
from the external atmosphere, and the lower chamber is connected to pipe 18. Water supplied
under pressure to the lower chamber will compress the air in the upper chamber by deformation
of the diaphragm 17, until the air pressure in the upper chamber is equal to the water pressure in
the lower chamber, ignoring the force needed to deform the diaphragm.

The pipe 18 from the accumulator 16 also connects to two further non-return valves 19,

again arranged in series and the outlet side of which connects to an electrically-driven pump 21.
The pressure side of the pump connects through pipe 22 to a riser 23 extending to the top
floor 11 of the building. At the foot of the riser, there is provided a further drain cock 24.

At the top floor, two further non-return valves 26 are provided in series in the riser and
downstream of those valves there is provided an upper accumulator 27. This accumulator is of
the same design and capacity as that of the lower accumulator 16. Again, the upper accumulator
may comprise a plurality of similar accumulators effectively in parallel and all connected to the
downstream side of the non-return valves 26. From here, a cold water distribution pipe 28 serves
to supply cold water to faucets on the top floor of the building but also to the intermediate floor,
as appropriate.

As will be appreciated and ignoring pressure losses through the non-return valves, the
available pressure at the top floor 11 during no-flow conditions will be equal to the incoming
water pressure plus the static pressure of the pump 21 less the head of water above the pump.

19
Thus, despite the height of the upper accumulator 27 above the ground floor 10 , the pressure at
the upper accumulator should still be sufficient to supply water to faucets on the top floor as well
as on the intermediate floor. During periods of demand, that will be met by outflow from the
upper accumulator supplemented by flow up the riser, delivered by the throughput of the
pump 21 . In this way, adequate flow rates for the top floor 11 may be achieved. Rapid
recharging of the accumulator 27 will be achieved after the demand ceases, until there is a
uniform pressure throughout the system, differing from the ground floor 10 to the top floor 11 by
virtue of the head of water above the ground floor.

Though not shown in the drawings, a suitable power supply for the pump 21 must be
provided. For the installation described above, the pump typically may have a 500 W electric
motor, which of course is very significantly less than the motor which is required to drive a
pump set of a break tank system as described hereinbefore.

The pump may be driven by mains electricity, or by a low-voltage supply, powered by

the mains electricity. Another possibility is to have a low-voltage pump supplied with power
from a solar panel collecting light. In this case, as mentioned hereinbefore, the solar panel may
be disposed so as to collect sunlight during the daytime, and to collect artificial light from, for
example, floodlighting, during the hours of darkness. In this way, 24 hour operation of the pump
may be achieved, without drawing any electrical power from the mains supply.

20
 PRINCIPLES OF WATER STORAGE TANK FOR MULTI-STOREY
BUILDINGS; THE SIZE AND MATERIAL OF PIPES USED FOR COLD
WATER SERVICE IN HIGH BUILDINGS

Principles of water tank

1. Water storage vessels

Separate water storage vessels are an integral part of many dual supply systems. This section
deals with requirements for the storage of water supplied from the water main or other drinking-
water sources. In the design of these systems, it is important to ensure that the required air gap is
established between the drinking- water supply inlet and the overflow spill level of the fixture.
Water storage tanks are appropriate for use in the following circumstances:

 sanitary flushing
 supply of drinking-water
 firefighting
 air-conditioning
 refrigeration
 ablutions
 prevention of cross-connections
 make-up water
 contingency reserve.

Requirements relating to installation and protection of water storage tanks:

i. Tanks must be installed on bases, platforms or supports designed to bear the weight
of the tank when it is filled to maximum capacity, without undue distortion taking
place.
ii. Metal tanks (and other tanks when similarly specified) should be installed with a
membrane of non-corrosive insulating material between the support and the underside
of the tank.

21
 iii. Tanks must be supported in such a manner that no load is transmitted to any of the
attached pipes.
iv. Tanks must be accessible for inspection, repairs, maintenance and replacement.
v. Tanks must be provided with a cover, designed to prevent the entry of dust, roof
water, surface water, groundwater, birds, animals or insects.
vi. Insulation from heat and cold should also be provided.
vii. Tanks storing potable water should not be located directly beneath any sanitary
plumbing or any other pipes conveying non-potable water.

Requirements relating to access to water storage tanks:

i. Adequate headroom and side access must be provided to enable inspection, cleaning and
maintenance of the interior and exterior of the tank.
ii. Where the interior depth of any storage tank exceeds 2 metres, access ladders of standard
design should be installed and entry safety codes complied with.

Requirements relating to materials used in water storage tanks:

i. The internal surfaces of tanks should be coated with a protective coating approved for
drinking-water contact applied in accordance with the manu- facturer’s instructions if the
tank is to supply drinking-water.
ii. Storage cylinders should be made of non-corrosive material.
iii. Tanks, pipes, heating coils and related fittings should all be of a similar metal to prevent
electrolysis, which is more likely to cause corrosion in hot water systems than in cold.
iv. If steel is used for the tank and piping, it should always be heavily galvanized.

2. Elevated Water Tanks 

Elevated Water Tanks also known as water towers, create a pressure at the ground-level tank
outlet of 1 psi per 2.31 feet of elevation, thus a tank elevated to 70 feet creates about 30 psi of
discharge pressure. 30 psi is sufficient for most domestic and industrial requirements.
(Background legs shown)

22
Water tank application parameters include the general design of the tank, its materials of
construction, as well as the following.

i. Location of the water tank (indoors, outdoors, above ground or underground) volume of
water tank will need to hold what the water will be used for the temperature of area
where water will be stored, concern for freezing.

ii. Pressure requirements

iii. How is the water to be delivered into and extracted, pumped out of the water tank

iv. Wind and Earthquake design considerations allow water tanks to survive seismic and
high wind events.

Material of pipes used for cold water service in high buildings

1. CPVC

Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) pipe is an ideal material for high-rise use
because of its cost-effectiveness and ease of installation. From a long-term maintenance and
reliability standpoint, CPVC pipe is also ideally suited for high-rise use because it will never
corrode, pit or scale. In addition, CPVC pipe is available in copper tube size (CTS) from 1/2" to
2" and in iron pipe size (IPS) from 2-1/2" to 16" in diameter.

CPVC pipe is also certified by NSF International and meets ANSI standards for use with
potable water. It can be used with all water pH levels. Additionally, CPVC pipe and fittings meet
all applicable ASTM standards and building codes. Coppertube-size CPVC is manufactured with
an SDR 11 (Standard Dimension Ratio) wall thickness. SDR 11 means that there is a constant
ratio of 11 between the wall thickness and outside diameter of the pipe. This constant ratio
results in a pressure rating of 100 psi at 180[degrees]F (400 psi at 73[degrees]F). The larger pipe
sizes are manufactured in Schedule 40 and 80 dimensions. The pressure rating of these pipes
varies, depending on the diameter and water temperature.

23
 2. Copper

Copper comes in three grades, M for thin wall pipe used mainly inside
homes, L for thicker wall pipe, used mainly outside for water services and
K, the thickest, used mainly between water mains and the water meter.
Copper lasts a long time, is durable and connects well to valves.

Copper should not be installed if the water has a PH of 6.5 or less.   The
majority of public utilities supply water at a PH between 7.2 and 8.0 .   Many of the utilities that
have source water with a PH below 6.5 are treating the water to raise the PH.  Private well water
systems often have a PH below 6.5.   When this it the case, installing a treatment system to make
the water less acidic becomes a good idea.

3. PEX

PEX is an acronym for cross-linked polyethylene. The "PE"

refers to the raw material used to make PEX (Polyethylene), and
the "X" refers to the cross-linking of the polyethylene across its
molecular chains. The molecular chains are linked into a three-
dimensional network that makes PEX remarkably durable
within a wide range of temperatures, pressures and chemicals.

 Flexible, installed with fewer fittings than rigid

plumbing systems. A good choice for re-piping and for
new homes. Works well for corrosive water conditions.  
 It can stretch to accommodate the expansion of freezing water and then return to its
original size when water thaws. Although it is highly freeze-resistant, no material is
freeze-break proof.

24
 4. Galvanized Steel

Galvanized pipe corrodes easily. It have only 40 years of use/lifespan. The main problem with
the pipe is that water will be severely restricted by corrosion that eventually fills the pipe
completely. Another problem is the mismatch of metals between the brass valves and the steel.
Whenever steel pipe meets copper or brass, you will see rapid corrosion of the steel pipe.
Dielectric unions can be used between copper and steel pipes, however some of these unions will
close off flow in a short time. In the City of Bellevue, they prefer using a 6" brass nipple between
copper and steel pipes.

5. Kitec

Kitec is a multipurpose pressure pipe that uniquely unites the advantages of both metal and
plastic. Made of an aluminum tube laminated to interior and exterior layers of plastic, Kitec
provides a composite piping system for a wide range of applications, often beyond the scope of
metal or plastic alone. And unlike copper and steel materials, Kitec is non-corroding, and resists
most acids, salt solutions, alkalis, fats and oils. 

6. PVC

PVC is a white plastic pipe used outside. It can be used only for cold water. It's uses include:
water services, between the meter and building, and for irrigation.

7. Poly

Poly pipe is a soft plastic pipe that comes in coils, used for cold water. It is used on water
services. It can crack with age or wear through from rocks. Other weak points can be the
stainless steel clamps or galvanized couplings.

25
 Size Of Water Pipes

The proper diameter of pipes which are to supply hot or cold water, depends upon several
considerations:

 The number and size of faucets that are likely to be discharging water at the same time.

 The pressure or head of the water.

 The length of the pipe.

If the pipe is crooked, making numerous bends or angles, due allowance must be made for
the resistance arising there from.

A pipe of small bore, having great length, is likely to be noisy, if the pressure is great,
being subject to singing noises and water hammer. This defect may be avoided by using a pipe of
larger diameter, thus reducing the velocity of the moving water.

Horizontal pipes may be reduced in diameter as various branches are taken off. This is
done only to economize in the cost of pipe, etc. An example of such reduction is shown in Figure
1. In this the nearly horizontal distributing pipe is reduced from 1 inch to 1/2 inch as the
branches are taken from it.

Figure 1

Suppose that the distributing main should enter at the opposite end so that the
pantry sink branch would be taken off first, then it would only be reduced one size, that is, from

26
1 inch to £ inch, because its extreme end must equal that of the sink branch. It is well to have the
distributing mains a little too large rather than too small; the annoyance of one faucet robbing
another will then be avoided.

Vertical pipes, which descend from a tank, may be

reduced in a similar manner, as shown in Figure 2. The tendency
of the water flowing from the tank A is, of course, to fall to the
bottom of the vertical line of pipe, and flow out of the lower
branch. Although the vertical line is decreased in size as it
descends, it still follows that there is a greater pressure upon the
lower branches than upon the higher, and to compensate for this
difference in pressure, the sizes of the branches upon the different
floors should be decreased as they descend. Thus, in the figure
the top branch is 1 inch and the lowest 1/2 inch. By this system
of distribution a nearly uniform supply of water can be given to
each floor in a high building.

Pipes which rise from a service pipe in the basement and

ascend to the upper stories, usually should not be reduced in
diameter, until the last branch is reached. This is because the
pressure grows less as the height increases, and to secure a
satisfactory flow on the upper floors, the pipes must be large in
diameter. Even if the head is so great that there is plenty of force
on the upper floors, if the pipes be reduced in diameter, they will
be liable to annoyance from the action of the faucets in the lower
stories. If a faucet in the basement be opened, for example, the
flow from a faucet on the top floor, which happens to be open at
the same time, will be checked or even stopped.

Figure 2

27
 The size of the corporation cock which may be attached to a street main is usually
determined by the water department. The diameter of the service pipe should not be governed by
the size of the corporation cock, however, but should be determined solely by the requirements
of the building. If the quantity of water required is very large, the water authorities will, upon
due presentation of the facts, usually allow a larger connection to be made to the water mains.

The following sizes of branches are commonly used in buildings where the pipes are not
of great length. If the pressure is less than 20 pounds per square inch, the system may be rated as
low pressure, and if above 20 pounds as high pressure:

Table 1

Supply Branches. Low Pressure. High Pressure.

To bath cocks............ 3/4 to l inch 1/2 to 3/4 inch

To Basin cocks....... l/2 inch 3/8 to 1/2 inch

To W. C. flush tank.... 1/2 inch l/2 inch

To W. C. flush valve.... ltol 1/4 inches 3/4 to l inch

To Sitz or foot baths.... 1/2 to 3/4 inch 1/2 inch

To Kitchen sinks...... 5/8 to 3/4 inch 1/2 to 5/8 inch

To Pantry sinks....... 1/2 inch 3/8 to 1/2 inch

To Slop sinks............. 5/8 to 3/4 inch 1/2 to 5/8 inch

To Urinals....... 5/8 to 3/4 inch 1/2 to 5/8 inch

28
FITTING EQUIPMENTS USED IN COLD WATER SERVICES FOR MULTI-STOREY
BUILDINGS

Fitting Equipments

Fittings are used in pipe and plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections, to
adapt to different sizes or shapes, and to regulate fluid flow, for example. Fittings, especially
non-common types, can be expensive, and require time, materials, and tools to install, so they are
a non-trivial part of piping and plumbing systems. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually
discussed separately.

1. Elbow Fitting

A pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe or tube allowing a change of direction,
usually 90° or 45°. The ends may be machined for butt welding, threaded (usually female), or
socketed, etc. When the two ends differ in size, it is called a reducing or reducer elbow. Elbow
fitting which is manufactured using high quality of raw material procured from reliable
vendors. Advanced machinery is used in the manufacturing of these elbow fitting which
includes basic oxygen furnaces, vacuum degassing units and continuous casting units. The butt
welding fitting is ISO 9001 certified. The production is according to the standard of

 GB /ASTM / ASME / DIN / JIS ASTM B 16.9 / B 16.28

 JIS B 2311/2312/2313
 DIN2605/2615/2616/2617

It is of following types:

 Elbows-seamless and welded

 LR & SR, 1D/1.5D 45
 1D/1.5D 90
 1D/1.5D 180

29
Picture of Elbow Fittings:

45° elbow 90° elbow

2. Tee Fitting

A tee is used to either combine or split a fluid flow. Most common are tees with the same
inlet and outlet sizes, but 'reducing' tees are available as well. Tee-fittings are also an integral
part of the computer-enthusiast level watercooling solutions found in many modern enthusiast
PCs. The fitting is one of the three main components of a T-Line, alongside an end-cap or
fillport and a length of tubing. They are plumbed into the system, with the perpendicular barb
(and its attached stretch of tubing leading to a fillport or a cap). Tee fitting which is
manufactured using high quality of raw material. It is procured from reliable vendors. This Tee
fitting is extensively used in the petroleum, oil & gas industry, laboratories, shipping, food and
many other industries. Our Tee fitting is offered in various shapes and sizes and is in
accordance of requisite norms and standards. The gamut is in accordance to the standard of:

 GB /ASTM / ASME / DIN / JIS ASTM B 16.9 / B 16.28,

 JIS B 2311/2312/2313
 DIN2605/2615/2616/2617

It is of following types:

 Elbows-seamless and welded

 LR & SR, 1D/1.5D 45
 1D/1.5D 90
 1D/1.5D180

30
Identified by their characteristic T shape, Tee fittings are amongst the most commonly used
industrial fittings. To serve different industries, these fittings are also manufactured in three
piece that is they can also be flareless type bite fittings.

These are flareless fittings that consists of a main body, a one-piece precision machined ferrule
and a nut. On assembly, the ferrule "bites" into the outer surface of the tube with sufficient
strength to hold the tube against pressure. Apart from this function, the ferrule also forms a
pressure seal against the fitting body.

The fitting design and performance capabilities are made to meet the strict requirements of
industrial standards. Some of the industries in which these fittings find their applications:

 Machine tools
 Chemical
 Oil refineries
 Paper making
 Thermoplastics processing
 Air and lube lines
 Pilot lines, panel boards

Picture of Tee Fittings:

31
 i. Reducing Tee
Reducing Tee Fittings are employed to reduce delivery lines of for
e.g. 3/8" to 1/4" to feed ice makers and other applications requiring a
reducing tee fitting. They are available in various specifications and
measures. Some of them are as follows:

 Reducing Tee, 3/4" x 3/4" x 1/2"

 Reducing Tee, 1" x 1" x 1/2"
 Reducing Tee, 1-1/2" x 1-1/2" x 3/4"
 Reducing Tee, 1/2" x 1/2" x 1/8"
 Reducing Tee, 2" x 2" x 1"
 Reducing Tee, 2" x 2" x 1-1/2"
 Reducing Tee, 2" x 2" x 3/4"
 Reducing Tee, 3" x 3" x 2"

Working temperatures and pressure conditions :

 Burst Pressure: It can bear up to 20 degrees in case of copper and plastic pipes.
 High Temperatures: It can withstand up to 114 degrees for intermittently short periods.

ii. Equal Tee

An equal Tee is called so because it resembles the alphabet '

T ' featuring facilities where two horizontal and one vertical
pipes can be attached.

A tee is highly suitable in intricate plumping systems

confined in restricted areas. It is available in a horde of sizes
and specifications. Some of them are as follows:

32
 SIZE WALL THK. C/F LENGTH
(NB) (mm./in.) (mm./in.) (mm./in.)
2.77 28.40 56.80
1/2"
0.109" 1.120" 2.240"
2.87 33.27 66.54
3/4"
0.113" 1.310" 2.620"
3.38 38.10 76.20
1"
0.133" 1.500" 3.000"
3.56 44.45 88.90
1.1/4"
0.140" 1.750" 3.500"
3.68 49.27 98.55
1.1/2"
0.145" 1.940" 3.880"
3.91 57.15 114.30
2"
0.154" 2.250" 114.30
5.156 68.58 137.16
2.1/2"
0.203" 2.700" 5.400"
5.486 78.23 156.46
3"
0.216" 3.080" 6.160"
6.020 96.27 192.53
4"
0.237" 3.790" 7.500"

3. Nipple Fitting
Short stub of pipe, usually threaded iron, brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)or
copper; occasionally just bare copper. A nipple is defined as being a short stub of pipe
which has two male ends. Nipple are commonly used for plumbing and hoses, and second
as valves for funnels and pipes. Nipple fitting which are widely used in the petroleum, oil &
gas industry, laboratories, shipping, food and many other industries. High quality of raw
material is used in these nipple fitting which includes stainless steel. It is highly durable and
has low maintenance cost. It consists of following products:

 TBE Threaded both end

 PBE Plain both end
 BLE/TSE Beveled large end-Threaded small end
 TLE/PSE Threaded large end small end

4. Bend Fitting

33
Bend fitting which is manufactured using high quality of the raw material which is procured
from reliable vendors. The bend fitting can be customized as per specific requirement of client.
Made from high quality mild steel, these bend fitting are appreciated for durability as well as
toughness. Our bend fitting has following specifications: Fittings Standard:

 GB /ASTM / ASME / DIN / JIS ASTM B 16.9 / B 16.28, JIS B 2311/2312/2313

 DIN2605/2615/2616/2617
 ANSI B16.9/ B 16.28, ASTM A234 WPB
 JIS 2311&2312/2313 SGP
 DIN 2605 DIN 2615. DIN2616. DIN26

Picture of Bend Fitting

5. Valve Fitting

Valve fitting which are made from high quality of the raw material which includes carbon steel,
stainless steel, alloy steel, iron, bronze and brass. Our valve fitting comes in the sizes of 2¡± to
48¡± and can be customized according to client specifications and detail.

It is in accordance of following standards:

 ANSI
 API
 ASTM
 ASME
 DIN
 JIS
 ISO

It comes in following types:

34
 Check Valves
 Gate Valves
 Globe Valves
 flanged
 Ball Valves
 Butterfly Valves

Picture of Valves Fittings

i. Pipe Flange

Pipe flange which are manufactured using high quality of the machines which
comprises of basic oxygen furnaces, vacuum degassing units and continuous casting
units. The range of pipe flange we offer comes in desired size and thickness that are
fabricated from carbon steel, stainless steel and alloy steel. Our range of pipe flange is
very popular in the industrial fittings sectors for its reliability and sturdiness.

A Pipe Flange can be defined as an external or internal rib, or rim, for strength (as
the flange of an iron beam) or for a guide (as the flange of a train wheel) or for
attachment to another object (as the flange on the end of a pipe, steam cylinder, etc). It
allows two pipes to be mechanically connected together, or a pipe to be mechanically
connected to a valve, tee, choke or other piece of equipment. Hence, it is a connection
profile that is used in pipe work and associated equipment to provide a means of
assembling and disassembling components.

The design and specification of a flange relates to the size and pressure capacity
of the equipment to which it is fitted. All flanges are sized according to their nominal
bore size. For the majority of pipe sizes, this designation does not represent either their
actual outside diameter or inside diameter.

Working of a Pipe Flange :

35
 The basic principle of working is to use a mechanical force (exerted by the bolts) to
pre-load the gasket so that when internal pressure (end cap force) is applied, there is
enough contact stress between the flanges and gasket to maintain a seal. The flange itself
needs to be connected to the pipe. This is usually achieved by welding, though threaded
and other weldless connections also exist.

These pipe flange are in accordance of following standards:

 API
 ANSI
 DIN
 BS
 JIS

Picture of Pipe Flange

ii. Ball Valves

Ball valves are widely used industrial fittings, for a wide range of fluid applications
in process, power and instrumentation. The valves are quarter-turn, straight through flow
valves having a round closure element with complementing rounded seats, permitting
uniform sealing stress. The type of seat can vary according to the valve pressure rating
and materials of construction.

These are wide duty valves, enabling transfer of gases, liquids and liquids with
suspended solids (slurries). Common ball valve are available in materials including brass,
bronze, copper, cast iron, ductile iron, stainless and other steel types, metal alloys and
plastics including PVC and CPVC. In contrast to other types of valves, ball valves
provide superior ease of operation and can maintain and
regulate high volume, high pressure and high temperature

36
 flow and often offer rugged construction providing for a long service life, and a
comparably low cost. These specialty valves are available in a variety of configurations
for positive leak tight shut-off and control and are used for both manual as well as remote
valve actuation.

Picture of Ball Valves

iii. Gate valve

37
 A gate valve, also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a round or
rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve is the
sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar, so gate valves are often used when a
straight-line flow of fluid and minimum restriction is desired. The gate faces can form a wedge
shape or they can be parallel. Typical gate valves should never be used for regulating flow,
unless they are specifically designed for that purpose. On opening the gate valve, the flow path is
enlarged in a highly nonlinear manner with respect to percent of opening. This means that flow
rate does not change evenly with stem travel. Also, a partially open gate disk tends to vibrate
from the fluid flow. Most of the flow change occurs near shutoff with a relatively high fluid
velocity causing disk and seat wear and eventual leakage if used to regulate flow. Typical gate
valves are designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully open, the typical gate valve has no
obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction loss.

Gate valves are characterised as having either a rising or a non rising stem. Rising stems
provide a visual indication of valve position because the stem is attached to the gate such that the
gate and stem rise and lower together as the valve is operated. Non rising stem valves may have
a pointer threaded onto the upper end of the stem to indicate valve position, since the gate travels
up or down the stem on the threads without raising or lowering the stem. Non rising stems are
used underground or where vertical space is limited.

Bonnets provide leak proof closure for the valve body. Gate valves may have a screw-in,
union, or bolted bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal.
Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection and cleaning. It also gives
the body added strength. Bolted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher pressure applications.

Another type of bonnet construction in a gate valve is pressure seal bonnet. This
construction is adopted for valves for high pressure service, typically in excess of 15 MPa (2250
psi). The unique feature about the pressure seal bonnet is that the body - bonnet joints seals
improves as the internal pressure in the valve increases, compared to other constructions where
the increase in internal pressure tends to create leaks in the body-bonnet joint.

38
 Gate valves may have flanged ends which are drilled according to pipeline compatible
flange dimensional standards. Gate valves are typically constructed from cast iron, ductile iron,
cast carbon steel, gun metal, stainless steel, alloy steels, and forged steels.

Cryogenic 254 SMO

Stainless steel gate
Inconel gate valve gate valve
valve
Stainless steel gate valve casting

Nuts and bolts for

incoloy valves
Cryogenic super duplex 22mm gate valve on Gate valves are prone
gate valve frozen up domestic hot water to corrosion. Here the
during operation pipe. shaft has broken.

Gate valve being

installed on new water An electric multi-
service to fire hydrant. turn actuator on a
The valve material is gate valve
cast iron.

39
 Picture of Structure Gate Valves

1. Handwheel
The spoked handwheel is fabricated from steel pipe. The hub is coupled with the yoke
sleeve by means of a tongue.

2. Yoke Sleeve
The yoke sleeve is made from cast aluminium bronze having high resistance to wear and
a high melting point. It is designed to permit removal from the bonnet or the yoke whilst
the valve is in service. Gate valves 6" class 600 and above are fitted ball thrust bearings.

3. Gland and Flange

They are in forged steel and are supplied in two pieces, self aligning design to permit the
gland to descend parallel to the stem even if the eyebolts are unevenly tightened.

4. Gland Bolt and Nut

The forged steel gland bolts are of the eyebolt type which can be swung outward for ease
of gland repacking. They are fixed to the bonnet by hinge pins.

5. Bonnet Bolting

40
 Bonnet studs and nuts are manufactured from alloy steel to the relevant ASTM standard.

6. Body
The body is in cast steel and is carefully designed in all its details. The basic dimension,
i.e. wall thickness, face to face and flanges comply with the relevant API and ANSI
standards. The body-to-bonnet flange is circular, expect in the Class 150 which is oval.
The body-to-bonnet joint are flat face on Class 150 valves, male-and-female on Class 300
and ring joint on Class 400 and above. The body is threaded for renewable seats. Bosses
are provided for drain taps or by-pass piping.

7. Bonnet
The bonnet is in cast steel. It is machined to accept yoke sleeve and incorporates a
stuffing box dimensioned in accordance with the API standard.

8. Bonnet Bushing
The bonnet bushing or backseats is in forged stainless and forms part of the trim. Special
attention is given to its machining.

9. Stem
The stem is in forged stainless steel and is part of the trim. The stem is provided with a
T head. A ground backseat is provided to ensure a perfectly tight seal to the stuffing box
when the valve is fully open. The stem is ground to minimize friction and prevent damage
to gland packing. The threading is trapezoidal ACME type. Dimensions comply with the
API 600 standard.

10. Seat Ring

The rings are in forged stainless and are part of the trim. They are completely threaded
outsider and notched on their inner surface to ease nstalling and dismantling. Special
attention is given to the sealing surface which are ground and lapped for a perfectly seal.
Welded-in-seat rings may be supplied upon request.

11. Wedge

41
 The wedge is part of the trim. It is forged stainless steel for diameters up to 12" and is in
cast steel for larger valves. It is normally supplied as the solid wedge type. It is connected
to the stem by means of a T joint. The guides on each side of the wedge are machined.
Special attention is given to the seating surfaces which are ground and lapped.

6. Stop Valves

42
7. Bib Tap

8. Flushing Cistern

43
9. Flush Valve

44
Reference

45
1. http://docs.google.com/viewer?
a=v&q=cache:BBo52OF52KkJ:www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/plumbing
14.pdf+principles+of+water+storage+tank+for+multi-
storey+buildings&hl=en&gl=my&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShJWsqEWX30LSA81KOtma
Z1sk0tHx3O949eW4R6-JE9YklsUSCZpkaD_PO0hXz1LW-RR6-
_xAMWEop0N1m7fXHlyhj0dKfAJTcF729h1qiE8CYEBslQkOMh7pGs-
hxTluFJdt5g&sig=AHIEtbQsFUVXksKRHYYvVD0bwkZeMJBtdQ
2. http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Plumbing
3. http://www.fao.org/docrep/u5835e/u5835e03.htm#TopOfPage
4. http://www.pipetubefittings.com/valves/ball-valves.html
5. http://www.centurysteeltube.com/seamless-fitting.html
6. http://www.pipetubefittings.com/connectors/reducing-tee.html
7. http://www.pipetubefittings.com/connectors/equal-tee.html
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piping_and_plumbing_fittings
9. http://www.orionvalves.com/gateAr_re.htm
10. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ab776e/ab776e02.htm#TopOfPage
11. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_Malaysia
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources
13. http://www.wwf.org.my/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater_main/
14. http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Building-Construction-V4/Size-Of-Water-
Pipes.html
15. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/plumbing14.pdf

46
 Appendix A

Water profile of Malaysia

Published: June 8, 2007, 2:58 pm

Edited: June 8, 2007, 2:58 pm
Lead Author:
Topics:  Water
Content Source: FAO
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Jim Kundell

Geography and Population

Malaysia] is situated in southeast Asia. It consists of two regions: peninsular Malaysia in the west lying
between Thailand and Singapore, and the states of Sabah and Sarawak located in the east on the island of Borneo.
The two regionsare separated by the South China Sea. The total land area of the country is 328,550
square kilometers (km2). Malaysia is a federal country, divided
into 13 states plus the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur
and Labuan Island.

In peninsular Malaysia, a mountainous spine known as

Banjaran Titiwangsa separates the east of the peninsula from
the west. About 61 percent of the peninsula is below
100 meters (m) above sea level and the land is generally
suitable for cultivation. The interior of Sabah is criss-crossed
by a series ofmountain ranges and hills, the most prominent of
which is the Crocker range with the highest point at Gunung
Kinabalu (4,101 m). Sarawak is generally mountainous with
the highest range forming the border with Indonesia.

Map of Malaysia (Source: FAO)

In 1996, the total cultivable area was 14.17 million hectares (ha), or 43 percent of the total land area. About
5,095,818 ha, or 36 percent of the cultivable area, were cultivated. Permanent crops represented 91 percent of this
cultivated area, while the remaining 9 percent (445,700 ha) was under annual crops, mainly paddy.
Theagriculture sector is divided into large-scale plantations concentrating on three crops (rubber, oil palm, and
cocoa), and smallholders who constitute the majority of the farming population.

47
In 1996, the population of Malaysia was estimated at 20.58 million inhabitants (45.5 percent rural).
The population is concentrated along the west coast of peninsular Malaysia and in the capital city, Kuala Lumpur.
The average population density in Malaysia is 63 inhabitants/km 2. The Malaysian population grew at an average
annual rate of 2.8 percent in the 1980s, but the rate has since slowed to the current 2.3 percent.

The total active population is estimated at 8,321,000 inhabitants, of whom 22 percent are engaged in agriculture.
The contribution of agriculture to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined from 18.7 percent in 1990 to 13.6
percent in 1995. In the same year, the agriculture sector contributed 19.1 percent of export earnings. Palm oil,
rubber, and saw logs account for more than 58 percent of total agricultural exports.

Climate and Water Resources

Climate

Malaysia lies entirely in the equatorial zone. The climate is governed by the regime of the northeast and
southwest monsoons. The northeast monsoon blows from October to March, and is responsible for the heavy  rains
which hit the east coast of the peninsula and frequently cause widespread floods. It also causes the wettest season in
Sabah and Sarawak. The southwest monsoon period occurs between May and September, and is a drier period for
the whole country. The period between these two monsoons is marked by heavyrainfall.

The average temperature throughout the year is very stable (26°C), and the mean annual rainfall is
3,000 millimeters (mm). Regional variations in temperature and rainfall are mainly due to relief, e.g. the Cameron
Highlands have a mean temperature of 18°C and an annual rainfall of over 2,500 mm, compared to Kuala Lumpur's
27°C and 2,400 mm. In general, Sabah and Sarawak experience more rainfall (3,000-4,000 mm) than the  peninsula.
The humidity is high (80 percent) due to the high evaporation rate.

River Basins and Water Resources

Peninsular Malaysia is drained by a dense network of rivers and streams (there are about 150 major river basins), the
longest being the Pahang River which follows a course of 434 km before reaching the South China Sea. It drains a
catchment area of 29,000 km2. Other major rivers that also drain into the South China Sea are the Kelantan,
Terengganu, Dungun, Endau, and Sedili rivers. Major river basins in the east of Malaysia tend to be larger than
those in peninsula Malaysia. Malaysia's longest river is the Rajang River (563 kilometers) in Sarawak.

Out of an annual rainfall volume of 990 cubic kilometers (km3), 360 km3 (36 percent) are lost to evapotranspiration.
The total surface runoffis 566 km3, and about 64 km3 (7 percent of the total annual rainfall) contribute to
groundwater recharge. However, about 80 percent of thegroundwater flow returns to the rivers and is therefore not
considered an additional resource. The total internal water resources of Malaysia are estimated at 580 km 3/year.

48
Major floods occurred in 1967, 1971, 1973 and 1983. Some 29,000 km 2 are considered as flood-prone areas,
affecting about 2.7 million people. The average annual economic damage caused by floods was estimated at US$40
million in 1980.

Lakes and Dams

On the west coast of peninsular Malaysia, the low gradient has resulted in large extensions of tidal flats and swamps.
One of the swamp lakes is Lake Tasek Bera in Pahang State, with an area of 61.5 km2.

Malaysia has a total of 56 dams, of which 32 are more than 15 m high.

The gross theoretical hydropower potential of peninsular Malaysia is
123,000 gigawatt hours per year (GWh/year), and that of Sabah and
Sarawak together is 107,000 GWh/year. In 1995, the total hydropower
generation was about 5,800 GWh, or 30 percent of all power production
in Malaysia.

Figure 1. Water use by source (Source:FAO)

Water Withdrawal

The annual internal renewable water resources are estimated at 630 km 3. As surface water is readily available
throughout the year, it is abstracted mainly for irrigation and
domestic uses. The groundwater potential is limited to some
pockets of the coastal region and is generally exploited by rural
people to supplement their piped water supply. Surface water
represents 97 percent of the total water use,
while groundwater represents 3 percent (Figure 1). About 60-65
percent of groundwater utilization is for domestic and/or
municipal purposes, 5 percent for irrigation and 30-35 percent
for industry (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Groundwater utilization by sector (Source: FAO)

In 1995, the total production of drinking water from treatment plants was 3.95 km 3, while the quantity supplied to
domestic and industrial sectors was only 2.98 km 3 (Figure 3). About 32 percent of the water produced is lost in the
distribution system due to several factors such as pipe leakage, under-metering, and other unaccounted water losses.

49
 Water supply is undertaken by government agencies and privatized water
companies. The coverage for water supply is 99 percent for urban areas and
77 percent in the rural areas.

The total water demand increased from 8.7 km3 in 1980 to 12.7

km3 in 1995, and is projected to increase to 15.2 km 3 by
2000. Irrigation currently accounts for about 9.7 km 3 or about 76
percent of the total water consumption. However, irrigation
demand is expected to taper off as no further expansion in irrigated
paddy cultivation is envisaged.

Figure 3. Water withdrawal (Source: FAO)

Irrigation and Drainage Development

In Malaysia, the potential irrigable area accounts for about 413,700 ha. Irrigation development dates back to the end
of the eighteenth century. The Kerian irrigation schemes were the first large schemes to be constructed, in 1892.
Since the formation of the Department of Irrigation and
Drainage in 1932, irrigated areas for paddy cultivation have
progressively increased. By 1960, about 200,000 ha had been
developed, the emphasis then being on supplementing rainfall
for single crop cultivation.
Figure 4. Evolution of irrigated area (Source: FAO)

During the 1960s and early 1970s, the introduction of double cropping of rice cultivation required the development
of adequate water resources for the second cropping season. During the 1980s, the priority for irrigation took on a
new dimension with the need to rationalize rice cultivation and increase its productivity (Figure 4). The Government
developed a policy to concentrate efforts in irrigation development in eight large irrigated areas, designated as
granary areas of the country and totalling 210,500 ha. They are the irrigated areas of Kada, Seberang Muda Perai,
Trans Perak, Northwest Selangor, Kerian-Sungai Manik, Besut, and Kemasin-Semarak.

Malaysia has over 932 irrigation schemes covering an area of 340,633 ha,
comprising 8 granary schemes (210,500 ha), 74 mini-granary schemes
(29,500 ha), and 850 non-granary schemes (100,633 ha) (Figure 5). The non-
granary schemes are scattered all over the country and their size varies
between 50 and 200 ha. In addition, there are 21,967 ha which are

50
inundation and controldrainage schemes (1994 estimates). The total irrigation areas was estimated at 362,600 ha in
1994. Figure 5. Irrigation schemes (Source: FAO)

Irrigation is predominately for paddy cultivation and to a minor extent for vegetables and cash crops. Paddy
cultivation is mostly carried out by individual farmers working on small plots of about 1-1.5 ha. Irrigation facilities
for double cropping are mainly focused on the eight main granary schemes and the 74 mini-granary schemes, with
an average cropping intensity of 150 percent. The current irrigationefficiency is around 35-45 percent with a
water productivity index for rice of about 0.2 kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). The average yield for irrigated rice
was 4 tons per hectare (t/ha) in 1995.

In the major irrigation schemes, flooding irrigation is practised on paddy fields, and the water depth is controlled
individually by the farmers. Major irrigation schemes are designed with proper farm roads to cater for farm
mechanization especially for plowing and harvesting. Most of the irrigation schemes are provided with
separate drainage facilities. The issues of salinity, waterlogging, and water-bornediseases are not reported as being
significant.

Farmers pay nominal irrigation charges which vary from US$3 to $15/ha/year. It is estimated that fees collected
from farmers cover only 10-12 percent of the actual operational cost. The Government does not seek full cost
recovery because the farming community is considered a low income group. A total of US$917 million have been
spent on irrigation development by the Government since 1970.

The long-term objectives of irrigation development are:

 to provide infrastructure for 74 secondary granary areas in order to raise the cropping intensity from 120 to
170 percent by 2010;
 to provide infrastructure for the main granary areas in order to raise the cropping intensity from 160 to 180
percent by 2010;
 to convert 120 small paddy schemes to other crops by 2010;
 to develop 20 small reservoirs, 100 groundwater tube-wells, and 4 dams by 2010 in order to provide
reliable irrigation by introducing new technologies and modern management to increase crop production.

In 1994, the total drained areas was 940,633 ha. About 600,000 ha were drained for oil palm cultivation, using
public funding for smallholders.

Institutional Environment

The responsibility for water resources planning and development is shared by various government

agencies. Malaysia has no single water resources authority for an overall coordinated planning and
integrated river management approach.

51
The Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), under the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for the planning,
implementing and operation of irrigation, drainage, and flood control projects throughout the country.

The Department of Agriculture (DOA) is responsible for providing advice and extension services to the farmers.

In the water supply sector, the Public Works Department (PWD), under the Ministry of Public Works, is responsible
for the planning, implementation and operation of urban water supply projects. However, in line with the
Government's privatization policy, many water supply projects have already been taken over by water supply
companies or privatized.

The Ministry of Health (MOH) provides untreated but drinkable water to rural communities not served by the local
water authorities. The MOH also monitors water quality at water treatment plant intakes as well as the quality of
water within the distribution system for compliance with national drinking water standards.

The control of water pollution is the responsibility of the Department of Environment (DOE), which is empowered
to enforce compliance with effluent standards for point sources of pollution. The Ministry of Housing and Local
Government is responsible for compliance with regulations and standards on sewerage works which have been
privatized to a national sewerage company.

Although either directly or indirectly much legislation touches on water resources, most of the existing laws are
considered outdated. The Water Act of 1920 is inadequate for dealing with the current complex issues related
to water abstraction, pollution, and river basin 

52