Pali First-Year All
Pali First-Year All
Recommended Reading:
Pāli canonical literature consists of the three piṭakas for word piṭaka means „a basket containing manuscripts.“
Tipiṭaka consists of three piṭakas – the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma.
Vinaya Piṭaka:
1. Pārājika Pāli
2. Pācittiya Pāli
3. Mahāvagga Pāli
4. Cūlavagga Pāli
5. Parivāra Pāli
Sutta Piṭaka:
There are five nikāyas in Sutta Piṭaka:
1. Dīgha nikāya
2. Majjhima nikāya
3. Saṁyutta nikāya
4. Aṁguttara nikāya
5. Khuddaka nikāya
Abhidhamma Piṭaka:
1. Dhammasanganī Pakarana
2. Vibhaṁga Pakarana
3. Dhatukathā Pakarana
4. Puggalapaññatti Pakarana
5. Yamaka Pakarana
6. Pathāna Pakarana
7. Kathāvatthu Pakarana
THREE PIṬAKAS (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
The Blessed One expected the disciplines his order would be succeeded to develop their lives
using Dhamma and Vinaya. Bhikkhus also followed that way, which was described by the Buddha.
There was not any problem during the āst year period after the Buddha’s Enlightenment in the order.
The Buddhist Order was an interesting and calmed at the light age of the Buddha as monks
developed their lives well as they tried to make complete to others. the Buddha also had uttered in
various occasions about his disciples with happy mind. We are provided true information of early
Buddhist disciples by the Thera and Therī Gāthās.
In the 20th year after the Enlightenment of the Buddha there was some problem in the order.
the Buddha’s disciples who entered in the lives of Brahmacariya (monk) voluntarily were being tried
to understand the truth of the world and also they succeeded to reach their final goals. They had gone to
various religious leaders who were in India contemporary to the Buddha. Therefore, they did not want
to do any offense against the order and Bhikkhu-hood. They knew what are the suitable and unsuitable
things for a monk and they also do not want to perish (destroy) through the Buddha’s Dhamma or
advices.
Although, there were not rules of disciplines (sikkhāpada) we can see the early Buddhist
disciples had followed the same Sikkhāpada. They are not sikkhāpada but they are some kinds of
manners. Those are being denoted through sutta (discourse) by the Buddha; we can see those events in
the Citta Khanthaka. According to commentator it was through Bhikkhu Sudina, a nephew of Kalanda
near the village of Vesāli, who committed major offense of having sexual intercourse with his ex-wife.
That is the first Parājika being come to be promulgated. It was laid down to deter Bhikkhus of
indulging in sexual intercourse and also this was not the first time happen an offense amongst the
monks but those are not being such major offense. Therefore, the Buddha did not lay down any rules
of disciplines at those times. He had blamed to the offenders not to do that offense again.
Once Arahant Sāriputta requested the Buddha to promulgate the rules for those disciples but
the Buddha’s answer was that “It is not the time to promulgate the Vinaya.” Arahant Sāriputta saw
the situation of the order and he wanted to protect the Saṅgha Order but the Buddha did not want to
bind the disciples in the order. But after the first pārājika the Buddha understood that “It is the time to
lay down the rules of disciples (vinaya)”.
Although, the commentator uttered like that, in some suttas supplied the facts what were the
else reasons, which were caused to promulgate the Vinaya. According to Bāddāliya Sutta; it denotes
five items or reasons as causes of corruption in monastic order. Those are:
At the beginning there were only few disciples in the order but it has been increased in
numerically, »Bahunnaṃ vasanaṭṭhāne apāsukaṃ bhavatā.« All they entered to the Order to gain
Arahantship and some of them was learned person.
Regarding to this, there were some people who entered to the Order not because of getting Arhantship
but for the presents. They tried to argue with each other about the Buddha and his teachings. When the
order became famous, numbers of people came to visit the order with various gifts. Some monks
entered to the order in order to gain those gifts. The Blessed One could not control them at the certain
time the Order has been spread all over the India; some monks have seen the Buddha and some were
not. They then behaved in monastic order as how they wanted with their previous habits. Therefore, the
Buddha had to lay down the rules of disciplines involving the whole Order. the Buddha declared that
he lays down Sikkhāpadas to serve the following needs,
The Tipiṭaka is an extensive body of canonical Pāli, in which are enshrined the teachings of the Buddha
expounded during forty five years from the time from his enlightenment up to his Parinibbāna. The discourses of the
Buddha cover a wide field of subjects and are made up of exhortations. Expositions and injunctions. The Pāli canon is
divided into three divisions called piṭakas, literally meaning 'baskets'. They are:
1. Suttanta Piṭaka (the discourses)
2. Vinaya Piṭaka (the discipline)
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka (the ultimate doctrine)
Hence Tipiṭaka means three baskets or three separate divisions of the Buddha's teaching. The Vinaya Piṭaka
mainly deals with the rules and regulations of the order of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunīs). It describes in detail the
gradual development of the life and ministry of the Buddha.
Vinaya Piṭaka consists of the following books:
1. Pārājika Pāḷi (major offences)
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi (minor offences)
3. Mahāvagga Pāḷi (greater section)
4. Cullavagga Pāḷi (smaller section)
5. Parivāra Pāḷi (epitome of the Vinaya)
The Suttanta Piṭaka consists of discourses delivered by the Buddha himself on various occasions. This Piṭaka is
divided into five nikāyas:
1. Dīgha Nikāya (collection of long discourses)
2. Majjhima Nikāya (collection of middle-length discourses)
3. Saṁyutta Nikāya (collection of kindred sayings, discourses)
4. Aṁguttara Nikāya (collection of discourses arranged in accordance with number)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (collection of smaller discourses)
Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a deep thinking or the most important and interesting, as it contains the profound
philosophy of Buddha's teaching in contrast to the illuminating but simple discourses in the Suttanta Piṭaka. In the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka everything is nalayzed and explained in detail, and as such it is called analytical doctrine
(vibhajjavāda). Four ultimate things (paramatha) are explained in the Abhidhamma. They are called:
1. Citta (consciousness or mind) 3. Rūpa (matter)
2. Cetasika (mental concomitants) 4. Nibbāna (the supreme bliss)
666WHAT IS TRIPITAKA?
The Tripitaka is an extensive body of canonical Pali in which are enshrined the teachings of the
Buddha expounded for forty five years from the time of his enlightenment to his Parinibbana. The
discourses of the Buddha cover a wide field of subjects and are made up of exhortations. Expositions
and injunctions. The Pali canon is divided into three divisions called Pitaka literally baskets.They are
Vinaya pitaka{the discipline} the suttanta{the discourses} and Abhidhamma pitaka{ultimate
doctrine}.Hence Tipitaka means three baskets or three separate divisions of the Buddha’s teaching.The
Vinayapitaka mainly deals with the rules and regulations of the order of monks{Bhikkhus} and
nuns{Bhikkhunis}.It describes in detail the gradual development of the life and ministry of the Buddha.
This pitaka consist of the following books.1 Parajika pali{major offences}2 Pacittaya pali{minor
offences}3 Mahavagga pali{greater section}4 Culavagga pali{smaller section}5 Parivara pali{Epitome
of the Vinaya}. The Suttanta pitaka consists of discourses delivered by the himself on various
occasions. This Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas.1 Digha Nikaya{collection of long discourses}2
Majjhima Nikaya{collection of middle length discourses}3 Samyutta Nikaya{collection of kindred
sayings discourses}4 Anguttara Nikaya{collection of discourses arranged in accordance with number}5
Kuddhaka Nikaya{smaller collection discourses}.
The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books-1-Khiddaka patha{shorter texts}2-Dhammapada{the way of
truth}3-Udana heartfelt saying or poems of joy}4-Itivuttaka{thus said Discourses }5-Sutta
Nipata{collected discourses}6-Vimanavatthu{stories of celestial Mansions}7-Peta vatthu{stories of the
Petas}8-Theragatha{psalms of the brothers}9-Therigatha{psalms of the sisters}10-
Jataka{birthstories}11Niddesa{expositions}12Patisambhida{analytical knowledge}13-Apadana{lives
of saints}14-Buddhavamsa{the history of Buddha}15-Cariya pitaka{modes of conduct}.
In the DighaNilkaya there are three Vaggas, SilakhandhaVagga{division concerning
morality},mahaVagga{the large division}and PathikaVagga{Discourse of a miscellaneous nature}
and{34}-Suttas in the MajjhimaNikaya,there are three Palis,Mulapannasa Pali,Majjhima PannasaPali
and Uparipannasa Pali and 15-Vaggas and{152}Suttas. Samyuttanikaya has 7762suttas and five
Vaggas, SagathaVagga, NidanaVagga, KhandhaVagga, SalayatanaVagga and MahaVagga.
AnguttaraNikaya has9557 Suttas 11-Pali from Ekaka Nipata Pali.
Khuddaka Nikaya has 18-Pali Khuddakapatha pali, the Dhamma pada Pali, Udana Pali etc.the
Abhidhamma Pitaka is a deep think or the most important and interesting, as it contains the profound
philosophy of Buddha teaching in contrast to the illuminating but simpler discourses in the Suttanta
pitaka. In the Abhidhamma Pitaka, every thing is analyzed and explained in detail, and as such it is
called analytical doctrine{Vibhijjavada}four ultimate things{Paramattha}are called in the
Abhidhamma.they are1-Citta consciousness,2Cetasika mental concomitants,3 Rupa matter, and 4-
Nibhana supreme bliss.
The AbhidhammaPitaka consists of the following words DhammaSanghani{enumeration of
phenomena}2-Vibhanga{the books of the treaties}3-KathaVathu{point of controversy}4-Puggala
pannatti{description of individuls}5-
dhatukatha{discussion with reference to Elements}6-Yamaka{the book of pairs}7-patthana{the book
of relations}..
408
The Theravada pali canon consists of three sections, namely Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma
Pitakas, known as the ‘Three Baskets’ or ‘Tipitaka’.Generally the origin of the pali canon is traced to
the first council held three months of the Buddha’s demise.
According to the Cullavagga, the first council was held to collect the Buddha’s teachings, and thus
the Vinaya and sutta Pitaka were settled. In Cullavagga, Mahavajsa and Dipavajsa, neither of these
texts directly stated that Abhidhamma was taken to the discussed at the 1st Council. Thus Abhidhamma
Pitaka is considerably younger that both Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas.
1. Vinaya Pitaka
The Vinaya Pitaka is made up of rules of discipline laid down for regulating the conduct of the
Buddha’s disciples who have been admitted as Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis into the Order. These rules
embody authoritative injunctions of the Buddha on modes of conduct and restraints on both physical
and verbal actions. They deal with transgressions of discipline, and with various categories of restraints
and admonitions in accordance with the nature of the offence.
The Vinaya Pitaka is made up of five books:
1. Parajika
2. Pacittiya
3. Mahavagga
4. Culavagga
5. parivara
Parajika is the first book of the Vinaya Pitaka. It has consists of 4 offences, namely , parajika,
savghadisesa, aniyata and nissaggiya. The nucleus of the Vinaya pitaka is the Patimokkha, it consists of
227 rules for monks and 311 rules for nuns.
2. Sutta Pitaka
Sutta Pitaka is a collection of all the discourses in their entirely delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions (some by the disciples). It is divided into five separate collections known as nikayas,
the name and their number of suttas are as follows:
1. Digha Nikaya 34 suttas
2. Majjhima Nikaya 152 suttas
3. Sajyutta Nikaya 7762 suttas
4. Avguttara Nikaya 9557 suttas
5. Khuddaka Nikaya 15 texts
Digha Nikaya
Digha Nikaya is the first book of the Sutta Pitaka and is a collection of long discourses. It is
made up of 34 suttas in three divisions:
(1) Silakkhanda-vagga (division concerning morality) – 13 suttas
(2) Maha-vagga (the large division) – 10 suttas
(3) Pathika-vagga (the division beginning with the discourse on Pathika, the naked ascetic) – 11
suttas
According to the commentary, Digha Nikaya has the characteristic of promoting firmly faith,
because it has its historical value. From it we get an account of sports and pastimes, geographical
position of countries, effects of the life of the recluse in ancient days. It discusses social, political,
philosophical, cultural and religious history of ancient India at the time of the Buddha.
2. Majjhima Nikaya
The Majjhima Nikaya is mentioned as the second book of the Sutta Pitaka. It is called the
‘middle collection’ or ‘the collection of discourses of medium length’. It is made up of 152 suttas in
three books known as pannasa (fifty), namely, Mulapannasa, Majjhimapannasa and Uparipannasa
which divided into 15 vaggas, each consists of 5 vaggas, i.e.:
Mulapariyaya vagga
Sihanada vagga
Mupapannasa Opamma vagga
Mahayamaka vagga
Culayamaka vagga
Gahapati vagga
Bhikkhu vagga
Majjhimapannasa Paribbajaka vagga
Raja vagga
Brahmana vagga
Devadaha vagga
Anupada
Uparipannasa sabbata vagga
Vibhavga vagga
Salayatana vagga
Mulapannasa by name for it deals with the first 50 sutta, the second book Majjhimapannasa
consists of the second fifty suttas too. The last 52 suttas in Uparipannasa, i.e, the last or little more than
fifty
Majjhima Nikaya, here we find discussion on almost all points of religion of the Buddha, on the
Four Noble Truths and kamma, on the reprehensibility of the belief in the soul etc. Thus, a brief
characteristic of the commentaries is given, such as “destroyer of heretical opinions”.
3. Sajyutta Nikaya
The Sajyutta Nikaya gains its title from the fact that its suttas are grouped together according to
their contents. There are 7762 suttas in 56 sajyutta, arranged in 5 vaggas, namely:
(1) Sagatha-vagga
(2) Nidana-vagga
(3) Khandha-vagga
(4) Salayatana-vagga
(5) Maha-vagga
Of the 5 vaggas, the Sagatha-vagga is the only section that consists of verses.
Sajyutta Nikaya is mentioned as “A compilation of suttas with their main bearings on psycho-
ethical and philosophical problems”. Its characteristic is that it helps to analysis the doctrine
intelligently and contributes to our knowledge of the doctrine of the Buddha.
4. Avguttara Nikaya
The name of Avguttara Nikaya means literally “the by-one-limb-more collection”. It contains
9557 short suttas is divided into 11 sections called Nipata. Each nipata contains suttas according to a
numerical order with an arithmetical progression from one to eleven, e.g., eka-nipata, duka-nipata…
ekadasa-nipata. Thus the “Book of One” (Eka-nipata) deals with a great variety of subjects, but always
from one single aspect at the time, for example: “There is no other single form by which a man’s heart
is so enslaved as it is by that of a woman. A woman’s form obsesses a man’s heart”.
Avguttara Nikaya constitutes an important source book on Buddhist psychology and ethics, which
provides an enumerated summary of all the essential features concerning the theory and practice of the
Dhamma. Therefore, its characteristic is helps to preach the interesting doctrines, and it is explained as
“filling with joy about the explanation of all agamas”.
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
Of the five Nikayas, Khuddaka Nikaya contains the largest number of treatises and the most
numerous categories of Dhamma. although the word ‘Khuddaka’ literally means ‘minor’ or ‘small’, the
actual content of this collection can by no means by regarded as minor, including as it does the two
major divisions of the Pitaka, namely, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas according to one
system of classification. According to the Sri Lankan tradition, there are 15 books in the Khuddaka
Nikaya:
(1) Khuddaka-patha
(2) Dhammapada
(3) Udana
(4) Itivuttaka
(5) Sutta-nipata
(6) Vimana-vatthu
(7) Peta-vatthu
(8) Theragatha
(9) Therigatha
(10) Jataka
(11) Niddesa
(12) Patisajbhida-magga
(13) Apadana
(14) Buddhavajsa
(15) Cariya-pitaka
The Niddesa, lists number 11, consists of two parts: Mahaniddesa and Culaniddesa. These two
books are counted as one; while counting them as two books, the total number is 16. According to the
Burmese tradition, there are 19 books in Khuddaka Nikaya, i.e., 4 others works besides the above
mentioned texts, they are:
(1) Nettipakarana
(2) Petakopadesa
(3) Milindapabha
(4) Sutta-savgaha
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the third great section of the Canon. It deals with a system of
classification, analytical enumeration and definitions, with no discursive treatment of the subject
matter.
A critical study of the Abhidhamma texts leads some scholars to the conclusion that
Abhidhamma is not the words of the Buddha since its origin and development extended over a
considerable period of gradual and systematic historical evolution.
The Abhidhamma resolved all phenomena into ultimate components analytically it aims as
synthesis by defining inter-relations between the various constituent factors. Thus Abhidhamma forms
a gigantic edifice of knowledge relating to the ultimate realities which, in its immensity of scope,
grandeur, subtlety, and profundity, properly belongs only to the intellectual domain of the Buddha.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is made up of 7 massive treatises, namely:
(1) Dhammasavgani
(2) Vibhavga
(3) Dhatuvatthu
(4) Puggala-pabbatti
(5) Kathavatthu
(6) Yamaka
(7) Patthana
The method of preservation of the Buddha’s teachings was memorizing by regular recitation
and handing down from teacher to pupil by word of mouth. The three Pitakas was committed to writing
for the first time in the 1st century B.C. at Alu-vihara in Matale in the central province of Sri Lanka.
According to the oldest account, Cullavagga, the first council was held to preserve the purity of
the Buddha’s teaching and discipline, the Vinaya and sutta Pitaka were settled. In Cullavagga,
Mahavajsa and Dipavajsa, neither of these texts directly stated that Abhidhamma was taken to the
discussed at the 1st Council.
Therefore, the Pali canon is a gradual compilation in different periods. But according to the
tradition, Buddha’s discourses were collected and fixed in an authentic form at the First Council.
However, the texts itself inform us that there are some additions and not complete, e.g.:
1. The last two chapters of the Cullavagga dealing with the first two councils do not mention
Abhidhamma Pitaka. It becomes clear that Abhidhamma is a later addition to the canon.
2. The Kathavatthu was composed by Ven. Moggalliputta Tissa during the Third Council.
However the text was not finalised until the rise of latter Buddhist schools such as Hemavata,
the Uttarapathaka, the Vajira, the Vetullaka, the Andhaka, the Pubbeseliya and the
Aparaseliya, because the text mentioned these schools and these schools came into being
only after the Third Council.
3. The last chapter of the Cullavagga is about the Second Council, which took place 100 years
after the demise of the Buddha. This shows that the Vinaya Pitaka was not closed after the 1st
Council.
4. As shown in the Avguttara Nikaya (I. 232), the number of monastic rules in the Patimokkha
was originally 152. Buddhaghosa explains the Pali expression “Sadhikaj
diyaddhasikkhapadasataj” as 150 rules. This shows that the present code of 227 rules in the
Patimokkha is with later additions.
5. The Parivarapatha is the last treatise to be included in the Vinaya Pitaka. This book, as
clearly stated in the colophon (nigamana), was written in Ceylon by a Sinhalese monk named
Dipa as a help to his pupils in the study of the Vinaya. This was canonised at the council held
during the reign of Vattagamini.
6. The first volume of the Digha Nikaya is the earliest while the remaining two are late. The
facts are:
(1) The 2nd volume contains 2 suttas, i.e. Mahapadana and Mahagovinda sutta
which are of the Jataka style.
(2) The 3rd volume contains the Atanatiya sutta which is described as a rakkha or
saving chant manipulated apparently on a certain passage in the then known
Mahabharata.
The development of these elements, the Jataka stories and the parittas are of later accretions
in the texts, so are later.
7. It has been directly pointed out by Buddhaghosa that the concluding verse of the
Mahaparinibbana sutta relating to the redistribution of the Buddha’s relics were originally
composed by the rehearsers of the 3rd Buddhist Council and was added into the sutta later on
by the Buddhist teachers of Ceylon.
8. Avgutta Nikaya contains a section (Mundarajavagga in the Pabcaka Nipata) commemorating
the name of king Munda who reigned in Rajagaha about half a century after the demise of
the Buddha. This proves that Avguttara Nikaya was not finalised at least during the 1st
Council.
9. The Khuddakapatha is a later addition. Two points can prove the fact:
1. The Saranattaya presents a developed mode of refuge formula of the Buddhists which is not to
be found in the canon.
2. The Dvattimsakara enumerate matthake matthaluvgaj which is not found in the Nikaya.
10. In Buddhist tradition, the pakinnaka usually stands at the final chapter in a text. But it stands
at the 21st vagga of the Dhammapada. Thus the remaining 5 vaggas of the text are added
later.
11. The Udana was compiled after Pataligama became the capital of the Magadha empire under
the name Pataliputtta. This happened after the demise of the Buddha.
12. In the Vimanavatthu, Payasi (mentioned in the D.N.) was reborn in the heaven as Serissaka.
Thus this text is later than the Digha Nikaya.
13. One story in the Petavatthu is about king Pingalaka who reigned over Surat after 200years of
the demise of the Buddha. Thus Petavatthu was finalised much later.
14. Thera and Therigatha were finally shaped at the 3rd Council. Dhammapala points out 3 facts:
(1) Thera Tekicchakan, whose gathas are embodied in the Theragatha, lived
under Bimbisara, the father of Dhammasoka.
(2) Some verses are attributed to Ven. Vitasoka, the younger brother of
Dhammasoka.
(3) Still some other verses are attributed to Tissa-kumara, the youngest brother
of the king.
15. Jatakas are arranged on the basis of the paramitas, a doctrine that plays no part in the
Nikayas. According to Rhys David, the present edition is not an edition of the text, but of the
oral-commentary. It was written in the 5th century A.D. in Ceylon by an unknown author. But
Childers thinks that he was Buddhaghosa. However one fact is true that many of these stories
were derived from the folklore of India.
16. The Mahaniddesa is an exegetical treatise which was modeled on an earlier exegesis
attempted by Mahakaccana on the Magandiya sutta of the Atthakavagga. But the exegesis of
Mahakaccana can be traced as a separate sutta of the Sajyutta Nikaya (V. III. P.22). A list of
places (e.g. Java, paramayona) visited by the sea-going merchants mentioned in the texts
shows that it could not be earlier than the 2nd Century A.D.
17. The Cullaniddesa is a canonical commentary on the Khaggavisana sutta and the parayana
group of 16 poems of the Sutta Nipata. At this time when Khaggavisana sutta still hangs on
the parayana vagga as an isolated poem, and not yet being included in the Uragavagga,
therefore we can conclude that this text is earlier than the Sutta Nikapata.
Buddhavajsa, Cariyapitaka and the Apadana are the three books which found recognition in the list of
the Majjhimabhanakas and were taken no notice of in the Dighabhanaka’s list. This shows that these 3
books were complied and received into the canon after the list was once known to have been completed
with 12 books. The Buddhavajsa and the Cariyapitaka present a systematic form of the Bodhisatta idea
which is of later developed concept; and the Apadana furnishing the previous birth stories of the Theras
and Theris cannot but regarded as a later supplement to the Thera-therigatha.
Pali means range, line and fence. And Pali was considered as the primary source of literature by the Theravada School. And
Pali belonged to two languages. They are:
1. Aryan language.
2. Anaryan language.
2. Medieval Indo-Aryan languages (600 B.C to 1000 A.D). Again it is divided into two parts. 1. Sanskrit (formal
language- language of high classes) and 2. Prakrit (Pali, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Palisachi, and Saciraseni). They
(Prakrit languages) are the common languages according the time of the Buddha.
- The different between the two: Saj krta = well done, well-formed, defined.
Pra krta = common, general.
- Sanskrit for Brahmin literature, those who are grammarians, scholars etc, and for two noble castes.
- People or who works (slaves) for the noble people they speak common language.
- According to the discourses, there are two brahmins suggested the Buddha to convert the language into
Sanskrit.
3. And modern Indo-Arayan languages (1000 A.D to modern times) such as Hindi, Bengali, Navari, Sinhalese and
so on.
Development of Pali
According to Wilhelm Geiger, in the development of Pali languages, there are 4 stages:
And there are another two Scholars classified the development of Pali languages into ten stages, i.e., the chronology of
Buddhist literature from the time of the Buddha to the time of king Asoka. They are:
1. Mr. Rhys David has classified the Pali languages into ten stages. (In Buddhist India)
2. B.C. Law also has classified Pali into ten stages. (In History of Pali Literature I)
References:
Pali language A.K warder.
1. Parajikapali
2. Pacittiyapali
3. Mahavaggapali
4. Cullavaggapali
5. Parivarapali. (this was written in Sri Lanka during the rein of king Vattagamibhaya).
- Patimokkha was born at a later time, these rules were t aken from the two Vibhanga.
- According to B.C. Law, Parivara was written during the time of 1st century B.C. in Sri Lanka.
- Parivara is regarded as likhapesi, the last book of the 31 volumes.
Sutta Pitaka
1. Dighanikaya (the later additions into D.N 1.Mahaparinibbana Sutta, 2.Sangati Sutta, 3. Dasutara Sutta).
2. Majjhimanikaya (Diyaddhasata suttanta, dve ca suttani yatha so, nikayo majjhimo panca dasavagga pariggaho-the
section on which 152 Sutta collected under 15 vaggas is called M.N.).
3. Samyuttanikaya (has classified according to the Vaggas. It has five volumes: 1. Sagathavagga, 2.Nidanavagga,
3.Khandhavagga, 4. Salayatanavagga, and 5. Mahavagga. Under each Vagga or volume sub-divided again as
Bhikkhusamyutta, Vanasamyutta, Yakkhasamyutta, Davasamyutta. It organized according to topics.
Sattasuttasahassani, sattasuta satanica dvasatthi ceva suttanta, eso samyutta samgaho- it is the S.N, which consists
of 7762 discourses). First sutta is Oghatarana.
They are classified according to the topics under different heading are the help of the preachers.
4. Anguttaranikaya (have 11 volumes: Ekakanipata (sabbe satta, aharatthitika), Dukanipata (namarupa, hiri-
ottappa), Tikanipata (sukhavedana, dukkhavedana, adukkhamasukhavedana) etc. To remember easily they
organized these in number. Navasutta sahassani, panca suttasatanica, sattapannsa suttani sankha anguttareayam-
A.N consists of 9557 discourses). First sutta is Itthirupaparidana sutta.
5. Khuddakanikaya- thapetva caturo ete nikaye dhigaadike, tadannam buddhavacanam nikayo khuddako mato- all
the words of the Buddha except about four Nikayas come under Khuddakanikaya).
1. Khuddakapatha
2. Dhammapada
3. Udana
4. Itivuttaka
5. Suttanipata
6. Theragatha
7. Therigatha
8. Petavatthu
9. Vimanavatthu
10. Jataka
11. Niddesa
12. Patisambhidamagga
13. Apadana
14. Buddhavajsa
15. Cariyapitaka.
Abhidhamma Pitaka
1. Dhammasavganippakarana
2. Vibhavgappakarana
3. Puggalapabbattippakarana
4. Dhatukathappakarana
5. Kathavatthuppakarana
6. Yamakappakarana
7. Patthanappakarana.
- according to tradition, these (31) volumes of canonical literature were brought to Sri Lanka by Ven. Mahinda in the
3rd B.C.
- According to Rhys David, in his book called “Buddhist India” states the chronologies of Pali literature, from the
time of the Buddha to the Asokan period, were developed within these ten stages. They are:
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrines now found, in identical words, in paragraphs or verses recurring in all
the books.
2. Episodes founds, in identical words, in two or more of the existing books.
3. The Sila, the Parayana, the Cctades and the Patimokkha.
4. Digha, Majjhima, Anguttara and Samyutta Nikayas.
5. The Suttanipata, Theragatha, Therigatha, Udana, and Khuddakapatha.
6. The Suttavibhanga and Khandhakas.
7. The Jatakas and Dhammapada.
8. Niddesa, Itivuttaka and patisambhidhamagga.
9. Peta, Vimana-Vatthus, Apadana, Cariyapitaka, Buddhavajsa.
10. Abhidhamm books. (the last of which is Kathavatthu and the earliest probably the Puggala-pabbatti.)
Chronology Pali literature from the time of the Buddha to the down of Christian era (rein of king Vattagaminiabhaya) in
which the Palit texts were converted into writing in Ceyoln (B.C Law vol-I, Pg-42).
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrines now found in identical words in paragraphs or verses recurring in all
the books.
2. Episode found in identical words in two or more of the existing books.
3. The Silas, the Parayana group of 16 poems without the prologue, the Atthaka group of 4 or 16 poems, and
Sikkhapadas.
4. Dighanikaya Vol-I, M.N, S.N, A.N and earlier Patimokkha code of 152 rules.
5. D.N Vol-II, and III, then Theragatha and Therigatha, collection of 500 Jatakas, Suttavibhavga, Patisambhidamaga,
Puggalapabbatti, and Vibhavga.
6. The Mahavagga and Cullavagga, the Patimokkha code completing 227 rules, Vimanavtthu, and Petavatthu,
Dhammapada and Kathavatthu.
7. Cullaniddesa and Mahaniddesa, Udana, Itivuttaka, Suttanipata, Dhatukatha, Yamaka and Patthana.
8. Buddhavajsa, Cariyapitaka and Apadana.
9. Parivarapatha.
10. Khuddakapatha.
Regarding Pali literature we have historical record that showed the development of Pali literature, which preserved by
tradition. These records were the introduction to the commentaries of Buddhaghosa.
Read
A history of Pali literature, by B. C. Law (2nd chapter).
A textual and Historical Analysis of Khuddakanikaya, by Oliver Abeynayake.
The commentators gave an introduction before writing down a commentary on any texts. In those introductions we can see
the traditional classification of Buddhist teaching as follows:
1. Rasavasena ekvidhaj- all the teachings of the Buddha is one as far as its taste is considered (it is the taste of
liberation)
“ Seyyathapi bhikkhave mahasamuddo ekaraso, lonaraso evameva kho bhikkhave ayaj dhammo ekaraso
vimuttiraso”
O. monks! as the ocean has only one taste, the taste of salt, the teaching has only one taste, i.e., the taste of
liberation.
2. Dhammavinayavasena duvidhaj- the teachings of the Buddha are two-fold as doctrine and discipline
“Maya dhammo ca vinayo ca desito pabbatto, so vo mamaccayena sattha”
I have preached doctrine and promulgated the vinaya, they will be your teachers after me” ( Mahaparinibbana
Sutta).
3. Buddhavacanavasena tividham - the teachings of the Buddha are three-fold according to the words.
(a) The first, middle and last words:
Pathamabuddhavacana, Majjhimabuddhavacana and Pacchimabuddhavacana
(b) Pitakavasenatividham (three Pitaka) – the teachings of the Buddha are three-fold according to the baskets, i.e.,
Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma pitakas.
Majjhima Nikaya:
Diyaddhasata suttanta, dve ca suttani yattha so, nikayo majjhimo pabca, dasavagga pariggaho.
The section in which hundred fifty-two suttas collected under 15 vaggas is called Majjhima Nikaya.
Samyutta Nikaya:
Sattasuttasahassani, sattasuttasatanica, dvasatthi ce va suttanta, eso samyutta Samgaha.
It is the Samyutta Nikaya which consist of 7762 discourses.
Avguttara Nikaya:
Navasutta sahassani, pabca suttasatanica, sattapannasa suttani, savkha avguttare ayaj.
Avguttara Nikaya consists of 9557 suttas.
Khuddaka Nikaya:
Thapetva caturo ete, nikaye dhiga-adike, tadabbaj buddhavacanaj, nikayo kuddako mato.
All the words of the Buddha except above 4 nikayas come under Khuddaka Nikaya.
Buddhaghosa included the 15 texts of Khuddaka Nikaya, Vinaya and Abhdhamma into the Khuddaka Nikaya.
These nine terms are found in M.N, A.N, which are the oldest gathas in Buddhist teachings. But commentaries reinterpreted
the contents and meanings of each term.
Read
The Buddha was born in the 6th century B.C. In the 3rd century B.C, the 3rd Buddhist council was held and the Kathavatthu
was written. In this period the Pali canon was brought into Sri Lanka by Ven Mahinda. Then Ven. Buddhaghosa wrote his
work called Visuddhimagga in the 5th A.D.
Here between 3rd B.C and 5th B.C there are (800) years gap. The texts which existed during this period can be categorized
into categories as follows:
The first category: two texts are regarded as the texts of methodology to study the canon:
1. Nettippakarana
2. Petakopadesa
Milindapanha
Suttasangaha (in which 85 discourses were mentioned)
Regarding these texts the authors were not known but we know that they were prior to commentary.
Third category: texts come during this period is the summaries of the texts of canon:
1. Mulasikkha
2. Kuddakasikha vinaya
3. Uttaravinicchaya
3. Vinayavinicchaya
4. Abhidhammavatara
5. Ruparupavibhavga Abhidhamma
Fifth category: texts which came into existence during this period is the literature jof chronicle (Vajsakatha).]
1.Atthakathamahavajsa
2.Thupavajsa (sthupavamsa (sinhala)
3.Dathadhatuvajsa (dathavamsa)
4.Dipavajsa
Sixth category
The Pali poetical works:
Seventh category
Pali grammar works:
In the present there are three traditions of grammarians:
1.Kacchayana (in S.L)
2.Moggalana ( in Sri Laka)
3.Saddhaniti (in Burma) (which came into existence after the Polonnaruwa period)
And there are four in post canonical pre-commentarial period:
Kacchayana
Mahanirutti
Cullanirutti
Sabbagunakara
Eighth category: there are some texts existed but not accepted as canonical text in Theravada:
Vavvapitaka
2. Avgulimalipitaka
3. Gulha-ummagga
4. Gulhavessantara
5. Alavakagajjita
6. Ratthapalagajjita
Ninth category: There are some discourses which are not found in the present Tipitaka:
Kulumbasutta
Rajovadasutta
Catuparivattasutta
Nandopanandasutta
Tenth category: according to commentary, some texts are the exposition of dhamma exited before the commentary:
Maggakatha
Arammanakatha
Banavatthu
Badaratitthavasi Dhammapala
Ananda vanaratana
Anomadassi
Buddhappiya
Sumangala
Read
1. Introduction to Dighanikayatthakathatika editions by Lily de Silva P.T.S. 1970.
2. History of Pali literature in Ceylon
3. Pali Proper name, by Malalasekara
Briefly, Cultural background of Pali literature of India is old Arayan language, used or spoken in the
Indian subcontinent. And there are great evolutions of this language. In the traditional Pali it is called
Magadhi, but when we compare the Magadhi and Pali, we then can see these are different from each
other. Anyway, the approval of the historical evidences, we can have a clearer picture of nature of Pali
literature.
According to the history of the Indo-Arayan language there can be seen three stages of the development
of these languages:
Old indo-Arayan languages
Middle Indo-Arayan Languages
Modern Indo- Arayan Languages.
Among these, above three stages, the middle Indo-Arayan stage is very important as far as the Pali
literature is concerned. That second stage is also called the Indra-Prakrit Language because many
Indian dialects developed in that Indra especially as the result of the introduction of Jainism and
Buddhism.
Unlike the other religious leaders at the time of the Buddha and Mahavihara used Indian dialects to
propagate their doctrines. The teachings of these teachers were very famous among the people.
In the Arayan culture, the first place was given to Vedic and Sanskrit language. As two teachers
belonging to the Samana tradition Mahavira and the Buddha used the Prakrit language in propagating
their doctrines. It seems that the Buddha has a liberal attitude toward the usage of the language.
All the Brahmanic teaching were respected to the Vedic and Sanskrit language but the Buddha always
encouraged His disciple to preach the Dhamma in various languages. Once two monks who belonged
to The Brahmanic culture namely: Yamelu and Tekula approached the Buddha and informed him that
the monks who came from various district and clans spoilt the Buddha’s teaching with their various
languages. Therefore they asked the Buddha’s permission to translate the Buddha’s teachings into
Vedic language.
The Buddha has not only given permission to do this and he advised the monks to learn Buddhism in
any languages whatever they wish. As mentioned in the Visudhimagga the Niruttipatisambhida, one of
the four branches of knowledge of logical analysis means in a way the understanding of hundred
dialects. By this examples it is clear the Buddha encouraged His disciples to propagate the Dhamma in
various languages. Because of this reason at the end of first Buddhist Council the Buddha’s teaching as
well as the disciples might have been in several languages.
After the Buddha passing a way the Vinaya rules laid down by him become the leader of the Sasana.
Therefore the disciples understood the importance of collecting and classifying the Buddha’s teachings.
It seems that they also understood the importance of translating the Buddha’s teaching into one
language form.
It was very easy for them because the similarity of all Indian dialects perhaps these tasks of translating
have been occurred during the period of the first Buddhist Council, which was held after three months
of the Buddha’s demise. The Pali canon including three main sections as Sutta, Vinaya and
Abhidhamma can be considered as a result of the first, the second and the third Buddhist Councils.
When Ven. Mahinda introduced this Pali canon to Srilanka in the third century BC, its development
was further expanded. Ven. Mahinda brought Sinhalese Commentary on the Pali canon and these
Sihalese commentaries were traslated into the Pali in the fifth Century AD by the commentators such as
Ven. Buddhatta, Ven. Buddhaghosa, Ven. Upasena and Ven. Mahanama. Sri Lanka Pali literature
includes several stages such as Commentaries, sub-commentaries Poem and Compendium.
While the Pali literature of Srilanka was developing, there arose another kind of literature called Pali
traditional Grammar. In Sri Lanka we find two main groups of Pali traditional grammar books as
Kaccayanaand Moggallayana. In these texts, the noture of Pali language has been explained under
several headings, namely:
“Nama, Sandhi, Samasa, Taddhita, Kitta, Akyata, Karana,Nipata, Upasaga, declension and
conjugation”
Pali traditional grammarians consider this language as Magadhi, further more, they believe that this
Magadhi language is spoken by the Buddha, Brahmans, the original inhabitants on the earth and by the
people who have not heard any other languages. Because of this belief, they never compare this
language with the other Indian languages. They defined all terms of Pali language depending on their
wrong grammatical rule.
During the Buddha’s long and successful career, he delivered many thousands of discourses using
diverse teaching style. Sometimes he simply delivered a talk, perhaps ending by summing up the talk’s
main theme in a verse, sometimes he used dialogue, employing striking analogies or simile to clarify
his point. these discourses, sayings and verses were remembered by those who heard them and passed
on to others, so that towards the end of the Buddha’s career a huge body of oral teaching was in
circulation. Although writing was known at this time, no attempt was made to commit the Buddha’s
discourse to writing because the ancient Indians considered memory to be more reliable than the
copyist’s pen and more durable than palm leaf books. In fact, long before the time of the Buddha, the
ancient Indians had developed and protected techniques of preserving literature in the memory to an
extraordinary degree.
When the Buddha attained final Nivirvana in Kusinara, one of his senior disciples, Mahakasapa, and a
group of other monks were on their way to Kusinara to meet the Buddha, not having as yet heard that
he had passed away. They met a wandering ascetic who told them that the Buddha had died some days
before. When they heard this some of the monks began to cry, but one, called Subbhada, who had
become a monk later in life, said:
„Enough, friends, do not weep or cry! We are lucky to be rid of the Great recluse. He
was always bothering us by saying: “ it is fitting for you to do this, it is not fitting for
you to do that” Now we can do or not do what we like.“
Mahakasapa realized that if there were enough monks like Subhadda, disagreements about what the
Dhamma was would soon arise. So it was decided that three months latter, a great meeting would be
held where five hundred Arhants would discuss the Buddha’s teachings, give them a structure, and then
recite them together and commit them to memory. This great meeting took place at the Sattapani Cave
in Rajagaha, and came to be know as the first Council. When the council convened, Mahakasaapa
addressed the five hundred assembled Araahants, saying:
„Come, your reverences, let us recite the Dhamma and the Discipline before what is not
Dhamma shine out and what is Dhamma is obscured, before what is not discipline shine
out and what is Discipline is obscured, before those who speak what is not Dhamma
become strong and those who speak what is Dhamma become weak, before those who
speak what is not Discipline become strong and those who speak what is Discipline
become weak.“
The assembly chose Upali to recite the rules for monks and nuns because it was a field
he was an expert in , and Ananda was chosen t recite the discourse because, having been
the Buddha’s attendant and constant companion for twenty years, he has heard more
than anyone else. Parts of the discussion took the form of Mahakassapa putting
questions of Ananda.
In this way he questioned him about the Nikayas, and constantly questioned, Ananda answered,
Ananda answered. Ananda would commence answering the questions about each discourse by saying:
“thus have I heard” ( Evam me suttam), in the sense of “ this is what I remember hearing,” and so most
discourses start with these words.
For the next few centuries, the Dhamma was carefully recited, remembered and passed on to others,
and although this was a task usually done by the monks and nuns, there is much evidence that both
laymen and lay women also knew the Dhamma by heart and played a part s other transmission. In the
scriptures, we read of a woman reciting parts of the Samyutta Nikayas 4. In the some Ancient
inscriptions dating from the 3rd century BC, the names of some lays persons are mentioned together
with their titles, which include ‘reciter of Dhamma’ (Dhammakathika), ‘ a knower of a Basket’
(betaken), ‘a knower of a discourse( Suttantika) and ‘a knower of the five Collections’
(pancanekayika).
About a hundred years after the Buddha, there was another major council where seven concerning
leading monks met together, initially to discuss some disagreements concerning monastic rules, but
after this issue was resolved, they recited the whole of the Dhamma together. This was called the
Second Council, and took place in Vesali. Then about 230 years after the Buddha, King Asoka
convened a Third Council in his capital at Pataliputta, and once again the whole of the Dhamma was
recited. It was probably at this council that it was decided to include the books of the Abhidhamma as
the third part of the Buddhist scripture.
It is also probable that the Dhamma was committed to writing for the first time, although there is no
existing record of this being done until the year 50 BC in Sri Lanka where Buddhism had spread by
that time. From this time onwards, the Buddhist scripture were written in books made of palm leaves,
birch bark, silk, and finally in more recent times on paper. Thus have the words of the Buddha,
“beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, and the beautiful at the end” been carefully passed
down to us.
BUDDHIST COUNCIL
The Buddhist Councils took place in between the demise of the Buddha and the Asoka period. At the first
Buddhist Council, there was no Abhidhamma but they compiled the Vinaya and Sutta. Except the Vinaya and Sutta
what did they compile at the first Council for three months. In this Council, the work was approved that the collection
of the teaching, classification and agreement iin the teaching. We find in the Vinaya Piṭaka, mainly mentioned the
first and the 2nd Buddhist Councils.
The last sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya is very much doubtful, whether these suttas were really compiled in the
first council is still abstruse. In these two suttas, we find many technical terms and exaggeration of the discources.
Beside these two suttas, there is another sutta called Sampasādeniya Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya, the Brahmajāla Sutta
rejects the two views, namely Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda. While in the Sampasādaneya Sutta, Sāriputta praised
the Buddha by saying „anuttara“, and further said „sassatavāda anuttaro.“ This is a very serious problem. We found,
in Brahmajāla Sutta, the Buddha had completely rejected these two views. But in Sampasādaneya Sutta Sāriputta
says the Buddha is excellent in the view of Sassatavāda. In fact it doesn’t mention of that Ucchedavāda anuttaro...
How to prove that Cūlavaṃsa is said by the Buddha, while it is made and recorded by his disciple. We have
to keep in mind that the cause led to hold the first Buddhist Council. The immediate cause was given the statement of
Subhadra. It relates thus „some were very painful and grief of the passing away of the Buddha, whence Subhadra
while admonishing them to not to worry and they all are freed from bondages, earlier theywere bound under certain
rules and regulations, but now (they are) free to do anything they wish.“
QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE TECHNIQUES OF THE LANGUAGE USED IN CANONICAL LITERATURE?
It is gradually believed that Pāli arised from some spoken dialect of middle Indo-Āryans. It belonged to the
first or early middle Indo-Āryan stage. It has the characteristics of the middle Indo-Āryan language. We can mention
here directly that it has never taken its origin from classical Sanskrit. Because there are some peculiarities, which
clearly signify that Vedas have some close relation with it.
With the help of the ancient Buddhists of the Hīnayāna school or the Theravāda school, the Pāli language and
its literature have developed in India. It has close connection with the Theravāda school in India, because it was its
‘vehicle’. So, we find the flourishing condition of Pāli literature in India when the Theravāda school played a great
role in the history of Buddhism.
But after arise of the Mahāyāna not only the Theravāda school, but also the study of Pāli gradually declined
in India. Pli and the Theravāda school then took their home into Ceylon, they played a prominent part for more than
2000 years in the religious history of that country.
From Sri Lanka, Theravāda Buddhism and Pāli were introduced into Burma, Siam, Cambodia and Laos.
According to the orthodox theory, Pāli is Māgadhi, Māgadhantrutti and Māgadhikabhasa. Pāli scholars from Sri
Lanka, Siam, Cambodia belive, that Pāli can be identified with the language of the Buddha. He used to stay in
Magadha most of his time.
It is quite natural that the language of Magadha was spoken by Him. For this reason Pāli has been identified
with Magadhi. It is quite natural that the early Buddhist scriptures were composed in Magadhi in which the Buddha
spoke. It was the language of the place where the religion of the Buddha arose.
The Buddhist tradition says that the language of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, which was the original canon, was the
language of the Buddha himself. Thus from the above facts it is clear that Magadhi was regarded as Mūlabhasa or
the ‘basic language’. It was the language in which the words of the Buddha were originally fixed.
According to the Buddhists of the Hīnayāna or the Theravāda school, the language of Magadha was the
speech of the Buddha. This was regarded as the Mūlabhasa, the primary speech of all men. This was spoken by men
of the primeval epoch, by the Brahmins and by the Buddhas. The natural speech of many which alone would be
spoken if human beings were thought(?) no other language.
QUESTION: EXAMINE HOW ALL THE WORDS OF THE BUDDHA INCORPORATED INTO DHAMMA-VINAYA AT THE FIRST
COUNCIL.
The first council was held at Rājagṛha immediately after the passing away of the Buddha. Ven. Mahākassapa
presided over the assembly where ven. Upāli and ven. Ānanda took an important part. The first council settled the
Dhamma-Vinaya:
»Handa mayam avuso dhammañca vinyoca sanghayeyāmi.«
„Oh, monks, it is better to rehearse Dhamma and Vinaya preached by the Buddha.“
There is no ground for the view that added the term Abbhi „Abhidhamma“ and „Abhivinaya.“
In this council the Vinaya texts were settled under the leadership of ven. Ānanda.
Ven. Buddhaghosa have put the entire Vinaya Piṭaka into the first Aṁga in sutta saying in his definition
Upatovibhanga, Khandhaka, and Parivāra at the first council. There was not Parivāra Pāḷi, because it is an appendix into
the Vinaya Piṭaka actually written in Sri Lanka. According to the tradition, five Vinaya books were rehearsed in the first
council, but relevant chapter of Cūlavagga Pāḷi, Pañcasatikhandhaka were rehearsed in the first council. Upatovinaya was
recited: »Etena upayena upato vinaye pucchi.« There are three main parts of Upatovinaya:
(1) Upato vibhaṁga (Pārājika and Pācittiya Pāḷi)
(2) Upato pātimokkha (Bhikkhu and Bhikkhunī)
(3) Pabbajita and Gahatthavinaya (for monks and laymen)
(2) Khandhaka
(a) Mahāvagga (contains 10 khandhakas)
(b) Cūlavagga (contains 12 khandhakas)
The Dhamma or the Suttapiṭaka has five nikāyas. There is a stanza in commentary:
»Thapetvā caturopete nikāyedika adite dadannaṃ budhavacanaṃ nikāyo khuddako maggo.«
Among the five nikāyas the first four are very important because at the first council 4 nikāyas were put in the Sutta
Piṭaka while the last one (Khuddaka nikāya) was not considered as the Buddha's teaching, according to Theravāda Pāli
tradition.
There are 34 discourses in the Dīgha nikāya, 152 in the Majjhimanikāya, 7762 in the Samyutta nikāya and 9557 in
the Aṁguttara nikāya. There are 64 bhanavāra incorporated in the Dīgha nikāya, 80 in Majjhima nikāya, 100 in the
Samyutta nikāya and 120 in the Aṁguttara nikāya.
At the beginning Khuddaka nikāya had few books, Suttanipāta, Therīgāthā etc. But later many books
were added. After increasing books the Khuddaka nikāya became a collection of 15 books.
QUESTION: GIVE THE MEANING OF THE TERM SUTTA AND VINAYA AND SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM.
(LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA) (1)
Sutta
According to some scholars the term ‘sutta’ is a ‘string’, ‘threat’, ‘a powertion’ of the Buddhist scripture, ‘a rule’
etc. They mentioned further that a certain chapter or division of the Buddhist scriptures are known as suttas. The classical
meaning of the term sutta is ‘discourses’. They may either we found in verse or in clause and in lend they very from a few
lines to several thousands.(?) Some scholars say that the term ‘sutta’, in Vedic ‘sūtra’ we state in history the path of the
Buddhist scripture which contained suttas or dialogues and it is the Sutta Piṭaka.(?) They state that it is reule-clause
dialogue of a Buddhist text, a discourse and ancient verse, a book or rule, text bobok, a sutta, a chapter of the scripture and
one of the division or the scripture. As we mentioned before, ven. Buddhaghosa explained the meaning of the term sutta:
»aṭṭhānaṃ suttacanaṃ suttato sāvanato sūdanato suttanaṃ sutta sabhāgatoca.«
According to some scholars sutta or sūtra is ‘buddha vacana’ or the word of the Buddha. Some scholars believed
‘a sutta’ is complete in itself consisting of a connected narrative or collection of verses on one subject, some of them are
didactic and consist mainly or wholly of a discourse of Buddha in phrase or verse as most of the suttas of the Suttanipāta.
Others are historical, like the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, which relates the last day of Buddha. Thus the above fact gives an
account of the definition of the term sutta. From these we can conclude that the term sutta is a rule, a discourse, dialogue of
a Buddhist text. A chapter or one of the diviísions of the scriptures the term Vinaya means putting away, subbing(?),
conversion, training, discipline of a portion of the Buddhist scripture.
Vinaya
Some scholars said that vinaya is law and it covers the Buddhist monks and it is mentioned in the Vinaya Piṭaka.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first council the Vinaya Piṭaka was rehearsed first
because Vinaya is the age of the Buddhist dispensation: »Vinayonāma sāsanāsayo vinaye ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṃ hoti.« It
steps further than saṃvaraṃ and pahānaṃ are two sorts of Vinaya or discipline and they are discipline or restraint and
discipline of getting rid of evil state. He again described vinaya as removal of blame. Some scholars gave a description of
the term vinaya as the term vinaya in Sanskrit and Pāli term vinaya translated into English – discipline – specially refers to
the prescribed move(?) of conduct in convent upon Buddhist monks and nuns. The word Vinaya is formed by combining the
prefix. Vinaya meaning ‘different’, ‘distinction’, ‘apart’, ‘away from’. The word’s root -ni means to lead, when combined
they(?) meaning to lead away(?) from vinaya is the reified(?) noun four(?) of this term and meaning that with separate or
that with removed.(?) Within the context of Buddhist monasticism, it refers to the code of behavioral discipline that at once
the life to the householder and that monks together into a comment(?) affective bond.(?) In this sense vinaya is that which
separates or leads away from the householder’s way of life.
It can also refer to the practice of mental discipline that removes unhealthy states of mind from the monk’s
disposition in either sense of the term. Vinaya is regarded as the effective expression or primitive implementation of the
Buddha's teaching. It is precept put into practice.
QUESTION: GIVE THE MEANING OF THE TERM SUTTA AND VINAYA AND SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM. (2)
According to some scholars, the term sutta is described as a ‘string’ or ‘thread’. And also a part of the Buddhist
scripture, which treaded as flower(?) is known as sutta. They further mention that a certain chapters or divisions of the
Buddhist scripture, which contain verses, prose or dialogues, text book, are known as suttas. The classical meaning of the
term sutta is a ‘discourse’. But the term Vinaya is defined as discipline or training.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explained the meaning of the term sutta as »aṭṭhānaṃ sūcanato, suvuttato savanatotha
sūdananto, suttānā suttasabhāgato ca suttan’ti akkhātaṃ.« According to some scholars, sutta is Buddhavacana or the word
of the Buddha. they believed that a sutta is complete in itself consisting of a connected narrative or collection of verse on
one subject. Some of them are didactic and consist mainly or wholly of a discourse of Buddha in prose r verse, as most of
the suttas of the Suttanipāta, others are historical, as the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, which relates the last days of Buddha etc.
The term Vinaya is derived from (Vi + nī + aya), with the combining of prefix vi, the root ni and the suffix aya
form the word Vinaya. It means ‘putting away’, ‘destruction’, ‘rule’, ‘conversation’, ‘training’, ‘norm of conduct’, ‘code of
ethics’, monastic discipline’, ‘rules of morality’ or of ‘canon law’. In this sense applied to the large collection of rules which
grew up ion the monastic life and the habits of the bhikkhus and which forms the ecclesiastical introduction to the Dhamma,
or theoretical, philosophical part of the Buddhist canon.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explains: »vividhavisesanayattā, vinayato ceva kāyavācānaṃ, vinayatthavidūhi ayaṃ vinayo
vinayo’ti ākkhāto.« Because it shows precepts and principles, and governs both deeds and word, therefore, men called this
Vinaya. This was rehearsed first at the first council, because it is the age of the Buddhist dispensation - »Vinayo nma
sāsanassa āyu vinaye ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṃ hoti.« He explains further that Saṅvaraṃ and Pahanaṃ are two sorts of
vinaya. The discipline of restraint and discipline of getting rid of evil states. He again describes Vinaya as removal of
blame.
Some scholars say that tem vinaya came from Sanskrit and Pāli, and translated it into English as ‘discipline’. It is
specially regarded as the priestly code of law, the prescribed modes of conduct in convent upon Buddhist monks and nuns.
Vinaya is that which separates or leads away from the householder’s way of life. It can also refer to the practice of
mental discipline that removes unhealthy states of mind. In either sense of the term, Vinaya is regarded as the effective
expression or pragmatic implementation of the Buddha's teaching, that is precept put into practice.
Dhamma was there for the monks even before vinaya precepts were laid down.
During the early period of the formation of Buddhist Sangha, all the Bhikkhus were of high
moral standard, they were arahants. With these 60 arahant disciples went in all directions to preach the
Dhamma, the Sangha started to grow tremendously. Many people seek to enter the Order to lead the
holy life in order to put an end of their suffering. With their simple motivation and firm faith towards
the Buddha and Dhamma, no disciplinary rules were needed to regulate their conduct or to safeguard
the well-being of the Sangha. They were all genious Bhikkhus who lived a very simple life and strive
hard for their emancipation.
In Dhamma there is no compulsory forcing, one can understand its value and encouragement
can be given. In the dhamma there is no orders to follows, there is only advise to abstain from bad and
to do good. For example, in the Dhamma stealing is not given punishment, in the Vinaya it is a
parajika. The following statements are important:
- The Dhammapada says thus: attanaj upamaj katva na haneyya na ghataya – Dhamma.
- The Buddha advised the monks to take one meal for the sake of good health – Dhamma.
- In the Vinaya there is order when the range is different: panaj na hene, musa na bhase.
- According to Dhamma, the language was not harsh, the dhamma is for the wise people and not
for the fool. Pabbavantassayaj dhammmo nayaj dhammo duppabbassa.
- Dhamma is loving in the beginning, loving in the middle and loving in the end. (adikalyanaj
magghekalyanaj pariyosana kalyanaj)
The Dhamma and Vinaya later became two fields. For example: dhammo ca dessito vinayo ca
pabbato. Therefore like that, they became 2 fields. In Vinaya no attention given to precepts e.g.,
parajika, paccittiya ect. Breaking these precepts punishment are given, then legal administration with 7
adhikaranasamatha.
Vinaya is for the whole community (sangha). Everything was considered as a unity, as a whole
and thereby monks became a united group. Because asavatthaniya dhamma appears, vinaya rules were
promulgated. Vinaya rules gradually change, some additional rules came in. With the development of
vinaya rules, vassa season and paravana ceremony was formed. Kathina rules came in, recitation of
patimokkha was introduced. The Khadhaka explains lot of vinaya rules with regard to monastic life as
connection between ukkhepaniyakamma, patisaraniyakamma, tajjaniyakamma, nissaggiyakamma.
1. “Sabbapapassa akaranaj
kusalassa upasmpada
sacittapariyodapanaj
etaj buddhana sasanaj”.
3. “Anupavado anupaghato,
patimokkhe ca sajvaro
mattabbuta ca bhattasmij
panthab ca sayanasanaj.
Adhicitte ca ayogo
Etam buddhana sasanam”
Therefore, at the first stage patimokkha was not meant vinaya rules. It was something
connected with unity and it forms the foundation. The aim was to do away with various
differences. It was a binding power among the monks and also between the teacher and the
pupils. It was not to be followed individually but to be followed as a group.
After the First Council, the place held by patimokkha was given over to the vinaya
rules. Hence thereafter, vinaya rules were known as patimokkha. The Bhikkhus had 227
rules and the Bhikkhunis had 311.
Bhikkhu Bhikkhuni
1. Parajika 4 8
2 2. Sanghidisesa 13 17
3 3. Aniyata 2 0
4 4. Nissagiya pacittiya 30 30
5 5. Pacittiya 92 166
6 6. Patidesaniya 4 8
7 7. Sekhiya 75 75
8 8. Abhikarana samatha 7 7
Total 227 311
These vinaya rules are like the rules in a society, all the members of the Sangha are
bound by these rules. They have to undergo punishment if they break the rules.
Patimokkha is the original text of Vinaya. It depicts the essence of the Vinaya-
pitaka. Not only the dispensation of the Sangha, but the Buddha Sasana also depends on
patimokkha. The Buddha had advised the monks to held patimokkha recitation
(patimokkhuddesa) once a forth-night (uposatha).
The teachers of the Atthakatha say thus:
“Although the tipitaka disappear, since the vinaya is there the sasana will continue,
even though parivara disappear, the ubhato-vibhavga is there, although vinaya-topics
disppear, since upasampada is there, the sasana will exist.”
Early these two terms (dhamma and vinaya) were used in the sense of relativity and in the sense of
similarity. Dhamma means ethical background yet within this ethical background there is disciplinary
behaviour also.
Vinaya began after anadesana. It is for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. Therefore vinaya became a new
interpretation with limited excluding layman. The aim of dhamma is reaching emancipation. In the path
the monks are quicked than the layman. Dhamma is different because it should be understood
individually being isolated from a group.
Dhamma was there for the monks even before vinaya precepts were laid down. The Dhamma and
Vinaya later became two fields. For example: dhammo ca dessito vinayo ca pabbato. Therefore like
that, they became 2 fields. In Vinaya no attention given to precepts e.g., parajika, paccittiya ect.
Breaking these precepts punishment are given, then legal administration with 7 adhikaranasamatha.
Vinaya is for the whole community (sangha). Everything was considered as a unity, as a whole
and thereby monks became a united group. Because asavatthaniya dhamma appears, vinaya rules were
promulgated. Vinaya rules gradually change, some additional rules came in. With the development of
vinaya rules, vassa season and paravana ceremony was formed. Kathina rules came in, recitation of
patimokkha was introduced. The Khadhaka explains lot of vinaya rules with regard to monastic life as
connection between ukkhepaniyakamma, patisaraniyakamma, tajjaniyakamma, nissaggiyakamma.
666GIVE THE MEANING OF TERM SUTTA AND VINAYA SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM
1-According to some scholars, the term Sutta described as a string thread. And also a part of the
Buddhist scripture, which treaded as flower is known as Sutta. They further mention that a certain
chapters or divisions of the Buddhist scripture, which conations, verse prose or dialogues, text book,
are known as Sutta. The classical meaning of the term Sutta is a “discourse.”But the term Vinaya is
defined as discipline or training.
Ven. Buddhagosa explained the meaning of the term Sutta as “atthanam sucanato suttan suttasabhagato
ca “suttan” ti akkhatam.” According to some scholars, Sutta is Buddhavcana or the word of the
Buddha. Theybelieved that a Sutta is completed narrative or collection of verse on one subject. Some of
them are didactic and consist mainly of wholly of a discourse of Buddha in prose or verse others are
historical, as most of the sutta of the Suttanipata, others are historical, as the Mahaparinibban stta,
which relates the last days of Buddha etc.
3- The term Vinayaderived from (Vi + ni + aya), with the combining of prefix “Vi” the root “Ni” and
the suffix “Aya”forms the word Vinaya. It means putting away, destruction, rule, conversation,
training,norm of conduct, code of ethics, monastic discipline, rules of morality or canon law. In these
sense applied to the large collection of rules which grew up in the monastic life and the habits of the
bhikkhus and which form the ecclesiastical introduction to the “dhamma” or theoretical. Philosophical
part of the Buddhist canon.
5- Some scholars say the term vinay came from a Sanskrit and Pali. And translated into English as
“discipline”, it is specially regarded as the priestly code of law, the prescribed of conduct incumbent
upon Buddhist monks and nuns.
6- Vinaya is that which separates or leads away from the householder’s way of life. It can also refer to
the practice of mental discipline that removes unhealthy states of mind. In either sense of the term,
Vinaya is regarded as the effective expression of pragmatic; implementation of the Buddha’s teaching
that is precept put into practice.
Sutta pitaka
The sutta pitaka is a collection of all the discourses in their entirely delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions. A few discourses delivered by some of distinguish disciples of the Buddha,
such as the venerable Sariputta, Maha Mogallana, Anana, etc. as well as some narratives are also
included in the book of the Sutta pitaka. The discourses of the Buddha compiled together in the
Sutta pitaka were expound to suit different occasion, for various persons with different
temperaments.
Although the discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus, and deals with the
practice of the pure life and with the exposition of the teaching, there several other discourses
deal with the material and moral progress of the lay disciples. The Sutta pitaka brings out the
meaning of the Buddha’s teaching, expresses them clearly, protect and guards them against
distortion and misconstruction, just like a string which senses as plumb-line to guide the
carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers from being scattered or
dispersed when strung together by it, likewise, by means of Sutta, the meaning of Buddha’s
teaching may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and given perfect
protection from being misconstrued.
This Sutta pitaka is divided into five separate collections known as Nikaya, among are: 1-
Dighanikaya (collection of long discourses) 2- Majjhima nikaya (collection of middle, length
discourses) 3- Samyutta nikaya (collection of kindred sayings) 4Anguttara nikaya (collection of
discourses arranged in according with number) 5Khuddaka nikaya (small collection). In the Sutta
pitaka are also found not only fundamentals of the Dhamma meaningful applicable to daily life.
All observances and practices which practical steps in Buddha’s noble path of eight constituents
lead to spiritual purification at three levels. they are: 1-Sila moral purity through right conduct 2-
Samadhi purity of mind through concentration(samatha) 3- Panna purity of insight through
vipassana meditation. To begin with, one must make the right resolution to take refuge in the
Buddha, to follow the buddha’s teaching, and to be guided by the Sangha.
The first disciples who made the declaration of faith in the Buddha and committed themselves to
follow his teaching were the two merchant brothers, Tassa and Bhallika , they were traveling with
their follows in five hundred carts when they saw the Buddha in the vincinity of the Bodhi tree
after his enlightenment. The two merchants offered him honey-rice cakes. According to their
offering and thus breaking the fast he had imposed on himself for seven weeks, the Buddha made
them his disciples by letting them recite after him. Buddham saranam gacchami, dhammam
saranam gacchami.
This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in the Buddha and his teaching. Later
when the Sangha become established, the formula was extended do include the third
commitment: Sangham saranam gacchami. 467
By ven santa
666ILLUSTRATE WITH EXAMPLES THE TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE EARLY BUDDHIST TEACHINGS. 689
Buddhaghosa gives several ways of classifying the Canon. He states in his Samantapasadika, a commentary of
Vinaya Pitaka that it is uniform in sentiment, twofold as regards the dhamma and the vinaya, threefold as regards the first,
middle and last words, and also as regards the Pitakas, fivefold as regards the Nikayas, ninefold as regards the avgas and
The basis teachings of the Buddha are Dhamma and Vinaya. Dhamma means doctrine and Vinaya means discipline.
These are the only two subjects of studies taught by the Buddha.
The primary concern of the Dhamma is intended for the disciples to understand and realize. It is also a subject of
study, argument and interpretation. On the other hand, Vinaya is a way of life, which the disciples have to live up to. It is
more on regulating the conduct and thus not so much literature based.
All the doctrines can be grouped under Dhamma and all the precepts, rules or regulations under Vinaya. The Buddha
advises the disciples to treat his Dhamma and Vinaya as their teacher after his parinibbana. This shows that the teachings of
2.Tipitaka
After the first Buddhist Council, only Sutta-pitaka and Vinaya-pitaka were complied. Abhidhamma-pitaka only
came into being after the third Buddhist Council during the time of king Asoka. The contents of these three pitakas are:
3.Five Nikayas
There are two references to the five nikayas found in later passages in the Vinaya-pitaka, they are “pabca nikaye
Although Buddhaghosa used the word ‘nikaya’ in such a way that the term “pabca nikaya” can be used to include the
whole canon (i.e. Vinaya and Abhidhamma are grouped under Khuddaka Nikaya). The word is used in modern time only
for the five nikayas of the Sutta-pitaka. These five nikayas are;
(4) Anguttara Nikaya - 9557 suttas arranged in numerical order (from 1 to 11)
(1) khuddakapatha
(2) dhammapada
(3) Udana
(4) Itivuttaka
(5) Suttanipata
(6) Vimanavatthu
(7) Petavatthu
(8) Theragatha
(9) Therigatha
(10) Jataka
(11) Niddesas
(12) Patisambhidamagga
(13) Apadana
(14) Buddhavamsa
(15) Cariyapitaka
The earliest and the usual classification of the canon found in the canonical text (e.g. M.N. I. 133) is that of the nine
avgas. This is known as “Navavga-satthu-sasana” or “Navavga-buddha-sasana” – ‘the ninefold teaching of the Buddha’,
they are,
1. Sutta - prose
4. Gatha - verses
This classification is merely a description of literary types and not a division of textual compartment. It does not refer
to 9 different groups of literature but to 9 types of composition to be found in the canonical text. In a single sutta, there may
be portions which can be described as a sutta, geyya, gatha, udana, veyyakarana, abbhutadhamma or jataka. Thus it is
clear that these 9 avgas are the different modes of expositions adopted by the Buddha in his preaching.
Finally, from quite a mechanical point of view, as what Wilhelm Geiger has put it, the canon is divided into 84,000
666WHAT ARE THE PRINCIPLES THAT HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED IN THE CLASSIFICATION OF PALI CANON? 744 (823)
The Theravada pali canon consists of three sections, namely Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas
1. Vinaya Pitaka
The Vinaya Pitaka is made up of rules of discipline laid down for regulating the conduct of the Buddha’s disciples
who have been admitted as Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis into the Order. These rules embody authoritative injunctions of the
Buddha on modes of conduct and restraints on both physical and verbal actions. It consists of 5 books:
(1) Parajika
(2) Pacittiya
(3) Mahavagga
(4) Culavagga
(5) parivara
2. Sutta Pitaka
Sutta Pitaka is a collection of all the discourses in their entirely delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions (some by the disciples). It is divided into five collections known as nikayas:
(9557 suttas)
There are 15 books in the fifth collection according to Sri Lankan tradition. They are:
(1) Khuddaka-patha
(2) Dhammapada
(3) Udana
(4) Itivuttaka
(5) Sutta-nipata
(6) Vimana-vatthu
(7) Peta-vatthu
(8) Theragatha
(9) Therigatha
(10) Jataka
(11) Niddesa
(12) Patisajbhida-magga
(13) Apadana
(14) Buddhavajsa
(15) Cariya-pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the third great section of the Canon. It deals with a system of classification, analytical
enumeration and definitions. The Abhidhamma resolved all phenomena into ultimate components analytically it aims as
1. Dhammasavgani
2. Vibhavga
3. Dhatuvatthu
4. Puggala-pabbatti
5. Kathavatthu
6. Yamaka
7. Patthana
There are several considerations of the classification of Vinaya and Dhamma during the 1st council. The main
principle that the Elders considered was the sizes of the Buddha’s teaching. This consideration was made because at that
time the only method of preservation of the Buddha’s teachings was memorizing by regular recitation. Therefore the Sutta
is classified according to their length into Digha, Majjhima, Sajyutta and Avguttara.
Another consideration is according to the characteristic of the teachings. Although Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta
is the first Sutta preached by the Buddha, but is not collected as the first sutta in the canon. Here the consideration is put on
the beginner and the preacher as well. It can be understood from the following characteristics of the Suttas:
(1) Digha Nikaya has the characteristic of promoting firmly faith, because it has its historical value. It discusses
social, political, philosophical, cultural and religious history of ancient India at the time of the Buddha. It also
(2) Majjhima Nikaya, here we find discussion on almost all points of religion of the Buddha, on the Four Noble
Truths and kamma, on the reprehensibility of the belief in the soul etc. Thus, a brief characteristic is given, such
(3) Sajyutta Nikaya is mentioned as “A compilation of suttas with their main bearings on psycho-ethical and
philosophical problems”. Its characteristic is that it helps to analysis the doctrine intelligently and contributes to
(4) Avguttara Nikaya constitutes an important source book on Buddhist psychology and ethics, which provides an
enumerated summary of all the essential features concerning the theory and practice of the Dhamma. Therefore,
its characteristic is helps to preach the interesting doctrines, and it is explained as “filling with joy about the
According to another classification, mentioned by the Buddha himself, the whole teaching is ninefold known as
Navavga-satthu-sasana. This is the earliest and the usual classification of the canon. They are:
1. Sutta - prose
4. Gatha - verses
The traditional classifications of the pali canon. Buddhaghosa gives several ways of classification. He states in his
Samantapasadika that it is uniform in sentiment. Twofold as regards the dhamma and the vinaya. Threefold as regards the
first, middle and last words, and also as regards the Pitakas. Fivefold as regards the Nikayas. Ninefold as regards the avgas
The Theravada pali canon consists of three sections, namely Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas
1. Vinaya Pitaka
The Vinaya Pitaka is made up of rules of discipline laid down for regulating the conduct of the Buddha’s disciples.
It consists of 5 books:
(1) Parajika
(2) Pacittiya
(3) Mahavagga
(4) Culavagga
(5) parivara
2. Sutta Pitaka
Discussing the modern views on the chronology of the sutta pitaka. 693
According to Pali tradtion recorded in canonical and non-canonical literature, three Buddhist Councils were held to
draw up the canonical texts and the creed in their pure form.
The Tipitaka is a gradual process The evidences can be seen in the canon itself. The Cullavagga mentions the 1st and
2nd Councils as Vinaya or Dhamma vinaya councils; Abhidhamma is not mentioned. However, it is mentioned that
According to Cullavagga, the five Nikayas were questioned during the 1st council. Thus, the Theravada has a belief
that Khuddaka Nikaya was rehearsed during the First Council. The existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya at the time of the
First Council still remains to be proved. It is obvious that the texts of the khuddaka Nikaya are not chronologically ordered
It is mentioned in the Sumangalavilasini that both the Vinaya and the 4 nikayas were handed to their bhanakas during
the 1st Council, but the Khuddaka Nikaya has not been mentioned any such handing-over. Instead, there were Jataka-
Besides the problem of the existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya during the First Council, there are also various views
regarding the number and the order of texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya.
The Samantapasadika states that Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka and all the teachings of the Buddha not
included in the remaining 4 Nikayas are regarded as forming the Khuddaka Nikaya.
According to the Burmese tradition, there are 19 texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya, but in the Siamese tradition, there are
only 7 texts; in the Saddharmaratnakaraya, 12; the Dharmaguptika vinaya 13; and in the Saratthadipani 14. Thus the number
It is quite obvious that the reference made to the order of Nikayas resulted in various opinions and has drawn much
Therefore with regard to the views of the chronology of Sutta Pitaka, there are two arguments put forwards by 2
According to Rhys Davids the four Nikayas had been put together of older material at a period about halfway between
the death of the Buddha and the accession of Asoka. In his Buddhist India, he has given a chronological table of Buddhist
literature from the time of the Buddha to the time of Asoka which is as follows:
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrine now found, in identical words, in paragraphs or verses recurring in all the
books.
5. The Sutta Nipata, the Thera and Therigathas, the Udanas, and the Khuddakapatha.
9. The Peta and Vimana Vatthus, the Apadanas, the Cariya-pitaka, and the Buddhavajsa.
10. The Abhidhamma books; the last of which is the Kathavatthu and the earliest probably the Puggala-pabbatti.
However, according to B.C. Law the chronology of Buddhist literature from the time of the Buddha to the time of
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrine now found in identical works in paragraphs or verses recurring in all the
books.
2. Episodes found in identical works in two or more of the existing books.
3. The Silas, the Parayana group of sixteen poems without the prologue, the Atthaka group of four or sixteen poems, the
Sikkhapadas.
4. Digha, Vol. I, the Majjhima, the Samyutta, the Avguttara, and earlier Patimokkha code of 152 rules.
5. The Digha, Vols. II and III, the Thera-therigathas, the collection of 500 Jatakas, Suttavibhavga, Patisambhidamagga,
6. The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga, the Patimokkha code completing 227 rules, the Vimanavatthu and Petavatthu,
7. The Cullaniddesa, the Mahaniddesa, the Udana, the Itivuttaka, the Sutta Nipata, the Dhatukatha, the Yamaka, and the
Patthana.
9. The Parivarapatha
It is to be noted here that before the compilation of Tipiṭaka the Buddhist literature was divided
into nine Aṅgas or parts which became known as Navāṅgasatthusāsana; this also called
Navāṅgabuddhasāsana “the nine fold teachings of the Buddha.” The nine divisions of the Buddhist
scripture took place according to their forms and styles, they are:
4) Sutta (the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose),
5) Geyya (instruction in mixed prose and verse),
6) Veyyākaraṇa (expositions or commentary),
7) Gāthā (verse),
8) Udāna (ecstatic utterance),
9) Itivuttaka (brief saying),
10) Jātaka (the legend of the Bodhisatta in previous births),
11) Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernatural power), and
12) Vedalla (message in the form of questions and answers).
We can mention here that these nine fold divisions are not regarded as the nine fold
classifications of the literature. Those various forms were found in the Buddhist literature at that time
when the Buddhist scriptures were compiled.
Among the scholars who gave accounts of Navaṅgasatthusāsana D.J. Kalupahana is very
special, he says that the division of the teachings of the Buddha is divided into aṅgas or limbs, date
back to very early time. Navāṅgasatthusāsana is a term used synonymously with the terms
Buddhavacana, Pāvacana and Dhamma-Vinaya, to denote the teachings of the Buddha collectively
(commonly).
A person who possesses great learning (bahusutta - erudite) is said to be one who has heard
much of the Nine-fold-division of the Buddha’s teachings. At very early stage, the word of the
Buddha which was committed to memory by his disciples was denoted by the Navāṅgasatthusāsana.
1. Sutta (prose)
According to Buddhaghosa all the words of Vinaya Piṭaka including even Parivāra, four
suttas from the Sutta Nipāta, the Mahāmaṅgalla, Ratana, Nālaka and other sayings of the Tathāgata
bearing of name Sutta Nipāta should be included under this category, while the better known as suttas.
(?) The Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya were found and mentioned here four suttas from the
Suttanipāta; those are cited (quoted) from the four suttas, especially mentioned, are verse
compositions. Hence they should strictly have been included under gāthā.
4. Gāthā (verses)
These included verse found in the Dhammapada (way of truth), Theragāthā (psalms of the
brethren, Therīgāthā (psalms of sisters) and these isolated verse which are not classed amongst the
suttas.
The term Navāṁgasatthusāsana is found in the canonical texts and in the commentaries to indicate the entire
words of the Buddha. This term is not covered without giving elaboration. The early text referred to concept of the
Veranjakandha, Vinaya Piṭaka. Pāli text in which Buddha preached the Dhamma was as follows:
1. Sutta 6. Itivuttaka
2. Geyya 7. Jātaka
3. Veyyākarana 8. Abbhūtadhamma
4. Gātha 9. Vedalla
5. Udāna
etc. should be understood as Itivuttaka (the 'Thus-said'). Five hundred and fifty birth stories beginning with the
Apannaka constituted the Jātaka. All suttantas connected with wonderful and marvelous things from ven. Ānanda, should
be understood as Abbhūtadhamma. All suttantas in the form of questions asked through repeated attainment of delight and
understanding, such are suttas: Cūlavedalla, Mahāvedalla, Sammādiṭṭhi, Sakkapañhā, Saṁkhārābhajaniya, Mahāpuññāma
should be understood as Vedalla.
In these statements we find some confusion. For instance, Maṅgala sutta and Ratana sutta are related to Suttas,
while all suttas preached in verse are known as Gātha. Actually, Maṅgala sutta and Ratana sutta are preached in verses. So,
it is likely to admit that Sutta and Geyya are the same each(?) other(?). In my opinion, as long as we look upon weakness of
someone, that will be endless. What is truth to him, what is not, what is truth or untruth, let it be.1
The Buddhist literature was divided into nine angas, or „parts,“ which became known as Navāṁga Satthu Sāsana.
This is also called „Navāṁga Buddha Sāsana, the nine-fold teaching of the Buddha, i.e. the nine divisions of the Buddhist
scriptures took place according to their form and style. They are:
It can be mentioned here that this Nine-Fold-Division is not regarded as the nine-fold classification of the
literature. It only refers to nine types of composition in the literature. These various forms were compiled.
The division of the teachings of the Buddha into nine angas or „limbs“ dates back to very early times. Navāṁga
Sattu Sāsana is a term used synonymously with the terms Buddha-vacana, Pā-vacana or Dhamma-vinaya to denote the
teachings of the Buddha collectively (Majjhima nikāya), Alagadhupama sutta mentions this first division of the Buddha-
vacana portion Alagadhupama sutta.
The list of nine limbs of the Buddha-vacana is a mere description of literary types and not a division of textual
compartment. It does not refer to nine different groups or literature but to nine types of composition to be found in the
collections of the ancient Buddhism. In a single sutta or suttanta there may be portions, which can be described as these
nine parts. This list of works of a far later data is deviously inserted by the compilers. On the other hand, we see here a very
old tradition, going back to the time of the Buddha, with regard to the classification of the Buddha-vacana, meaning or
sense of which had gone into obscurity at the time of constitution of the canon in its present form.
The difficulty seems to come down to us within these nine categories of the various texts of the canon. Even
though the great commentator ven. Buddhaghosa seems to have met with the same difficulty in his attempt to do so. His
explanations of Navāṁga show his difficulty in discriminating any particular section of the canon as corresponding to the
»Mjj(?)-Idhekacco pulla putto, dhammanpariya punanti, suttaṃ, geyyaṃ, veyyakaranaṃ, gātha, udānaṃ,
itivuttakaṃ, jātakaṃ, abbhutadhammaṃ, vedallanti...«
THE BASIC MEANS OF NINE-FOLD DISPENSATION AND ITS COMMENTARIAL INTERPRETATION – NAVĀṀGA-
SATTHUSĀSANA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)
It has been divided Buddha's teaching into nine as 'angas' in the commentary of Buddhaghosa;
Samantapāsādika, Atthasālinī and Sumaṁgalavilāsinī. The list of nine-fold divisions has been mentioned in
several places of Pāli canon. It is mentioned about these nine angas in Alagadūpama sutta, in Aṁguttara nikāya
and Veranjakanda of Pārājika Pāḷi, but it is not mentioned in any place that angas are nine in number. It is very
clearly mentioned about these nine angas in the canonical of Dīpavamsa from Sri Lanka:
»Sabbe pañcasatā therā navaṁgaṃ jinasāsanaṃ,
Uggahetvāna vācesum buddhasetthassa santike.«
»Suttaṃ geyyaṃ veyyākaranaṃ gāthūdānitivuttakaṃ,
Jātakabbhūta vedallaṃ navaṁgaṃ sattusāsanaṃ.«
According to above mentioned verses of the report of first council, we can understand that Buddha's
sāsanā is ninefold. Those nine angas are:
(1) Sutta (the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose)
(2) Geyya (instruction in mixed prose and verses)
(3) Veyyākarana (expositions, commentaries)
(4) Gāthā (verses)
(5) Udāna (ecstatic utterances)
(6) Itivuttaka (brief sayings)
(7) Jātaka (legends about Bodhisatta's previous births)
(8) Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernatural power)
(9) Vedalla (message in the form of questions and answers)
From the above definition is quite clear that the commentator have taken the nine limbs as representing
the entire word of the Buddha. However, the following observation should be surely taken into the extend of
exam definition. There are three elects in counting:
1. The Udāna is defined as a text with complexes of 82 discourses, but actually Udāna Pāḷi consists of only 80
discourses.
2. The number of Itivuttaka is given as 110, but actually the number of discourses of Itivuttaka Pāḷi is 120 but
there are 122 in Samantapāsādikā.
3. The Jātaka are given as 550, but actually there are only 547. The reason is not known, perhaps they may be in
as advent taintless entire into commentarial remarks.
The aṅgas Udāna, Itivuttaka and Jātaka have been definitely with the Khuddaka text. They are not
incorporated in the Udāna Pāḷi, Itivuttaka Pāḷi and Jātaka Pāḷi. The angas of sutta are defined as
Ubhatovibhaṁga, Khandhaka and Parivāra with traditional texts Ubhatovibhaṁga, Khandhaka and Parivāra
which are the source contents of the Vinaya Piṭaka.
The limb of Veyyākarana is taken as represent duly the entire Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The Abhidhamma
Piṭaka was completed after the third council, but Buddhaghosa included the whole Abhidhamma Piṭaka comply
since seven books into Veyyākarana. It is clear that two Piṭakas out of Tipiṭaka come under two aṅgas (Sutta
and Veyyākaraṇa), only very few remain for other seven angas. This remark is a good riving(?) that the
commentator was not sure of this classification and also there is no legal ground classification left out in the
Veyyākarana. On the other hand, there are discourses which were recognized as Veyyākarana in the discourses
themselves. Like for an example, the first sermon of the Buddha is Veyyākarana as it is given in the
Mahāvagga.
MENTION HOW THE NAVĀṄGASATTHUSĀSANA PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE FIELD OF BUDDHIST LITERATURE
WITH THE IDEAS OF MANY SCHOLARS. (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NĀRASĪHA)
Navāṅgasatthusāsana
It is to be noted that before the compilation of Tipiṭaka the Buddhist literature was divided into
nine vaggas known as Navāṅgasatthusāsana, the nine-fold teaching of the Buddha. They are Sutta,
Geyya, Veyyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Jātaka, Abbhūtadhamma and Vedalla. It can be
mentioned that this nine-fold division was found in the Buddhist literature when the Buddhist scriptures
were compiled in the ancient time. Even though Navāṅgasatthusāsana is not accounted in Tipiṭaka, all
of this texts of Navāṅgasatthusāsana is still in use until on.2
One of the scholars who gave an account on Navāṅgasatthusāsana, D.J Kalupahana, said that
the nine-fold division of the teaching of the Buddha dates back to very early time and its term is used
synonymously as the term Buddhavacana and Dhamma-Vinaya. A person, who possesses great
learning of Buddhist knowledge, heard of the nine-fold division of the Buddha's teaching too. After
studying this Navāṅgasatthusāsana one can analyze and criticize the philosophy in the field of
Buddhist literature. But some information in the Navāṅgasatthusāsana is to take part in the Tipiṭaka.(?)
The Sutta section of Navāṅgasatthusāsana mentions the works of Vinaya Piṭaka, such as
Mahāvagga as well as works of Suttanta Piṭaka, such as Dīgha Nikāya and so on. The Geyya section
also mentions the same what the Sutta section with similarity to the stanzas there. While Veyyākaraṇa
section then starts to speak in terms of Abhidhamma Piṭaka, Gāthā section also explains the verses of
the Dhammapada, Suttanipāta etc. Buddhaghosa also showed the different points between the Sutta
section and Gāthā section, hence it is very important to use the Pāli word when writing(?). Udāna,
moreover, identifies the separate 82 suttas of the Pali canon.3 Nevertheless, Itivuttaka section is said to
be a collection of 112 suttas which came from the verses of the teaching of the Buddha and it also
gives stories of the disciples of the Buddha such as their previous births and so on. When, Jātaka
section talks about 500 Jātaka stories as the category of the previous lives of the Buddha,
Abbhūtadhamma also gets a difficult position when it is stated that there are all the suttas connected
with wonderful and marvelous phenomena and events. Apart from what was mentioned above, the last
one, Vedalla introduces how to make the correct words in corruption of the verses from the Sanskrit
words.(?)4 All of Navāṅgasatthusāsana was compiled by the Buddhaghosa who made the reference
source from the original Buddha's teaching.
The Buddhist literature was divided into nine Angas or parts which became known as Navanga-
Sutthu-Sasana. This is also called Navanga-Buddhasasana (the nine fold teaching of the Buddha),
i.e. the nine divisions of the Buddhist scriptures took place according to their form and style. They are:
1. sutta-(the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose). The are the short, medium, and long
discourses expounded by the Buddha on various occasions, such as Mangala-Sutta(discourses
on blessings), Rattana-Sutta( the jewel discourses ), Metta-sutta( discourses on good will), etc.
2 The suttas either all of them or most of them are included in Tipiṭaka. The term 'Navāṅgasatthusāsana' is known to the
Tipiṭaka as well, just for example see the Alagaddūpama Sutta.
3 The Pāli Canon's Udāna consists of (exactly) 80 parts. It is to be remembered, that the Udāna of Navāṅgasatthusāsana
contains 82 parts.
4 This is very strange explanation of what is Vedalla section. According to my knowledge, Vedalla is the message in the
form of questions and answers.These are the pleasurable discourses, such as Culla Vedalla, Mahā Vedalla (Majjhima
Nikāya No. 43, 44), Sammā Diṭṭhi Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya No. 9), etc. In some of these discourses, the answers given to
certain questions were put with a feeling of joy.
according to the commentary the whole Vinaya Pitaka is all so included in this division.
2. Geyya( instruction in mixed prose and verse. These are discourses mixed with Gattha or verse,
such as the Sagatthavagga of the Samyutta Nikaya.
3. Veyyakarana ( exposition or commentaries. The whole Abbhidhamma-pitaka, discoursed
without verse, and everything that not included in the remaining eight divisions belong to this
class.
4. Gattha (verse ). These included verse found in the Dhammapada( way of truth ), Taragatha
(psalms of the brethren) Therigattha( psalms of sisters), and these isolated verses which are not
classed amongst the Sutta.
5. Udana ecstatic utterances, these are the paeans of joy, found in the Udana one of the divisions
of the Kuttanikaya .
6. Itivuttaka brief saying, these are the 112 discourses which commence with the phrase, thus the
blessed one has said, Itivuttaka is one fifteen books that comprise the Khuddakanikaya
7. Jataka-legends of Buddhisatva in previous births. These are the 547 birth-stories related by the
Buddha in connection with his previous birth.
8. Abhutadhamma- (description of supernatural power. These are the few discourses that deal
with wonderful and marvelous things, as for example the Acchariya-Abhuthadhamma sutta of
the majjhima nikaya(No. 123).
9. Vedalla- ( message in the form of questions and answers. It can be mentioned here that this
nine-fold division is not regarded as the nine- fold classification of the literature. It only referred to nine
types of composition in the literature. These various forms were found in the Buddhist literature at that
time when the Buddhist scripture were compiled.
The division of the teaching of the Buddha into nine angs or limbs dates back to very early
time. Navanga-sasann is a term used synonymously with the terms Buddha-vacana, pavacana or
dhamma vinaya to denote the teachings of the Buddha collectively (Majjhimanikaya). Alagadhupam
Sutta mentions this first division of the Buddha vacana portion Alagaddupama Sutta.
The list of nine limbs the Buddhavacana is a mere description of literary types and not a
division of textual compartment. It does not referent groups of literature but to nine types of
composition to be portions, which can be described as this nine parts “this list of works of a far later
data is deviously inserted by the compilers”. On the other hand, we see here a very old tradition, going
back to the time of the Buddha, with regarded to the classification of the buddhavacana, meaning or
sense of which had gone into obscurity at the time of constitution of the canon in its present form.
The difficulty seems to come down to us within these nine categories the various texts of the
canon. Even though the great commentator Ven. Buddhaghosa seems to have met with the some
difficulty in his attempt to do so. His explanation of Navanga show his difficulty in discriminating any
particular section of canon as corresponding to the Navanga. It is interesting to note in his explanation
that for two of the nine Angas, vedalla and Abhuttadhamma, he could not find any work or group of
works which could be classified under these headings and so named some Suttas as coming under
them. This is because by the time Ven. Buddhaghosa began to recorded the Theravada-dharmma
pravaracana, mention in the book of Abhidhamma Samuccaya and Mahavyutpatti.
635
by Ven. P.Santa
On the other hand we see here a very old tradition, going back to time of the Buddha with regard to the
classification of the duddhavacana, meaning or sense of which has gone into obscurity at the of
constitution of the canon in its present form. The difficulty seems to lie in the attempt to include within
these nine categories the various texts of the canon as they have came down to us, some of which are
composition of the later date. Even the great commentator,Ven buddhaghosa seems to have met with
the same difficulty in his attempt to do so.
It is interesting to note in buddhaghosa’s exposition that for two of the nine angas,vedalla and
abbhutadhamma, he could not find any work or group of work, which could be classified under these
headings and so he named some suttas as coming under them.
This is because by the time Ven buddhaghosa began to record the theravada commentarial tradition.
The real significance of the early navanga classification, whose existence is echoed even in the very
words of the Tathagata was lost. With the intention of giving canonical and antiquity and authority to
their texts sankrit schools of buddhism even added three more terms to these nine limbs.they
nidana,avadana and upadana making a total of twelve, mentioned in the books{abhidhamma..
in this way many other opinions have been formed from different angle concerning the
navangasattusasana. S
Sutta pitaka is one of the three divisions of the Pali canon, the other two being the Vinaya pitaka and
the Abhidhamma pitaka. The Sutta pitaka consists of five Nikaya, the fifth generally held to be a later
collection. The five Nikayas are Dhiga, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara and Khuddaka. These Nikayas
contain material belonging to different strata, early and late in time. Many scholars have attempted to
construct some kind of chronology for the suttapitaka. However, yet there is no consensus on this issue
among the modern scholars.
A.B.Keith considered this task impossibility. Then Franke is of that the Dighanikaya is a unitary
literary composition. Directly opposed to Frake's is that of P.V.Bapat who says that there are three
different literary strata in the Dighanikaya. This shows how diverse the views of modern scholars are
on this issue.
Regarding the whole of Sutta pitaka Herman Oldenberg says that the earliest expression of Dhamma
must have been in dogmatic paragraphs consisting of such formulae as the Four Noble Truths, Twelve
Nidanas etc. But scholars such as G.C. Pande consider this view untenable.
Two other views of two noteworthy modern scholars are that of T.W.Rlys Davids and B.C.Law. Rhys
Davids in his Buddhist India says that the four Nikayas had been put together out of older material at a
period about half-way between the death of the Buddha and the accession of Asoka. He goes on to give
the following order of evolution of the canon.
1. Simple statements of doctrine now found in identical words, n paragraphs or verses revering in
all the books
2. Episodes found in identical words in two or more of the existing books
3. The Silas, the Parayana, the octades, the Patimokkha
4. The Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta and Anguttara Nikayas.
5. The Suttanipata, the Thera-Their gathas, the Udanas and the Khuddaka Patha
6. Suttavibhaya and the Kandhakas
7. The Jatakas and the Dhamamapadas
8. The Niddesa, Itivuttakas and the Patisambhida
9. The Peta and the Vimanavatthu, the Apadanas, Cariya pitaka, and the Buddhavamsa
10. The Abhidhamma books, the last of which is Kathavatthu and the earliest probably the
Puggalapannatti
Thus according to his the four major Nikayas fall in to the middle period. B.C. Law, too, argues
similarly but his stratification shows important. Regarding the 3rd strata B.C. Law says that includes
Silas, the Parayana groups of (16) poem without prologue, the Atthaka group of (4) or (16) poems and
this Sikkhapadas.
With regard to the Sutta pitaka he groups the Dighanikaya Vol-I, with the other three Nikayas and
places volume-II and III along with Thera-Therigatha, Jatakas etc.
G.C. Pande in his monumental work Studies in the origin of Buddhism evaluates all these views and
attempt to present another stratification identify and arranging the Suttas in some chronological
order. However, more of these are final and therefore the question is still debated.
666DISCUSSING THE MODERN VIEWS ON THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE SUTTA PITAKA. 872
According to canonical and non-canonical literature, three Buddhist Councils were held after the demise of the
Buddha to draw up the canonical texts and the creed in their pure form.
The Pali canon is a gradual process, the evidence can be sought back in the canon itself. The Cullavagga of Vinaya
Pitaka mentions the 1st and 2nd Councils as Vinaya or Dhamma vinaya councils; Abhidhamma is not mentioned. However, it
is stated in the Mahavajsathat one of the text of Abhidhamma, the Kathavatthu, is mentioned at time of the 3rd council.
Even the Nikayas itself is not fixed in an authentic form at the 1st council, some additions have been added in the later
time. For instance, the Subba Sutta (No. 10) of Digha Nikaya and Gopaka-moggallana Sutta (No. 108) of Majjhima Nikaya
state specifically in their introductory material that they took place “not long after” the Buddha ‘s death. And there are
discourses such as the Madhura Sutta and Ghotamkha Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya (No. 84 & 94) involving monks other than
Ananda in which the text itself inform us that the conversation took place after the Buddha’s demise. Another Sutta, the
Bakkula Sutta (No. 124) of Majjhima Nikaya in which Bakkula himself asserts that he has been a monk for eighty years. If
Bakkula becomes a monk just after the formation of the Sangha, thus this sutta might have took place 35 years after the
According to Cullavagga XI, the five Nikayas were questioned during the 1st council. Thus, the Theravada has a belief
that Khuddaka Nikaya was rehearsed during the First Council. However, the existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya at the time
It is mentioned in the Sumangalavilasini that both the Vinaya and the 4 nikayas were handed to their bhanakas during
the 1st Council, but the Khuddaka Nikaya has not been mentioned any such handing-over. Instead, there were Jataka-
Besides the problem of the existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya during the First Council, there are also various views
regarding the number and the order of texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya.
The Samantapasadika states that Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka and all the teachings of the Buddha not
included in the remaining 4 Nikayas are regarded as forming the Khuddaka Nikaya.
According to the Sri Lanka tradition, there are 15 texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya, in Burmese tradition there are 19
texts, but in the Siamese tradition, there are only 7 texts; in the Saddharmaratnakaraya, 12; the Dharmaguptika vinaya 13;
and in the Saratthadipani 14. Thus the number of the texts are obvious differ, so is the order. It is obvious that the texts of
the khuddaka Nikaya are not chronologically ordered in the early sources.
It is quite obvious that the reference made to the order of Nikayas resulted in various opinions and has drawn much
Therefore with regard to the views of the chronology of Sutta Pitaka, there are two arguments put forwards by 2
According to Rhys Davids the four Nikayas had been put together of older material at a period about halfway between
the death of the Buddha and the accession of Asoka. In his Buddhist India, he has given a chronological table of Buddhist
literature from the time of the Buddha to the time of Asoka which is as follows:
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrine now found, in identical words, in paragraphs or verses recurring in all the
books.
5. The Sutta Nipata, the Thera and Therigathas, the Udanas, and the Khuddakapatha.
9. The Peta and Vimana Vatthus, the Apadanas, the Cariya-pitaka, and the Buddhavajsa.
10. The Abhidhamma books; the last of which is the Kathavatthu and the earliest probably the Puggala-pabbatti.
However, according to B.C. Law the chronology of Buddhist literature from the time of the Buddha to the time of
1. The simple statements of Buddhist doctrine now found in identical works in paragraphs or verses recurring in all the
books.
3. The Silas, the Parayana group of sixteen poems without the prologue, the Atthaka group of four or sixteen poems, the
Sikkhapadas.
4. Digha, Vol. I, the Majjhima, the Samyutta, the Avguttara, and earlier Patimokkha code of 152 rules.
5. The Digha, Vols. II and III, the Thera-therigathas, the collection of 500 Jatakas, Suttavibhavga, Patisambhidamagga,
6. The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga, the Patimokkha code completing 227 rules, the Vimanavatthu and Petavatthu,
7. The Cullaniddesa, the Mahaniddesa, the Udana, the Itivuttaka, the Sutta Nipata, the Dhatukatha, the Yamaka, and the
Patthana.
9. The Parivarapatha
As many scholars believe, the suttas were the first discourses of the Buddha and the discipline and the deep or the
highest Dhamma (Abhidhamma) also have been included there. According to the five divisions, the names were given to the
five nikāyas considering their surface characteristic. The long formulas were included in the Dīgha Nikāya.
Dīgha Nikāya
In the Dīgha Nikāya we can see the suttas like Sāmaññphala Sutta, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta,
which are very long. The Dīgha Nikāya can be divided into three divisions as chapters or vaggas:
1. Sīlakkhandha Vagga
2. Mahā Vagga
3. Pāṭhika Vagga
Out of the 34 suttas there, 13 suttas are in Sīlakkhandha Vagga. In this vagga the Buddha
taught about morality for lay people and monks. The morality is also divided into few stages, gradually
– a) Cūḷa sīla, b) Majjhima sīla and c) Mahā sīla / Adhi sīla.
Mahā Vagga is the second chapter of Dīgha Nikāya. Mahā means 'great' and vagga means
'chapter'. Many of the suttas begin with the name mahā in this chapter. Mahānidāna Sutta,
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta and Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta are some of them.
The Pāṭhika Vagga begins with the Pāṭhika Sutta. Therefore, it was called as Pāṭhika Vagga.
The first sutta of Dīgha Nikāya is Brahmajāla Sutta. The main purpose of this sutta is to give an
account on religious views which existed contemporary to the Buddha in India.
Majjhima Nikāya
The Majjhima Nikāya is mentioned as the second division of the Sutta Piṭaka. It is called
'Middle Collection'. Most of the suttas there refer to the refutation of others' views.5 This nikāya has
three volumes:
1. Mūlapaṇṇāsaka (50 suttas)
2. Majjhimapaṇṇāsaka (50 suttas)
3. Uparipaṇṇāsaka (52 suttas)
This nikāya discusses all the points of Buddhism. Its suttas refer to the life of Buddhist monks,
the Brāhmaṇic sacrifices, various types of ascetic practices, the Buddha's relationship with Jains and
the social and political condition during the Buddha's life. This nikāya also mentions the Four Noble
Truths of Buddhism, the doctrine of Buddha's law of action (law of kamma-vipāka), refutation of soul
theories and different types of meditation.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
The Sutta Piṭaka's third nikāya is Saṃyutta Nikāya. The suttas of this collection are concise, prosaic discourses. It
deals with legends, fairies6, gods and devils. Saṃyutta Nikāya consists of 56 groups or saṃyuttas and all these groups are
5 I would argue that it is rather Dīgha Nikāya which deals with other views.
6 I have never heard about fairies in connection to the Buddha or the Buddha's teaching.
summarized into five vaggas:
SUTTANTA PIṬAKA (DISCOURSES) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY)
(2009)
The Suttanta Piṭaka is a collection of the discourse in their entirety delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions. (A few discourses were delivered by some of the distinguished disciples of the
Buddha, such as the venerable Sāriputta, Mahā Moggallāna, Ānanda, etc.. as well as some
narratives are also included in the books of the Suttanta Piṭaka.) The discourses of the Buddha
compiled together in the Suttanta Piṭaka were expounded to suit different occasions, for various
persons with different temperaments. Although the discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of
Bhikkhus, and deal with the practice of the pure life and with the exposition of the Teaching, there are
also several other discourses which deal with the material and moral progress of the lay disciples.
The Suttanta Piṭaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha’s teachings, expresses them clearly,
protects, and guards them against distortion and misconstruction. Just like a string which serves as a
plume-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers from being
scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise by means of suttas, the meaning of
Buddha’s teachings may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and be given perfect
protection from being misconstrued.
The Suttanta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections known as Nikāya. They are Dīgha
Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya and Khuddaka Nikāya.
SUTTA PIṬAKA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. HUNNY)7
The Sutta Piṭaka is a collection of all the discourses as they were entirely delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions. A few discourses delivered by some of distinguished disciples of the Buddha, such as ven.
Sāriputta, ven. Mahā Moggallāna, ven. Ānanda etc. As well as some narratives were also included in the
book of the Sutta Piṭaka. The discourses of the Buddha compiled together in the Sutta Piṭaka were expounded
to suit different occasion, for various persons with different temperaments.
Although the discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus, and deals with the practice of
the pure life and with the exposition of the teaching, there several other discourses deal with the material and
moral progress of the lay disciples. The Sutta Piṭaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha's teaching,
expresses them clearly, protects and guards them against distortion and misconstruction, just like a string which
serves as plumb-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers from being
scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise, by means of sutta, the meaning of Buddha's teaching
may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and given perfect protection from being
misconstrued.
This Sutta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections known as nikāya, among are:
1. Dīgha nikāya (collection of long discourses)
2. Majjhima nikāya (collection of middle-length discourses)
3. Saṁyutta nikāya (collection of kindred sayings)
4. Aṁguttara nikāya (collection of discourses arranged in according with number)
5. Khuddaka nikāya (small collection)
In the Sutta Piṭaka are also found not only fundamentals of the Dhamma meaningful applicable to daily
life. All observances and practices are practical steps in Buddha's noble path of eight constituents lead to
spiritual purification at three levels, they are:
1. Sīla (moral purity through right conduct)
2. Samādhi (purity of mind through concentration – samathā)
3. Paññā (purity of insight through vipassanā meditation)
To begin with it, one must make the right resolution to take refuge in the Buddha, to follow the
Buddha's teaching and to be guided by the Saṅgha.
The first disciples who made the declaration of faith in the Buddha and committed themselves to follow
his teaching were the two merchant brothers, Tapussa and Bhallika, they were traveling followed by 500 carts,
when they saw the Buddha in the vicinity of the Bodhi tree after his enlightenment. The two merchants offered
7 This lecture is actually an excerpt from the introduction to Suttanta Piṭaka in the book „Guide to Tipiṭaka“ from
Burmese U Ko Lay. To be precise, this lecture is excerpt from pages 34 and 35 of that book.
him honey-rice cakes. According to their offering and thus breaking the fast he had imposed on himself for
seven weeks, the Buddha made them his disciples by letting them recite after him:
»Buddhaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi,
Dhammaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi.«
This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in the Buddha and his teaching. Later when
the Saṁgha became established, the formula was extended for the third commitment:
»Saṁghaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi.«
Piṭaka means „basket, which is contained in Tipiṭaka:“ Sutta Piṭaka, Vinaya Piṭaka and Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Of
these, Sutta Piṭaka is considered to consist of five Nikāyas. These are:
1. Dīgha nikāya 4. Aṁguttara nikāya
2. Majjhima nikāya 5. Khuddaka nikāya
3. Samyutta nikāya
They are the „collections of suttas“ or „suttantas“ i.e. of speeches and dialogues of the Buddha.
The Sutta Piṭaka is the chief source of our knowledge of the Dhamma. It is therefore often directly called dhamma
as opposed to Vinaya. The Dīgha nikāya is 34; it is divided into three parts (vagga):
1. Sīlakkhandhavagga
2. Mahāvagga
3. Patikavagga
The most important sutta of Dīghanikāya is the Mahāparinibbāna sutta which is a running description of the
events of the last weeks of the Buddha.
The Majjhima nikāya „middle collection“ contains suttas of middle length. Their value is very unequal; some
belong to the most beautiful pieces in the canon. The number of suttas in Majjhima nikāya is 152, divided into three groups
of fifty:
1. Mūlapaṇṇāsa
2. Majjhimapaṇṇāsa
3. Uparipaṇṇāsa
And the rest: there are 7762 discourses in Samyutta nikāya and Aṁguttara nikāya contains 9557 discourses. The
Khuddaka nikāya is a collection of 15 books of texts.
The numbers of Baṇavara Dīgha nikāya are 64. The numbers of Baṇavara Majjhima Nikāya are 80. The number
of Baṇavaras Samyutta Nikāya and Aṅguttara Nikāya are 100 and 120 respectively. The number of Baṇavaras of Khuddaka
Nikāya is not mentioned in the Pāli commentary. The number of Baṇavaras increased by 20 as mentioned above. The
division into Baṇavara is also done logically, because there are 120 Baṇavaras of Anguttara Nikāya which has 9557 suttas.
When Dīgha Nikāya has only 34 discourses with 64 Baṇavara and the problem that had to look it.(?) The number of
discourses in Samyutta Nikāya and Aṅguttara Nikāya. These are 100 and 120 Baṇavara.
When these questions are examined one should not forget that the person/previous(?) versions of Saṃyutta Nikāya
and Aṅguttara Nikāya were accepted that were none to the commentated. The commentated do not speak of any elation or
any section that were lost as for as these two nikāyas were concerned. The first group is called Catunekāyika Bhikkhu. The
other group is called Pancanekāyika Bhikkhu. This group that there were Bhikkhus who consider that the fifth nikāyas did
not belong to authority as the other nikāyas. The Khuddaka Nikāya contains fifteen books that were defined as:
»Pannarasappavādo Khuddaka nikāya.«
This is Khuddaka nikāya. In this figure the commentary said that there are 84000 units of the Dhammas in the
entire Tipiṭaka out of which 2000 units are of the disciples. But they were preached according to the guidelines provided by
the Buddha.
666SUTTA PITAKA
The sutta pitaka is a collection of all the discourses in their entirely delivered by the Buddha on
various occasions. A few discourses delivered by some of distinguish disciples of the Buddha,
such as the venerable Sariputta, Maha Mogallana, Anana, etc. as well as some narratives are also
included in the book of the Sutta pitaka. The discourses of the Buddha compiled together in the
Sutta pitaka were expound to suit different occasion, for various persons with different
temperaments.
Although the discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus, and deals with the
practice of the pure life and with the exposition of the teaching, there several other discourses
deal with the material and moral progress of the lay disciples. The Sutta pitaka brings out the
meaning of the Buddha’s teaching, expresses them clearly, protect and guards them against
distortion and misconstruction, just like a string which senses as plumb-line to guide the
carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers from being scattered or
dispersed when strung together by it, likewise, by means of Sutta, the meaning of Buddha’s
teaching may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and given perfect
protection from being misconstrued.
This Sutta pitaka is divided into five separate collections known as Nikaya, among are: 1-
Dighanikaya (collection of long discourses) 2- Majjhima nikaya (collection of middle, length
discourses) 3- Samyutta nikaya (collection of kindred sayings) 4Anguttara nikaya (collection of
discourses arranged in according with number) 5Khuddaka nikaya (small collection). In the Sutta
pitaka are also found not only fundamentals of the Dhamma meaningful applicable to daily life.
All observances and practices which practical steps in Buddha’s noble path of eight constituents
lead to spiritual purification at three levels. they are: 1-Sila moral purity through right conduct 2-
Samadhi purity of mind through concentration(samatha) 3- Panna purity of insight through
vipassana meditation. To begin with, one must make the right resolution to take refuge in the
Buddha, to follow the buddha’s teaching, and to be guided by the Sangha.
The first disciples who made the declaration of faith in the Buddha and committed themselves to
follow his teaching were the two merchant brothers, Tassa and Bhallika , they were traveling with
their follows in five hundred carts when they saw the Buddha in the vincinity of the Bodhi tree
after his enlightenment. The two merchants offered him honey-rice cakes. According to their
offering and thus breaking the fast he had imposed on himself for seven weeks, the Buddha made
them his disciples by letting them recite after him. Buddham saranam gacchami, dhammam
saranam gacchami.
This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in the Buddha and his teaching. Later
when the Sangha become established, the formula was extended do include the third
commitment: Sangham saranam gacchami. 467
By ven santa
SUTTANTA PIṬAKA AND SAYINGS OF THE BUDDHA, SAYINGS OF THE DISCIPLES (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA)
(ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)
According to commentator »Sabbampi etaṁ buddhavacanaṁ.« That means that all doctrines in the Tipiṭaka were delivered by
Buddha himself. But when we discuss that idea with care of attention we can understand that there are teachings in Tipiṭaka not only by
the Buddha, but also by his famous great disciples. Also when we examine Sumaṅgala Vilāsinī and Samantapāsādika Aṭṭhakathā we can
find as following what sayings of the Buddha and sayings of the disciples are:
»Dvasiti buddhato gamhi dvesahassani bhikkhuto, saturasiti sahassani ye me dhama pavattita.«
That means, that out of these 84 000 dhammakkhandha, 83(?) dhammās were delivered by Buddha and 2000 dhammās by his
disciples. While we examine nikāyas, we can see that there are many sayings of other disciples, who associated with the Buddha very
closely and others such as kings, Devas and Brahmās.
However, the Buddha's teachings and the disciples' have been accepted by the Theravāda tradition. This is too difficult to
distinguish the Buddha's teachings from the disciple's. There are few, which can be recognized as teaching not belonging to the Buddha
Tipiṭaka. Parivāra Pāḷi is considered as not the Buddha's teaching. Almost all of Abhidhamma Piṭaka are accepted as teaching of
composition of Abhidhammika Thera/Theras(?).
Many schools try to show Kathāvatthu Pakarana as a book of ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera. They explain, that ven.
Moggaliputtatissa Thera composed Kathāvatthu Pakarana by the method given by Buddha. We examine as we known there are 34
suttas or discourses in the Dīgha Nikāya at least five of them were discourses preached by the disciples in Dīgha nikāya, these are Subha
sutta by ven. Ānanda, Pāyāsirājañña Sutta8 by ven. Kumārakassapa, Sampasādanīya, Saṅgīti, Dasuttara by ven. Sāriputta, Ātānāti
Sutta by four great gods approached to the Buddha.
There are 152 suttas of Majjhima Nikāya, out of 25(?) were preached by disciples: Mahā Hatthipadopama sutta, Ratha Vinīta
sutta, Mahāvedha, Anaṁgana, Sammādiṭṭhi were delivered by ven. Sāriputta. Gopakamoggallāna, Bāhitaka, Sandaka, Sekka these were
delivered by ven. Ānanda. Matupiṭaka was delivered by ven. Mahā Kaccāyana, approved by Buddha. Maratajjaniya, Anumāna by ven.
Moggallāna, Bahuvedaniya by Udayi; Ghatamakha by Udena; Bhikkhu by bhikkhu Anuruddha (?) by ven. Anuruddha.
In the Khuddaka Nikāya, Thera Gāthā and Therī Gāthā were all delivered by the men and female disciples. Vimānavatthu and
Petavatthu were composed by ven. Moggallāna. The Niddesa was consented as a text composed by ven. Sāriputta and
Paṭisaṃbhidāmagga is also assigned to ven. Sāriputta. In fact, half of the Khuddaka Nikāya text represented the verses of disciples.
Besides that there are many questions presented to the Bddha and Bhikkhus by various gods. But examined above examples we
have to accept the order-ships of many suttas go to disciples. The Theravāda tradition has made a great effort to attribute all the Tipiṭaka.
Kathāvatthu Pakarana also has considered as Buddha's teaching even what we usually know as sāvaka's teaching:
»Moggaliputtatissa thera idaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ desento attano nanyena na desito, bhagavata dinnanayena
thapitamatikaya desitatta idaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ buddhabhāsitaṁ nāma jātaṁ.«9
But according to the tradition we have to accept that there was historical process by talking the sermon of the disciples and the
Dhamma of the Buddha.
SAYINGS OF THE BUDDHA AND SAYINGS OF THE DISCIPLES AS FOUND IN THE SUTTA PIṬAKA
(lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma)
It is believed that the whole Tipiṭaka was delivered by Buddha himself, and therefore the aim of
that concept is to give the historical importance to the Dhamma. According to the commentator:
»Sabbampi etaṃ buddhavacanaṃ evaṃ caturāsītisahassamidaṃ buddhavacanaṃ.«
The whole Buddha vacana; all 84000 Dhammakhandas were preached by Buddha himself but
when we examine Sumaṁgalavilāsinī and Samantapāsādikā, we can recognize sayings of the disciples of
the Buddha.
»Dvāsīti buddhato gaṇhiṃ dve sahassāni bhikkhuto; caturāsīti sahassāni, ye me dhammā pavattino.«
This means, that out of 84000 Dhammakhandhas 82000 Dhammakhandhas were delivered by the
Buddha and 2000 Dhammakhandhas by his disciples. But when we examine nikāyas, there are many
sayings of others also. In addition to the words of disciples who associated with the Buddha very closely,
there are words of the king devas and brahmins also in the Sutta Piṭaka as we mentioned earlier.
It is very clearly seen that there are at least five discourses preached by the disciples in Dīgha
nikāya, these are Subha sutta by ven. Ānanda, Pāyāsirājañña Sutta11 by ven. Kumārakassapa,
Sampasādanīya, Saṅgīti, Dasuttara by ven. Sāriputta, Ātānāti Sutta by four great gods approached to the
Buddha.
In Majjhima nikāya, the Sammā diṭṭhi, Gulissāni, Dhanañjāni, Saccavibhaṁga, Mahāgosinga,
Anāthapindikovāda, Channovāda were delivered by ven. Sāriputta. The Gopakamoggallāna, Bāhitika,
Sandaka, Sekha, Atthakanāgara, Anumāna suttas were delivered by ven. Ānanda. Madhura,
Uddesavibhaṁga, Madhupindika suttas were delivered by ven. Mahākaccāyana. Māratajjaniya, Anumāna
were delivered by ven. Moggallāna, Bahuvedaniya by ven. Udāyi, Ghatamakkha by ven. Udena, Bakkula
by ven. Bakkula and Anuruddho by ven. Anuruddha.
Theragāthā and Therīgāthā were delivered by male and female disciples, Vimānavatthu and
Petavatthu are supposed to have been delivered by ven. Moggallāna and Patisambhidāmagga is asigned to
ven. Sāriputta. In fact, half of the Khuddaka nikāya texts represent words of the disciples. The
Mundarājavagga of Aṁguttara nikāya was preached by the disciples, because the Buddha had been
When we consider the whole Tipiṭaka, almost all the doctrines are mentioned as the Buddha's teaching. The object
of this trail is to give authority to the Tipiṭaka. Normal texts also had been accepted. All doctrines in the Tipiṭaka are the
Buddha's teaching:
»Sabbampi etaṁ buddha vacanaṁ.«
But when we discuss that idea in a critical manner, we can understand that there are teachings in Tipiṭaka not only
from the Buddha but also from his famous great disciples. this idea can be found in the Sumaṁgalavilāsinī and
Samantapāsādikā Aṭṭhakathā with the following words:
The meaning is: „There are 82 000 dhammakkhandha from the Buddha and 2 000 dhammakkhandha belonging to
his disciples.“ The commentary shows that both together there are mixed 84 000 dhammakkhandha. there one of the
measurement had been used to measure the teaching in Tipiṭaka. Even though we cannot distinguish the kinds of the
dhammakkhandha, this problem was not solved in Buddhist literature. However, the Buddha's teaching and the disciples'
had been accepted in Theravāda tradition. this is too different(?) to recognize the Buddha's teaching and his disciples'.
There are a few fields which can help us to recognize which teaching does not belong to the Buddha in Tipiṭaka
(Cullavagga Pāḷi 11-12 Capāta, Pañcasattikakhandhaka and Sattasattikakhandhaka), Parivāra Pāḷi is not the Buddha's
teaching. Almost all of Abhidhamma Piṭaka are accepted as teachings of composition of Abhidhammika Theras.
They like to attribute this authorship of Abhidhamma to Katyayanitutra, Kauśtila, Wgusera, Devaśārma,
Pūrna, Sāriputta and Moggallāna etc. many schools try to show Kathāvatthu Pakarana as a book of ven.
Moggallānaputtatissa Thera. They explained that ven. Moggallānaputtatissa Thera composed Kathāvatthu Pakarana
with the method given by the Buddha:
»Iti sattarā diññānayena ṭhapitamātikāya desitattL imaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ buddhabhāsitaṁ nāma jātaṁ.«
There are a lot of disciples' teaching in Tipiṭaka, Majjhima Nikāya and more than half of Khuddaka Nikāya belongs
to the disciples. In Dīgha Nikāya there are 34 suttas. Subha sutta of ven. Ānanda Thera, Pāyāsirājañña sutta of ven.
Kumārakassapa Thera, Sampasādanīya sutta, Saṁgīti sutta and the 3 suttas from ven. Sāriputta Thera. Other discourses
were given authorship to the Buddha's disciple.(?) There are 152 suttas in Majjhima Nikāya. Mahā Hatthipadomapa sutta,
Raṭhavinīta sutta, Mahāvedalla sutta, Anāthapiṇḍikovāda sutta, Samādhi sutta, Channovāda sutta, Cheka sutta were
preached by ven. Sāriputta Thera. Gopakamoggalāna sutta, Bhāhitika sutta, Santdka(?), Cheka sutta and Aṭhakanagara
sutta are from ven. Ānanda and Madhura sutta and uddesa Vibhaṁga Madhupinḍika of ven. Mahā Kaccāyana. Some
other suttas were attributed to disciples.
According to the scholars Maratajjmiya sutta and Anumāna sutta also belongs to one of the Buddha's disciples.
According to some Eastern scholars, Dīgha and Majjhima Nikāyas are from the Buddha. Commentary also have made a
strong effort to the Madhupiṇdika sutta.(?) once, the Buddha started to preach on defilement and went back without
explaining. Monks wanted to know the meaning why the Buddha preached shortly. Then they went to ven. Mahā
Kaccāyana Thera and asked him to describe in detail. Ven. Mahākaccāyana Thera described them something and he said
that they rather should go to the Buddha.This way some of the distiples' suttas are approved to be from the Buddha and
they are considered as the Buddha's teaching. There are a lot of suttas which are approved to be from the Buddha.
there are only a few sāvaka suttas in Aṁguttara Nikāya. however, Muṇdarāja Vagga of Aṁguttara Nikāya is
considered to be a later development of the Dhamma, because Muṇdarāja ruled in India after the Buddha's passing away.
The Theravāda tradition has made a great effort to attribute all the Tipiṭaka.(?) Kathlvatthu Pakarana is also considered as
the Buddha's teaching even though we usually take it for sāvaka's teaching.
»Moggaliputtatissa thero idiṁ kathāvatthu pakaraṇaṁ deseṇto attano ñāṇena na desito bhagavatā dinnanayena
ṭhapitamātikāya desitattā idiṁ kathāvatthu pakaraṇaṁ buddha bhāsitaṁ nāma jātaṁ.«
DĪGHA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
As among scholars believed that the suttas are the first discourse of the Buddha, Disciplines and deep
Dhamma or the highest Dhamma (AbhiDhamma) also have been included there. According to five divisions of
the Sutta Piṭaka, the names were given to those five Nikāyas as considering their surface characteristics. The
long formula (sutta) was included to the Dīgha Nikāya. According to the Sumaṅgallavilasinī, the commentary of
Dīgha Nikāya of Buddhaghosa, it mentions there that why it is called the Dīgha Nikāya; there are many very
long suttas, which were preached by the Buddha in Dīgha Nikāya. So it is called the Dīgha Nikāya.
Yes, it is true, we can see the sutta like Sāmaññaphala (the Fruits of the Life of a samaṇa) in the Dīgha
Nikāya and Mahāparinibbāna (the Great Passing) in the Mahā Vagga, etc. are very long suttas. The Dīgha
Nikāya mainly can be divided into three divisions as chapters or vaggas. They are:
1) Sīlakkhanda Vagga (Division Concerning Morality)
2) Mahā Vagga (the Large Division)
3) Pāthika Vagga (the Division beginning with the discourse on the Pāthika, the Naked Ascetic)
1) Out of 34 suttas, 13 suttas are in Sīlakkhanda Vagga. In this chapter the Buddha talks about the
morality of lay people and monks; the morality is also divided into three stages in gradually, Culla sīla,
Majjhima sīla and Upari or Mahā sīla. When we examine this chapter very carefully, it seems that it is expected
the morality (Sīla), concentration (Samādhi) and wisdom (Paññā); these three qualities are the principle teaching
of the Lord Buddha.
The first sutta in this vagga is called Brahmajāla which can be explained into English as the “The Net of
Perfect Wisdom or the Excellent Net.” According to Rhys Davids, it is the Perfect Net; the Buddha himself, in
the sutta, refers to its others. Alternative titles which are Atthajāla – the Net of Advantages, Tamonajāla – the
Net of Doctrine and Diṭṭhijāla – the Net of Views. The main purpose of this sutta is given an account of
Religious heritage views, which were existed contemporary to the Buddha in India. The Brahmajāla Sutta,
further, mentions various systems of life arts, handicraft, folklore, anthropology sports, and the pass time of
sacrifices which were different types of professions of the people. Anthropology, astrology, arithmetic,
accountancy, royal policy, medicine, architecture, and so on. The Blessed One has paid his attention on as super
life well as prosperous. He had spread his preaching in various directions representing several of social status of
society.
2) Mahā Vagga is the second chapter of the Dīgha Nikāya, means “Great” and Vagga means “Chapter”.
The ten suttas in this division are some of the most important ones of the Tipiṭaka, dealing with historical and
biographical aspects as well as the doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. The most famous sutta is the
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta which gives an account of the last days and the passing away of the Buddha and the
distribution of his relics. Mahāpadāna Sutta (the Great Discourse on the Lineage) which deals with brief account
of the last seven Buddhas and the life story of the Vipassī Buddha. Doctrinally important are the two suttas: the
Mahānidāna Sutta which explains the Chain of Cause and Effect, and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (the Greater
Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness) dealing with the four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness and
practical aspects of Buddhist meditation, etc. these are only some of them.
3) Pāthika Vagga begins with Pāthika likewise, it was called Pāthika Vagga. This division is made up of
eleven shorter discourses of a miscellaneous nature. They deal with the Buddha’s rejection of wrong and severe
asceticism practiced by followers of many sects; they deal also with the periodical evolution and dissolution of
the universe, the accounts of Universal Monarch and the thirty-two physiognomic characteristics of a great man.
There is one discourse, Siṅgīti and Dasuttara, are discourses given by the Venerable Sāriputta and they contain
lists of doctrinal terms classified according to subject matter and numerical units. The style of their composition
is different from the other nine suttas of the division.
DĪGHA NIKĀYA
The Pāli canonical literature consists of three Piṭakas. The word Piṭaka means a basket containing manuscripts. It
is preserčved in three systematic collections:
1. The Vinaya Piṭaka
2. The Sutta Piṭaka
3. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka
The Buddha's teachings are contained in the Sutta Piṭaka which consists of five nikāyas or ‘collections’, namely:
Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya and Khuddaka Nikāya. Here an account of onyl the
Dīgha Nikāya is given.
Dīgha Nikāya is regarded as the first book of the five Sutta Piṭakas. The Dīgha Nikāya, which is a collection of
longer discourses deals with various subjects of Buddhism. It is divided into three sections, which are:
1. Sīlakkhandha
2. Mahāvagga
3. Patheyya
It has thirty-four suttas.
The first sutta in the first book of Dīgha Nikāya is called the Brahmajāla Sutta, which means ‘Excellent Net’. The
Brahmajāla Sutta refers to sixty-two wrong views and the various doctrinal and philosophical speculations in vogue at that
time. The second, Sāmaññaphala Sutta states the doctrines of the six heretical teachers and the benefits derived in an
ascending order by a monk of the Buddhist Saṅgha.
Some other suttas such as the 11th – Kevaḍḍha Sutta discuss the practice of miracles and shows that the Buddha
was superior to the gods headed by Brahma in as such as he alone was able to answer a question which gods were not able
to. And the Kassapasīhanāda Sutta speaks of various ascetic practices prevalent during the time of the Buddha while the
ninth introduced us to the type of discourses usually delivered to the wanderers etc.
The first sutta of the second volume is the Mahāpadāna, which discussed the lives of the seven Buddhas whose
aqrrival took place before Gautama Buddha. It mentions in detail the life of Vipassī, who was the first of the seven
previous Buddhas. The mahāparinibbāna Sutta is the 16th sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It is regarded as the best sutta of the
Dīgha Nikāya. It deals with the Buddha's last days and his last speeches and sayings and gives an account of the past
greatness of Kusinagara etc. The Mahā Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta deals with the path of mindfulness.
The 3rd volume contains eleven suttas, of which the first four deal mainly with non-Buddhist views and ascetic
practices etc. The last two suttas summarize the teachings of the Buddha as in the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Of these, the
Dasuttara, which is the last, follows the catechetical method.
QUESTION: DISCUSS DISCOURSES OF THE DĪGHA NIKĀYA IN SUTTANTA PIṬAKA AND HOW BUDDHIST ASPECTS IN
THESE SUTTAS AS ESSENTIAL.
Dīgha Nikāya
As for the teachings of the Buddha, many scholars believed that the suttas were the first
discourses of the Buddha and that discipline or Vinaya and the deep Abhidhamma also have been
included in the sutta collection. According to five nikāyas of the Suttanta Piṭaka, Dīgha Nikāya is the
long formula or discourse. The commentary of Dīgha Nikāya is named as 'Sumaṅgalavilāsinī' compiled
by Buddhaghosa. In Dīgha Nikāya there are many long suttas, such as Sāmaññaphala Sutta and
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, which were preached by the Buddha. The Dīgha Nikāya can be divided into
three divisions, namely Sīlakkhandhavagga, Mahāvagga and Pāṭhikavagga.
Of them, first is Sīlakkhandhavagga where 13 suttas out of the 34 are dealing with morality
(sīla) of people and monks. The morality is also divided into three states as cūla sīla, majjhima sīla and
mahā sīla. When we carefully examine the teachings on morality in this chapter, it seems to be
connected with concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). These three qualities are the principle of
teaching of the Buddha. Again, in Bramajāla Sutta of the same vagga, the Buddha explained to some
Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas who adhered to and asserted their wrong views in eighteen different ways.
Mahāvagga as the second part consists of the longest discourses. Hence the word mahā is used
in this vagga. Here mahā means great, big and long, and vagga means chapter. After combining the
words mahā and vagga, it comes as Mahāvagga, the greatest, biggest and longest chapter. The suttas of
the Mahāvagga are Mahāpadāna Sutta, Mahānidāna Sutta and Mahāparinibbāna Sutta etc. and from
those suttas, we can learn about the life story of the Buddha, about the last days of the Buddha and
about the distribution of His relics. Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta of this vagga deals with the four methods
of steadfast mindfulness and practical aspects of Buddhist meditation.
Beginning with Pāṭhika Sutta, the third vagga of Dīgha Nikāya is called Pāṭhikavagga. In
Pāṭhikavagga where are suttas such as Pāṭhika Sutta, Cakkavatti Sutta and Siṅgāla Sutta, the Buddha
shows the wrong views practiced by many followers from different sects, describes the thirty-two
physiognomic characteristics of the king Cakkavatti, the universal monarch, and addresses the duties of
the world between parents and son, teacher and pupil, monk and layman, owner and slave and so on.
MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
The Majjhama Nikāya is mentioned as the second book of the Sutta Piṭaka and also it is one of
the major parts of. It is called “The Middle Collection or The Collection of Discourses of Medium
Length.” It is so called because the suttas it contains are generally, of Middle Length, compared with
the longest suttas of the Dīgha Nikāya. Most of suttas of Majjhima Nikāya refer to the refutation of the
views of others.
The Majjhima Nikāya consists of 152 suttas; these are divided into three parts called “Paṇṇasa -
sets of fifty” though the last set actually contains 52 suttas within each part. The suttas are further
grouped into chapter or divisions “vagga’ of 10 suttas each. The next to the last division “Vibhaṅga
vagga” contains 12 suttas. The name assigns to those divisions considering their title of opening suttas
or some cases, pair of sutta.
Naturally, the greatest number of these discourses in the Majjhima Nikāya addresses to the
piṭaka. The monks since they lived in close proximity to the master. In the Majjhima Nikāya we don’t
meet the Buddha only in his rules as the head of the Order; repeatedly, we see him engaged in living
dialogue with people from many different strata (sing. stratum) of ancient India society like; kings,
princes, Brāhmaṇs, ascetics, simple inhabitants and erudite philosophers.
It is not the Buddha alone who appears in the Majjhima Nikāya, the role of his teaching and
work also introduced as to the accomplish disciples who carried on the transmittance of his teachings.
Of 152 suttas in the connection are spoken by the ven. Sāriputta, general of Dīgha Nikāya, by the
Ānanda, the Buddha’s personal attendant, during the last 25 years of his life, delivered suttas and
participated in many more and four suttas were spoken by the ven. Mahākaccāyna and two by the
Second Great chief disciples, the ven. Mahāmoggallāna.
666MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA
There are hundred fifty-two Suttas in the Majjhima Nik1ya. These Suttas are divided into three
groups. There are fifty Suttas in one group. There are many Suttas have been the same name with the
only difference as C3la and Mah1 for example:
In these manner, there are many Suttas arrange in pairs. The Mah1 vision it is usually longer
than a C3la but not always.
In the Majjhima Nik1ya there are some Suttas, which we called Ov1da Sutta. In this sutta we
observe advice given.
(1) An1thapintikov1da
(2) Cannav1da
(3) Nandokov1da
(4) CularAhulov1da
In these Suttas we observe advice given to various people. Once the Buddha gave advise to
An1thapindika who was the chief lay disciple of the Buddha. The Buddha once advised Canna who
was very stubborn not to commit suicide. The Buddha advised Nanda about the impermanence of
sensual pleasure. The Buddha also advised Rahul1 Thera, in this Sutta, C3lavagga. We observed the
Buddha given advise to give up defilement and to practice the path leading to Nibbana. All these
Ov1da Suttas are very important to make a person free from impurity.
In the Majjhima Nik1ya there are Suttas dealing with similes. These Suttas are called Upam1
Sutta-
1. Vatth3pam1 Sutta
2. Kakac3pama Sutta
3. Alagadd3pama Sutta
4. VaMmika Sutta
5. Ratavin2ta Sutta
6. C3lahathipadopam1 Sutta
7. Latthukikopama Sutta
In the Vatth3pam1 Sutta, the Buddha gave the parable of the cloth. The Buddha gave instruction
to the Buddhist monks to remain pure in mind and to destroy all mental impurity.
In the Kakac3pama Sutta, the parable of saw is given. Here it is said that to curb (stop) anger and
to act and to behave like a person free from anger. This Sutta is given.
In the Alagaddupam1 Sutta the parable of snake is given. Here in this instance, if one takes hold
of the snake, the snake should be held by the neck and not by the tail.
In the Vammika sutta, an anthill is used as a parable to show how a person can get rid of sensor
pleasures.
In the Ratavinita Sutta, the 7 stages of purification to go to Nibb1na are compared to a chariot.
In the C3hatthipadopama Sutta gives the parable of an elephant. It is meant the covering of the
most important teaching of the Buddha.
In Latukikopam1 sutta, according to this sutta it is said that foolish people do not give up when
asked to stop their wrong actions. Later whowever, they become a bond and they cannot get free. In
this way in the Majjhima Nik1ya there are Sutta in indicating various types of parables.
Majjhima Nik1ya gives a picture of a social and religious condition during the time of the
Buddha. The life of the Buddha as well as the practices of monks are well illustrated. These Suttas also
give the religious views of the teachers who lived during the time of the Buddha.
The End
EXPLAIN THE MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA AND ITS SUTTAS SPOKEN BY THE BUDDHA AND HIS DISCIPLES WITH SPECIAL
FOCUSING ON IT. (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NĀRASĪHA)
Majjhima Nikāya
The Majjhima Nikāya is mentioned as the second division of the Suttanta Piṭaka and is a one of
major part of the Pāli Canon. Majjima Nikāya is called 'the Middle Collection' or 'the collection of
discourses of medium length' and it is so called because the suttas there are generally of medium length
if compared with the longer suttas of Dīgha Nikāya. Most of the suttas of Majjhima Nikāya refer to the
refutation of other views.12
The Majjhima Nikāya consists of one hundred and fifty-two suttas in three books known as
paṇṇāsa. The first book, Mūlapaṇṇāsa, deals with the first fifty suttas in five vaggas, the second book,
Majjhimapaṇṇāsa consists of the second fifty suttas in five vaggas too. And then the last fifty-two
suttas deal with another five vaggas of the book, Uparipaṇṇāsa, which means more than fifty. The
suttas in Majjhima Nikāya throws much light on the social ideas and institutions of those days and also
provides general information on the economic and political life.
In suttas of Majjhima Nikāya such as Mūlapariyāya Sutta, the Buddha explained the basis of
all phenomena, specifying twenty-four categories such as the four elements, namely earth, water, fire
and wind and so on. The uninstructed worldling cannot perceive the true nature of these phenomena but
only the enlightened ones can see them in true perspective. Again, in Dhammadāyāda Sutta, the
Buddha urged the Bhikkhus to receive (as their legacy from Him through Bodhipakkhiyadhamma) only
12 I would argue that it is rather Dīgha Nikāya which deals with other views.
non-material things like the four requisites.13 Sāriputta Thero also advised the Bhikkhus to lead a
solitary life for attainment of jhānas and to strive for the attainment of Nibbāna by abandoning greed,
ill will, and delusion.
It is not the Buddha alone who appears in the Majjhima Nikāya when teaching and working,
but also the act of accomplishing His teachings by His disciples who are responsible for transition of
His teaching is introduced. Of the 152 suttas in the Majjhima Nikāya, the collection of discourses of
medium length, nine suttas are spoken by Ven. Sāriputta Thero and in general some Doctrine or the
Dhamma is expounded by Ven. Ānanda. Of the seven suttas delivered by the Buddha during the last
25 years of His life, in four suttas also Ven. Mahākaccāyana participates. The two suttas are preached
by the second chief disciple, Ven. Mahāmoggalāna.
SAṂYUTTA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
The third division of the Sutta Piṭaka is Saṃyutta Nikāya, according to Mrs. Rhys Davids it is
called “Grouped Suttas or the Book of kindred sayings.” The saying has 56 groups or Saṃyuttas; there
are five Vaggas; those are Sagāthā, Nidāna, Khandha, Saḷāyatana and Mahā Vagga. The Sagāthā
Vagga has 12 suttas, Nidāna Vagga consists of 10 suttas, the Khandha Vagga contains 13 suttas, there
are 10 in Saḷāyatana Vagga, and Mahā Vagga refers to 12 only.
The Sutta Piṭaka's third nikāya is the Samutta nikāya. After the first Buddhist council the Dīgha nikāya was
submitted to ven. Ānanda and his disciples in order to preserve it and Majjhima nikāya was submitted to the disciples
of ven. Sāriputta as well as this Saṁyutta nikāya was submitted to the leader monk, ven. Mahākassapa and to his
disciples. According to Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, it is „grouped suttas“ or „the book of the kindred sayings.“ It is
mentioned as „a compilation of suttas with their main bearing on psycho-ethical and philosophical problems.“ She
describes that the suttas of these collections are concise prose-discourses. She mentions further that the mass of these
little suttas, slight and concise sketches, with the verses which sum them up, or which they, the suttas, explain – many
of them very poor poetry as such – dealing with legends of fairies, gods and devils, with royal and priestly
interviewers of the sublime teacher, may seem tantalizing jungle to the traveler bound for the hills of thought more
13 But the four requisites, that means the food, robes, shelter and medicine are material things …
austere. But let him enter with open mind and sympathetic imagination awake. So, will he wander not unrewarded. He
will find himself for the most part in the woodland of faerie, opening out here on a settlement of religious brethren,
there on scenes of life in rural communities such as might well be met in India of today or indeed in other countries.
Mythical and folklore drapery are wrapped about many of the sayings here ascribed to the Buddha. Nevertheless, the
matter of them is of the stamp of the oldest doctrine known to us, and from them a fairly complete synopsis of the
ancient Dhamma might be compiled. And, short and terse as are the presentations of both sayings and episode, they
contribute not a little to body out our somewhat vague outline of India's greatest son, so that we receive successive
impressions of his great good sense, his willingness to adapt his sayings to the individual inquirer, his keen intuition,
his humor and smiling irony, his courage and dignity, his catholic and tender compassion for all creatures.
The Saṁyutta nikāya has 56 „groups“ or „saṁyuttas.“ There are five vaggas, which are divided into these
saṁyuttas. These five vaggas are:
1. Sagathavagga (has 11 saṁyuttas)
2. Nidanavagga (has 10 saṁyuttas)
3. Khandhavagga (has 13 saṁyuttas)
4. Salāyatanavagga (has 10 saṁyuttas)
5. Mahāvagga (has 12 saṁyuttas)
The vaggas are so called after the name of the first in the group or interlocutor's name. The Sagathavagga has
eleven saṁyuttas, the Nidānavagga consists of ten, next has thirteen, next has ten and the last one has twelve. Māra
and Bhikkhunī saṁyuttas which are mentioned as ballads in mixed prose and verses have occupied an important place
in the Saṁyutta nikāya, because they are work of great poetical merit. They are but sacred ballads, counterpart of
those Akhyanas, with which the epic poetry the Indian originated.
The Aṅguttara Nikāya is the fourth division of the five groups of Sutta Piṭaka. In Encyclopedia
of Buddhism we find an account of the Aṅguttara Nikāya; it described in this division, the suttas are
grouped in “Uttara – High and Aṅga – Part” that is in groups of numerical ascendancy. It is translated
into English as numerical Saying or Gradual Saying. This particular way of grouping is an additional
assistant for memorizing to contents; it is very clear that when we compare and contrast with long
suttas, which were existed in Dīgha Nikāya. It is easy to commit to memory; the suttas are short and
numerical in Aṅguttara Nikāya.
There are many translations for Aṅguttara Nikāya for instance, numerical saying and gradual
saying in Sanskrit canon; it was mentioned to be Ekutarāgama and also Milindapañhā mentions that it
is named as Ekutarā Nikāya.
The suttas of Aṅguttara Nikāya are divided into 11 divisions known as nipāta or 'collection'.
Each nipāta is divided again into groups called vagga which usually contains 10 suttas, 11 nipātas
named Ekaka Nipāta and Dukkha Nipāta and so on. In Ekaka Nipāta it contains one item of Dhamma;
it is increased up to eleven. Item of Dhamma, it is said that collections of discourses of Aṅguttara
Nikāya is containing 9557 short suttas. There are many ideas about this number. Among scholars they
denoted various numbers according to their own thoughts. This collection is very famous amongst
students as well as teachers.
We can find much information about the great disciples of the Buddha like; ven. Sāriputta in
Intuitive Wisdom and Knowledge (paññā), Mahā Nogallāna in supernormal power (Iddhi), etc.
through this source or suttas specially visitors who came to visit the Buddha and queried the questions.
the Buddha had dwelled and Buddha’s answers all these questions are available in Aṅguttara Nikāya.
The Aṅguttara Nikāya has following nipāta;
4) Ekaka Nipāka contains 21 chapters in A.N. I. 1 to 46.
5) Duka Nipāta contains 16 chapters in A.N. I. 46 to 100.
6) Tika Nipāta contains 16 chapters in A.N. I. 101 to 304.
7) Catuka Nipāta contains 26 chapters in A.N. II. 1 to 257.
8) Pañcaka Nipāta contains 26 chapters in A.N. III. 1 to 278.
9) Chakka Nipāta contains 12 chapters in A.N. III. 279 to 452.
10) Sattaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 1 to 149.
11) Aṭṭhaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 150 to 350.
12) Navaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 351 to 466.
13) Dasaka Nipāta contains 22 chapters in A.N. IV. 1 to 310.
14) Ekādasaka Nipāta contains 3 chapters in A.N. IV. 311 to 361.
QUESTION: EXPLAIN HOW TO STUDY THE AṄGUTTARA NIKĀYA AS A SEPARATE SECTION IN THE SUTTANTA PIṬAKA.
The Aṅguttara Nikāya is the fourth division of the five groups of Suttanta Piṭaka. Regarding the
Aṅguttara Nikāya, in encyclopedia of Buddhism it is described by the words aṅga, uttara and nikāya.
In its meaning, aṅga is a 'part' or 'numeral', uttara is higher and nikāya is 'group'. It is translated into
English as 'the book of the numerical or gradual sayings' as the meaning of Aṅguttara Nikāya. As for
the Aṅguttara Nikāya, memorization of its contents is shorter and easier than of Dīghanikāya.14 There
are many translations for Aṅguttara Nikāya. For instance, in Sanskrit Canon it is mentioned
Egutarāgama15 as numerical or gradual sayings and in Milida Pañhā its name is also mentioned as
KHUDDAKA NIKĀYA (SMALLER COLLECTIONS) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)
According to the source of the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka states that the Sutta Piṭaka which
consists of five nikāyas were completed at the first council held at Rājagaha immediately after the passing away
information in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekottara_Agama .
16 Word 'Egutara' does not appear in Tipiṭaka at all. In Milindapañhā we can see these two statements: »Bhagavatā
devātidevena aṅguttaranikāyavare kathambhūtassa me rattindivā vītivattantīti pabbajitena abhiṇhaṃ
paccavekkhitabba'nti.« (6. Opammakathāpaññho - 10. Cakkavattiṅgapañho) And also »Bhāsitampetaṃ, mahārāja,
bhagavatā devātidevena ekaṅguttaranikāyavaralañchake "nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekapuggalampi samanupassāmi,
yo evaṃ tathāgatena anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ sammadeva anuppavatteti, yathayidaṃ bhikkhave,
sāriputto, sāriputto. bhikkhave, tathāgatena anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ sammadeva anuppavattetī'ti.« (5.
Anumānapañho - 2. Dhutaṅgapañho)
17 There is also an extra information, and that is the exact pages where the certain nipātas appear. It seems, that those page
numbers apply to this five volumed edition of Aṅguttara Nikāya: "The Book of the Gradual Sayings", from Pāli
translated by F. L. Woodward & E. M. Hare, 1932-6, Bristol.
of the Buddha. But according to other traditions and some chronicles of Sri Lanka it is said that in the first
council only the First Four nikāyas have been composed. Having completed the rehearsal of the Dīgha Nikāya
which consisted of 34 discourses and 64 Paṇṇāvāra; it was entrusted to the ven. Ānanda after recital of Dīgha
Nikāya, the Majjhima Nikāya. which consists 152 suttas and 80 Paṇṇavāras was rehearsed and entrusted to
pupils of ven. Sāriputta. The Saṃyutta Nikāya which consists of 100 paṇṇavāra was rehearsed and entrusted to
ven. Mahākassapa; finally the Aṅguttara Nikāya which contains 120 paṇṇavāra was recited and entrusted to
ven. Ānurudha.
It should be noted that the Mahābodhivaṃsa, a work written in Pāli, in the 1st century BC in Sri Lanka,
also informs us about the prosperity of the first council. the account found in the Mahābodhivaṃsa more or less
corresponds to the account of Sumaṅgalavisālinī - in this account also the Khuddaka Nikāya is not mentioned.
Each group who was entrusted in the four nikāyas known as Paṇṇāvāra; the monk who continued the
Dīgha Nikāya was known as Dipākassa, Majjhima Nikāya in the same way but there are not references to
reciters of Khuddaka Nikāya Pāṇṇāvāra in Pāli commentaries.
The Khuddaka Nikāya is the fifth division of the Sutta Piṭaka; it has 16 independent treatises but Ven.
Buddhaghosa enumerated them as 15. It is known as collection of miscellaneous or collection of short pieces.
According to some scholars the texts of Khuddaka Nikāya were compiled after the four nikāyas and also besides
Attakapāra Vagga of Sutta Nipāta; other pieces were considered as compiled after the first council. It is known
that some of the parts belonged to the earliest period but other parts belonged to the last stratum of the Pāli
canon. It is to be noted here that when we judge the subject matter of this nikāya we see that among the different
texts there was similarity and they can be mentioned as independent texts and also we can see most diverse
characteristics and it is significant that among the Buddhist of Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia and Siam there is no
completed agreement as to which pieces belong to it. The 15 texts are;
1. Khuddaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)
2. Dhammapada (The Way of Truth)
3. Udāna (Paeans of Joy)
4. Itivuttaka (“thus said” Discourse)
5. Suttanipāta (Collected Discourses)
6. Vimānavatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
7. Petavatthu (Stories of Petas)
8. Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren )
9. Therīgāthā (Psalms of Sisters)
10. Jātaka (Birth stories of Bodhisattva)
11. Niddesa (Expositions)
12. Paṭisambhidā Magga (Book of Analytical Knowledge )
13. Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)
14. Buddhavaṃsa (History of the Buddha)
15. Cariyā Piṭaka (Modes of Conducts)
KHUDDAKA NIKĀYA
The Khuddaka nikāya is the fifth division of the Sutta Piṭaka. It has sixteen independent treatises, but
Buddhaghosa enumerated them as fifteen. Some of its parts belong to earliest period while other parts belonged to the later
stratum of the Pāli canon. It is composed for the most part in verses and contains almost all the important words of Buddhist
poetry. The sixteen books included in Khuddaka nikāyas are as follows:
1. Khuddakapātha 9. Therīgātha
2. Dhammapada 10. Jātakas
3. Udāna 11. Mahāniddesa
4. Itivuttaka 12. Cullaniddesa
5. Suttanipāta 13. Paṭisambhidāmagga
6. Vimānavatthu 14. Apadāna
7. Petavatthu 15. Buddhavaṁsa
8. Theragātha 16. Cariyāpiṭaka
According to Burmese tradition, there are four other works besides above mentioned texts, namely:
17. Milindapañhā
18. Suttasaṅgaha
19. Petakopadesa
20. Nettippakarana
Khuddaka Nikāya
Of the five Nikāyas, Khuddakanikāya contains the largest number of treatises (as listed below) and the most
numerous categories of Dhamma. Although the word „khuddaka“ literally means „minor“ or „small“ the actual content of
this collection can by no means be regarded as minor including as it does the two major divisions of the piṭaka, namely, the
Vinaya Piṭaka and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka according to one system of classification. The miscellaneous nature of this
collection containing not only the discourses by the Buddha but compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in verse,
accounts of personal struggles and achievements by Theras and Therīs also in verses, the birth stories, the history of the
Buddha etc. may account for it as 'a Bible'.
The following is the list of treatises as approved by the International Buddhist Synod:
Khuddaka nikāya
1. Khuddakapātha 10. Jātaka
2. Dhammapada 11. Niddesa
3. Udāna 12. Paṭisambhidāmagga
4. Itivuttaka 13. Apadāna
5. Suttanipāta 14. Buddhavaṁsa
6. Vimānavatthu 15. Cariyāpiṭaka
7. Petavatthu 16. Nettippakaraṇa
8. Theragāthā 17. Petakopadesa
9. Therīgāthā 18. Milindapañhā
EXPLAIN THE KHUDDAKANIKĀYA FROM THE CONTROVERSY AMONG MANY SCHOLARS' POINTS OF VIEWS.
(ORIGINAL FROM VEN. NĀRASĪHA)
Khuddaka Nikāya
There are so many concepts regarding Khuddaka Nikāya among different scholars. According
to the Theravāda tradition, it is stated that the Sutta Piṭaka, which consists of five nikāyas, was
completed at the First Buddhist Council in Rājagaha after passing away of the Buddha. During the
First Buddhist Council, each group of those who recited (by heart) the four nikāyas, was known as
bhānaka. For example, the monks who preserved (by memorizing) the Dīgha Nikāya were known as
Dīgha Bhānaka, Majjhima Bhānaka, Saṃyutta Bhānaka and Aṅguttara Bhānaka. But because of not
reciting the Khuddaka Nikāya yet, there were no Khudaka Bhānakas in the Pali tradition at that time.
Moreover, according to another traditions and some Sri Lankan chronicles, it is said that in the
First Council only first four Nikāyas have been composed and completed. Of them, after reciting the
Dīgha Nikāya, which consisted of 34 discourses and 64 bhaṇavaras by Ānanda, the Majjima Nikāya
which consisted of 152 suttas, 80 bhaṇavaras was rehearsed by the pupils of Sāriputta. And then, the
Saṃyutta Nikāya, which consisted of 100 bhaṇavaras was preserved by Mahā Kassapa and finally,
the Aṅguttara Nikāya, which consisted of 120 Bhaṇavaras, was recited by Anuruddha. There is no
mention about the Khuddaka Nikāya in the First Saṅgāyanā regarding these points.
In the same way, in the famous chronicles of Sri Lanka named Mahābodhivaṃsa, which is
dated to be written in Pāli in the 1st century also informs us as saying above. Similarity in the
Sumangalavilāsinī written by Buddhaghosa also tells that there was no account on Khuddaka Nikāya
in the First Buddhist council. Both Mahābodhivaṃsa and Sumaṅgalavilāsinī say the same point as for
the Khuddaka Nikāya.
The Khuddaka Nikāya of Suttanta Piṭaka had 16 independent treatises at the beginning but
Buddhaghosa enumerated them as only 15. According to some scholars’ accepting, the texts of
Khuddaka Nikāya were compiled after the first four nikāyas but not whole, only some parts. They said
that some parts belong to the earliest period but other parts belong to the latest stratum of the Pali
Canon. It is to be noted here that when we study about the Khuddaka Nikāya, we can see that the parts
can be mentioned as independent texts and this book has the most diverse characteristics among the
Buddhist countries as Ceylon, Burma and Siam. The 15 texts of Khuddaka Nikāya are as follows:
1. Khuddakapātha 9. Therīgāthā
2. Dhammapada 10. Jātaka
3. Udāna 11. Niddesa
4. Itivuttaka 12. Paṭisambhidāmagga
5. Suttanipāta 13. Apadāna
6. Vimānavatthu 14. Buddhavaṁsa
7. Petavatthu 15. Cariyāpiṭaka
8. Theragāthā
666D ISCUSS THE VARIOUS VIEWS REGARDING THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE K HUDDAKA N IKAYA .
Khuddaka Nikaya is the fifth section of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains the largest number of treatises
and the most numerous categories of Dhamma. According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Khuddaka
Nikaya consists of 15 texts:
(1) Khuddaka-patha
(2) Dhammapada
(3) Udana
(4) Itivuttaka
(5) Sutta-nipata
(6) Vimana-vatthu
(7) Peta-vatthu
(8) Theragatha
(9) Therigatha
(10) Jataka
(11) Niddesa
(12) Patisajbhida-magga
(13) Apadana
(14) Buddhavajsa
(15) Cariya-pitaka
The Niddesa, lists number 11, consists of two parts: Mahaniddesa and Culaniddesa. However,
according to the Burmese tradition, there are 19 books in Khuddaka Nikaya, i.e., 4 others works
besides the above mentioned texts, they are:
(1) Nettipakarana
(2) Petakopadesa
(3) Milindapabha
(4) Sutta-savgaha
Within these 15 texts, there are several texts are of all verse, namely:
(1) Dhammapada
(2) Vimanavatthu
(3) Petavatthu
(4) Theragatha
(5) Therigatha
(6) Buddhavajsa
(7) Jataka
(8) Cariya-pitaka
According to Cullavagga, the five Nikayas were questioned during the 1 st council.
Thus, the Theravada has a belief that Khuddaka Nikaya was rehearsed during the First
Council. But yet, there are various contrary views even among the Theravadins regarding
the authenticity of the Khuddaka Nikaya.
The existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya at the time of the First Council still remains
to be proved. It is obvious that the texts of the khuddaka Nikaya are not chronologically
ordered in the early sources. Actually, the various texts have undergone a certain period of
development and there are many interpolations into them. It becomes clear that these
individual texts have already existed during the early time prior to the Khuddaka Nikaya.
It is mentioned in the Sumangalavilasini that both the Vinaya and the 4 nikayas
were handed to their bhanakas during the 1 st Council, but the Khuddaka Nikaya has not
been mentioned any such handing-over. Instead, there were Jataka-bhanakas and
Dhammapada-bhanakas, but no Khuddaka Nikaya bhanakas. Therefore it is clear that the
Khuddaka Nikaya was not rehearsed during the 1 st Council.
According to the Dhammaguptika Vinaya, there are also facts as to the holding of
the First Council as well as the rehearsed of the first 4 Nikayas. There is no mention of
the Khuddaka Nikaya been rehearsed. At the end of the Council, the rehearsal took place
with regard to some suttas such as Jatakasuttas, nidanasuttas etc. This view is very similar
to that of the Sumangalavilasini. Even the Chinese translation of the Mahaparinibbana
sutta and in the Mulasarvastivada, only 4 Agamas are mentioned, but not the Khuddaka
Nikaya.
Besides the problem of the existence of the Khuddaka Nikaya during the First
Council, there are also various views regarding the number and the order of texts in the
Khuddaka Nikaya.
Buddhaghosa has given one and only definition to each of the first 4 Nikayas in his
famous Samantapasadika. But he gives two definitions for the Khuddaka Nikaya, i.e.;
1.“Pavvarasappabhado kuddakanikayo”
(The Khuddaka Nikaya consits of 15 books)
In the second definition, it is clear that the whole of the Vinaya Pitaka and the
Abhidhamma Pitaka and all the teachings of the Buddha not included in the remaining 4
Nikayas are regarded as forming the Khuddaka Nikaya. Here, even Buddhaghosa does not
have definite view regarding the number of texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya.
With regard to the term “pavvrasappabhado”, the Chinese Samantapasadika gives
“Cuddasabheda” (i.e. 14 books). Here one book is lacking, some scholars such as Oliver
Abeynayaka thought that it is the Khuddakapatha. The evidence is that, both before and
after the time of commentary, the name of the Khuddakapatha has been omitted from the
Khuddaka Nikaya in the lists of the Dighabhanakas, Majjhimabhanakas, Mahabodhivajsa,
Saddhamaratnakaraya and the Sinhala Milinda Prasnaya.
According to the Burmese tradition, there are 19 texts in the Khuddaka Nikaya, but in
the Siamese tradition, there are only 7 texts; in the Saddharmaratnakaraya, 12; the
Dharmaguptika vinaya 13; and in the Saratthadipani 14. Thus the number of the texts are
obvious differ, so is the order.
According to the Dipavajsa, a portion of the Jataka and the whole of the
Patisambhidamagga and Niddesa have been refused by the Mahasanghikas, though they
accepted the first 4 Nikayas. It also seems that the Dharmaguptika vinaya does not accept
the existence of the Suttanipata, only two vaggas, i.e. Atthaka and Parayana have been
recorded in their list.
The Sumangalavilasini as well as the Manorathapurani inform us that a Thera named
Sudinna rejected 11 texts which are found in the Khuddaka Nikaya, on the view that they
cannot be named ‘sutta’, “assuttanamakaj Buddhavacana nama nathi”. These texts are
Dhammapada, Jataka, Patisambhidhamagga, Theragatha, Therigatha etc. These texts do
not have sutta’s name, and they are the works of the disciples. Therefore the statement of
Thera Sudinna does confirm some sort of truth. Hence under this criteria, even the
Theravadins found it difficult to give authenticity to the Khuddaka Nikaya.
There is a reference found in the Samantapasadika which speaks of a Jataka Nikaya along
with the 4 Nikayas. This fact has drawn much attention of the scholars which resulted in
various opinions. However, it is quite obvious that the reference made to the order of
Nikayas as Digha, Majjhama, Sajyutta, Avguttara and Jataka, has shaken the traditional
theory of the five Nikayas and the authenticity of the Khudakka Nikaya.
KHUDDAKAPĀTHA
Khuddakapātha or „the short lesson“ is mentioned as the first text of the Khuddaka nikāya. It is also known as
lesson heading. Mr. Rhys Davids called it the text of minor sayings. The Khuddakapātha consists of nine texts according to
commentary. The book divides its names from the first four passages which are shorter in compilation with the remaining
five passages of suttas.
1. Saranāgamana (taking the refuge of Triple Gem)
2. Dasa Sikhāpada (ten precepts to be observed by the novices to enter the order)
3. Dvattimsakara (the list of 32 parts of the body)
4. Sāmanera Pañhā (a set of questions given to a sāmanera)
5. Mahāmaṅgala Sutta (38 auspicious to anyone)
6. Rataṇa Sutta (it is said to have been preached by the Buddha in the place of Vesālī to preaching Triple Gem and
blessing)
7. Tirokuddha Sutta (about petas (departed spirits), transferring merits to one's kinsmen)
8. Nidhikanda Sutta (the result of good deeds)
9. Karanīyamettā Sutta (mettā meditation)
Mahāmangala sutta
Mahāmangala sutta was preached at Jetavana in answering the questions asked by a deva as to which are the
auspicious things in the world. This sutta describes 38 auspicious things including such things as the evident of four
associations with wise, honoring those worthy human etc. This commentary explains that at the time this sutta was
preached, there was a great discussion over the whole of Jambudīpa regarding the constitution of mangala. The deva heard
the discussion and argued among themselves till the matters spread to the pious Brahma world. Then it was Sakka's
suggestion, that a devaputta should visit the Buddha and ask him about it. In the Sutta Nipāta some sutta called
Mahāmangala was discussed. It is one of the suttas at the preaching of which countless deva were present and countless
beings realized the truth. This sutta is often recited and formed one of the commons of paritta. To have it written down in a
book is considered an act of great of merit. It is said, that one king Duṭugemunu intended to preach this sutta at the
Lohabhasada, but he was too nervous.
Ratana sutta
This sutta is one of the precious in early Pāli poetry. A charming hymn of praise of the Buddhist holy triple Gem is
recited to ward off dangers and secure prosperity. The poem as we, now have it consists of two separate groups of stanza.
The one of the five stanzas (first two and the last three) has been traditionally known as the original structure (atīte pañca
gātha). The remaining stanzas of poem are to have been inserted into the original a scheme of five. Whatever treasure there
is in the world or in the next and whatever excellent jewels there were in heaven, there is none equal to the Buddha. There is
nothing equal to unceasing meditation preached by the Buddha. Those being free from desire with a steadfast mind are
firmly established in the religion of Gautama. “He who obtains Arahantship as the pillar of a city gate standing on the earth
is immovable by the wind from the four directions. So, I call him a righteous man who realized the Four Noble Truths.”
They, who clearly meditated on the Four Noble Truths laid down by the Wise One, however much they may be lead to
Nibbāna cannot obtain the rebirth in the Niraya (hell) but they finally obtain blessing of the Triple Gem.
Tirokuddha sutta
One of the five suttas included in the Khuddakapātha. Petas (departed spirits), having their old dwelling places and
their compassionate kinsmen should feed on them in due time food, charring etc. and also give gifts to monks in their
names. Thus will they be happy. This sutta was preached on the third day of the Buddha's visit to Rājagaha, because on the
previous night petas made a great uproar in the king Bimbisāra's palace.
NIDDESA
The Niddesa is the eleventh book of Khuddaka Nikāya. It has two parts – the Mahā Niddesa and Culla Niddesa.
These two books are considered as commentaries belonging to the canon. The Mahā Niddesa is mentioned as a collection of
word-by-word annotations of 210 verses of 16 suttas in the Aṭṭhakavagga of the Suttanipāta. The Culla Niddesa caontains
comments on 118 verses of 18 suttas of Parāyana Vagga and 41 verses of one sutta in the same Suttanipāta.
The Niddesa is commentarial work and is ascribed to ven. Sāriputta. It has a detailed explanation by ven.
Sāriputta of 32 suttas of Aṭṭhaka and Parāyana vaggas of Suttanipāta, and the Khaggavisana Sutta of the Uraga Vagga of
the Suttanipāta. It contains no coments on the 56 Vatthugātha introductory stanzas with preface. The Parāyana Vagga is
presently found in the Sutta Nipāta.
This lends support to the suggestion, that at the time when Cūla Niddesa was written the Parāyana Vagga was a
spread(?) and anthology(?), and that the Khaggavisana Sutta did not belong to any particular group, similarly with the
Mahā Niddesa and Aṭṭhaka Vagga. The comments in the Niddesa seem to have been methodical, exegetical explanations
such as are attributed here and there in the Piṭakas to Mahā Kaccāyana and ven. Sāriputta. The Niddesa refers to several
schedules of the mind-qualities which are based on the three divisions – action, speech and thought.
DHAMMAPADA
The Dhammapada is the second book of the Khuddaka nikāya. It deals with the sublime teachings of the Buddha.
It is a short manual of Buddhist teaching. It has 423 verses and is arranged according to topics into 26 vaggas or „chapters.“
They are:
The meaning of the Dhammapada is „the religious words“ or „saying according to Buddhism.“ It contains the
teachings of the Buddha and mentions the essential principles of Buddhist philosophy and the Buddhist way of life.
All these characteristics are featured in the Dhammapada, one of the thirty-one books that comprise the Tipiṭaka,
the three „baskets“ which contain the quintessence of the Buddha's teachings.
The Dhammapada is not a book to be read superficially like a novel and shelved aside. It should be read and re-
read so that it may serve as a constant companion for inspiration, solace, and edification in times of need.
The Dhammapada was not preached by the Buddha in the present form. Three months after the passing away of
the Buddha, the Arahants, who assembled at the first convocation to rehearse the teachings of the Buddha, collected some
of the poetic utterances of the Buddha, which he expounded on different occasions, arranged and classified the treatise in
its present form, naming it the Dhammapada.
The Pāli term „Dhamma,“ in Sanskrit „Dharma,“ is one of the most difficult words to be translated into English as
it has many meanings. It has to be understood according to the context. Were it is used in the sense of saying or Teachings
of the Buddha. „Pada“ implies „sections,“ „portions,“ „parts,“ or „way.“ Dhammapada may be rendered „sections or
portions of the Dhamma.“ „The way of the Dhamma.“ It is somewhat difficult to offer a graceful English equivalent
according to its literal meaning. The way of Truth „The way of righteousness,“ „The path of virtue,“ are renderings that
have been suggested by various scholars.
The Dhammapada consists of 423 melodious Pāli verses uttered by the Buddha on about 300 occasions to suit the
temperaments of the listeners in the course of His preaching tours during His ministry of forty-five years. Circumstances
that led to these noble utterances are presented in the form of long or short stories, together with traditional interpretations
of the Pāli verses and technical terms, in the voluminous commentary written by ven. Buddhaghosa. This valuable
commentary has been ably translated by E. W. Burlighame for the Harvard Oriental Series. It may be remarked that most
of these verses are better understood when read with the context.
The gems of truth embodied in these texts aptly illustrate the moral and philosophical teachings of the Buddha.
DHAMMAPADA
From ancient times to the present, the Dhammapada has been regarded as the most concise expression of the
Buddha's teching found in the Pāli canon and the chief spiritual evidence of early Buddhism.
In the countries following Theravāda Buddhism, such as Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, the influence of the
Dhammapada is continual. It is an ever-fruitful source of themes for sermons and discussions, a guidebook for resolving the
countless problems of everyday life, a primer for the instruction of novices in the monasteries. Even the experienced,
contemplative, withdrawn to forest hermitage or mountainside cave for a life of meditation, can be expected to count a copy
of the book among his few material possessions. Yet the admiration the Dhammapada has obtained has not been confined to
avowed followers of Buddhism. Wherever it has become known its moral earnestness, realistic understanding of human life,
aphoristic wisdom and stirring message of a way to freedom from suffering have won for it the devotion and veneration of
those responsive to the good and the true.
The expounder of the verses that comprise the Dhammapada is the Indian sage called the Budda, an honorific title
meaning ‘the Enlightened One’ or ‘the Awakened One’. The title ‘Dhammapada’ which the ancient compilers of the
Buddhist scriptures attached to our anthology, means portions, aspects or sections of Dhamma. The work has been given
this title because, in its twenty-six chapters, it spans the multiple aspects of the Buddha's teaching, offering a variety of
standpoints from which to gain a glimpse into its heart.
The work is simply a collection of inspirational or pedagogical verses on the fundamentals of the Dhamma, to be
used as a basis for personal edification and instruction. In any given chapter several successive verses may have been
spoken by the Budda on a single occasion, and thus among themselves will exhibit a meaningful development or a set of
variations on a theme. But by a large, the logic behind the grouping together of verses into a chapter is merely the concern
with a common topic. The twenty-six chapter headings thus function as a kind of rubric for classifying the diverse poetic
utterances of the Master, and the reason behind the inclusion of any given verse in a particular chapter is its mention of the
subject indicated in the chapter’s heading.
As a great releigious classic and the chief spiritual testament of early Buddhism, the Dhammapada cannot be
judged in its true value by a single reading, even if that reading is done carefully and reverentially. The reader should reflect
on the meaning of each verse deeply and thoroughly, investigate its relevance to his life, and apply it as a guide to conduct.
If this is done repeatedly, with patience and perseverance, it is certain that the Dhammapada will confer upon his life and
new meaning and sense of purpose. Infusing him with hope and inspiration, gradually it will lead him to discover a freedom
and happiness far greater than anything the world can offer.
666UDANA
1. Sutta Pitaka
2. Vinaya Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
1. Digha Nikaya
2. Majjhima Nikaya
3. Sajyutta Nikaya
4. Avguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
The former 4 sections are separate texts and the 5th one consists of 15 texts. The Buddha’s
teaching have been introduced by the following names during the Buddha’s time:
1. Dhamma
2. Dhamma-vinaya
3. Pabcanikaya
4. Sahita
5. Navavga
6. Pavacana
Of these names, navavga refers to nine sections or style of Buddha’s teaching, it can be considered
as distinctive characteristic of Buddha’s teaching.
1. Sutta 6. Itivuttaka
2. Geyya 7. Jataka
3. Veyyakarana 8. Abhutadhamma
4. Gatha 9. vedalla
5. Udana
The term udana appears even in this early classification of Buddha’s teaching. It is good
evidence to support the antiquity of the Udana Pali. The term Udana is defined as UD + AN + A =
Udana. Etymologically, it means ‘the air going up’. According to vedic literature, there are five kinds
of life-air (prana-vayu):
1. prana
2. vyana
3. apana
4. udana
5. samana
In this list of prana-vayu, number 4 refer to Udana. The term Udana generally refers to the
expression connected with enjoyment. In the Buddhist context, not only the enjoyment but also insight
or understanding is combine with the term, when it was used in connection with the Pali text it means
eighty-two discourses of the Buddha which have the characteristic of enjoyment and insight.
The Udana is the third book of the Khuddaka Nikaya, found between the Dhammapada and
Itivuttaka. It is a collection of 80 udana in 8 vaggas, each containing 10 suttas which end with a solemn
utterance. Each utterance is preceded by an introduction explaining the circumstances leading to the
event. The 8 vaggas are:
(1) Bodhivagga
(2) Mucalindavagga
(3) Nandavagga
(4) Meghiyavagga
(5) Sonatherassavagga
(6) Jaccandhavagga
(7) Culavagga
(8) Pataligamiyavagga
1. MULAPARIYAYA SUTTA
The Majjhima-nikaya begins with the Mulapariyaya sutta which lays the scene of the discourse at
the pleasure grove of Ukkattha. The Buddha uttered these words “sabba-dhamma-mulapariyayaj vo
bhikkhave desessami” (Bhikkhu, I shall expound the main procedure of all religious beliefs).
In this sutta the Buddha gave the real position of the contemporary systems of the philosophy and
his own. From this sutta we learn that many philosophical and theological ideas existed then in India. It
informs us that there was a difference between the Brahmanical conception of Nirvana and the
Buddha’s conception of Nibbana.
Here, the Buddha explained the basis of all phenomena, specifying 24 categories such as the 4
elements; sentient being, devas; the seen, the heard, the thought of, the known; the oneness, the
multiplicity, the whole; and the reality of Nibbana. The uninstructed worldling cannot perceive the true
nature of these phenomena; only the enlightened ones can see them in true perspective.
3. Oghatarana sutta
The Sajyutta Nikaya gains its title from the fact that its suttas are grouped together (sajyutta)
according to their contents. There are 56 sajyuttas, arranged in 5 vaggas. They contains 7762 suttas.
The first vagga is called Sagathavagga, again contains 11 sajyutta, the first sajyutta is Devata-
sajyutta.
The first sutta of the Devata-sajyutta is Oghatarana sutta, it has a short introduction describing
how a devata visited the Buddha and asked a question.
Cittapariyadana sutta
Avguttara Nikaya is divided into 11 nipatas, arranged in about 160 vaggas and consists of 9557
suttas. Ekanipata is the first nipatas and has 19 vaggas, the first vagga is called Rupavagga. Thus, the
first sutta of Avgutta Nikaya is in the first vagga of the Rupavagga.
VINAYA PIṬAKA (BASKET OF DISCIPLINE) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)
The Pāli canon is known under the term Tipiṭaka, three fold baskets, because it consists of three main parts;
those are:
1) Vinaya Piṭaka (Basket of Discipline)
2) Sutta Piṭaka (Basket of Discourse)
3) Abhidhamma Piṭaka (Basket of Ultimate Doctrine).
In the early Buddhist works we met the word Vinaya with the word Dhamma when the Vinaya was being
compared and contrasted; the word Dhamma came first and the Vinaya is second. According to Theravāda
commentaries it said that there were three Piṭakas have been collected in the first Buddhist council, which was held at
Rājagaha but when we investigate deeply we realized that there were only two collections of Piṭaka in the first
council. The Buddha also said that »Mayā dhammo ca vinayo ca desito paññatto.«18 However, Vinaya was a special
basket it contains monastic rules of disciples of the Buddhist monks and nuns but others are included to Dhamma. The
Vinaya was developed as the Piṭaka in the first Buddhist council but before that there were plenty rules by the name
Siksā amongst the eighty of great monks. Arahanta Upāli was the specialized in the Vinaya. At the first council
Arahanta Upāli answered every questions asked by Arahanta Mahākassapa like;
“Ye venerable men, let the congregation hear me if the congregation ready I will question Upāli in respect of
the Vinaya.”
“Ye venerable men, let the congregation hear me if the congregation is ready I will answer all the questions
asked by Ven. Mahākassapa”, etc...
Vinaya (Discipline)
a) Cullavagga Pāli
2. Khandhaka
b) Mahāvagga Pāli
Here, Vibhaṅga is based on the Pātimokkha; it contains the rules of disciplines of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs,
which included in Pārājika and Pācittiya Pāli. This is very probably one of the order’s texts. The formula for
ceremony of confession as it was a performance in the Uposatha day in the monastic order. The Sutta Vibhaṅga is the
commentary on the texts (Pātimokkha). In the individual transgression are divided into following categories in the
order of their seriousness,
Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī
1. Pārājika 4 8*
2. Saṅghādisesa 13 17
3. Aniyata 2 -
4. Nissaggiya 30 30
5. Suddha Pācittiya 92 166
6. Pātidesanīya 4 8
7. Sekkhīya vatta 75 75
8. Adhikaraṇa samaṭha 7 7
227 311
These rules are numerical 227 in Bhikkhu Pātimokkha. This Pātimokkha is called Ānāpātimokkha; there are
other Pātimokkha named Ovādapātimokkha. Some Blessed Ones who lived long period in the world didn’t establish
19 This word appears only in Aṭṭhakathā and its meaning is 'orders-preaching' or 'preaching orders'.
20 For example Tīkā – Vinayapiṭaka – Vinayavinicchaya Tīkā – Ekuttaranayakathāvaṇṇanā - Catukkakathāvaṇṇanā
the rules of discipline for their disciples. They only advised their disciples in verbal action at the present time, this is
called or known as Ovādapātimokkha. This Pātimokkha was preached only by the Perfect Ones. Some Blessed Ones
who lived nor(?) longer period laid down the rules of disciplines after 20 years from their Enlightenment, their
disciples also could preach this Āṇāpātimokkha; those stanzas are:21
* For more detail please read Guide to Tipiṭaka, written by Uko Lay, page 12.
21 These three Pāli paragraphs can be found for example in Dīgha Nikāya - Mahāvaggapāḷi – Mahāpadānasuttaṃ –
paragraph 90
Here Suttavibhaṅga is based on the Pātimokkha. It contains the rules of discipline of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs. It
also consists of formulas for the ceremony of confession as it was performed on Uposatha day in the monasteries.22
There are 227 rules in the Bhikkhu Pātimokkha. It is called 'Āṇā-Pātimokkha'. There were another Buddhas who
lived long ago before the Gotama Buddha. They didn't establish rules of discipline, they advised their disciples in regards
to their verbal and bodily action. That is known as 'Ovāda-Pātimokkha'. This Pātimokkha was preached only by the
Buddha.
VINAYA PIṬAKA
„Vinaya“ means „discipline.“ The Vinaya Piṭaka really means „a basket containing manuscripts,“ vinaya or the
rules of discipline. It contains rules and regulations for the management of the Buddhist Saṁgha and for the conduct of the
daily life of monks and nuns, rules for reception into the order, for the periodical confession of sins, for life during the rainy
season, for house and clothing, medicine, creeds and legal Procter(?) in case of schism are also included in it.
These rules are support which has been laid down by the Buddha himself as ovation. There is strong having also
found place in it.(?) Some of them give us fragment of the Buddha-legend, while other through(?) of life on the daily life of
ancient idea there strops(?) are olestra(?) live of the occasion when the Buddha was constrained to have recourse to his
pupil.(?) The greater portion of the Vinaya Piṭaka appears to be dry and technical. Therein have rendered the work and
unpleasant reading in spite of the narrative of events in life of the Buddha. The Vinaya Piṭaka is in one word on account of
the Buddhist Saṁgha. Vinaya as known as known in middle Burma is the monastic code handed down by the Theravāda
sent in Sri Lanka.
According to ven. Buddhaghosa all the text of Vinaya Piṭaka was rehearsed ??? in the first chanting. He
deskilled(?) Vinaya Piṭaka and Pacittiya Pāli belong to Khandaka means 22 chapters, Cūllavagga Pāli 12 chapters and
Mahāvagga Pāli 10 chapters.
22 Although the teacher evidently doesn't participate at the Uposatha ceremony, today most of the virtuous Bhikkhus
participate at it regularly.
VINAYA PIṬAKA
The Vinaya Piṭaka clearly means a basket containing manuscripts of Vinaya or rule of discipline. It is containing
rules and regulations for the Bhikkhu Saṁgha and Bhikkhunī Saṁgha. Ven. Buddhaghosa explained that Vinaya by them(?)
Suttavibhaṁga, Khandaka and Parivāra.
These are containing:
1. Pārājika Pāḷi (in Suttavibhaṁga)
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi (in Suttavibhaṁga)
3. Mahāvagga Pāḷi (in Khandaka)
4. Cullavagga Pāḷi (in Khandaka)
5. Parivāra Pāḷi (Parivāra)
Here Sutta Vibhaṁga means Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. Khandaka means Cullavagga Pāḷi and Mahāvagga
Pāḷi. Parivāra means Parivāra Pāḷi. Here Suttavibhaṁga means 'the explanation of the sutta'. The sutta means the precepts
laid down by the Buddha for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs. The Suttavibhaṁga lays down and explains all the Vinaya rules
which are contained in the Pātimokkha. It is divided into two books – Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. Pārājika and
Pācittiya contain rules for guidance of the Bhikkhu (227 Vinaya rules) and Bhikkhunī (311 Vinaya rules) Saṁgha.
Pātimokkha is divided in 8 sections:
The Pātimokkha seems to existence to the India custom of holding secret(?) two periods each month, on the full
moon and fourteenth or fifteenth day, the new moon day. The Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs used to gather and meet to confess
their sins and faults which they committed towards their Vinaya. Bhikkhu Saṁgha are towards one another and exclusion
form the Pātimokkha ceremony.(?)
The Cullavagga deals with 12 cases of the peocceding(?) kamma, that which is against the law, act of superstition,
who speaks in disprove of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṁgha. Ukkepaniya kamma and formal acts of
superstition(?) to be taken against those who have committed an offense do not want to admit.
The Parivāra Pāḷi is the biggest part of the Vinaya Piṭaka. It explaines how rules of the Order (Saṁgha) are drawn
up to regulate the conduct of the Bhikkhus as well as administrative affairs of the Order. The Parivāra Pāḷi provides general
principles and guidance in the spirit of which all the Saṁgha Vinicchaya.
The Vinaya Piṭaka is the „basket of the discipline of the order.“ That means the basket, which contains manuscripts
of the rules of the discipline. It mentions the rules and regulations, which not only guide the Buddhist Saṁgha, but also
mentions the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns.
During the early period the Buddha himself introduced these rules and regulations for the progress and
development of his religion. The Vinaya Piṭaka deals mainly with moral practices, sīla is the code of morality, it is
important subject matter. Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first council the Vinaya
Piṭaka was rehearsed first, because Vinaya is „the age of the Buddha's dispensation.“ »Vinayonama sāsana sayo. Vinaye
thite sasanaca thitam hoti.«
The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called Mulapaññatti. Those supplemented later are
known as Anupaññatti. Together they are known as „sikkhāpadas“ (rules of discipline). The Vinaya Piṭaka has three texts:
1. Suttavibhaṁga
2. Khandhakas (has two parts)
3. Parivāra (has ten parts) (as much as Theravāda has)
But R. C. Childers describes, that the Vinaya Piṭaka has five books:
1. Pārājikaṃ 4. Cullavagga („the smaller division,“ has 12 chapters)
2. Pācittiyaṃ 5. Parivāra (the concluding text of Vinaya Piṭaka)
3. Mahāvagga („the greater division“)
The Sutta Vibhaṁga discusses all the rules which are given in Pātimokkha sutta. The Suttavibhaṁga – Buddhists
understand this word as „division of discourse“ or „a chapter.“ It mentions first how, when and the particular rule in
question came to be laid down. The Khandakas is divided into two parts; the Mahāvagga consists of ten chapters. The
Cullavagga twelve, the Mahāvagga is known as „the greater division“ and the Cullavagga means „the smaller division.“
The Parivāra is known as the concluding text of the Vinaya Piṭaka. It was written much later than the Suttavibhaṁga and
Khandakas. It is a digest of other parts of the Vinaya, which has 19 chapters.
In the Theravāda Vinaya, Pātimokkha has two parts. Bhikkhu Pātimokkha has eight sections, whereas Bhikkhunī
Pātimokkha has seven sections. The monks are expected to follow 227 precepts, while nuns 311 precepts. The precepts for
monks are divided into categories:
1. Pārājika offences (4) 4. Sekhiya-dhamma offences (75)
2. Suddha Pācittiya offences (9) 5. Adhikarana samatha offences (7)
3. Pāṭidesanīya offences (4)
The offenses for which penalties are laid down may be classified under seven categories depending on their nature:
1. Pārājika 5. Pāṭidesanīya
2. Sanghādisesa 6. Dukkaṭa and Dubbhāsita
3. Thullaccaya
4. Pācittiya
Originally, the Pātimokkha had 152 rules, but they were extended to 227, and these 227 rules of conduct were
recited by the monks during the uposatha ceremonies. In Sanskrit there are 263 rules and in the Tibetan tradition we find
258 rules.
The Vinaya Piṭaka is the basket of discipline of the order, it means a basket which contains manuscripts of the rules
of discipline. It mentions the rules and regulations which not only guide the Buddhist Saṁgha but also mentions the conduct
of the daily life of monks and nuns. During the early period the Buddha himself introduced these rules and regulations for
the progress and development of his religion. The Vinaya Piṭaka deals mainly with moral practices. Sīla is the code of
morality, important subject matter.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first council the Vinaya Piṭaka was
rehearsed first, because Vinaya is the age of the Buddhist dispensation.
»Vinayo nāma slsanasayo vinaye ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṁ hoti.«
The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called mūla paññati. Together they are known as
sikkhāpadas, rules of discipline.
The Vinaya Piṭaka has three texts:
1. Suttavibhaṁga
2. Khandhaka
3. Parivāra
as much as Theravāda Vinaya has. But R. C. Childer describes that the Vinaya Piṭaka has five books, they are:
1. Pārājika 4. Cullavagga
2. Pācittiya 5. Parivāra
3. Mahāvagga
The Suttavibhaṁga discusses all the rules, which are given in the Pātimokkha sutta. The word Suttavibhaṁga is
by Buddhists understood as a division of discourse or a chapter. It mentions firstly how, when and why the particular rule in
question came to be laid down.
The Khandhaka is divided into two parts:
1. Mahāvagga (consists of 10 chapters, known also as 'the greater division')
2. Cullavagga (consists of 12 chapters, known also as 'the smaller division')
The Parivāra is known as the concluding text of the Vinaya Piṭaka, it was written much later than the
Suttavibhaṁga and Khandhaka. It is a biggest of all other parts of the Vinaya, which has 19 chapters.
In the Theravāda, Vinaya Pātimokkha has two parts:
(a) Bhikkhu Pātimokkha (has 8 sections)
(b) Bhikkhunī Pātimokkha (has 7 sections)
The monks are expected to follow 227 precepts, while the nuns 311 precepts. The precepts for monks are divided
in 8 categories of offenses:
1. 4 Pārājika 5. 92 Sutthika Pācittiya
2. 13 Saṁghādisesa 6. 4 Pāṭidesanīya
3. 2 Aniyas 7. 75 Sekhia Dhamma
4. 30 Nissaggiya Pācittiya 8. 7 Adhikaranasamatha
The offenses for which penalties are laid down may be classified under seven categories depending on their nature:
1. Pārājika 5. Pāṭidesaniya
2. Sanghādisesa 6. Dukkhatā
3. Thullaccaya 7. Dubbhasita
4. Pācittiya
Original Pātimokkha had 152 rules, but they were extended to 227, and these 227 rules of conduct were recited by
monks during Uposata ceremony. In Sanskrit there are 263 rules, but in Tibetan we find 258 rules.
THE STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS OF VINAYA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)
Even though there were no Vinaya rules at the beginning in the Buddha-Sāsana, there should have been rules when ven.
Sāriputta asked about the Vinaya rules. But the Buddha said »When time comes to be, Buddha will promulgate the Vinaya rules for the
well behavior of monks and stability of the Sāsana.“ Dhamma is the foundation of Vinaya rules and monks in the Buddha-Sāsana,
followed Dhamma in the early period. Therefore, the Buddha didn't impose Vinaya rules at the beginning. Vinaya rules marks represent
spirit or essence of the Dhamma, connecting with Dhamma.
When the time has come, Buddha started to promulgate Vinaya rules in his 20th vassa and gradually these were developed. It is
the fact, that on the first Buddhist council:
Ābhisamācariyaka sikkhāpada is built for the day-to-day's behavior of the monks. This asked two different things in the Vinaya
reproaches Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi bring with Ādibrahmacariyakasīla. Mahāvagga Pāḷi and Cūlavagga Pāḷi bring with
Ābhisamācarikasīla. Ābhisamācarikasīla is more delighted to well behavior. Ādibrahmacariyakasīla is more dedicated to ethical and
proper behavior.
The Buddha taught Vinaya as the utmost important thing for monks to lead their holy life. That is the system of residing in
Pātimokkha, embodying formal draft lection(?) and as unseemly(?) behavior in the uphold ceremony had fourth night in a select side of a
monastery.(?) 24 These rules state that they were to compact draft lection(?) if any in the ceremony and punishment also over there as the
granite of offense.(?) These rules indicate that Buddha lead great emphasis on refinement in conduct and gentlemanliness in personal
behavior including the splice of seven of good paleness.(?)
Although Buddhaghosa mentioned five books of Vinaya, according to the report of Pañcasattikakkhanda of Cūlavagga Pāḷi
that idea is not acceptable. According to the Pañcansattikakkhanda Vinaya Piṭaka means that this place of reheard and none reheard
everything was considered as Vinaya Piṭaka here it is not mentioned which were not rehearsed. According to sub-commentary of
Sāratthadīpanī non-rehearsed parts are: Pañcasattikakkhanda and Sattikakkhanda of Cūlavagga Pāḷi, but in Cūlavagga Pāḷi:
According to this, Ubhato Vibhaṁga means Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. If so, we have accepted that Mahāvagga Pāḷi,
Cūlavagga Pāḷi and Parivāra Pāḷi were not rehearsed.
666WHAT IS VINAYA
Vinaya is the disciplinary code for self training laid down by the Buddha for monks and
nuns to observe. Vinaya plays a pivotal role in their monastic way of life. The Buddha did
not formulate the code of discipline in single exercise. However, he instituted certain rules
as and when the need arose. Vinaya pitaka and its commentary contain many significant
stories about how and certain rule were laid down by the Buddha. According to the
11/10/2001
666VINAYA
Vinaya means discipline. To classify it further it is sila. For 20 years after the Buddha’s
enlightenment, there were no vinaya precepts. There was no necessity to introduce vinaya precepts
because the monks were behaving well. Later, as asavatthaniya dhamma (those leading to desires)
arose. They are classified thus:
1. The number of the monks increasing.
2. The number of learned monks increasing.
3. Monks getting profit.
4. Monks getting fame.
Because of the above reasons vinaya precepts were promulgates. The Buddha spoke to Sariputta to
inform him that the time has come to lay down Vinaya rules In this manner: “Sariputta, I know the time
to lay down vinaya precepts. It is the Buddha who will do it and it is not the task of the disciple.”
Before vinaya precepts were promulgated the monks followed Cullasila, Majjhima sila and Mahasila.
The Patimokkha rules were there for the monks to follow. At that time the monks free to do what is
good. Later on the Buddha promulgated vinaya precepts. They were categorized as:
Parajika, Sangasisesa, Pacittiya, Aniyata, Adhikaranasamatha and Sekhiya. The monks had to follow
them and if they break these precepts, they had to face punishment. For the Bhikkhus there were
4 Parajika rules,
13 Sanghasisesa,
2 Aniyata,
30 Nisagiya Pacittiya,
92 Pacittiya,
4 Patidesaniya,
75 Sekhiya,
7 Adhikaranasamatha.
According to these rules the parajika stands prominent. There are 4 parajika rules. The violation of
parajika rules will lead to expulsion:
1. Sexual intercourse of any kind,
2. Taking what is not given,
3. Taking of human life or conspiring to do so,
4. Claiming falsely to have achieved a superior state.
The 1st parajika rule was laid down by the Buddha with regard to Sudina the son of wealthy merchant.
He became a monk with the consent of his parents. But later Sudina’s mother together with his wife to
make him disrobe and come back home. Sudina was unbelieved to come back home. Later they
somehow made him agree to give a son to continue the generation. Sudina finally consented and
impregnated his wife who hears in a son. Sudina became physically sick and confessed his sin to the
Bhikkhus. The monks rebuked him and the matter was reported to the Buddha and Sudina was expelled
from the order.
The Parajikapali several stories are given to illustrate this great offence. Once a monk kept a female
monkey. The other monk who visited his vihara suspected the behaviour of this female monkey. They
rebuked that monk for that behaviour. Then he said: “Buddha refers to the human women, not the
female animal.” Later the matter was reported to the Buddha and the monk who was expelled.
This is a 3rd story concerning a group of monks who live by drinking, eating and bathing, as they desire.
According to their life, they frequently engaged in sexual intercourse. The matter was reported to the
Buddha by Ananda. The Buddha rebuked those monks and they were expelled.
Apart from these 3 stories, there are many instances where the monks were rather suspicion about their
behaviour. When they had a doubt whether they had committed a parajika offence. Some cases were
innocent and some cases were guilty.
With regard to the 2nd parajika stealing or taking what is not given is considered as an offence. Theft or
taking what is not given arises due to the ignorance or confusion about what can be properly
propagated. According to this offence once a monk stole some wood from the king’s possession. His
act was rebuked and the 2nd parajika offence was laid down.
In the same manner when the occasion arose where monks were committing homicide, the 3rd parajika
had been laid down. In the case of committing the false of pretending superior state the 4th parajika
offence had been committed. All these offences arise from a motivation of raga, dosa and moha, and
means of expression is by means of body, speech and thought. They were grouped as grave offences
leading to expulsion.
EXPLAIN HOW THE VINAYA PIŢAKA AND ITS DISCIPLINE PLAYS VERY IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE TEACHING OF THE
BUDDHA. (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NĀRASĪHA)
The Vinaya Piṭaka speaks about the rules for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs that should be followed.
The rules not only guide the Buddhist Saṅgha, but also mention the conduct of the daily life of Saṅgha.
These rules are to control the disciples on physical and verbal action. If there are no rules (Vinaya) in
the Buddhist teaching, there is no essence in the teaching of the Buddha as the Buddha said:
»Vinayonāma sāsanassa āyu.« Of the rules, the first laid down by the Buddha is called mūlapaññatti
and the supplement rules later are known as anupaññatti.
In the Vinaya Piṭaka, the rules have been divided into the five divisions, namely:
1. Parājika Pāḷi 4. Mahāvagga Pāḷi
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi 5. Parivāra Pāḷi
3. Cūlavagga Pāḷi
Those categories are summarized again into three divisions as Suttavibhaṅga, Khandhaka and
Parivāra. The Suttavibhaṅga is based on the Pātimokkha. Patimokkha includes 4 Pārājikas, 13
Saṅghādisesas, 30 Nissaggiyas, 2 Aniyatas, 92 Pācittiyas, 4 Pāṭidesaniyas, 7 Adhikaraṇas and 75
Sekhiyas. These 227 rules are for the Bhikkhus.
Again, 8 Pārājikas, 17 Saṅghādisesas, 30 Nissaggiyas, 166 Pācittiyas, 8 Pāṭidesaniyas, 75
Sekhiyas and 7 Adhikaraṇa. These 311 rules are the Bhikkunī Pātimokkha.
Then, the Khandhaka is divided into two parts: 1. Māhavagga, which consists of ten chapters
and 2. Cūlavagga, which contains twelve chapters. The Parivāra parts in nineteen chapters.
During the first 20 years after the Buddha's enlightenment, there was no problem in the
Saṅgha (the Order). During this period, the disciples of the Buddha knew what was suitable and
unsuitable to do and to practice for them. According to Parājikakaṇḍa-Aṭṭhakathā, because of
Sudinna, who committed the offense of pārājika (sexual intercourse) with his ex-wife, the first
pārājika rule came to be promulgated.
On one occasion, the chief disciple, Sāriputta Thero requested the Buddha to promulgate the
rules but Buddha answered him that it was not the time to lay down the Vinaya. In this point,
Sāriputta Thero showed the situation of the Order and wanted to protect Saṅgha (the Order) before
committing an offense. But the Buddha didn’t want to control His disciples without reasoning. After
the first parājika āpatti came out, the Buddha understood that it was the time to lay down the rules.
Hence the Vinaya Piṭaka and its discipline play very important role in the teaching of the Buddha.
Vinaya means to control that is discipline. According to the Buddhism, it means to control, word and
action. in the early period there was no Vinaya rule was laid down . Later this rule was necessary for
various reason.
Vinaya rule was necessary for the well being, for their comfort and to suppress defilement. They were
also helpful for the stability of the doctrine.
Vinaya is Sila. Sila is the foundation of concentration. Concentration is the foundation of Wisdom.
Wisdom is lead to Nibbana. Therefore Vinaya is important as the foundation; this Pitaka so came first.
Vinaya is something to be followed and it is not what should be expounded. It should be taken as an
example and put into practice. Because it can make anyone (monk) to give up Raga, Dosa and Moha.
Practice Vinaya in a wrong way will induced us evil.
There are Vinaya rules for the monks in the five books of the Vinaya pitaka and for laymen the
sigalovada sutta gives details of responsibilities.
There is a very close connection between the Buddha and the Vinaya. Unlike the Abhidhamma and the
Suttapitaka, Buddha alone was authority not even Rev. Ananda had the opportunity to request the
Buddha to expound Vinaya rule. When the monks were unable to make a decision with regard to
Khuddanukhuddaka. They recited ‘ it is left to us to follow what is laid down and not to lay down new
rule.
Sometime the Buddha changed Vinaya rule according to necessity. At one time, the monks were not
expected to wear shoes with traps. At that time Ven. Mahakasdyna lived in Avanti. He told the Buddha
that the Monks in Avanti are very delicate and requested the Buddha to allow wearing shoes more than
one strap. So Buddha change the rule put its into four to all places. The Buddha did not allow the
monks to change Vinaya rules with the changing the society. Therefore during the second Council the
Theravada Monks did not like to accept the ten unlawful points.
During the lifetime of Buddha, Devatta made five requests, but the Buddha did not accept it. The
Buddha agreed on the establishment of Bhikkhuni Order at the request of Rev. Ananda but he had his
authority. The Bhikkhuni had to follow 8 Garu Dhammas. The Buddha acted as the superior with
regard to Vinaya rules. Vinaya rule was considered to be the pure teaching of the Buddha according to
the Theravadins. Therefore according to the Theravada Buddhism, one must always protect Vinaya.
Because it is something to hold e.g. Vinayadhara, the Buddha said this after my passing away the
Dhamma and the Vinaya will be the teacher.
‘Bhikkhu at one time the monks made my mind pleasing, there was no necessity for me to give
any advise. It was enough if I only remind them to do something’.
Once Sariputta told the Buddha now it is time to enforce vinaya precepts. The Buddha said:
‘You do not request, I know the correct time to enforce vinaya rules’. For the long standing of sasana, 3
things are necessary:
(1) To have lot of religious literatures
(2) To have enforced vinaya rules
(3) To have admonished patimokkha
In the promulgation of vinaya precepts, Buddha had the authority. According to Parajikapali, there
are 10 reasons for the enforcement of vinaya rules. (See notes provided). When asavatthaniya dhamma
appears there will be a downfall in the sasana, therefore Buddha enforced vinaya rules. According to
Parajikapali, there are 4 and according to Bhaddaliya Sutta there are 5. (See notes provided).
The term Vinaya can be defined as control, i.e, to depress defilement by means of controlling
one’s actions and words. It was only after 20 years of the formation of the Sangha that the Buddha
promulgated vinaya rules. At the beginning, the Dhamma preached by the Buddha was sufficient to
regulate the conduct of the monks. All the earliest members of the Sangha were highly devoted to the
Dhamma.
The discourses delivered by the Buddha contains instruction on disciplinary matters. The good
example is this is the Kakacupama sutta of Majjhima Nikaya where the Buddha merely make a hint
about the disciplined behaviour and the monk take the Buddha’s suggestion seriously and act
accordingly.
Later, with the emergence of organized communal life, and with the expansion of the Order,
corruption appeared in the Order and the Buddha was compelled to set up a body of regulations to
arrest the deterioration of the Order.
At the outset that the Buddha was not in hurry to promulgate rules to govern the Order, he waited
till the necessity arose and when the occasion demanded it. In Bhaddali Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya, the
Buddha says:
“When beings are deteriorating, when true dhamma is vanishing away… Not until some
conditions which cause cankers appear in the Order, then the Teacher makes order the training
rule for disciples…”
In Suttavibhavga of Vinaya Pitaka, even when Sariputta requested the Buddha to promulgate rules
when he felt the right time had come for it, but the Buddha replied:
“Wait Sariputta, the Tathagata will know the right time for that….As soon as some conditions
causing the cankers appear in the Order, then the Teacher makes order the course of training for
disciples…’
It becomes abundantly clear that the Buddha promulgated vinaya rules to govern the monks
only when asavatthaniyadhamma began to appear in the Order. Both Bhaddali Sutta and Suttavibhavga
reveal the causes of corruption in the Order. According to Bhaddali Sutta such causes are 5 in number,
they are:
Apart from the above reasons, Suttavibhavga also mentions that there were other factors that
prompted the Buddha to makes such rules. They are:
(1) Traditions and customs – at the time of the Buddha, other religions had various practices based
on traditions and customs. The Buddha discarded what was inappropriate for Him or His
disciples to follow, but adopted what was regarded as wholesome traditions and customs and
made rules accordingly.
(2) Popular opinion –The Buddha had been very much sensitive to public opinion if they were
constructive. For instance, the second Parajika rule against theft was promulgated due to the
public criticism that Bhikkhu Dhaniya had removed some timber belonging to Bimbisara.
(3) Suggestions of Bhikkhus – The Mahavagga also reveals that suggestions made by moderate
Bhikkhu were well considered by the Buddha, and rules were made and sometimes the
existing rules were amended according to such suggestions.
(4) Requirements of the State – At that time some people stealthily left the forces and joined the
Order in order to lead an easy and comfortable life without any desire for spiritual
development. Bimbisara respectfully requested the Buddha not to allow soldiers to enter the
Order, then the Buddha considered Bimbisara’s request and made a rule, not to admit an army
personnel to the Order.
It is clear that the Buddha had been very reasonable, far-sighted, broad-minded and enthusiastic in
the promulgation of the Vinaya rules. According to Suttavibhanga of Vinaya Pitaka (III, 21), Buddha
makes known the course of training for monks, founded on ten reasons:
The existence of Dhamma has to depend on well disciplined Bhikkhus. Only well disciplined Bhikkhus
can be the proper guardians and propagators of the Dhamma. In conclusion, the vinaya rules, is
indeed, directed towards self-emancipation, communal co-existence and the lasting of the Buddha’s
dispensation.
666NAME THE VINAYA TEXTS AND DISCUSS THE IMPORTANT OF THE VINAYA PITAKA FOR THE WELFARE OF SANGHA.
(REV. JANAKA SOIKAHAMSENG)
The Vinaya Pitaka mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated, as occasion
arose, for the future discipline of the Order of Monks and Nuns. It describes in detail the gradual
development of the Sasana, dispensation. An account of the life and Ministry of the Buddha is also
given. Indirectly, it reveals some important and interesting information about ancient history, Indian
custom, arts, science, etc. There are five books regarding Vinaya texts. They are as followings:
I. Parajika Major offences
II. Pacittiya Minor offences
III. Mahavagga great section
Cullavagga shorter section
IV. Parivara
In the Vinaya, there are three parts, such as 1 and 2 is the group of Vibhanga, 3 and 4 is the group of
Khandaka and one is Privara.
666MAHAVAGGA PALI:
The Mavagga pali which is book three and Cullavagga pali which is book four of the vinaya pitaka, deal with
all those matters relating to the samgha which have not been dealt within the two books.
Mahavagga pali, made up of ten sections known as khandhakas, opens with an historical account of how the
Buddha attain supreme enlightenment at the food of bodhi tree, ho he discovered the famous law of the dependent
origination, how he gave his sermon to the group of five bhikkhus on the discovery of the four Noble truths, namely, the
great discourses on the turning of wheel of dhamma (Dhammacakkappavattana sutta). This was followed by another great
discourses, the Anattalakkhana sutta. These two suttas may be described as the compendium of the Buddha.
The first section continues to describe how young man of good families like Yasa sought refuge in him as a
Buddha embarked open the unique mission of spreading the dhamma for the welfare and happiness of the many, when had
collected round him sixty disciples who were well established in the order of the dhamma and had became Arahats, how he
began to established the order sangha to as a living example the truth he preached, and how his famous disciples like
Sariputta, Moggallana, Maha kassapa, Ananda, Upali, Angulimala, became members of the order. The section then deals
with the rule for formal admission to the order( upasampada), giving precise condition to be fulfilled before any person can
gain admission to the order and the procedure to be followed for each admission.
Mahavagga further deals with procedures for Uposattha meting, the assembly of the sangha on every full moon
day and on the fourteenth or fifteenth waning day of the lunar month when the Patimkkha, a summary of the Vinaya rule, is
recited. Then there rules to be observed for rains retreat(vassa) during rainy season as well as those for the formal
ceremony of pavarana concluding the rains retreat, in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.
There are also rules concerning sick bhikkhus, the use of leather for footwear and furniture, materials for robes,
and those concerning medicine and food. A separate section deals with the Kathina ceremonies where annual making and
offering of robes take place. (381)
By P. Santa
666CULAVAGGA PALI:
Culavagga Pali which is book IV of the Vinaya Pitaka, continues to deal with more rules and procedures for
institutional acts or functions known as Samghakamma. The twelve sections in this book deal with rules for offence such as
Samghadisesa that come before the Samgha, rules for observance of penances such as Parivasa and Manatta and rules for
reinstatement of a bhikkhu.
There are also miscellaneous rules concerning bathing, dress, dwellings and furniture and those dealing with
treatment of visiting bhikkhu, and duties of tutors and novices. Some of the important enactments are concerned with
Tajjaniya Kamma, formal act of censure by the Samgha taken against those bhikkhus who cause strife, quarrels, disputes,
who associate familiarly with lay people and who speak in dispraise of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha,
Ukkepaniya Kamma formal act of suspension to be taken against those who having committed an offence do not one to
admit it, and pakasaniya kamma taken against Devadatta announcing publicly that “Whatever Devadatta does by deed or
word, should be seen as Devadatta’s own and has nothing to do with the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samgha” The
account of this action is followed by the story of Devadatta’s three attempts on the life of the Buddha and the schism caused
by Devadatta among the Samgha.
There is, in section ten, the story of how Mahapajapati, the Buddha’s foster mother, requested admission into
the Order, how the Buddha refused permission at first, and how he finally acceded to the request because of Ananda’s
entreaties on her behalf.
The last two sections describe two important events of historical interest, namely, the holding of the first Synod at Rajagaha
and of the second Synod at Vesali.
(286)
By P.Santa
666PARIVARA PALI
Parivara pali which is book V and the last book of the vinaya pitaka serves as a kind of manual. It is
compiled in the form of a catechism, enabling the reader to make an analytical survey of the vinaya pitaka. All the rule,
official acts, and other matters of the vinaya are classified under separate categories according to subjects deal with.
Parivara explain how rules of the order are drawn up to regulate the conduct of the bhikkhus as well as the
administrative affairs of the order. Precise procedures are prescribed for setting of disputes and handling matters of
jurisprudence, for formation of the Sangha courts and appointment of well qualified, the Sanghsa judges. It lay down how
Sanghas Vinicchaya committee, the Sangha court, is to be constituted with a body of learned vinayadharas, experts in
Vinaya rules, to hear and decide all kinds of monastic disputes.
The parivara pali provides general principle and guidance in the spirit of which all the Sangha Vinicchaya
proceedings are to be conducted for settlement of monastic disputes.
175
by p santa
PARIVĀRA PĀLI
Ven. Buddhaghosa has used a term „sutta vibhaṁga“ to introduce the Ubatovibhaṁga. There sutta
vibhaṁga means the explanation of a sutta. There sutta means rules laid down by the Buddha. „Vibhaṁga“ means
„commentaries.“ We can see this patent (obvious?) of preaching in Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli. The Vinaya as
known in Burma is the monastic code handed down by the Theravāda seat(?) in Sri Lanka. Sutta Vinaya means
Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli. It explains the rules the display the word sutta correct pounds to the Sanskrit sutta
and literary mean the text it is apply to kind of book the contain of which are as if were attired (clothed?) given the
summary of subtend (opposite?) of more than is expressed in them in word.(?) This short(?) of book was the letters
development in wides leverage (impact?) set before and after the rise of Buddhism. The Buddhists use this word
„sutta“ with the meaning of „discourse“ or „a chapter“ and „sutta gātha“ means Vinaya. The Sutta Vibhaṁga tells us
precisely how and when and why the particular rules in question(?) come(?) to be laid down. This historical
interdiction always closes with the word of the rule in sutta. Then follows a very action(?) word for word coming so
old that it was already about before Christ too the probably app(?) rot(?) mate(?) date of the sutta.
Vibhaṁga was considered so sacred, that it was included in the command. The old commentary as succeeded
here necessary by fare(?) the explanation and discourses on dutiful words. These are some time of very good historical
value. The discourses for intent in the rule. As to molder(?) and tempt(?) of what Constatia(?) to molder(?) and what
constitute(?) theft(?) antis(?) per(?) and very removable(?) degree the kind of send(?) throw(?) distinction found in
modern low(?) book(?) the peerages(?) when made easylink(?) translate to Western scholars must be great as to
interest to student history a low(?) as they are Quit(?) the older(?) document of that pedicle(?) kind in the world.(?)
The Sutta Vinaya let down(?) and explain all the Vinaya rules which are contained in Pātimokkha. Pātimokkha has
divided two parts – Bhikkhu Vibhaṁga and Bhikkhuni Vibhaṁga, while there were 227 rules of Bhikkhu Vibhaṁga
and 311 of Bhikkhunī Vibhaṁga. Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli explain these rules. Then there are explained
Pārājikas, for which there was expulsion from the order, and Pācittiya where some pardon could be given. Both the
Pārājika and Pācittiya deal with 227 rules. Vinaya for the guidance of Bhikkhus in determining the offenses and the
disputes of the Bhikkhus and formulating punishment. These rules are divided again into 8 section gizzard(?) first one.
1. Pārājika dhamma (for rule concerning those acts which bring about defeat)
2. Sanghādisesa dhamma (rules which resaved/reserved(?) formal meeting of the order)
3. Aniyata dhamma (rules regarding auditor mind matters)
4. Nissaggiya pācittiya dhamma (rules involving for gilding Pācittiya Dhamma)
5. Pācittiya dhamma 92 (rules recreating repentant worry)
6. Patidesaniya dhamma (rules regarding matters which ought to be compost(?))
7. Sekhiya dhamma 75 (rules of soles manners)
8. Adikarana dhamma 7 (rules regarding the gentlemen(?) of cases(?) which(?) from (?) )
What is known as the Pātimokkha codes of the Vinaya Piṭaka? This Pātimokkha seems to have owed its
existence to the ancient India custom of holding sacred two periods each month. The time of the full moon the
Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs used to meet together twice each month „catuddassa paññārassa“ on the 14th and 15th day to
campest(?) to assembly the Sims(?) and smalls(?) which they had committed. The object of the compaction(?) was to
take and poem(?) themselves the punishing which they believed give pardon there.(?)
In a verse towards the close of the Parivāra it is mentioned that Dīpa composed it after making
investigations about the path followed by the respectable persons who belonged to the earlier period. In an
introductory verse of the Parivarapatha there is a description of Mahinda in Sri Lanka. It also refers to certain
noted Theras like Arittha, who was the sister's son of Devānampiya Tissa, the king of Sri Lanka.. Its first
chapter gives an account of the Vinayadhara. This list is important no doubt in the history of the Buddhist
Saṁghas of India and Sri Lanka.
M. Winternitz says: „It is very similar to the Anukramanis and Parisistasof and Veda and the Vedāṁga texts.“
I. B. Horner mentions the Parivarapatha. He says he has seen the Parivāra called „a digest of the entire Vinaya
Piṭaka, setting forth the method of teaching the Vinaya.“
The word „Pari“ is „all round,“ „surrounding“ and the word „vara“ means „time,“ „opportunity.“ In
Sanskrit the word „vara“ means „anything which covers or surrounds,“ „a cover,“ „a multitude,“ „quantity“ and
„covering,“ „surroundings.“ Thus the Parivara covers, surrounds, encircles and encompasses the various matters
mentioned in the Suttavibhaṃga and the Khandhakas.
PARIVĀRA PĀḶI
Parivāra Pāḷi which is Book V and the last book of the Vinaya Piṭaka serves as a kind of manual. It is
compiled in the form of a catechism, enabling the reader to make an analytical survey of the Vinaya Piṭaka. All
the rules, official acts, and other matters of the Vinaya are classified under separate categories according to
subjects dealt with.
Parivāra explains how rules of the Order are drawn up to regulate the conduct of the bhikkhus as well as
the administrative affairs of the Order. Precise procedures are prescribed for settling of disputes and handling
matters of jurisprudence, for formation of Saṅgha courts and appointment of well-qualified Saṅgha judges. It
lays down how Saṅgha Vinicchaya Committee, the Saṅgha court, is to be constituted with a body of learned
Vinayadharas, experts in Vinaya rules, to hear and decide all kinds of monastic disputes.
The Parivāra Pāḷi provides principles and guidance in the spirit of which all the Saṃgha Vinicchaya
proceedings are to be conducted for settlement of monastic disputes.
666ADHIKARANASAMATHA
The Buddhist monastic legislation comes in the Khandhakas under the section Samathakhandhaka.
There are seven Adhikaranasamatha. They were very important for the purpose of maintaining unity
and peace among the monks in the monastery. When a large number of monks are living in the
monastery various problems naturally arise. There should be some method or some persons responsible
to settle such problems. By this (7) kinks of Adhikaranasamatha, it was able to find out who is guilty
and who is in innocent accordingly the gravity of the offence being considered the cases are duly
settled. The following are (7) Adhikaranasamatha.
1. SammukhAvinaya- verdict in the presence of
2. Sativinay- verdict in innocence
3. AmUlhavinaya- verdict of past insanity
4. PatiGGatakarana- carrying out the acknowledgement
5. YebhuyyasikA- by the decision of the majority
6. TassapApiyyasikA- an act of condemnation for shameless behaviour
7. TinavatthAraka- by the covering up of grass
SammukhAvinaya: according to this method recognizing is done by realizing the offence and no
penalties should be done on the offender in his absence. The verdict should be given in the presence of
one who has done the false. In the Vinaya text it is said that, it is a Dukkata offence to give a
punishment when the offender is absent. This is very important and considered as pre-requisite in forms
of Adhikaranasamatha.
Sativinaya and Amulhavinaya: these two provide against possible discourage of justice in monastic
administration. The law is to be carried on with human consideration and not be done through malice,
jealousy, or prejudice.
The Sativinaya is intended for the exoneration of a guiltless monks falsely accused by malice party.
Therefore, Sativinaya is actually for verdict of innocence.
The Amulhavinaya seeks exception for offences committed in a state of unsound mind. Vinaya is
always against offenders who claimed falsely, pretending to be unsound.
PatiGGatakarana: It means the disciplinary action should be done with acknowledgement of the guilty
monk. The monk who had committed the offence should understand his offence and he should accept
the disciplinary action imposed on him.
Yebhuyyasika and Tinavattharaka: These two are different from the rest of the Adhikaranasamathas.
They are not only interested in safeguarding the character of individual. But the y are also concerned
with settling their dispute. By the decision of majority disputer are settled. The covering up of grass
means collective disciplinary measure carried on safeguarding the character. In this case the offences
treated are minor in character. They excluded major offences as Parajika and Sanghadisesa.
Tassapapiyyasika: It has a great deal more in common with the Danda Kammas as a means of
maintaining order in the community. According to Samantabhasatika, it is the same as
Tajjaniyakamma. It is possible to punish and an offender who refuses to accept the judgement of the
Sangha. It is carried out on one who deliberately lies and attempt to evade a charge laid upon him.
According to Kankhavitarani, it would result in complete elimination from the monastic community, if
a Parajika offence is committed or else a possible correction of a lesser offence.
Out of these (7) Adhikaranasamatha, the Yebhuyyasika is supposed to be the most complex when it is
not possible to settle a monastic dispute. Within the monastery the Bhikkhu connected with it, should
take the method to the member of another monastery who are greater in number by mutual agreement
the monks would settle the dispute. Then the monk refers the method to select committee for
settlement. For the membership of the community not only good virtuous conduct was necessary. It
was essential to have a through knowledge of Dhamma and Vinaya. If they still cannot solve the
problems it should be refer to the Mahasangha. By method of direct and indirect canvassing the Sangha
must assure itself of a majority for a righteous cause. The three forms of voting are recommended.
They are secret ballot, whispering in the ear and open ballot.
All these methods are carried on for the welfare of the community. It was necessary to preserve unity
and harmony among the fellow monks. It is also very important to note that under the Patinnatakarana
no punishment of penalty should be imposed without offender admitting his false. A monk who has
committed on offence whether urged by others or not should recognise and confess it. He is then asked
to address himself to a senior member of another and owning and admitting his offence under taken to
guard himself in the future. In this manner each individual should be responsible to be free from
offences in order to protect a purity of the community.
In this manner Adhikaranasamatha as part of the missionary for the maintenance of monastic
discipline, embrace a wider field of activity than the Patimokkha. They are not offences but are only
methods and ways by means of which the collective organization of the Sangha may arrive at a
settlement of monastic dispute.
Penalties
According to judicial procedure laid down in the Pali texts to deal with offences committed by monks
consist of an elaborated procedure for the hearing of case as well as execution of judgement. There are
four forms of rules:
1. Vinaya rules formulated by the Buddha himself
2. SuttAnuloma- other relevant rules
3. Acariyavada- convention established by acknowledged teachers
4. Attanomati-personal view of Vinayadhamma
The Buddha prescribes the Vinaya rules with the view to achieving the follow ten purposes:
1. To establish the Sangha in a sound footing
2. To keep the Sangha free from trouble
3. To punish those who do not obey even after being punished
4. To guarantee the freedom of those who are peaceful
5. To keep member of the Sangha free from worldly defilement
6. To keep them free from of defilement, which may result in the future
7. To make non-believers, believe
8. To make believers double their faith
9. To establish the law
10. To strengthen the course of discipline
The primary purpose to guarantee the liberty of individual bhikkhu was to create a pleasant social
atmosphere within and without the organization of Sangha. An attempt is made to ensure that
punishment is given only to the person who is guilty. The philosophy behind the method of punishment
was to correct them and not to take revenge. Once a bhikkhu is convicted. He is not completely written
off as an encourageable. But the Sangha would be quite willing to reinstate him and provided him to
reform himself and amended his evil ways suitably. However in the case of those who are convicted of
the four major offences there is no reinstatement. There is a specific procedure to be following the
bhikkhu acting as judge should strictly follow the procedure. When a monk is brought before the court
when charge with committing and offence, he is asked to explain what he has committed. The accused
is given the opportunity to depend himself. When both to accuse and the component have placed. Their
fact, before the court, the Vinayadhara monk examine carefully the following six points:
1. The fact of the case as reported to the court
2. Relevant vinaya
3. Correct interpretaltion
4. The three-fold group of rules
5. Minor offences
6. The circumstances, which are not liable
24/10/2001
The story connected stealing in the Parajikapali. Dhaniya wanted to built up a hut, in order to get
some sticks, he went to the overseer of the king. Then the overseer said I have some sticks but they
belong to the king and they kept to be taken in case of an accident. If a king has given to you may take.
Dhaniya took them saying that they are gifts from the king. The matter war reported to the king by a
minister. Then the king asked the Thera to come. He said to the king that the king told once recluses
and brahmins may enjoy gifts of grass, wood and water. The king replied that what he meant was what
is in the forest. By a trick 詭詐, Dhaniya was tried to deceive the king and steal. Buddha blamed him
and pronounced stealing is as a parajika offence.
Thereafter according to parajikapali, there are many stories how various monks were indulged of
whether their actions fall into category of defeat (parajika). Once some monks stole a bottle of things
that had been bleached from the bleacher fore. They try to escape saying that the Buddha laid down the
precepts for the village and not for the jungle. They were rebuked by the Buddha.
Once a monk with the intention to steal removed the outer cover from its place. It was pronounced
as parajika. Once a monk seeing some goods during the day time made a sign saying I will steal at
night and at night he stole something else. It is also parajika.
Certain monk when distributing robes intending to steal took hold of the robe. once mango thieves
puck mangoes they ran away. When the owner comes the monk ate them thinking that should finish
when the owner comes.
One monk when crossing a river got a cloak that escape from bleacher hand stuck in his foot. That
is also parajika.
All these stories indicate that it is a parajika offence when a person stal something with the
intention even if he steals a handful, it is a parajika. If a crowd arrange a theft and ones steal all are
involved in the theft. When making a sign like I shall cover up my eyes or rest my eyebrows, rest my
head, according to the sign you steal. If at that moment the stealing is done it is a defeat (parajika).
According to the parajikapali should take means interrup steal, change the movement, remove
from place to place, what is not given is defined thus. What is not thrown away, what is guarded,
protected and cherished or what belong to others.
One who is defeated means a wither leaf from its hold and could not become green again. Thus a
monk taken by theft cannot became a monk again.
ABHIDHAMMA
In order to fully understand the knowledge, one must 1. understand the facts and 2. the relationship between these
facts.
The Abhidhamma is the wisdom by means of analysing and take the relationship of a whole, then everything is
inter-dependent, that we are not attached to it. For example, as a meditator, by knowing the facts and correlation, these
became the raw material for a meditator as a guidance. It is not an intellectual study. It is a fully practical and methodical by
explaining the mind one after another. It is a „paññā bhūmi“ (basics of wisdom).
If there is a new method to be introduced, it must be logic. It bases on:
1. Yotti (argumenst)
2. Āgama (quoted from the early Buddhist discourses)
ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA (NATURE AND CONTENTS OF ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA)
Abhidhamma Piṭaka is considered as the third one of the three Piṭakas. It was never assigned either at the first
place or second place. The third division of the Piṭaka consists of seven books:
1. Dhammasaṁganī Pāḷi (classification of Dhamma)
2. Vibhaṁga Pāḷi (divisions)
3. Dhātukathā Pāḷi (discourse of elements)
4. Puggalapaññatti Pāḷi (the book of individuals)
5. Kathāvatthu Pāḷi (points of controversy)
6. Yamaka Pāḷi (the book of pains)
7. Paṭṭhāna Pāḷi (the book of causal relations)
All of these books are designated by the name pakarana. The definition of Abhidhamma is:
This suggests, that Abhidhamma is something additional to the Dhamma. It also suggests, that Abhidhamma is
something especial(?) compare(?) with(?) the(?) Dhamma(?).(?) Normally what is mentioned in Sutta Piṭaka is considered
as Dhamma.
It has been suggested the word Abhidhamma standing alone is not found in the Sutta Nipāta, the Saṁyutta or the
Aṁguttara and only once or twice in the Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya. It properly came into usage at the end of the
period in which the four great nikāyas came up. The Mahā Saṁghika refused to include the Abhidhamma in the Tipiṭaka at
all, as they did not take it for the word of the Buddha. According to the Dīgha Bhanaka, the Abhidhamma also included the
whole Khuddaka Nikāya.
According to another division the Saṁyutta Nikāya is not a division of the Dhamma, but of the whole canon and in
the fifth are included both the Vinaya and Abhidhamma. There is another legend recorded by Buddhaghosa that the
Abhidhamma was first preached by the Buddha in Tāvatiṁsa at the foot of Pariccataka tree, when he was seated on the
Sakka's throne during his visit to his mother in the Tāvatiṁsa, later it was taught by him to Sāriputta Thera on the bank of
Anotatta lake. The legend further relates that after the enlightenment the Buddha spent in the Yatanagara reliving his mind
the doctrine of the Abhidhamma in all its details.
According to the Cullavagga Pāḷi, the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was not rehearsed at the first council. The fact that
Abhidhamma is not mentioned in the suttas and that only Dhamma and Vinaya are referred to only prove that at one time
the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was not a separate piṭaka, but Kathāvatthu was composed only at the third council.
As far as the content of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka concerns, it does not form a systematic philosophy, but especially
form of Abhidhamma found in the Sutta Piṭaka. On the other hand, there were direct controversial ideas with the
Abhidhamma, whether it was promulgated by the Buddha or not. When we refer to other Piṭakas, we can find many details
to prove that the Abhidhamma is creation of the Buddha. On the other hand, there are many details to show that
Abhidhamma is a later development or not the preaching of the Buddha.
The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the third division of the Tipiṭaka, or „the Three Baskets.“ It is a basket of
transcendental doctrine. From the Pāli tradition we learn that the Buddha first delivered the Abhidhamma to the Tāvatiṁsa
gods. At that time he was living with them on the Pandukambala Rock at the foot of the Paricchattaka tree in the Tāvatiṁsa
heaven during his visit to his mother in there. He then preached it to his chief disciples ven. Sāriputta, who very often used
to meet the Buddha when he for meals came down to the Manasasoravara. Then Bhaddaji got it from his teacher, ven.
Sāriputta. Ven. Revatta and others then received it through a succession of disciples. It took its final form in the third
council which was held during the reign of Asoka, the Maurya ruler. The Buddha as a mark of gratitude to his mother, who
was born in Tusita realm, departed thither and preached the Abhidhamma to the mother Deva and others for three months.
The topics (mātikā) of the discourses were later rehearsed to ven. Sāriputta, who subsequently elaborated them and
composed the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
According to Mahāyāna tradition the Buddha gave his sermons to different persons at different places and at
different times. Afterwards the Arahats and Śrāvakas collected them and they then arranged them into Abhidhamma
treatises. Buddhists believe, that the suttas were composed on observing the faces of the people while the Abhidhamma was
compiled on observing the suttas. From it we conclude that the Abhidhamma was composed on the basis of the suttas. Thus
we can say here, that the suttas give the foundation of the Abhidhamma. The Abhidhamma deals with the same subject as
the Sutta Piṭaka. But its treatment is more scholastic than the latter.
It is compiled in the form of questions and answers. As far as the contents of the Abhidhamma are concerned, they
do not form a systematic philosophy, but are a special treatment of the Dhamma as found in the Sutta Piṭaka. Most of the
matter is psychological and logical, the fundamental doctrines mentioned or discussed are those already propounded in the
suttas and therefore taken for granted. The Abhidhamma may be regarded as a systematization of the doctrines contained, or
implied, in the Sutta Piṭaka. It formulates these sutta doctrines in strictly paramattha (truly realistic) language. There are
seven divisions of books in Abhidhamma Piṭaka. They are:
1. Dhammasaṁgaṇī Pāḷi 5. Paṭṭhāna Pāḷi
2. Vibhaṁga Pāḷi 6. Puggala Paññatti Pāḷi
3. Dhātukathā Pāḷi 7. Kathāvatthu Pāḷi
4. Yamaka Pāḷi
The Pāli word Abhidhamma is composed of the prefix „bhi,“ and the term „Dhamma“ ; „Abhi“ signifies „great,“
„exceeding“ (atireka) or „subtle,“ „noble,“ „ultimate,“ „ultra“ (visittha). Thus the Abhidhamma means
„enlarged/subtle/ultimate doctrine.“ It also means „a higher religion.“ Ordinarily the word of the Buddha was known as the
Dhamma.
KATHĀVATTHU PAKARANA (LECTURED VEN. PIYADASSI)
The Kathāvatthu Pakarana is the third book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It is called the Viññānapada by the
other six. It is known as a Buddhist book of debate on matters of theology and philosophy. It is to be noted here that it
is the only work of the Tipiṭaka, which can be ascribed to a definite author – ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera, who was
the chair person during the third Buddhist council, which was held at Pātaliputta (the capital of Magadha province).
Under the patronage of the Maura ruler Asoka in the third century B.C. the Kathāvatthu Pakarana was composed.
It is younger than the Dhammasaṅganī Pakarana. A close investigation will make it evident, that this book of
controversy is looked upon in one way as no more than a book of interpretation. A few a specimen of controversy
which the Kathāvatthu Pakarana has embodied show that both sides referred to the Buddha as the final court of
appeal. The Kathāvatthu Pakarana should be included in the Vinaya collection. From the nature of discussion relating
to Saṅgha affairs we are inclined to think that the Kathāvatthu Pakarana should be incorporated with the Vinaya
collection, because it deals with the Vinaya affairs and is so closely allied with the topic discussed in the Cūllavagga
Pāli.
The Kathāvatthu Pakarana has 23 chapters. In these chapters, there are discussions and refutations 219 in
number (different doctrines items of the various schools). This book seems to have grown gradually and most of the
heretical views discussed are ascribed to various schools, some of which are later than the other. The texts themselves
don't mention the names of schools, so that is supplied by the commentator of the Kathāvatthu Pakarana. The
doctrines of the various schools could be better understood by study of that book in association with texts belonging to
Northern schools.
It is wonderful that commentator ven. Buddhaghosa said, that this book was also rehearsed during the first
council. But it is clear that this book was composed after the third council by the chief monk ven. Moggaliputtatissa
Thera (the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was completed after writing this book). Ven. Buddhaghosa Thera said: „Ven.
Moggaliputtatissa Thera brough this book having taken the topic (or Māṭikā) which were given by the Buddha foor
the benefit in the future for the monks. To debate lift(?) other said(?).“ Therefore all the Abhidhamma was preached
by the Buddha. This view is the traditional belief of Theravāda.
In this book many texts quoted from the Suttapiṭaka give authority to the argument. As far as the terminology
used and the theories set foth are conceived, this seems to belong to the later period. Some scholars agree with
tradition and concept the book is belonging to the latest period. Other make the paṭṭhāna the latest book of all. The
various heretical views represented in this book, the commentary says, including those of the Vijjiputta, the
Sammitiya, the Sabbatthivāda (Sarvastivāda), the Mahāsaṅghika, the Kasapiya/Kasyapiya(?), the Adaka, the
Pubbasliya, the Aparaseliya, the Rjagirika/Rājagirika(?), the Siddhatthika, the Gokulika, the Buddhayanika, the
Mahiṅsaka, the Uttarapathaka, the Hetuvāda and the Mahāsuññavāda. Some of these are Northern schools known to
the Mahābhasa-sāstra. Some are Southern schools unknown to Northern Buddhism.
The first chapters of the Kathāvatthu discusses puggala or „personal entity,“ falling away of an Arahant, their
life among the devas, the putting away corruptionsor vices by one portion at a time, the casting off kāma-rāga and
vyāpāda, everything as persistently exiting, some of the past and future as still exiting, applications in mindfulness.
The language of this book has relationship with the Kathāvatthu Pakarana theory.
He vatthi heva natthiti he votthi heva natthiti nahevan = vottabbhe.
Ce vatthi ceva natthiti = amanta.
(This is the Magadisace(?) language)
The second chapters mentions that Arahant, the knowledge of the Arahant, the excellence of the Arahant,
doubt in the Arahant is specified progress in penetration, the Buddha's everyday usage, and duration of
consciousness, two cessations (dvenirodha) etc.
KATHĀVATTHUPPAKARANA
Kathāvatthu is one of the seven Theravāda Abhidhamma books. The Theravāda tradition says that Abhidhamma
are the words of the Buddha. Theravādin, therefore, considers all the Abhidhamma texts as being preched by the Buddha
himself. But the Kathāvatthu shows that this is not the real truth.
Now it is accepted that Kathāvatthu was compiled at or after the 3rd Buddhist council held in the 3rd century BC
under the patronage of king Asoka. The president of this council was the famous monk ven. Moggaliputta Tissa. The
kathāvatthu is said to be his work. It is to be noted here that it is the only work of the canon, which can be ascribed to a
definite author. Ven. Buddhaghosa said: „Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa composed this book having taken the topic mātikā,
which were given by the Buddha for the benefit of the monks in the future.“ So, all the Abhidhamma was preached by the
Buddha. This is the tarditional belief of the Theravādins.
The Kathāvatthu was compiled for a particular purpose. It is for the refutation of the views of other schools and the
establishment of the views of the Theravāda or Vibhajjavlda views. This was the need of the time. During this time various
schools were presenting theri views and debating among themselfves. Such schools as Andhakas, Vajjiputtakas,
Sarvastivāda and Sautrāntika were presenting different interpretation to suttas. The Theravādins presented their own view.
There were at least 16 such schools whose views were taken up for discussion and debated in the Kathvatthu.
These views are rejected as being not in accordance with the original teachings of the Buddha. There are 217 or 219
viewpoints that are taken up for discussion and debate. The text starts with the position taken up by the Sammītiyas or the
Puggalavdins, who put forward the view that there is a ‘person’ over and above the five aggregates. In this manner most of
the important doctrinal problems are discussed in details in the Kathāvatthu.
Kathāvatthu is considered by some scholars as the earliest book of logic or more precisely the book which uses
logic to establish the Theravāda point of view. Hence it is considered very important. Besides, it is of great significance as a
source book to understand the details of different Buddhist schools and their philosophies.
As the Theravāda Abhidhamma text it served a great purpose in refuting the opposite viewpoints and establishing
the Theravda (or Vibhajjavāda) position. In this respect it can be considered as a very important contribution to Theravāda
Buddhist thought as well as to the furtherance and strengthening of Theravāda Buddhism in India.
25 This note was among the notes for second yearr, but I believe that for first year students it will be more usefull.
thought mainly by such schools as Puggalavāda, Sarvāstivāda and so on.
The logical system adopted in the Kathāvatthu is based on a scheme consisting of three books, namely Thapana,
Pāpana and Āropana. Thapana denotes the main arguments presented to refute the opposing views. The result reached by
Thapana is referred to as Pāpana. The reflection(?) and the finel rejection(?) of the opponents' view was meant by Āropana.
Though the opponents are not directly identified in the Kathāvatthuppakarana itself the commentary names about 16 of
them. Therefore, kathāvatthu when taken along with its commentary throws much light on the development of Buddhist
thought of the time.
THE PAṬṬHĀNAPAKARANA
The book of causes is the seventh book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The Sarvastivāda school mentions it as the
Jñānaprasthāna. It is regarded as the most important and voluminous book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It deals with
causation and mutual relationship of phenomena. It discusses various kinds of relationship between phenomena. It is known
as Mahāpakarana. It is sometimes called „the great book of discourse.“ Like the Yamaka, this book is very difficult to
understand. It has, therefore, been said that he who masters this book masters all the doctrines of the Abhidhamma.
The Paṭṭhāna gives a detailed account of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. It, in the form of 24 paccayas, mentions the 12-
fold system of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. These 24 paccayas or „modes of relationship between things“ are called the 24
Paṭṭhānas. The 24 paccayas are:
1. Hetu 9. Upanissaya 17. Jhāna
2. Arammana 10. Purejata 18. Magga
3. Ādhipati 11. Pacchajāta 19. Sampayutta
4. Anantara 12. Asevana 20. Vippayutta
5. Sammanantara 13. Kamma 21. Atthi
6. Sahajata 14. Vipāka 22. Natthi
7. Annamanna 15. Āhāra 23. Vigata
8. Nissaya 16. Indriya 24. Avigata
It is to be noted here, that some of the paccayas have already been described in the Kathāvatthu. But this book can
be mentioned as the first to group them into a body of twenty-four. It is a book of the late period and that is why there is
some resemblance to the Sāriputta Abhidhamma-sāstra, in which six conditions are recorded.
The Abhidhamma constitutes the results of any inquiry into the nature of human experience, both sensory and
extra-sensory. Since the results are stated and interpreted in terms of language and logic, it allows the Abhidhamma the
justification to be considered as philosophy, the function of philosophy. If the latter is to be practically useful and ethically
the understanding cannot be obtained or developed without reference to the observation of the world within and around us
in the way it actually functions. So the observation of the world within and around us in the way it actually functions. So the
greater part of the content of Abhidhamma is an analysis and understanding of phenomena. In this regard the Abhidhamma
can be introduced as a critical and descriptive philosophy.
THE NATURE AND CONTENT OF ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)
Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the third division of Tipiṭaka. It consists of seven books as follows:
1. Dhammasaṁganī pakarana which is the classification of Dhamma that contains detailed enumeration of all phenomena
with analyses of consciousness and its fastest mental concomitants.
2. Vibhaṁga means „divisions“ or „books of analysis“ where as the first book provides a bird-eyed view with systematic
arrangement.
3. Dātukathā pakarana is the discourse on elements and separated into treatises on the thorough analysis of dhātu.
4. Puggalapaññatti pakarana is the book of individuals, a small treaded/treatise(?) giving a description of various parts of
individual where acumens(?) along the parts.(?)
5. Kathāvatthu pakarana are the points of control, it is the second parathion by ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera, there he
discussed and refused doctrines of other schools of taught in order to approach all the points of controversy on the
Buddha's Dhamma.
6. Yamaka pakarana means the book of pairs. Yamaka sets out to define and analyse the interrelationship of Dhamma and
Puggala.
7. The last one is Paṭṭhāna pakarana, which are the books of cause-relationship. It brings together all relationships in a
coordinative form to show that Dhamma does not exist as isolated in detail but that it is constituted by a well ordered
system.
All these books are designated by the name of pakarana - only in the canonical and the commentary is that word
used for the third Piṭaka defiantly(?). Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the last one. The definition of Abhidhamma:
26 In the original paper from which I was copy-writing this topic there were two kinds of lists, so I write here both. The
second one was written by hand, it is just different order of the first one.
When we examine the Abhidhamma Piṭaka of any tradition, it is a huge collection of systematical, tabulated and
classified doctrine of the Buddha that represents the quintessence of his teaching. In Abhidhamma, Dhamma's are no
longer taught in conventional term making references to person and objects as „I,“ „we,“ „he,“ „she,“ „man,“ „dog,“ „tree,“
etc.
Here Dhamma's are treated entirely in terms of its ultimate reality. Analyses of each phenomenon are to its ultimate
constituent and all relative concept such as „man,“ „mountain“ etc. Thus, in Abhidhamma everything expresses in terms of
khandhas, āyatanas, dhātu etc.
Of these texts, Paṭṭhāna is the last of Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It is the greatest because it is bigger inside and supreme
in essence. The Abhidhamma texts excluding pakarana were composed between the period of first and third council, while
Kathāvathu was completed at the third Buddhist council.
666THERAVADA ABHIDHAMMA
There are seven volumes in the Theravadin Abhidhamma Pitaka. Among those pitakas
Dhammasangani and Yamaka deal with the explanation of mind. in relation to those explanation and its
essence has been brought in point form in the Abhidhmmattasangaha. The seven volumes of
Abhidhamma Pitaka are as follows:
1. Dhammasangani – enumeration or classification of dhamma.
2. Vibhavga – divisions
3. Dhatukatha – discourses of elements
4. Puggala-pabbatti – descrition of individuals
5. Kathavatthu – subject of discussion
6. Yamaka – a book of pairs.
7. Patthana – book of relations.
Vibhavga – divisions
In the Vibhavga there are 18 divisions. The 1st are khanda (aggregates), ayatana (sense-bases),
dhatu (elements), such as truth, indriya (controlling faculties), paccayakara (causal genesis),
satipatthana (minfulness), sammappadhana (supreme effort), iddhipada (means of accomplishment),
bojjhavga (factors of wisdom), jhana (absorption or trances), appamabba (illimitable), magga (path),
sikkhapada (precept), patisambhida (analytical knowledge), bana (wisdom), khuddakavatthu (minor
subjects), dhammahadaya (essence of truth).
- The idea of gods: Devata-sajyutta.
1. Root condition
2. Object condition
3. Predominance condition
4. Proximity condition
5. Contiguity condition
6. Conascence condition
7. Mutuality condition
8. Support condition
9. Decisive support condition
10. Prenascence condition
11. Postnascence condition
12. Repetition condition
13. Kamma condition
14. Result condition
15. Nutriment condition
16. Faculty condition
17. Jhana condition
18. Path condition
19. Association condition
20. Dissociation condition
21. Presence condition
22. Absence condition
23. Disappearance condition
24. Non-disappearance condition
666 LECTURE ON SUTTA VIBHANGA (VINAYA TEXT) BY MRS. PARIS AUGUST 22, 2000
Sutta Vibhanga, the words Sutta Vibhanga means analysis of classification "Vibhanga" of a Sutta
applied to each rule of course of training included the P1timokka. This literal meaning Sutta or Sutra means
strength of strain because the P1timokha is inverted in the Sutta Vinaya. There are two hundred and twenty-
seven (227) for the monks and three hundred and eleven (311) for Bhikhuni.
(1) Par1jika 4
(2) Sa8ghadisena 13
(3) An2yata 2
(4) N2saggiya P1cittiya 30
(5) P1cittiya 92
(6) Patidesan2ya 4
(7) Sekh2ya 75
(8) Adhikarana Samatha 7
227
(1) Par1jika 8
(2) Sa8ghadisena 17
(3) N2saggiya P1cittiya 30
(4) P1cittiya 166
(5) Patidesan2ya 8
(6) Sekh2ya 75
(7) Adhikarana Samatha 7
311
In the Sutta Vinaya a monk usually show a vowing his obtain to the Buddha or to one of the monk or to a
group of a monk directly. Therefore he was thus fare for the Uposato ceremony and could to take his place at
meeting.
The Sutta Vibhanga show that it action were found worthy to be blamed to the course of training
was soulful/sheepfold and penalty was test careful from the preach/brief of each rule of right conduct one
had to face a penalty.
The privation of unsuitable behavior in monk and nun, some to have residence two bases.
(1) P1rajika
This is the first section of the Sutta Vinaya is included four P1rajika which are violation leading to
expansion/ each person. The rules are as follows-
(2) Sa8ghadisena
When a monk does something wrong the offender in subject to penalty for a certain period and then he
can be reinstated by a former act of the Bhikhu order. Five groups base on minor sexual offencer.
(3) Aniyata
They are called undetermined a monk make recharge for braking this type of minor rules. The penalty
depends on the nature of the offence/opinion.
(5) Patidesan2ya
These are precept covering etiquettes the monk will be committee and offence if they do not behave
well while making alms round. Spacing a monk make ------small Vinaya rules of this nature he will have to
confuse simple.
(6) Sekhiya
These are very small precept they deal with the daily ruling for bhikhu. The monk should behave
well while preaching the Dhamma to the lady, while eating and while attending to various types of
activities/action. These rules are without story and commentary and they are included in the P1timokkha.
This is a close relationship between the P1timokkha and Sutta Vibhanga, Sutta Vibhanga is a later work.
Therefore, it has a commentary and various elutriations while the P1timokkha both P1timokkha and
Sutta Vibhanga are similar word to word.
1. Kamavacara = 54 – 11 worlds
2. Rupavacara = 15 – 16 worlds 31 worlds.
3. Arupavacara = 12 – 4 worlds
4. Lokottara = 8
QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE PARA-CANONICAL TEXTS OF ABHIDHAMMA LITERATURE (NOT THE CANON)
Actually when we speak about Abhidhamma literature, first we should know why it is called
Abhidhamma. The Buddha taught only the Dhamma and Vinaya. So, is it different from Sutta and Vinaya
Piṭaka? Simply speaking, Abhidhamma, as the term implies, is the higher teaching of the Buddha. It expounds
the quintessence of His profound doctrine.
The Dhamma, embodied in the Sutta Piṭaka is the conventional teaching (vohāra desanā), and the
Abhidhamma is the ultimate teaching (paramatthā desanā). There is a curious question about Abhidhamma, that
whether Abhidhamma is essential to realize Nibbāna. Undoubtedly, Abhidhamma is extremely helpful to
comprehend fully the words of the Buddha and realize Nibbāna, as it presents a key to open the door of reality.
It deals with realities and a practical way of noble living, based on the experience of those who have understood
and realized. Without knowledge of the Abhidhamma one at times(?) might find it difficult to understand the real
significance of some profound teachings of the Buddha. To develop insight (vipassanā) Abhidhamma is
certainly helpful.
Abhidhamma is believed to be originally from the Sutta Piṭaka itself. Let see the sutta of Dīgha Nikāya –
Dasuttara and Saṅgīti Sutta and text of Aṅguttara Nikāya. Abhidhamma has 5 stratas as follows:
1. Canonical 4. Saṅgaha (compendium)
2. Commentarial 5. Sub-commentarial on compendium (ṭīkā)
3. Sub-commentarial
When we discuss the canonical texts of Abhidhamma it is clear to us that Abhidhamma Piṭaka was made
up of 7 texts, namely:
1. Dhammasaṅganī 4. Puggalapaññati 7. Paṭṭhāna
2. Vibhaṅga 5. Kathāvatthu
3. Dhātukathā 6. Yamaka
According to Mrs. Rhys Davids, Abhidhamma is a recount of suttanta doctrines, with analysis and
elaborations and comments, hence not a positive contribution to the philosophy of earl Buddhism, but an
analytic, logical and methodological elaboration of what was already given in the discourses. Within Sutta
Piṭaka Abhidhamma is already found in the dry and schematic enumerations in the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the last
suttas of Dīgha Nikāya.
The Dhammasaṅganī, Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā, Puggalapaññati and Yamaka, generally deal with the
analysis of phenomena and the Paṭṭhāna with synthesis.
The Pāli canon of Abhidhamma (?) The most important sources are the Pāli commentaries and
sub=commentaries, which were written in Sri Lanka as well as in Burma. According to Indian tradition it was
Mahinda who brought Buddhism to Ceylon along with the canon and aṭṭhakathā (commentary) on it. When we
trace the original sources, almost all the Pāli commentaries explain the early Buddhist discourses on an
Abhidhammic basis.
666THE ROLE OF SIMILE AND METAPHOR IN PALI CANON
Simile and metaphor are two of the alavkara especially founded by the Sanskrit writers. As
rhetorical devices they were used in the oldest Vedic writings. These types of poetic expressions are
found in almost all the languages of the world. A simile is a figure of speech in which one thing; one
action or relation is likened to or explicitly compared to something of a different kind or quality. It
requires a phrase beginning with ‘like’ ‘as’ ‘as if’, etc. which makes it not only more prolix than a
metaphor but also labels the thought as make-believe.
The word metaphor, derived form Greek meta, meaning ‘over’, and pherein, meaning ‘to carry’,
denotes an analogy, similarity or relation between two things. A metaphor is a forceful figure of speech
based on the resemblance which one object is supposed to bear to another. It is expressed by
transferring a name or an action from an object to which it properly belongs to another. A comparison
is implied but not formally explicitly manifested.
The difference between a simile and a metaphor is slight, the simile being only a metaphor with
an explanation. In general the metaphor is more compact, forceful and suggestive, for instance:
Her face like lotus – simile
Her lotus face - metaphor
There are abundant of similes and metaphors, which are very simple and direct, used in the
early Buddhist discourses and later poetic compositions. These often occur in the works like the
Dhammapada and the Thera-Their-gatha, in which the striking feature of these similes is their
simplicity and spontaneity. A few examples may be quoted from the Dhammapada:
If one speaks or acts with wicked mind, because of that, suffering follows the one just as the
wheel follows the hoof of the draught-ox.
Even as rain penetrates an ill-thatched house, so does lust penetrate an undeveloped mind?
As a fish taken out of its watery habitat and thrown on dry ground, this thought trembles. The
dominion of Mara should be eliminated.
If an ignorant man were to associate with a wise one even for a life-time, he will not come to
know what is good, even as a ladle does not know the taste of soup; whereas, if an intelligent person
were to associate with a wise man even for a moment, he will come to know what is good, as the
tongue comes to know the taste of soup.
These similes though they are very simple, direct and based on ordinary observation, are very
effective and convincing. In Buddhism, similes and metaphors are used for the purpose of elucidating
the meaning. One of the most popular similes in the Nikayas, is metaphysical questions regarding the
origin of the world, the duration and extent of the universe, etc. In a dialogue between the Buddha and
the son of Malunkya, the meaninglessness of such metaphysical pursuits is illustrated by a beautiful
simile:
A man is hit by an arrow. His friends hasten to the doctor. The latter is about to draw out the
arrow from the man’s body. The wounded man, however, cries: “Stop. I will not have the arrow
drawn out until I know who shot it, whether a warrior or a brahman, a vaisya or a sudra; to
which family he belonged; whether he was short or tall; of what species and description the
arrow is” and so on. What would happen? The man would die before all these questions are
answered. In the same way the disciple who wishes for answers to all his questions regarding
the extent and duration of the universe, about the nature of the beyond, would perish before he
came to understand the nature of suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering and
the way to the cessation of suffering, which are the immediate problems as well as their
solutions.
The metaphors, too, is not lack in the scriptural Pali, e.g, ‘dhammacakkapure javaj that is
running in the city, namely, wheel of doctrine; amatassa dvara doors of the immortality; me
niluppala akkhini my blue-lily-eyes.
A clear understanding of the Dhamma is a pre-requisite for spiritual advancement. To facilitate the
understanding of new and unfamiliar concepts, particularly among the uninitiated, the simile and
metaphors have been employed in the Nikayas at its functional best.
The Pali terms ‘upama’, a feminine noun and ‘upamana’, a neuter noun, both mean simile or
parable in English. A simile is a figure of speech in which one thing, one action or relation is likened to
or explicitly compared to something of a different kind or quality. Words such as ‘as’ or ‘like’ usually
expresses the comparison.
Simile is a very successful exegetical technique extensively used in all strata of Pali literature. It
is invariably resorted to the explanation of abstract concepts. Unlike in secular literature where similes
are used for poetic value, and sometimes the same hackneyed similes are traditionally used in all
literary works, similes are utilised in Pali literature for the specific purpose of edifying ideas, though
they are rich in poetic values. Therefore these similes display a charming originality and an inspiring
spontaneity. They lend poetic elegance to the profound sober doctrinal discussions. They rouse the
imaginative power of the readers and help to deepen their understanding with sensitivity and
sensibility.
In the Mahavagga, the Buddha says that his Dhamma is ‘profound, difficult to realise,
hard to understand……,subtle and comprehensible only by the wise’. How could he make it simple and
understandable to the common people whom he preached his Dhamma? Therefore, the use of similes to
clarify the meaning of his teaching is employed.
There are many similes been employed in the Buddhist canon, the most important are the
Dhammapada and the Thera-Therigatha. Even in some suttas, there are ample of similes, for example,
alone in the Samnbbaphalasutta itself has 25 similes. This sutta set forth the fruits of the life of a
recluse and the highest goal of a Buddhist monk is treated, therefore, the subject is very difficult. Here,
the Buddha explains it with homely similes to serve the great purpose of making his teaching crystal
clear to the listeners. When he comes to the Jhana stage, his language becomes rich in similes and
glows with a beauty which is remarkable not only from the religious point of view but also from the
aesthetic view point. According to Prof. Angraj Chaudhary (Essays on Buddhism and Pali literature
p.155), such passages become magnificent in their poetic grandeur and may aptly be called the ‘gem of
Pali literature’. Because, as Prof. Angraj Chaudhary pointed out, the similes used in this sutta do not
only simplify the profound matter but also explain its sublime nature. Moreover, the similes seem to be
spontaneous and not laboured. For example, the last simile explains the knowledge of the 4 Noble
Truths that one attains as:
‘just as a man standing on the bank of a pool of water perceives the oysters and shells, gravel and
the pebbles and the shoals of fish in the clear, translucent and serene water, so he knows the 4
Noble Truths’
And in many other texts, the similes used are very simple and direct. A few examples may be
quoted from the Dhammapada:
1. Though a fool all his life associates with a wise man,
he does not perceive the Truth (Dhamma),
just as a spoon (does not perceive) the taste of the soup.—verse 64.
2. If an intelligent person associates with a wise man even for a moment,
He quickly perceives the Truth (Dhamma).
Just as the tongue (perceives) the taste of the soup.—verse 65.
These similes though are very simple, direct and based on ordinary observation, they are very
effective and convincing, indeed.
Unlike in Greek, Roman and Indian literature, the Pali Nikaya avoid the use of complex and far-
fetched similes. This difference is due to the different philosophical standpoints of the Buddhist and the
non-Buddhist. For the traditional Indian philosopher, aesthetics is a fundamental discipline representing
the very experience of Brahman. Hence the development of an extremely sophisticated theory of
poetics (alamkara) that takes both euphonic (wabha) and semantic (artha) aspects into consideration.
However the Buddhist approach to aesthetics and, therefore, to poetics is different. The ethically
oriented pragmatic teachings of the Buddha subordinated aesthetics to ethics. Hence the Buddha’s
reluctance to extol the value of literary masterpieces with mere poetic elegance. There are at least three
discourses of the Buddha wherein he speaks rather disparagingly of discourses composed by poets
(kavikata) which may possess literary elegance (cittakkhara cittavyabjana), in contrast to discourses
that embody profound moral ideas (gambhira gambhirattha lokuttara subbatapatisabbutta). In fact, he
was extolling the usefulness of treatises possessing a definie theme relating to moral discourses,
namely, the inculcation of the doctrine of non-substantiality (subbatapatisabbutta), where the profound
moral ideas may be expressed through the most apt similes, as is evident from another statement of
his :
Esa te upama raja atthasandassani kata—Jataka III. 373.
(These similes are used for the purpose of elucidating the meaning)
A clear understanding of the Dhamma was a pre-equisite for spiritual advancement. To facilitate
the understanding of new ad unfamiliar concepts, particularly among the uninitiated, the similes has
been employed in the Nilayas at its functional best. They are appropriate, simple and uncomplicated.
Similes have also added a variety and richness to the expressionistic style of the Nikayas which makes
one feel comfortable even with the most involved of concepts. All in all, similes have functioned as the
greatest catalyst in simplifying the abstruse in the Nikayas.
666SIMILES AND PARABLES IN BUDDHIST DISCOURSES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DIGHA, MAJJHIMA AND SAMYUTTA
NIKAYAS (2001)
Similes and parables are 2 of the Alavkara very commonly and effectively used by writers and
speakers in order to communicate their ideas clearly, lucidly and forcefully. As a great teacher the
Buddha knew what to teach and how to teach. His teaching was characterized by his perfect
skillfulness. In comparing to the modern education the Buddha had utilized many methods of teaching
to make his disciples understand the doctrine, and the effective simile and parable are often used to
define and clarify very subtle concepts. A simile is affected by comparing one thing with another thing,
which usually is of a different knid. It requires a phrase beginning with ‘like’, ‘as’, ‘as if’, etc. which
makes it not only more prolix than a parable but also labels the thought as make-believe. A parable is
usually a short narration of a story, brings out a moral or spiritual lesson.
There are abundant of similes and parables, which are very simple and direct, used in the early
Buddhist discourses and later poetic compositions. These often occur in the works like the
Dhammapada and the Thera-Their-gatha. Even the Digha, Majjhima and Samyutta contain some
apt similes and parables. Though poets usually use similes and parables for the purpose of adorning
their writings. Religious teachers use it more for the purpose of achieving effective communication.
And the Buddha is well known for his almost unique ability to put into these 2 figures of speech.
While the Buddha was preaching a new doctrine to mix audience, he greatly used parables and similes
in order to make his ideas and views very clear and effective. In using similes and parables the Buddha
was careful to select the most apt and simplest ones so that the audiences could easily grasp what he
says. Therefore, for similes he often used day-to-day events and happenings.
For example, to show swiftness of action, such as in the case of appearance and the disappearance of
deities, he often used similes is “as swift as a strong man might stretch his bent-arm or flex if again”.
This very forcefully brings out the rapidity of the appearance and disappearance of spirits. In the
Mahaparinibbana sutta the Buddha in order to describe the Licchavis, compares them to the gods of
Tavatimsa. The Sakkapabha sutta of the Dighanikaya contains some very beautiful similes. These
are put in the mouth of Pabcasikha who is in love with Timbaru’s daughter. He compares his beloved
to a delighted breeze to one who sweats or as a cooling draught to one who thirsts. Again he says she is
like medicine to him who is sick, or like nourishment to one who is starving.
The Majjhima too abounds in similes. The Vatthupama Sutta uses apt similes to explain how the
mind could be cleansed. Just as a cloth that is defiled and stained becomes pure and bright with the help
of clear water of just as gold becomes pure and bright with the help of a furnace. So, too, the mind of a
virtuous monk…. The Mahaassapura Sutta compares the completely tranquil mind to a lake in a
mountain recess, clear, limpid and undisturbed.
The Samyuttanikaya, too, has some very apt similes. For example, to describe beings that are bound
by desires, they are compared to a bird bound by fetters. (Iccha baddha puthu satta – pasena sakuni
yatha). The Kosala Samyutta attempting to explain the inevitable subjugation of beings to old age and
death, say these assail beings like sky scraping huge mountains that fall from all 4 directions.
Parables, too, occur frequently in the Nikayas. The parables occurring in the Payasi sutta of the
Dighanikaya are very good examples. The snake parable in the Alagaddupama sutta and the
Kakacupama Sutta of the Majjhimanikaya, the raft parable in the Kullupama are good examples for
the effective use of parables in the Nikayas.
A clear understanding of the doctrine was a pre-requisite for spiritual advancement. To facilitate the
understanding of new and unfamiliar concepts, particularly among the uninitiated, the similes and
parables have been employed by the Buddha at its functional best. There are abundant of similes
occurred in the Nikayas, though they are very simple, direct and based on ordinary observation, are
very effective and convincing. Therefore, similes and parables have been used not as mere figures of
speech to increase the poetic value of sutta, but mainly to give the hearer knowledge on the nature of
the world and thereby leading them to the realization of Nibbana. (749 words)
666TOPIC 1. SIMILES AND PARABLES IN BUDDHIST DISCOURSES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DIGHA, MAJJHIMA AND SAMYUTTA NIKAYAS.
26/03/2001
lectured by Pannaloka
Another aspect of such explanation
The Buddha often uses similes and parables in order to make the idea very clear. For instance, in the Dhammapada and
Cullahattipadopama sutta he uses similes, besides the Alaggato sutta is also based on the similes.
“Yavajinampi ce balo Panditam payirupasati Naso dhammam vijanati Dabbi suparasam yatha Muhattamapi ce vibbu
Panditam payirupasati Khippam dhammam vijanati Jivhasuparasam yatha.”
----- Evan if the fool associates with a wise man for a whole life, he never understands the dhamma, as the spoon doesn’t
know the taste of curry. Evan if the wise associates with a wise man even for a moment, he knows the dhamma quickly, as
the tongue recognizes the taste of curry.
Another instance:
Yathapi bhamaro puppham
Vannagandham ahethayam
Paleti rusamadaya
Evam game municare
--From Bhikkhu Vagga
The most essential three aspects of poetry are: music, vision and emotion. The
poetry springs from imagination roused by emotion and is expressed in music and imagery.
The gathas of Isidasi are grouped under the title ‘The Group of Forty Verses’. Actually, there
are altogether 48 verses (from verse 400 to verse 447). Mrs. Rhys Davids has stated in her translation
of the text that she was unable to classify the metre throughout this poem. However, according to K. R.
Norman, all the verses are ganacchandas except verses 416a and 444a, which are wloka. The
ganacchandas verses are mostly arya, although 410b is very corrupt. Pada b of 441 is also very corrupt,
but it is possible that the metre is Upagiti.
There are several features in this poem which might be held to support a date for its
composition which is later than that of most of the Therigatha.
1. The mention of Pataliputta in verse 400 must clearly be later than that city’s foundation and
rise to pre-eminience. There is , however, no need to assume that this is later than Asoka’s
time, and moreover verse 400 is one of the verses which is recogized by the commentary as a
later addition by the savgiti-kara. (the other two verses are 401 and 402).
2. Winternizt claimed that this poem seemed to belong to a later period of decay, when
Buddhism had already passed through many a crisis.
3. Mrs. Rhys Davids regarded this poem (and the last poem of the text) as the products of later
literary craft. Warder’s analysis would support this, but any such dating is relative rather then
absolute. Since the arya metre fell into disuse among Buddhist writers, noting in that metre is
likely to be very late.
4. Mrs. Rhys Davids also drew attention to the fact that although several theris are reputed to
have remembered previous existences, only Isidasi and Sumedha actually recount these to
their contemporaries. Again, it does not seem possible to date a practice of this kind.
The nun whom Isidasi met, according to some scholars, was a Jain. K.R. Norman is of the opinion
that the name Jinadatta suggested her status. Furthermore, the term ‘nijjara’ in verse 431 (as
nijjaressami) is a technical term in Jainism, which means ‘the gradual destruction of all actions’.
This poem gives important points of Buddhist philosophy of life, the principal characteristic
as well as the fundamentals of Buddhism. The force of kamma and its results are depicted very clearly
in this poem. It also makes a hint that, kamma can only be understood by psychic power of
Pubbenivasanusssatibana (retrocognition), i.e., the ability to perceive one’s own past history. This
capacity is connected with satanussati vibbana. Accoding to D. J. Kalupahana, this ability is dependent
on memory (sati), and this menory of past experience is attained through acts of intensive concentration
(samadhi).
According to B. C. Law, the most striking feature of this poem is the attainment of Nibbana
by Isidasi. Having gone through the terrible results of bad kamma, Isidasi, though still in her youth and
beautiful, renounced the world. By practicing the Noble Path, she finally attained Nibbana, which is, in
it negative sense ‘the end to all ills’, and in its positive sense, ‘the highest Good’.
According to V. F. Gunaratna, almost all the poems in Therigatha lack the poetic excellence
that characterizes most of the verses of the Theras. He says ‘ we also miss that impassioned longing for
solitude ad that ardent love of nature and forest-life so beautifully expressed in the Thera gathas. Nor
do we find in the Their gathas much of that hortatory element which features largely n some of the
Thera gathas. In language, in sentiment and in outlook there are differences between the verses of the
Theras and those of the Theris.’ For this, the author gives the answer ‘ this may be traced to the
circumstance that in the homes of the early Buddhist era the role of the woman was so different from
that of the man. There is also the added circumstance that Buddhist nuns were mot allowed by their
Vinaya to live alone in secluded places’. In the verses of Isidasi, the comment of Gunaratna is also
applicable.
From the point of the kavyaliterature, this poem no doubt has a great value. It throws a flood of
light on the real picture of ancient India life, social condition, religious life and also social position of
women in ancient India. According to Winternitz, both the texts of Theragatha and Therigatha can be
mentioned as ‘the best productions of Indian lyric poetry, from the hymns of the Rgveda to the lyrical
poems of Kalidasa and Amuru’.
Matta—mara system
The following vowels consists of two moras, the symbol of two moras is “ ”
(1) a long vowel e.g. a, i,
(2) a vowel preceding a conjunct of consonants e.g. buddha, dhamma,
(3) a vowel preceding the letter m e.g. samsara, simsapa
(4) the vowel at the end of a line in verses e.g. pujemi buddham kusumenena.
All other short vowels consists of one mora and the symbol for it is “—”,e.g. a, i,
There are five ganas (groups) in Matta system, each gana includes four moras irrespective of the
number of the characters. They are,
(1) --ma-gana
(2) - - --sa-gana
(3)- - --ja-gana
(4) -- --bha-gana
(5)---- --na-gana
Vanna—character system
There are eight ganas in the vanna system and each gana includes three characters irrespective of
the number of moras. These eight ganas are
(1) --ma-gana
(2) - --ya-gana
(3) - --ra-gana
(4) -- --sa-gana
(5) - --ta-gana
(6) - - --ja-gana
(7) -- --bha-gana
(8) ---- --na-gana
There are hundreds and thousands of metres belonged to these two systems of Matta and Vanna.
But in the Pali texts,Vanna is mostly and widely used. Many Pali texts were composed in verses for the
purpose of accuracy, preservation and easy to remember, as in the oral tradition these are very
essential.
According to the Vuttodaya, there are many names given to each different Vanna. For example,
the name of the order of ja-ta-ja-ra is vamsattha and that of ta-bha-ja-ja-
(long) is vasantatilaka. All the four lines have the same order of Vanna, for examples
(1)vamsattha—ja-ta-ja-ra
visaradam vadapathativattinam
- - / -/ - -/ -
ja ta ja ra
tilokapajjotamasayhasayinam
- -/ -/ - -/ -
ja ta ja ra
asesabeyyavaranappahayinam
- -/ -/ - -/ -
ja ta ja ra
namami sattharamananttagocaram
- - / -/- -/ -
ja ta ja ra
(2)vasantatilaka—ta-bha-ja-ja-(long)
The particular verse of this vasantatilaka Vanna for easy remembering is
“vutta vasantatilaka tabhajajagago” and its order of the ganas is
-/ - -/- -/ - -/ which is ta-bha-ja-ja-(long)
However, in the early Buddhist discourses, the lines are not governed by meters, the priority
place is given to the meanings, therefore sometimes the metres are broken.
1.Brahmajala 2.SuttaSamannaphala
3.Ambattha 4.SuttaKutadanta Sutta
5.Mahali Sutta 6.Jalitya Sutta
7.Mahasihanafda 8.Patthana Sutta
9.Sabbe Sutta 10.Kevatta Sutta
12.Lohicca Sutta 13.Tevijja Sutta
14.Mahavagga Pali
Pathikavaggapali
Digha Nikaya --- Ven. Anada and his followers were in charge
Majjhima Nikaya --- Followers of Ven.Sariputta were in charge
Samyutta nikaya --- Ven Mahakassapa and his followers.
Aṅguttara Nikāya ---- Ven Anuruddha
Di _Ni 34
M _N 152
S _N 7762
A _N 9557
Burmese tradition
16. Suttanipata 17. Nettippakarana
18. Petakopadesa 19. Milindapanha
What are the characteristics of the four Nikayas according to the commentary?
Digha Nikaya has the nature of promoting faith in the Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha.
Majjhima Nikaya helps to crushing the hereitcal view.
What are the bases of classification of Anguttara Nikayas, and how are its parts named?
Anguttara Nikayas is containing (9557), short Suttas is divided into (11) divisions known as
Nipatas. Each Nipata is divided again into groups called vaggas, which usually contain ten Suttas.
The discourses are arranged in progressive numerical order, each Nipata containing Suttas with
items of Dhamma, beginning with one item and moving up by units of one till they are eleven items
of Dhamma in each Sutta of the last Nipata.:
In the second watch of the night the Buddha uttered the first stanza-
When the real nature of the things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then all his
doubt vanish, because he perceive the cessation of causes
In the first watch of the night the Buddha uttered the first stanza-
When the real nature of the things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then like the
sun that illumines the sky, he stands repelling the dark host of Mara.
4. How many verses and Theras in Theragatha and how many Theras are verses?
Verses 1239{1279}
Theras 384 (264)
Theras (One verses) 120
5. How many verses and theris in the therigatha and how many theris are verses?
Verses 494
Theras 101
Theras (One verses) 18
How many stories are there in the Cariya-pitaka and how are they divided?
Buddhavamsa
QUESTIONS
• Clarify, with evidence, how the Buddha's teaching has been classified as Nine-fold Division.
• Examine briefly the structure and contents of the Pāli Vinaya Piṭaka.
• Probe what was meant by the term „the two fold discipline“ (ubhatovibhaṅga) at the first council.
• Write a detailed account on classification of the whole the Buddha's teaching into five Nikāyas.
• Clarify, with evidence how the Buddha's teaching has been classified as Navāṅgasatthusāsana
(Ninefold portion).
• Survey the composition of the Dhammapada with special reference to its poetical value.
• Write a critical introduction either for Saṃyutta Nikāya or Aṅguttara Nikāya.
• Examine how far simile and metaphor are used in the Pāli Canon.
• Write comprehensive notes on two of the following.
I. Patimokkha
II. Khuddakapāṭha
III. Parivāra Pāḷi
IV. Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa
V. Dhammavinaya
• Critically examine the traditional classification of the Pāli Canon.
• Examine how all the words of the Buddha were incorporated into Dhamma and Vinaya at the first
council.
• Write a detailed introduction to any (one) of the first four Nikāyas on your choice.
• Write a short account of the texts comprising the Pāli Vinaya Piṭaka.
• Make a survey of the contents of the Khuddaka Nikāya.
• Name the books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, and write a substantial account on any (one) of them.
• Appreciate the poetical merits of Theragāthā.
• Write short notes on two of the following:
I. Suttanipāta
II. Apadānapāḷi
III. Navāṅgasatthusāsana
IV. Paṭisambhidāmagga
• Examine the reliability of commentarial interpretations of Nine Fold Division of Dhamma when
analyzing them.
• Clarify the historicity and content of Dīgha nikāya and assess the importance of Brahmajāla sutta as the
first one of Sutta Piṭaka.
• Elucidate the use of Vinaya rules paying special attention to „Dasa atthavase.“
• Evaluate the significance of nidhānakathā of Atthasalīni when examine the origin and historicity of
Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
• „Dvāsitaṃ Buddhato ganhi,
Dve sahassāni bhikkhuto.“
Is this view reliable? Examine paying attention to sayings of the Buddha and sayings of the disciples of
Pāli canon.
• Review critically the place of verses in Pāli Tipiṭaka.
• Discuss, to what extent applicable the cleverness of languages of the Buddha to be sharpen the literary
significance of Pāli Tipiṭaka.
• Clarify your opinion for the possibility of lost texts.
• Give an overview of the Nine-Fold-Division of buddhism. Show whether the classification is systematic.
• Comment on development of the Sutta Piṭaka.
• Does the Cullavagga Pāḷi statement »Eteneva upāyena pañcapi nikāye pucchi.« mean that all of
Buddhism was included in 1st council deliberation? give your reasons for this view.
• Discuss the manner in which Theravāda schools attempted to include the Abhidhamma Piṭaka in the
Buddha's original teachings.
• Explain how the code of discipline in Vinaya Piṭaka was composed.
• Use the Thera and Therī gāthas to demonstrate the literary aspects of the Tipiṭaka.
• Show how the disciples' teachings were validated and became part of the main body of Buddha's
teaching.
• Write short notes on any two of the following:
I. Ubhato vibhaṁga
II. Suttanipāta
III. Dhammapada
IV. Kathāvatthuppakarana
V. Dhamma Vinaya
P.F.I. 102 – PĀLI LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
A general knowledge of the fundamentals of the traditional Pāli grammar with special emphasis on the following topics is
expected here: Alphabet, Nouns, Verbs, Indeclinables, Secondary Derivations, Primary Derivations, Combinations,
Compounds, Adjectives, Syntax and Pālisentence patterns. In addition, a general knowledge on the following topics should
be acquired: origin, growth and expansion of Pāli language, position of Pāli among old and middle Indo-Aryan languages,
development of Pāli as a written dialect, various stages in the development of Pāli language with special reference to the
characteristics specific to each stage, Sanskrit influence on Pāli and similarities and dissimilarities between phrase and verse
in Pāli.
Recommended Reading:
1. New Pāli Course, Vol. i., ii. A. P. Buddhadatta, Colombo, 1954 – 1962
2. Introduction to Pāli A. K. Warder, London, 1963
3. Pāli Made Easy B. Ānanda Maitreya Thera, Japan, 1993
4. Pāli Reader L. W. Adikaram, Colombo, 1947
5. A Graduated Pāli Course (Part 1) Sumangala Suriyagoda Thera, Second Edition, Nedimala, 1994
(1) Old Indo-Aryan languages, which are called Vedic languages, it was from the beginning until the 6th
century BC.
(2) Middle Indo-Aryan languages (Prākrit, Sanskrit, Magadhī, Arthamagadhī and so on), it was from 6th
century BC until 1000 AD.
(3) Modern Indo-Aryan languages (consisting of Hindī, Bengali, Brahmini, Sinhala and Nepali languages),
from 1000 AD until the present day.
Pāli language is considered as the middle Indo-Ariyan that derived from Sanskrit. But there is consensus of opinion
regarding the fact that Pāli is not derived from classical Sanskrit, but rather from old Vedicand therefore Pāli is not later than
Sanskrit. It is generally accepted that Pāli and other forms of Prākrit which constitute the Middle Indo-Aryan languages in
the history of development of Indo-Aryan languages represent the immediate result of evolution of old-Indo-Aryan. It is
also accepted through both Pāli and other Prākrit forms constitute the middle Indo-Aryan groups of languages.
According to the orthodox theory, Pāli is Magadhī. Ven. Buddhaghosa commenting in his commentary says:
»ettha sakaniruttināma sammāsambuddhena vuttapakāro magadhīko vohāro.« Sakanirutti here means the Magadha dialect
as used by the Buddha. It is clearly seen that the Buddha was not a Magadha, but a Kosallan, and hence his mother tongue
could not have been the Magadha dialect. However, it is argued that as the Buddha spent most of his time in the Magadha
region he may have used Magadha as the medium of his discourses. Besides, as the Magadha kingdom was the most
powerful at that time, it is also probable that Magadha dialect was the lingua franca of the time and hence the Buddha used
it as the medium of instruction.
But, the Buddha allows monks to use their own dialects. During 6th century BC India was influenced by
philosophical and religious thought and people had to use different dialects. This means the origin of Pāli language depends
on various dialects of contemporary languages. The Buddha states that quarrel over the particular dialects is not worthy:
It is useless to dogmatic the words but the meaning is the most important.(?) All this incident leads us to one
conclusion, that the Pāli language was a lingua franca or mixed language.
HOME OF PĀLI
What, then, is the home of Pāli? What is its origin? Some European orientalists have tried to locate the home of
Pāli in such different regions in India as Kosala, Avanti, Kosambi, Taxila and even the Vindhya area, Kalinga, Pātaliputta,
and Māgadha.
Westergard and E. Kuhn consider Pāli to be the dialect of Ujjayini, because it stands closest to the language of
the Asokan-inscriptions of Girnar and also because the dialect of Ujjazini is said to have been the mother-tongue of
Mahinda. R. O. Franke and Sten Konow have decided in favor of the Vindhya region as the home of Pāli. Oldenberg and
E. Müller consider Kalinga to be the home of Pāli.
Maurice Winternitz is of the opinion that the Buddha himself spoke the dialect of his native province Kosala and
it was most likely in this same dialect in which He first began to proclaim his doctrine. Later on, however, He wandered and
taught in Māgadha. When in course of time the doctrine spread over a large area, the monks of various districts preached
each in their dialect. It is probable that some monks coming from Brahmin circles also attempted to translate the speeches of
the Buddha into Sanskrit verses. However, the Buddha himself absolutely rejected it, and forbade learning his teachings in
any other language except Māgadhī.
Dr. Grierson has inclined to decide that Māgadhī was a dialect of Māgadha. Wilhelm Geiger considers Pāli to be
of pure Māgadhī.
The ancient tradition of Ceylon, where the Pāli Tipiṭaka and Commentaries were preserved and handed down from
the 3rd century BC definitely states that it is Māgadhī, the language of Māgadha, the original language (mūlabhāṣā) in which
the Buddha spoke.
It is reasonable to suppose that the Buddha must have spoken one or more of the dialects current in the 6th century
BC in Māgadha. In a way, any or all of them may legitimately have been called Māgadhī. Although we know nothing
definite about those dialects today, we may reasonably guess that they could not have been basically very different from one
another.
But whether the dialect the Buddha usually spoke in was exactly the same as the language of the Tipiṭaka as we
have it today is another matter. What we call Pāli today is not a homogeneous but a composite language containing several
dialectal forms and expressions.
666GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL EXPANSION OF PALI
Pali is the name used designates the language in which the Theravada Tipitaka is written. It
appears to be from the word Patha and could be an abbreviation of Palibhasa and also called tantibhasa.
The general tradition is that Pali is the language of Magadha and for this reason it is also called
Magadhi. This view is based on the belief that the Buddha, not a Magadhan, lived and preached in
Magadha, and therefore he must have spoken Magadhi.
This view has been current in Sri Lanka; it is also the view of Ven. Budhaghosa. But many
scholars argue against this. For example Westergaard and Kuhn proposed the view that it is a dialect in
Ujjayani. Franeke’s view was also the same. This view is supported by the fact that mother tongue of
Ven. Mahinda, who has been a dialect of Ujjayani. Oldenburg considers Pali to be a language of
Kalinga country. But after considering all available views Geiger, too agrees with Windisch, who
considers Pali to be the form of Magadhi.
Norman writing recently says that there are many inconsistencies between Pali and Magadhi
with regard to phonetics. Thus it is seen that the question regarding the home of Pali is yet under
debate. What is clear however is that it is a form Prakrit or Middla Indo-Aryan. This was used first in
the writing down of the Theravada Buddhist canon in the first century B.C. in Sri Lanka.
When Theravada Buddhism went to S. E Asian countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia,
language was influenced by the main language in those countries. Pali has also been greatly influence
by Sanskrit with regard to spelling and phonetics, syntax, style and vocabulary. It is a language, which
has been repeatedly reshaped.
However, it is not desired from later Sanskrit for it shows closer relation to Vedic Sanskrit.
Thus the gerund in Tvana (gantvana), the form tehi, yehi (vedic tebhis, yebhis prove this.
Geiger who says that Pali is not a homogeneous language but a mixed language shows four
different stages of its development.
1. Language of gathas, which is very, heterogeneous and old.
2. Language of the canonical prose, which is more homogeneous, with more rigid rules, followed.
3. Later prose of the post-canonical literature as found in Milinda panha etc.
4. Language of later artificial poetry where Sankritization is more marked.
By-S.N
(i) 600 B.C. ~ 200 B.C. ------ Pali Tipitaka, Asoka Prakrit.
(ii) 200 B.C. ~ 600 A.D. ------ Ardha-magadhi, Surasena etc.
(iii) 600 A.D.~ 1000 A.D ------ Apabhrajwas.
It is generally believed that Pali arises from some spoken of Middle Indo-Aryan, and belongs to the first period, and is
the form of Prakrit. According to the Theravada chronicles, the Pali canon was first committed to writing at a monastery at
Alu-vihara in central Sri Lanka in the first century A.D., during the reign of Vattagamani Abhaya, thus, it is the form of
Prakrit which was used.
The Pali language has three principal grammars, viz. Kaccayana, Moggallaya and Saddaniti traditions. The first
tradition, Kaccayana deriving its name from its eminent author Kaccayana Mahathera, is the oldest and most systematic of
Pali grammar and most of the grammatical were based on this tradition.
Language and Communication – extract from “A History of Buddhist Philosophy – Continuities and
Discontinuities”. – p.60.
Dhamma as text (pariyatti) involves the two philosophical issues. A text is intended to
communicate some idea, and language, whatever its form, is the primary means of such
communication. Thus the first philosophical problem is to determine the nature of linguistic
convention. The second relates to the authenticity of the text.
(1) The recognition of the kinship of words, based on usage rather than on simple etymology
adopted by the grammarians, a feature noted more recently by philosophers of language.
(2) The ‘language drift’, which is a repudiation of the absolute structures of language that are
supposed to be revealed by linguistic analysis. Here again, drift is caused by usage. This
language drift represents a midway position between strict adherence (abhinivesa), more
appropriately described as linguistic or conceptual constipation, on the one hand, and
transgression (atisara) or, literary ‘linguistic or conceptual diarrhea’, on the other.
In the Brahmanical system the Vedas were considered to be revealed texts, which prompted the
preservation of every word and every syllable unchanged, thus generating the so-called science of
etymology (nirukti) and grammar (vyakarana) as part of the studies ancillary to the Vedas themselves.
In contrast, the Buddha’s attitude toward language seems to have compelled his disciples to concentrate
on hermeneutical problems. The situation was rendered more complicated when the Buddha permitted
his disciples to use their own languages in disseminating the teachings. Thus the textual tradition
(pariyatti), whatever the language in which it is preserved, was an important means of preserving and
communicating the Buddha’s doctrine (dhamma).
(1) A monk
(2) A senior monk residing in some place
(3) A community of senior monks who are educated, conversant with the tradition, and
custodians of the doctrine and discipline as well as the formulae.
(4) A senior monk who is educated, conversant with the tradition, and custodian of the
doctrine and discipline as well as the formulae.
It is gradually believed that Pali arises from some spoken dialect middle indo-Aryan it
belong to the first or early middle indo-Aryan stage. It has the characteristics of the middle indo-Aryan
language. We can mention here directly, that it has never taken its origin from classical Sanskrit.
Because there are some peculiarities which Clearly signify that Vedic has some close relation with it.
With the help of the ancient Buddhists of the Hinayana shcool or the Theravada school. The Pali
language And its literature have developed in India. It has close connection with the Theravada school
in India, because it was its vehicle. So we find the flourishing Condition of Pali literature in India when
the Theravada school played a great role in the history of Buddhism.
But after the arise of the Mahayana. Not only the Theravada school but also the study of
Pali gradually declined in India. Pali and the Theravada school then took their home in Ceylon they
played a prominent Part for more than 2ooo years in the religious history of that country.
From Srilanka, Theravada Buddhism and Pali were introduced into Burma, Siam,
Cambodia and Laos. According to the orthodox theory, Pali is Magadhi. Magadhantrutti and
Magadhikabhasa. Pali scholars from Srilanka, Siam, campuchea believe that Pali can be identified with
the language of the Buddha. He used to stay in Magadha most of his time,
it is quite natural that the language of Magadha was spoken by Him .for this reason Pali
has been identified with Magadhi. It is quite natural that the early Buddhist scriptures were composed
in Magadhi in which the Buddha Spoke. It was the language of the place where the religion of the
Buddha arose.
The Buddhistic tradition says that the language of the Pali-tipitaka, which was the
Original canon, was the language of the Buddha himself.
Thus from the above facts it is clear that Magadhi was regarded as Mulabhasa or the
basic language. It was the language in which the words of the Buddha were originally fixed.
According to the Buddhists of the Hinayana or the Theravada school. The language Of
Magadha was the speech of the Buddha. This was regarded as the Mulabhasa the primary speech of all
men. This was spoken by men of the primeval Epoch, by the Brahmins and by the Buddhas. The
natural speech of many which alone would be spoken if human beings were thought no other language.
QUESTION: SHOW WITH EXAMPLE THE FEATURES OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGE PRESERVED IN PĀLI?
The Pāli language is included in the middle Indu Aryan language. So, it has many features of Prakrit language. Pāli language is
not so rough as Sanskrit and not so smart as Prakrit language. When compared Pāli and Prakrit language many similarities can be seen.
According to the alphabet of both Pāli and Prakrit languages there are no differences. Iru, Irū(?), Iu, Eu – these letters are dropped in
both language. They are somehow difficult to pronounce. So, they disappeared and other vowels and consonants represent them. For
example: the letter iru, irū(?) are too difficult to pronounce.
Examples:
mruga -) miga „ri“ becomes „iru“ :
tsuna -) tina rigveda -) irugveda „ei“ becomes „i“ :
drusthi -) diṭṭhi dheira -) dhira
krata -) kata „iru“ becomes „ana“ :
nrupatih -) narapati „ou“ becomes „o“ :
Sometimes „iru“ becomes „u“ : oushadha-) osadha/oshadha(?)
riju -) uju „ilu“ becomes „u“ : ourasha -) orasa
ritu -) utu klutta -) kutta mourya -) moraya
sruta -) suta ubhou -) ubho
„ai“ becomes „e“ : kousalaya -) kosalla
„iru“ becomes „a“ : airavana -) eravana
fraha(?) -) geha(?) maitrī -) mettā „ou“ becomes „u“ :
caitya -) cetiya pouggalika -) puggalika
„ru“ becomes „ra“ : vaira -) vara(?) soundarya -) sundara
bruhad -) braha taila -) tela oudhatya -) udhacca
roudra -) ruda
„iru“ becomes „ri“ : „ai“ becomes „i“ :
rite(?) -) ??? aiswarya -) issariya „ou“ becomes „a“ :
saindhara -) sindhara nouka(?) -) nava(?)
„iru“ becomes „ru“ : sailasana -) silasana gourava -) garava
viruksha -) rukkha
1. The visarga disappeared. That is divided in three ways. It is difficult for pronunciation:
(b) The visarga is ended after the „e“ ending and „u“ ending stems.
agrih -) aggi
pituh -) pitu
bhikshuh -) bhikkhu
2. Consonant ending stems are not in both Pāli and Prakrit languages:
ātman -) attā
bhagavan -) bhagavā
rājaṃ -) rāja
pratipat -) prapatti(?)
saret -) sārada
4. Dative and possessive case forms are similar in Pāli and Prakrit language.
5. Imperative and pot mrical/interrogative(?) mood verbs used commonly kaungeya, vade.
6. When we conjugate the routs/root(?) the attanpada forms are much more:
vapate; bhajeta
7. The past participle forms are used instead of finite past and verbs:
so gaman agami
so gamaṃ gato
8. ???
9. In old Indu Ariyan languages o ending make nouns with nominative singular endings – with „ah.“:
devah -) devo
It is generally believed that Pāli arose from a spoken dialect of people living in the early or first „Middle Indu
Aryan“ era. It has the characteristics of the Middle Indo-Aryan languages. We can mention here directly that it had never
took its origin from classical Sanskrit, because there were peculiarities which clearly signify, that Vedic Sanskrit has some
close relation with it.(?) It is close not to the Sanskrit but to the Vedic language.
According to orthodox theory, Pāli was the language of Magadhi. Ven. Buddhaghosa used the term 'Pāli' which he
himself called 'Māgadhībhāsā' to introduce Buddha's words, Dhammapada etc. The Buddha used to stay in Magadha most
of his time. It is quite natural that the language of Magadha was spoken by him. Otherwise after the passing away of the
Buddha the first council was held near the capital of Magadha, Rājagaha. For this reason, Pāli Buddhist scriptures were
composed in Magadhi. It was the language of the place, where the religion of the Buddha arose. This was considered as
mūlabhāsa, the original language of man. It was spoken by man of the early time of this on by the Brahmins and by the
Buddha.
The speech of Magadha took its shape in Sri Lanka, when ven. Mahinda brought Buddhist canon from magadha to
Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BC. We do not know exactly what dialect he brought with the canon to Sri Lanka during the
first time. It may have been Pāli language or some other dialects, but the undoubted fact was that the canon was sent by the
king Asoka, emperor of Magadha. And it embodied the 'Buddha vacana'. Pāli and Theravāda school took their home in Sri
Lanka. They played a prominent part for more than two thousand years in the religiouis history of the country. From Sri
Lanka, Theravada Buddhism and Pāli language were instroduced to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
Dr. Oldenberg does not accept ven. Mahinda's mission to Sri Lanka and he thinks that it is not a historical fact.
The people of kalinga played a great role in the introduction of Pāli into Sri Lanka. He says that Pāli was the language of
Kalinga. The home of Pāli was in the South. R. O. ranke mentioned that form of literary Pāli was not in the Eastern part of
middle India. According to the Wester Gaard and Kuhn, Pāli was the dialect of U-Jeni and of Gujarat, because it fully
agrees with the language of Asoka's inscriptions of Girnar. It is said, that the dialect of Ujjeni was the mother tongue of
ven. Mahinda. He took Buddhism as his religion and knew the dialect Ujjeni, which he studied when he was staying in
Ujjeni.
Apart from these views, Buddhaghoda, the great pali commentator says that the medium of
the Buddha was Magadhi (sammasambuddhena uttappakaro magadhiko voharo – the dialect of
Magadha was speak by the Buddha). As far as these views are concerned, a great part of India
was covered by the language of the Buddha. as T.W. Rhys Davids put it this language does
widely understood and used from the land of the Kurus (close to Delhi, north-west India) in the
west, to Magadha in the east, Northwards at Savatthi and Kusinara in the Nepal hills, and
Southwards in one direction as far as Ujjena or Ujjein could not have this Sanskrit.
The pali canonical texts bring out the fact that the Buddha wandered mostly in the
Majjhimadesa. According to Mahavaggapali, the boundaries of Majjhimadesa are as followed:
1. In the east town of Kajangala
2. In the southeast of river Sarasvati
3. In the southwest to the town of Satakannika
4. In the west to the Brahmana district of Thuna
5. In the north to the Usiradhaja mountain.
The circumference of Majjhimadesa can be traced out in another way. The regions that were
beyond the Majjhimadesa are frequently referred to as Paccantima Janapadas (remote areas),
which are considered as social linguistically backward regions. The Buddha says that it could be
better to be born in the Majjhimadesa than being born in the Paccantima Janapadas. The
commentary on the Dhammapada states that there are lesser opportunities in the Paccantima
Janapadas to listen even to the doctrine of the Buddha. The Avguttara Nikaya giving the facts
that those who are born in the Paccantima Janapadas are weakness and milakkha (barbarians).
According to Papabcasudani, commentary on Majjhima Nikaya that the Buddha did not stay in
the Paccantima Janapadas even for a night. Similarly he advised the four-fold assembly of
disciples not to visit these remote areas. According to this, it may be said that the people who
lived beyond the Majjhimadesa were not completely unintelligent, the main problem they
confronted seems to have been their incapability in understanding the Buddha’s language.
666INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE
(1) Old Indo-Aryan language– Indian subcontinents (1500BC-600BC)
- Southern India: Telingu, Kannada, Malayala, Tamil.
M K T
Tamil
Notes:
666G IV E A B R IE F IN T R O D UC T I O N T O T H E H IS T O R Y O F I ND O -A R IY A N L A N G UA G E S
The long internal history of Indo-Ariyan in India, spanning about 3,500 years, may be
divided linguistically into three stages: Old, Middle and New Indo-Aryan. These may be taken as
corresponding roughly to the periods 1500 B.C. – 600 B.C., 600 B.C.-1000 A.D. and 1000A.D.-
present.
This stage can be subdivided into two, i.e. Early and Later.
further substages may be distinguished, the language of Books II –VII of the Rg-veda
being the most archaic, that of the Brahmanas and Sutras the least.
Classical Sanskrit – based on a dialect of the midland (western Ganges valley, eastern
Punjab, Haryana), although influenced by Vedic. This is the language of the kathas,
dramas, kavyas, histories and Puranas. Later litrrature was much influenced by Middle
It is believed that with the development of Classical Sanskrit, the popular dialects spoken by
the Indo-Ariyans were also developed at the same time. These dialects are generally designated as
Middle Indo-Ariyan languages. This stage is from 600 B.C. to 1000 A.D. which is again subdivided
into 3 periods.
A. Awokan Prakrits – various regional dialects of the 3 r d Century B.C. (eastern, east-central,
south-western, north-western), with the notable exception of the midland, recorded in the
inscriptions of the Emperor Asoka on rocks and pillars in various parts of the
by the original eastern forms of the remembered Buddhist discourses, and subsequently by
Sanskrit. It has never taken its origin from Classical Sanskrit because there are some
peculiarities, which clearly signify that Vedic has a closer relation to it. Again, the
language of the metrical portion of the canon proper, or Gathas, is more archaic than the
sutras.
(2) Second Middle Indo-Ariyan
G. Sinhala Prakrit – language of the Sinhalese inscriptions, from the 1 s t century B.C.
Sauraseni Prakrit.
the Prakrit towards the modern Indo-Ariyan languages. It is a corrupt form of language spoken
by common people which developed between the 600 – 1000 A.D. By about 550 A.D., Prakrits
had become decadent, and the Apabhrajwa came into existence. One of them is the vernacular
of Western India which was used by poetry. Its chief characteristic is the further reduction of
inflexions, which are in part replaced by postpositions, as in modern Indian language. A similar
degenerate Prakrit was used in Bengal by a few late Buddhist poets, and is the ancestor of
modern Bengali.
3. M O D E R N I N D O -A R IY AN L AN G U A G E S (1000 A.D – P R E S EN T )
These languages include Marathi, Hindi, Bengali, Oriya and Sinhala etc.
- After grammar, the language is called Sanskrit or classical Sanskrit. The above Sanskrit is belonged
to Middle Indo-Aryan.
The middle phase belongs to 600BC to 1000AD, this period also can again be divided into 3
phases:
(1) Old Prakrit – pali and Asokan edict
(2) Middle Prakrit
(3) Apabrajsa – latest Prakrit language
Old Prakrit included inscription dialects from the middle of the 3rd century BC down to the 2nd
century AD. The pali of the Theravada canon and other Buddhist texts, the canon of the Jain tradition
which was written in Ardha-magadhi. Inscription of Asoka can be put into this period.
Middle Prakrit (200-600AD) is represented by Prakrit languages like Maharastri, Sauraseni, Lathi,
Paisaci etc.
Apabramsa represents the colloquial 白話的,口語的 language of latest middle Indo-Aryan period.
New Indo-Aryan includes all the modern Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, Marathi,
Gujarathi, Urdu, Sinhala etc.
In the early Vedic stage, the spoken variety was not far removed from the literary variety, this
situation is seen to change gradually in the later Vedic stage. The differences between these two
varieties were strongly marked, this has been explained as the result of the closer and longer duration of
contact with the non-aryan speech community. The linguistic periods given above can be reclassified
taking into account the sources background of those who used the language.
1. The separate spoken dialects of Aryan and non-Aryan at the time of the ealry migration of the
former
2. Literary vedic dialects indicating the period of more established settlement
3. The spoken variety of the Aryan and non-Aryan speech community after their mutual contact, we
can assume 3 kinds of speech variations existing at this stage, namely, Aryan speech, Non-Aryan
speech and the mixed variety.
4. The literary variety of the Brahmanas and the Upanisads.
5. Regional spoken dialects (Prakrit dialects) current in the geographical area from Gandhara in the
northwest of Magadha in the east.
6. The canonical dialects of Buddhism and Janisim such as Pai, Aradhamagadhi and inscriptional
Prakrit.
7. The standard literary dialect, i.e., classical Sanskrit.
8. The literary Prakrit as found in the Sanskrit plays (dhamma).
As the Aryan speech community moved from the northwest to the Gange valley and than east-
ward, the Aryan speech became increasingly corrupt.
Due to those corruption, Brahmanas became anxious about this dialect mixture, and further
expressed the fear that incorrect pronunciation would weaken the efficacy 功 效 of their speech and
therefore their power. One of the later Vedic text states that Asuras were defeated because they
pronounced the phase ‘he-rayo’ as ‘he-layo’. Since the magical efficacy of the Mandra (spells) derived
from pronunciation, correct speech was imperative.
As and when Aryanization spread to many parts of north India, several Prakrit dialects emerged
perhaps parallel the evolution of the various mixed castes. There was a cleavage 分 裂 between the
speech of the elite 精銳 and the common people from the early stage. Even the early portions of the
Rgveda are not freed from Prakritism. It is appearance from Patanjali’s (author of Mahabhasya, he was
a brahmin) discussion that Prakrit was by then the first language of even the Brahmanas. The incorrect
or substandard variety is referred to as the apasabdha or apabramsa or mleccha fromed by Patanjali. He
states that for one correct from there were several apasabdas as equivalent. For instance, the word
‘gauh’ (cow) has gavi, goni, gota, gopotalika has equivalent apasabdas. Some of these words referred
to as apasabdas by Patanjali are attested 證明 in Jaina Maharasthi or Asokan prakrit.
666P AL I IS T H E O R IG IN A L LA N G U A G E O F H U M A N B E IN G – COMMENT.
The ancient tradition of Ceylon, where the Pali Tipitaka and the commentaries were preserved
and handed down from the 3 r d century B.C., definitely states that Pali is the language of Magadha
If Pali is the language of Magadha, it would have been difficult to consider it as the original
language of human being. Dr. Walpola Rahula Thera has clearly pointed out that, the Buddha must
have spoken one or more of the dialects current in the 6 t h century B.C in Magadha. Perhaps, all these
Furthermore, the term ‘Pali’ in the Theravada tradition was originally used to denote the
‘Sacred Text’ (Tipitaka), it was never the name of any language in any sense. The facts are as
follows:
3. The term ‘Pali-bhasa’ for the first term appears only in the
Since Pali was only the name of the Buddhist Sacred Text, how then it became the “Mulabhasa’ of
human being? This is only the over-emphasized of the importance of the Pali (now it comes to be known
as the language of the Sacred Text) by pious Buddhists during the later time that has pushed it to the
Linguistically, Pali belonged to the stage of an early Middle Indo-Ariyan language, i.e., from 600
B.C. to 200B.C It was much later than the Vedic of the Old Indo-Ariyan language, i.e., from 1500
B.C. to 600 B.C. Therefore from its historical development, it is difficult to consider Pali as the ‘original
language’ of human being. In the far East, the Chinese language is even still much older, i.e. 14,000 years
of history as evidenced from the pictography found on bones of animals and shells of tortoises.
Scholars have agreed the fact that Pali is an artificial language developed out from various dialects,
e.g.
Since Pali is an artificial language evolved from several dialects, it is not proper to say that it is the
On the other hand, if the sense of ‘pidgim’ and ‘creole’ is applied here, Pali can then be regarded
as a kind of ‘first’ language used by the Buddhists, first in spoken and later in written form.
Furthermore, if ‘mulabhasa’ is considered the basic language in which the words of the Buddha
were ‘originally’ fixed, whereas the other versions are regarded as secondary variations, then Pali can be
called the ‘mulabhasa’ of the Buddhist Sacred Text, but not of all human beings.
By way of conclusion, Pali is a very old but beautiful and meaningful language. It is not the
‘original language’ of human being, but rather, it is a rich spiritual heritage of all races of man.
666T H E B U DD H A ’ S V IE W S O N L AN G U A G E
According to the Cullavagga (Vin. II, 139), two monks named Yamelu and Tekula, who were
brothers and brahmins by birth, proposed to the Buddha that the Word of the Buddha
(Buddhavacana) should be put into chandas (language of the Vedas) so that no one could corrupt it
However, the Buddha reproached them and rejected their proposal, on the ground that putting
his word into chandas would not be conducive to the benefit of the people. Then addressing the
gathering of monks, he gave the following injunction which is now a Vinaya rule:
“Bhikkhus, the Word of the Buddha should not be put into Chandas. If anyone should
do so, there would be an offence of wrong-doing. Bhikkhus, I allow you to learn the Word of
however has different interpretation. Buddhaghosa interpreted it as ‘I order you to learn the word of
the Buddha in his own language’, i.e., in the Buddha’s language (Magadhi language)
In order to clarify what ‘sakaya niruttiya’ actually means, Walpola Rahula quotes the
Aranavibhavgasutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (no. 139) to make it clear the Buddha’s view on
language.
At the beginning of this discourse, the Buddha says that one should not be attached to the
provincial dialects and deviate from recognized parlance. He gives an example to show the fact that,
there are many words of different dialects which denote bowl, (i.e. patta, pati, vitta, pona, pisila…),
one should not cling to his own dialect and say this word only is true and the rest is false.
At the end of this sutta, the Buddha says that not to be obstinately attached to a dialect and
not to deviate from recognized parlance is a step in the ‘peaceful path’ (arana patipada) and the
666LINGUISTIC VARIATION
Religious and Ritual Forms
Period
Region Early Late Vedic Late Vedic Mauryan Post-Mauryan Post-Mauryan
Vedic (early phase) (late phase (early phase) (second phase)
upto Panini period of down to the
and early Patabjali and second century
Buddhist Indo-Greek AD
North- Vedic Vedic Vedic Vedic, Prakrit Vedic, Eic Vedic, Epic
Western Sanskrit, and Sanskrit and
India Prakrit dialects. Prakrit dialects.
Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit.
Upper and Vedic Vedic Vedic, Vedic & Vedic & Prakrit Vedic, Pali and
Middle Ardhamagadhi. Prakrit dialects dialects, Epic Prakrit dialects,
Ganges such as Sanskrit. Epic Sanskrit.
region Ardhamagadhi.
East Vedic, Pali and Vedic, Pali and Vedic, Pali and Vedic, Epic
Prakritd Prakrit Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit, Pali
dialects. dialects. and Prakrit
dialects.
West Vedic Vedic Vedic, Pali and Vedic, Pali and Vedic, Epic
Prakrit Prakrit dialects, Sanskrit, Pali
dialects. Epic Sanskrit. and Prakrit
dialects,
Classical
Sanskrit.
According to the above specifications, pali is one of the Indo-Aryan languages. There are three
main categories in the traditional pali grammar including the text written in Burma:
(1) Kaccayana
(2) Moggallayana
(3) Saddaniti or Burmese tradition
1. sa magadhi mulabhasa
2. nara yayadikapika
3. brahmano cassutalapa
4. sambuddha capibhasare.
The original language called Magadhi is spoken by the original human beings (brahmans), the
term pali of this language came into being at the later period in Sri Lanka. the ancient
grammarians always used the term Magadhi for it perhaps Magadha was a centre for the Buddha
propagation of the dhamma. different names appeared in the Pali canon for the Buddha’s language
or sayings. Dhamma, dhammavinaya and navagasathusasena are some of them.
In a way these various designation such as suggest the pali language or the original sayings
of the Buddha had no definite name at the beginning, perhaps due to the fact that it was collection
of discourses delivered by the Buddha as well as by many other disciples through different Indian
dialects in different states.
The first Buddhist council held after 3 months of Buddha passing away might have
considered this problem of medium and as a solution they have given a similar form for this
discourses for the benefit future generations. Further, in a subsequent council, this process was
continued by the elders after the 3rd Buddhist council that was held during the period of king
Asoka, this systematize collection of this discourse was introduced to Sri Lanka as the Tipitaka –
three baskets of Buddha’s sayings.
1. Evolution of Vowel
The Sanskrit alphabet contains two pure vowels: a, a; seven sonant vowels: i, i, u, u, r , r, l ;
The main characteristic of the evolution of the vowel system from Sanskrit into Pali is the
elimination of the sonant vowels r , r , l and of the dipthongs ai, au. The other vowels are generally
well retained, though they also undergo some changes on account of the structure either of the
Elimination of r , l
(1) r was a complex phoneme since it included both vocalic and consonant elements. Hence it was
the first to undergo change. In Pali, r came to be represented by the vowel a, i , u , e.g.
(2) The sonant vowel l in klpta has been replaced by the vowel
u, e.g.
The process of the elimination of the diphthongs had already started in Sanskrit where ai and au
had been reduced to e and o, while ai and au had become ai and au. This process was continued
2. Evolution of consonant
The Sanskrit alphabet consists of 35 consonants. In passing over into Pali, the alphabet has lost
the palatal and the cerebral sibilants and the visarga. Pali, on the other hand, retains the Vedic
consonant l.
Loss of sibilants
The palatal and cerebral Sanskrit sibilants give rise in Pali to the dental sibilant, e.g.
Loss of visarga
The visarga was dropped when it was preceded by any other vowel, e.g.
e.g.
Various Sanskrit consonant groups, in passing over to pali, are either assimilated or split up by
666ASSIMILATION OF VOWELS
Sanskrit Pali
1. Karma > kamma (deed)
2. Dharma > dhamma (doctrine)
3. Marga > magga (path)
4. Varna > vanna (colour)
5. Sarva > sabba (all)
6. Nirvana > nibbana (extinction, final bliss)
7. Mitra > mitta (friend)
8. Putra > putta (son)
9. Ulkamukha > ukkamukha (the opening or receive of a furnace)
10. Iksvaku > Okkaka (of legendary King)
11. Prccha > puccha (ask)
ASSIMILATION OF CONSONANTS
Sanskrit Pali
1. Cakhsu > cakkhu (eye)
2. Anyatara > abbatara (a certain, some)
3. Apramana > appamabba (boundlessness, infinitude)
4. Anuyukta > anuyutta (given to, intent upon)
5. Sajyukta > sajyutta (group)
6. Itvara > ittara (pass by, changeable)
7. Isti > itthi (woman)
8. Iwvariya > issariya (rulership, supremacy)
9. Pudgala > puggala (person)
10. Utpada > uppada (coming into existence)
11. Utsada > ussada (prominence, rubbing in)
12. Bhiksu > bhikkhu (monk)
13. Satya > sacca (truth)
14. Pratyeka > pacceka paccekabuddha
15. Avidya > avijja (ignorance)
16. Samyak > samma (rightly)
17. Sparwa > phassa (contact)
18. Awva > assa (horse)
19. Duhkha > dukkha (pain, suffering)
20. Vijbana > vibbana (consciousness)
21. Prajba > pabba (wisdom)
22. Jbatra > batta (intelligence)
23. Sajvrtti > sammuti (general opinion, convention)
24. Daksina > dakkhina (southern ,right side)
25. Tistha > tittha (stand)
26. Citra > citta (mind)
27. bhajyate > bhajjati (to roast, to toast)
28. kudya > kudda (wall)
In pali, the vowel before double consonants, e.g., ‘pp’ or ‘tt’ is always short.
In some cases, a Sanskrit word can be seen as different forms in the pali texts, for instance, the
Sanskrit term aryan develops into four different forms: ayya, ariya, ajja and ayira. Ariya should be the
original word, and i is inserted for easily to pronounce. The different forms appear in pali simply
because of the different languages used by the monks in the various provinces in India.
The vowel r of Sanskrit develops into a, i, u, e , r ; l into u; ai and au into e and o in pali. For
example:
(1) r > a:
- mrta > mata (dead)
- rksa > acca (bear)
- prsata > pasada (spotted)
- vrka > vaka (wolf)
- hrdaya > hadaya (heart)
(2) r > i:
- srgala > sigala (fox)
- rksa > ikka (bear)
- rna > ina (debt)
- vrwcika > vicchika (scorpion)
- srpatika > sipatika (seed-house)
(3) r > u:
- srta > suta (listen, learn)
- rju > uju/ujju (straight)
- rsabha > usabha (bull)
- prcchati > pucchati (asks)
- mrnala > mulala (lotus-stalk)
(4) r > e
- grha > geha (house)
(5) r > r
- vrksa > rukkha (tree)
(6) l > u
- klpta > kutta (work, behaviour)
- klpti > kutti (arrangement, fitting)
(7) ai > e: long before single consonant and short before double consonants.
- airavana > eravana (Indra’s elephant)
- vai > ve (indeed, truly – particle of affirmation)
- maitri > metti (friendship)
(8) au > o:
- aurasa > orasa (self-begotten, legitimate)
- paura > pora (urban)
- ratrau > ratto (at night)
Reference:
(1) A Pali Grammar Wilhelm Geiger Pali Text Society. Oxford, London.
(2) Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar & Dictionary Franklin Edgerton
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, PVT. Delhi.
(3) Classroom notes
666T H E D EV E L O P M E N T O F N O U N IN P AL I (P A L I N O M INA L D E C L EN S IO N S )
The declensions of nouns and adjectives in Pali are the historical development, or
necessary to compare and contrast the Pali declensions with the corresponding declensions in
Sanskrit.
The following are the general characteristics of the evolution of declensions from Sanskrit to
Pali.
On account of the loss of final consonants, all the stems that ended in a mute consonant,
There is a very strong tendency to build up a uniform and simple declension, avoiding all
difficult forms, especially those that would entail the application of difficult sandhi rules. And
the simplest of all the declensions is that of the stems in ‘a’ or thematic stems, e.g., Aggi has a
Pali has retained the 3 genders as in Sanskrit. The distinction, however, between the
masculine and the neuter nouns is seen only in the nominative, vocative and accusative singular
and plural.
Pali has retained the singular and the plural numbers, but it has lost the dual due to its
tendency towards simplification. On the other hand, a phonetic reason may have helped towards
5. Loss of cases
Both the dative and the ablative case have been almost entirely lost in Pali. The dative
case takes the same ending as the genitive, e.g. purisassa and purisanaj; whereas ablative has
generally been assimilated to the instrumental both in singular and plural, e.g. aggina, aggibhi,
aggihi.
The endings of the accusative plural of the masculine vowel stems have been lost since, in
passing over into Pali, they coincide with the endings of the accusative singular. Thus the
accusatives plural purusan, agnin become in Pali purisaj, aggij which are accusatives singular.
7. Lengthening of the stem vowel
The vowel stems have generalized in Pali the lengthening of the final vowel of the stem
before the case ending of the plural in the dative, genitive, instrumenal, ablative, and location,
In order to make up for the loss of some case endings, recourse is had to the case endings
become in Pali purisena, purisassa, purisesu. Besides these endings, in Pali we find also the
endings –sma, smij for the ablative and locative singular, and –e and – ehi for accusative and
9. Vowel gradation
The vowel gradation in the declension of the nouns has greatly lost in clearness in some
cases, while in others it has entirely disappeared, e.g. Sanskrit has aksi, aksna, aksnah, aksini,
aksibhih, aksnam, Pali has generalized the stem of the nominative: akkhi, akkhino, akkhini,
akkhihi, akkhinaj.
8 Vowels
A, A, I , I, U, U, E, O
Of the 8 vowels, A , I and U are short voice, in Pali, it is called Rasa. The rest are long, and it is
called Digha. Prosodically the short vowels before a double consonant or n (= niggahitta) are long. It is
to be noted that E and O are pronounce short before double or conjunction consonants (as in khettam,
bhonto, etc). Although E and O are included in long vowels they are often sounded short before a
double consonant, e.g. Metta sethi, okkamati, yottam, etc.
Consonants
Consonants, they are divided into two groups--- Vagga and Avagga (non-group). 25 consonants from
K to M are called grouped because they are divided into five groups of five letters each. They are as
follow: --
1. K kh g gh n = Ka vagga or Ka group
2. C ch j jh n = Ca vagga or Ca group
3. T th d dh n = Ta vagga or Ta group
4. T th d dh n = Ta vagga or Ta group
5. P ph b bh ma = Pa vagga or Pa group
These groups are named after the first letter of each Vagga and the last five of letters of the Vaggas,
viz., n, n, n, n, m are named Vagganta or nasals. The remaining of seven consonants: y, i, r, v, s, h, i,
n are the part, which belong to Avagga due to they can not be grouped as the above. The sonant n is
called Niggahitta and it always comes after a short vowel.
Of the five groups or Vaggas, here they are again separated into two parts, one part is Aghosa, the
Voiceless. They are as follow:
1. K kh
2. C ch
3. T th
4. T th
5. P ph
And one is the part of Ghosa, which name Voice, they are as below: -
1. G gh n
2. J jh n
3. D dh n
4. D dh n
5. B bh ma
Again all the vowels and the consonants are divided according to the place of their formation and
utterance.
Alphabet is a set of symbols or characters used to represent the sounds of a language. Each
character in an alphabet usually represents a simple vowel, a diphthong, or a consonant, rather than a
syllable or a group of consonants and vowels. The term alphabet, as used by some, however, also
includes the concept of syllabaries.
Pali has no script of its own, but is written in several scripts, depending on the country in which it
is written and the audience for which it is intended. In India the Nagari, in Sri Lanka the Sinhalese, in
Burma the Burmese, in Siam (Thailand) the Siamese, and in the Cambodia (Kamboja) script.
In the West, Pali is commonly written in the Roman alphabet with some modifications (diacritics),
as in the works issued by the Pali Text Society (PTS), now it has gained international currency.
The sound system of Pali consists of two parts: vowel and consonant, all together consists of 41
letters, i.e., 8 vowels and 33 consonants.
Vowels (svara)
The vowels are: a a i i u u e o. According to the length of sound, these vowels may be
divided into three parts: vowels long by nature, vowels short by nature and vowels of variable length
ya ra la va sa ha la j
(a) All the consonants are divided into grouped and non-grouped. 25 letters from ka to ma are
divided into five groups, each contain 5 letters. Each group is named after the first letter, e.g.
kavagga, cavagga and so on.
(b) The last five letters of the vaggas, i.e., v b n n and m are called vagganta or nasals, as they
are pronounce with the help of nose.
(c) The remaining 7 consonants: ya, ra, la, va, so, ha and la are called avagga (non-grouped)
as they are not grouped like above.
(d) Consonant j is called niggahita. It always comes after a short vowel, e.g. rathaj (chariot),
manij.
Again, all the 41 letters can be divided according to the place of their formation and utterance, i.e.;
Furthermore, all the 41 letters can be divided into hard letters (voiceless or aghosa) and soft
letters (voiced or ghosa)
The main differences between vowels and consonants is that consonant block the air stream that
is coming out of the lungs through the oral cavity or the nasal cavity by moving the tongue or the lower
lip to the different places of the mouth.
Prosodically the short vowels before a double consonant or j (niggahita) are counted long.
Example: vagga , dhamma , mayaj , visuj
ka kha ga gha va
ca cha ja jha ba
ta tha da dha na
ta tha da dha na
pa pha ba bha ma
ya ra la va sa ha
la aj
The 33 consonants are divided into grouped and non-grouped. 25 consonant form ka to ma are divided into 5 groups
(vagga), each contain 5 letters. Each group is named after the first letter.
Example:
1st group: ka kha ga gha va =
ka-vagga
2nd group: ca cha ja jha ba =
ca-vagga
3rd group: ta tha da dha na =
ta-vagga
4th group: ta tha da dha na =
ta-vagga
5th group: pa pha ba bha ma =
pa-vagga
The last letter in each group i.e. va ba na na ma are called vagganta or nasals as they are pronounce with the
help of nose.
The 7 consonants of ya ra la va sa ha la are non-grouped (avagga) as they are not grouped like other 5
groups. They are called antattha, which means right at the end of alphabet.
The last consonant j is called niggahita. It always comes after a short vowel, e.g rathaj, manij, yaguj.
Again, according to their quality of utterance, the 33 consonants may be divided into:
(a) Thana
The 41 letters can be divided according to the organ of articulation. There are together six places called thana, i.e.,
guttural, palatal, lingual, dental, labial and nasal.
Thana is the places where the letters or sounds are produced, but with only the places, sounds are not able to
pronounce from letters. Therefore, the karana is deal with.
(b) Karana
Karana means instrument, thus the meaning given here means the places of tongue, where they have to make the
contact with 6 thana.
Example:
Jivhamajjha tongue
Jivhapagga
Jivhagga
(c) Payatana
The effort needed to produce the sound. There are several levels of attempt, e.g.,
(i) close
(ii) open
(iii) semi-close
(e) Kala
Time needed to produce a sound. The different duration of time is called mora.
Mora, Pali (matta), Sanskrit (matra), is a minimum duration of time that has to be used to pronounce a letter.
When crying, astonishing and summoning, three moras are needed to pronounce the letters. However in Sanskrit,
three moras are quite common, but not in Pali .
The main differences between vowels and consonants is that consonant block the air stream that is coming out of
the lungs through the oral cavity or the nasal cavity by moving the tongue or the lower lip to the different places of the
mouth.
QUESTION: EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE THE CLASSIFICATION OF ALPHABET, VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. (LECTURED BY
VEN. PIYARATNA)
The classification of alphabet, vowels and consonants, vagga, avagga, the place of formation (ekaja, dvija) and their utterances
– voice, voiceless (ghosa, aghosa).
(1) According to the Kaccāyana tradition, there are 41 letters in the Pāli alphabet – 8 vowels and 33 consonants. They are:
vowels:
a ā i ī u ū e o
consonants:
k kh g gh ṁ
c ch j jh ñ
ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
t th d dh n
p ph b bh ṃ
y r l v s h ḷ ṁ
(2) According to Moggallāna tradition, there are 43 letters – ten vowels and 33 consonants. The vowels are: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, ē, o, ō.
The rest are consonants. The vowels are divided into short and long:
(a) Kaccāyana: (b) Moggallāna
short: short:
a i u a i u e o
long: long:
ā ī ū e o ā ī ū ē ō
Prosaically, the short vowels before a double consonant or ṇ (niggahīta) are counted as long. It is to be observed that e and o are
pronounced short before a double or conjunct consonants (like in khettam, bhonto, etc.).
The consonants are divided into:
(a) vagga (grouped)
(b) avagga (non-grouped)
(a) 25 consonants (in the table given above) from k to m are called 'grouped', because they are divided into five groups of
five letters in each group:
(i) Kavagga (ka-group): k kh g gh ṁ
(ii) Cavagga (ca-group): c ch j jh ñ
(iii) Ṭavagga (ṭa-group): ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
(iv) Tavagga (ta-group): t th d dh n
(v) Pavagga (pa-group): p ph b bh ṃ
These groups are named after the first letter of each vagga. The last five letters of the vagga, viz. ṁ, ñ, ṇ, n, ṃ are called
vagganta, or 'nasals'.
(b) The remaining seven consonants: y, r, l, v, s, h, ḷ are called avaggas as they are not grouped like the above. The
consonant ṇ is called niggahīta. It always comes after a short vowel. Again, all the vowels and consonants are divided according to the
place of their formation and utterance. The places of formation:
38 letters called ekaja:
(i) k, kh, g, gh, ṁ, h, and a, ā are 'gutturals' (iv) t, th, d, dh, n, ḷ, s are 'dentals'
(ii) c, ch, j, jh, ñ, y and i, ī are 'palatals' (v) p, ph, b, bh, m and u, ū are 'labials'
(iii) ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, r, l are 'linguals' (vi) ṁ is merely a nasal breathing found only after short
vowels, e.g.: rathaṁ, maniṁ, yaguṁ.
3 letters called dvija:
(i) e is 'guttural' and 'palatal'
(ii) o is 'guttural' and 'labial'
(iii) v is 'dental' and 'labial'
The Pali alphabet, there are 41 letters altogether and it divides again into two groups. One belongs to
vowels, there are 8 and one is part of consonants there are 33 letters.
8 Vowels
A, A, I , I, U, U, E, O
Of the 8 vowels, A , I and U are short voice, in Pali, it is called Rasa. The rest are long, and it is
called Digha. Prosodically the short vowels before a double consonant or n (= niggahitta) are long. It is
to be noted that E and O are pronounce short before double or conjunction consonants (as in khettam,
bhonto, etc). Although E and O are included in long vowels they are often sounded short before a
double consonant, e.g. Metta sethi, okkamati, yottam, etc.
Consonants
Consonants, they are divided into two groups--- Vagga and Avagga (non-group). 25 consonants from
K to M are called grouped because they are divided into five groups of five letters each. They are as
follow: --
These groups are named after the first letter of each Vagga and the last five of letters of the Vaggas,
viz., n, n, n, n, m are named Vagganta or nasals. The remaining of seven consonants: y, l, r, v, s, h, l,
n are the part, which belong to Avagga due to they can not be grouped as the above. The sonant n is
called Niggahitta and it always comes after a short vowel.
Of the five groups or Vaggas, here they are again separated into two parts, one part is Aghosa, the
Voiceless. They are as follow:
i. K kh
ii. C ch
iii. T th
iv. T th
v. P ph
And one is the part of Ghosa, which name Voice, they are as below: -
1. G gh n
2. J jh n
3. D dh n
4. D dh n
5. B bh ma
Again all the vowels and the consonants are divided according to the place of their formation and
utterance.
According to the place of their formation:
9. K kh g gh n h and a, a are guttural
10. C ch j jh n y and I, I are palatals
11. T th d dh n r l are lingual
12. T th d dh n l s are dental
13. P ph b bh ma and u, u are labials
14. E is guttural and palatal
15. O is guttural and labial
16. V is dental and labial
17. n is mere a nasal breathing found only after short vowels e.g. ratham, manim, yagum.
According to the utterance.
1) The first and the third letter of each of the five vagga are called unaspirates, because they are
pronounced without a strong breathing or h- sound.
The second and the fourth letters of the same are aspirates, because they are pronounced with a strong
breath or h-sound added to them.
(A) Declension
Declension is the inflection of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals by means of dissonance indicating case,
gender and number.
All declined words such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives and declinable participles are summed up under the term
‘Nama’.
They are declined in three genders, two numbers and eight cases.
- When a noun stands alone and expresses only the meaning of its stem.
e.g. Buddho, puriso.
(b) Accusative
The accusative is generally used to denote an object in a sentence. It is the case of the direct object
and can further be used as an adverb, expressed by mean especially to express direction and extension (in
time or space). The goal of a motion is also the accusative case. Thus, it is used:
- The ordinals denoting for which time, are put in this case.
e.g. So dutiyaj pi tatiyaj pi that’eva yaci.
- The prefixes anu, abhi, adhi, pati and upa govern the accusative.
- The indeclinables dhi, antara and samanta govern the accusative.
(c) Instrumental
The instrumental case indicates the instrument or the cause, and it is used to express
companionship or possession. It is also the case of the agent in passive expressions.
- The words expressing birth, lineage, origin or nature govern the instrumental.
- It expresses the time ‘in’ or ‘at’.
e.g. Dvihi masehi nitthasi ; Tena samayena Buddho Bhagava Uruvelayaj viharati.
- It expresses the companionship or possession
- In the expression ‘what is the use of?’ the thing is expressed by the instrumental, and the person by the
dative case.
- The indeclinables saha, saddhij, samaj, vina and sometimes alaj govern this case.
- Some adverbs also are in the instrumental.
- In comparison the thing compared is in this case.
- The thing with which something is mixed is put in this case.
- The state, in which something is done, is expressed by the instrumental.
- The expression ‘less by’ takes the instrumental.
- The potential and the past passive participle take the instrument for their original subject.
The instrumental and ablative have largely fallen together in singular, except in case of a-base, which
retains its own form.
(d) Dative
Dative is the case of the indirect object, for instance, the person to whom something is given. Generally, the
dative is used to express the person who has the advantage of some action.
- When something is given to someone.
- When something is done for someone.
- When liking or disliking for someone or something is expressed.
- When someone is informed of something.
- When the sense of purpose is expressed.
- Suitability or fitness is denoted by the dative.
- In such expression as: ‘what is the use of’, etc., the person is expressed by the dative.
- When something is refused, the person is put in the dative.
- The indeclinables namo, sotthi, svagataj, lavha and the words expressing their meaning govern the dative.
- When something is sent to someone the receiver is put in the dative
- When something is told or preached to someone the person who listens is put in the dative.
- The indiclinables alaj sometimes govern the dative.
- When a thought has occurred to someone the person is put in the dative.
- The words prefixed with ‘patu’ and ‘avi’ govern the dative.
The dative case is often difficult to distinguish from genitive, since the form is usually the same. The meaning
are also often quite close to each other.
In singular, the dative and genitive have fallen together, except in case of a-base, where there is a distinct form
also.
It should be pointed out that Pali has no equivalent to the verb ‘have’. The idea may
be expressed in many ways, e.g., atthi or santi.
e (e) Ablative
The ablative case is used to express movement away from something and release from something. The ablative
can also express what has happened before something. ‘as’ is expressed by means of the ablative, and the adverbial
expression are also found in the ablative. Hence, it is used:
- Separation
- The measure of length, breadth, or distance is denoted by the ablative.
- When some direction is expressed.
- When some cause or reason is expressed.
- When release from something is expressed.
- The verbs having the meaning ‘to avoid, to obtain, to fear, to abhor’ govern the ablative.
- The indeclinables araka, abbatra, yava, uddhaj, adho govern the ablative.
- Tha (to stand) preceded by u governs the ablative.
- The comparative ‘tara’ and those words which express its meaning govern the ablative.
- The expression ‘since’, ‘beginning from’ or ‘from that time’ are denoted by the ablative.
- The adverbs pubbe, pure, puretaraj, paraj, oraj, etc. govern the ablative.
- The idea ‘in terms of’ is expressed by the ablative.
(f) Genitive
The genitive case expresses possession; it has the limiting force of an adjective . The genitive is the most
common case for expressing relations between nouns.
- It also expresses the connection or relation of something or someone with some action.
- The thing with which something is composed, or of which something is consisting, is put is the genitive.
- The state of things expressed by the genitive.
- The group or heap, from which one person or a thing is distinguished or selected, is put in the genitive.
- The words of ‘skill, proficiency’ etc., and their opposites govern the genitive.
- The word denoting ‘time, locality, direction and distance’ are put in the genitive.
- When a portion of a whole is mentioned the whole is put in the genitive.
- When a word in genitive, with a participle in agreement, denotes some attendant circumstance it is called
‘genitive absolute’.
(g) Locative
The locative shows the place in or on which a thing or person is, or an action is performed.
- The locative denotes the time when an action takes place.
- When an individual or a thing is selected from a whole class or group, the latter is put in the locative.
- The locative shows the cause or motive of an action.
- The words denoting overlordship or ownership govern the locative.
- The locative is used absolutely wit a participle in the same case as itself.
- When someone is careful in doing something, the action is put in the locative.
- The words signifying reverence, respect, love, delighting in, saluting, seizing, kissing, fond of , and
striking govern the locative.
- It denotes the circumstances in spite of or under which an action is done.
(h) Vocative
f The Vocative forms always stand out the sentence, it is used when somebody is addressed: bhikkhave ‘
O monks!’
g
❀ The following example is the inflection or case endings of the declension of masculine stem ‘a’.
(i) Nouns
(ii) Adjectives
(iii) Pronouns
(iv) Numerals
The following are the examples of the declension of nouns in vowels ending:
※ The stems eka, ti, catu (2,3,4) are of all genders and declined differently in each gender.
※ Eka (one) has only singular forms. The plural forms are used to express the meaning ‘some’. e.g. eke manussa =
some people.
※ From dvi (2) up to attharasa (18), all cardinals are declined only in plural number, alike in all the three genders .
※ From ekunavisati (19) up to navuti (90) all cardinals are declined only in feminine gender, singular number.
※ Sata and sahassa (100, 1000) are declined in neuter gender.
※ Koti (10000000) and pakoti (koti x 100) are declined in feminine gender.
※ Number those ending in a like visa, tijsa (20,30) etc. are declined like feminine nouns ending in a, but only in singular
number.
❀ Ccha, satta, attha and all up to attharasa are declined like pabca
(B) Conjugation
Conjugation is to state or set out (a verb) with its various inflection endings in order, i.e. in its voices, moods,
tenses, numbers and persons. Verbs are formed with roots by adding suffixes and prefixes to them.
Verbs indicates actions, and is an important part of predicate which says somethings about the subject. The
following verse is the difinition of verb:
“ Yantikalaj tipurisaj
Kriyavacitikarakaj
attilivgaj dvivacanaj
tadakhyatantivuccati”
There are seven different conjugations in Pali, they are called dhatuganas (group of roots). The Pali grammarians represent
roots with a final vowel, but it is often dropped or changed before the conjugational sign. Each dhatuganas has one or more
different conjugational signs, which come between the root and the verbal termination.
seven conjugations and their signs 1st conjugation Bhuvadigana a 2nd conjugation Rudhadigana m a 3rd conjugation
Divadigana ya 4th conjugation Svadigana no nu una 5th conjugation Kiyadigana na 6th conjugation Tanadigana o
yira 7th conjugation Cutadigana e aya
A great number of roots are included in the first and the seventh group. The following are the examples of the 1st
th
and 7 conjugation in the three tenses, three persons and their singular and plural forms.
The conjugational sign na of the fifth group is shortened in the third person plural.
There are two sets of inflection to form the verbs in either voice; one set is named Parassapada and the other
Attanopada. The parassapada set was formerly used only to form the Active Verbs, and the attanopada set to form the
Passive ones. When a verbal root is conjugated in the Active and Passive in the two sets of inflection there is no different
meaning.
The following are the First Conjugation according to the eight modes:
First Conjugation
4. Pabcami (Imperative)
ParassapadaAttanopada tu ntu taj ntaj x ; (a)hi tha ntaj vho -mi -ma e amase
Active Voice Parassapada AttanopadaPerson Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd gacchatu
gacchantu gacchatam gacchantam 2nd gaccha gacchahi gacchatha gacchassu gacchavho 1st gacchami gacchama gacche
gacchamese
Active Voice Parassapada AttanopadaPerson Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd gaccheyya
gaccheyyum
gacchetha gaccheram 2nd gaccheyyasi gaccheyyatha
gacchetho gaccheyyavho 1st gaccheyyamigaccheyyama
gaccheyyam gaccheyyamhe
6. Hiyattani (imperfect)
ParassapadaAttanopada a u ttha tthuj O ttha se vhaj a ; aj mha ij mhase
Root to go Parassapada AttanopadaPerson Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd agaccha agama
nd
aga agacchu agamu agacchatha agamattha agacchatthum agamatthum 2 agaccho aagmo agacchattha agamattha
agacchase agamase agacchivham agamivham 1st agaccha agama
agaccham agamam
agacchamha agamamha
agacchim agamim
agacchamhase agamamhase
Active Voice Root paca Parassapada AttanopadaPerson Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd
nd st
papaca papacu papacittha papacire 2 papace papacittha papacittho papacivho 1 papaca papacimha papaci
papacimhe
Active Voice “a” before the root Parassapada AttanopadaPerson Singular Plural Singular
rd nd
Plural 3 apacissa apacissa apacissamsu apacissatha apacissimsu 2 apacisse apacissatha apacissase
apacissavhe 1st apacissa apacissamha apacissam apacissamhase
666DECLENSION
Nouns in Pali are differently declined according to their gender and termination.
Nara is a masculine stem, ending in --- a.
It is also to be declined as following: ---
Singular Plural
Nom. Naro = man Nara= men
Acc. Naran=man Nare=men
Ins. Narena=by, with, or through man Narebhi; Narehi= by, with, or
through men
Dat. Naraya; Narassa=to or for man Naranan= to or for men
Abl. Nara; Narmha; Narasma= from a man Narebhi; Narehi= for a man
Gen. Narassa =of man Naranan= of men
Loc. Nare; Naramhi; Narasmin= on or in man Naresu= on or in men
Vo. Nara: Nara= Oman Nara= O men
In Pali, there are seven inflections or case endings of the above declension are;
666D EC L E N S IO N
Nadi
Singular Plural
najjo
najjo
nadihi
Singular Plural
Manamha, manasma
Manamhi, manasmij
Satthu = Nattu
Singular Plural
satthubhi
sattharehi, satthuhi.
Gacchanta
Singular Plural
gacchanta
Acc. Gacchantaj gacchante
gacchantehi
gacchantanaj
Gacchantasma
Gacchantamhi, gacchantasmij
Gaccha gacchanta
5. Pitu (mas)
Singular Plural
putubhi, putuhi
pitunaj, (pitunnaj)
(pitasu)
6. aggi (mas)
Singular Plural
7. ratti (fem)
Singular Plural
(ratyo)
Inst. pl -- rattisu
8. amha
Singular Plural
no
no
Dat./Gen. Mama, mayaj amhaj, amhakaj,
Me, mamaj no
666CONJUGATION
There are seven different conjugations in Pali; they are called dhatugana (=group of roots). The Pali
grammarians represent roots with a final vowel, but it id often dropped or changed before the
conjugational sign. Each dhatugana has one or more different conjugational signs, which come
between the root and the verbal termination.
A great number of roots are included in the first and the seventh group. For instance, the roots pacca
and bhava, belong to the first conjugation. The last vowel of Pacca is dropped before the conjugational
sign a.
The monosyllabic roots like bhu do not drop their vowel. It is strengthens before the conjugational sign.
i or i strengthen becomes e
u or u trengthen becomes o
A …………………………….. ava
Ne+a becomes naya
Bho+a ………. Bhava
The seventh conjugation
The special feature of the first conjugation is that the last vowel of the base is lengthened before the
First Personal endings.
The same rule is applied for the bases ending with a of the 2 nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th conjugations, in addition
to their special features.
The bases of the seventh conjugations are of two kinds as it has two conjugational signs, e.g. from the
root two puja bases puje and pujaya are formed.
E.g. puja
Base Puje
1.Pujeti Pujenti
2.Pujesi Pujetha
3.Pujemi Pujema
Base Pujaya
1.Pujayati Pujayanti
2.Pujayasi Pujayatha
3.Pujayami Pujayama
First conjugation
Present Tense
The inflections or the personal endings of the First Mode, Vattamana or Present tense are:
Parassapada
(Active voice)
Middle attanopada
Attanopada
Parassapada
Attanopada
Parassapada
Attanopada
Past tense
The second mode is Ajjatani, Aorist.
Parassapada
Attanopada
Parassapada
Attanopada
This was originally used to express the definite past, and Ajjatani was used to express the time recently
passed; but now they have lost their individual significance, and Ajjatani is extensively used to express
the definite past.
Past Indefinite
The seventh mode. Parokkha.
The personal endings of this mode are:
Active Voice
Parassapada
Attanopada
This mode is very seldom used, and this is characterised by the reduplication of root.
1. The first consonant of a root is reduplicated together with the vowel that follows it.
2. If the root begins with a vowel that vowel alone is reduplicated.
3. Its corresponding palatal reduplicates a guttural.
4. An aspirate is reduplicated by its unaspirated, and an unaspirate by itself.
5. J reduplicates H of a root.
6. A long vowel is shortened in the reduplicated syllable.
Future tense
The third Mode is bhavissanti
The personal endings of this mode are:
Parassapada
Parassapada
3rd Bhunjissa
Bhunjissa bhunjissansu
nd
2 Bhunjisse bhunjissatha
1stBunjissami bhunjissama
Attanopada
Parassapada
Attanopada
Second conjugation
Rudhadi-Group
There is no difference in the personal endings of this or the other forthcoming conjugations from the
First conjugation. The difference lies in the bases formed through the different conjugational sings.
The conjugational sign of this Rudhada-group is n –a. n is inserted after the first syllable of the root:
e.g. the root Sica(to sprinkle)+n-a =Sinca+; when the last vowel is dropped it becomes Sinca.
One may conjugate these bases just like the verbs in the First Conjugation:
Sincati (he pour down)
Sincanti (they pour down) and so on for every mode.
Third conjugation
Divadi-group
The sign of this group is ya, which is assimilated to the last consonant of the root. Some rules and
examples for assimilation of Y are given in the Mixed Sandhi, the page number 7-8. They may be
applied here too.
After a root ending in a long vowel, Ya does not changes its form.
In other cases:
Examples
Fourth conjugation
Svadi-group
Su (to hear)+na+ti=sunati
Su (to hear)+no+ti=sunoti
Pa+apa(to attain or come to)+una+ti= papunati
Sambhu(to attain)+na+ti=sambhunati
A +vu (to fix on to, tostring) +na+ti=avunati
Sakka (to be able)+una+ti= sakkunati
Fifth conjugation
Kayati-group
Examples
Sixth conjugation
Tanadi-Group
Examples
Pa+apa(to attain or come) +o+ti= papoti
Mana (to think)+o+ti= manoti
Kara ( to do)+ o+ti=karoti
Tanu(to expand)+o+ti= tanoti
Seventh conjugation
Curadi-group
Examples
Cunna (to powder) + e + ti = cunneti
Cinta (to think) +e + ti = cinteti
Cura (to steal)+e + ti = coreti
Cura +aya + ti =corayati
Gupa (to guard)+e + ti =gopeti
Gupa +aya + ti = gopayati
Chadda (to throw away)+e + ti =chaddeti
(1) -tuṁ and -tave are suffixed to the roots or the bases in order to form infinitives.
(i) Thy are joined with an additional i, to the roots ending in a and u:
paca + i + tuṁ = pacituṁ (to cook)
dhāvu + i + tuṁ = dhavituṁ (to run)
jana + i + tuṁ = janituṁ (to know)
(ii) They are directly added to the roots ending in ā:
dā + tuṁ = dātuṁ (to give)
thā + tuṁ = thātuṁ (to stand)
Root kara becomes kā before these; then it is treated as a root ending in ā:
kā + tuṁ = kātuṁ (to do)
kā + tava = kātave (to do)
(iii) The last consonant of some roots is assimilated to t of the suffixes:
kara + tuṁ = kattuṁ (to do)
chida + tuṁ = chettuṁ (to cut)
buja + tuṁ = bhottuṁ (to eat; to enjoy)
(iv) Strengthening the first vowel sometimes takes place before these:
nī + tuṁ = netuṁ (to lead; to carry)
su + tuṁ = sotuṁ (to hear)
(2) To the causal bases and the bases of the seventh conjugation ending in a these suffixes are joined with the help of i.
They are directly added to those bases ending in e.
QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE NIGGAHITA Ṇ SANDHI WITH EXAMPLE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)
(1) ṇ before a vagga-consonant may, sometimes, be transformed to the 'nasal' or the fifth letter of the group to which
that consonant belongs.
dipaṇ + karo = dipaṇkaro
taṇ + dhanaṁ = taṇdhanaṁ
(6) ṇ followed by a vowel or a consonant is sometimes elided; then the vowel in some cases is lengthened:
tasaṇ + ahaṁ = tasahaṁ
evaṇ + ahaṁ = evahaṁ
adasiṇ + ahaṁ = adasahaṁ
(7) A vowel after ṇ is sometimes elided; then ṇ undergoes the change stated in most instances:
abhinanduṇ + iti = abhinanduṇ ti
halaṇ + idani = halaṇ dani
idaṇ + api = idaṁ pi
Rājā (king):
Singular Plural
nom. rājā rājāno
acc. rājānaṁ, rājaṁ rājāno
ins. raññā, rājena rājūbhi, rājūhi, jājebhi, rājehi
dat.,gen. rañño, rājino raññaṁ, rājūnaṁ, rājānaṁ
abl. raññā, rājamhā, rājasmā rājūbhi, rājūhi, rājebhi, rājehi
loc. raññe, rājini, rājamhi, rājasmiṁ rājusu, rājesu
voc. rāja, rājā rājāno
Attā (self):
Singular Plural
nom. attā attāno
acc. attānaṁ, attaṁ attāno
ins. attanā, attena attanebhi, attanehi
dat., gen. attano attānaṁ
abl. attanā attanebhi, attanehi
loc. attani attanesu
voc. atta, attā attāno
Gunavantu (virtuous):
Singular Plural
nom. gunavā gunavanto, gunavantā
acc. gunavantaṁ gunavante
ins. gunavatā, gunavantena gunavantebhi, gunavantehi
dat., gen. gunavato, gunavantassa gunavataṁ, gunavantānaṁ
abl. gunavatā, gunavantamhā, gunavantebhi, gunavantehi
gunavantasmā
loc. gunavati, gunavante gunavantesu
gunavantamhi, gunavantasmiṁ
voc. gunavaṁ, gunava, gunavā gunavanto, gunavantā
QUESTION: SHOULD BE HAVE CONJUGATION „GAMU-GAM“27 (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA)
Answer:
27 I added to every form of the verb „(ā)“, so that it can be clearly seen, that with the verb āgaccha is the conjugation same,
only that „ā“ should be added at the beginning of each word.
1st (ā)gaccheyyāmi (ā)gaccheyyāma (ā)gaccheyyaṁ (ā)gaccheyyamhe
2nd (ā)gaccheyyasi (ā)gaccheyyatha(ā)gacchetho (ā)gaccheyavho
3rd (ā)gaccheyya (ā)gaccheyyuṁ (ā)gacchetha (ā)gaccheraṁ
1. Present (vattamānā)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st mi ma e mhe
2nd si tha se vhe
3rd ti nti te nte
2. Past (Ajjatanī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st iṁ mhā aṁ imhe
2nd o tha ise ivha
3rd ī uṁ, iṁsu ā ū
3. Future (bhavissanti)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st issāmi issāma issaṁ issāmhe
2nd issasi issatha issase issavhe
3rd issati issanti issate issante
4. Imperative (pañcamī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st mi ma e āmase
2nd hi tha ssu vho
3rd tu ntu taṁ ntaṁ
6. Imperfect (hinyatani)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st a, aṁ mha iṁ mhase
2nd o tha se vhaṁ
3rd ā ū ttha tthuṁ
1. Present (vattamānā)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st bhavāmi bhavāma bhave bhavamhe
nd
2 bhavasi bhavatha bhavase bhavavhe
3rd bhavati bhavanti bhavate bhavante
2. Past (ajjatanī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st bhaviṁ bhavimha, bhavimhā bhavaṁ bhavimhe
2nd bhavo bhavitha bhavise bhavivhaṁ
3rd bhavi, bhāvi bhavum, bhavimsu bhava bhavu
3. Future (bhavissanti)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st bhavissāmi bhavissāma bhavissaṁ bhavissamhe
nd
2 bhavissasi bhavissatha bhavissase bhavissavhe
3rd bhavissati bhavissanti bhavissate bhavissante
4. Imperative (pañcamī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st bhavāmi bhavāma bhave bhavāmase
2nd bhava, bhavahi bhavatha bhavassu bhavavho
rd
3 bhavatu bhavantu bhavataṁ bhavantaṁ
According to the rules apply to the joining together of two vowels, two consonants, we have vowel sandhi rules
and consonant rules, and another is the combination of ‘j’ called niggahitasandhi. There are also a few cases of joining
together of consonants and vowels called mixed sandhi.
Thus, the section generally is divided into 4 sub-headings, namely:
(a) sarasandhi
(b) vyabjanasandhi
(b) niggahitasandhi
(c) vomissakasandhi
(1) SARASANDHI
The rules of vowel sandhi are based on the avoidance of hiatus. There is hiatus when two vowels come together.
Hiatus is avoided by the rules of elision, contraction, changing and insertion. With the rules of these, sometimes the 1st or 2nd
vowel is lengthening or shortening.
The combination of vowels is effected by elision or changing of one of the two contiguous vowels. The words are
usually combined after elided. According to the rules of Sarasandhi, they may be divided as follows:
(A) ELISION
(ii) Sometimes when the 1st vowel is elided, the 2nd is lengthened
(iii) When two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is elided
(B) CONTRACTION
(i) When two vowels come together, they may be contracted into one
Examples: Two similar vowels are sometimes contracted into long of the same kind
a + a = a
a + a = a
a + a = a
a + a = a
(C) CHANGING
(i) i i e before dissimilar vowels is changed to y ,then the 2nd vowel sometimes is lengthened.
(D) INSERTION
(i) Consonants, y v m d n t r l h are sometimes inserted between two vowels to avoid a hiatus.
(B) VYABJANASANDHI
In Pali the consonants may be divided according to their strength or power of resistance and sometimes the vowel
before a consonant is lengthened or shortened for the sake of prosody.
(C) NIGGAHITASANDHI
(i) When a nasal vowel is followed by a consonant, the anusvara before mutes and nasals is changed into the
corresponding nasal
(D) VOMISSAKASANDHI
When i before a dissimilar vowel is changed to y i.e., according to the rule of vowel sandhi rules of changing (i) ).
y together with preceding consonant, undergoes several changes.
(i) ty becomes cc
(v) py becomes pp
Phonetics is a part of grammar which deal with the elementary vocal sounds. In pali it is
technically called sikkaha or akkhata sandhi. The letter expression being used in contradict
distinction with para-sandhi or words sandhi. There are various changes that occur in the
articulation or pronunciation of syllabus or sounds in simple words. The main cause of these
changes is generally described as laziness or the tendency to express the sound with least effort.
All the middle Indo-Aryan speech including pali are marked by the simplification of the sound
system which prevailed in the old Indo-Aryan speechs (Vedic Sanskrit). Some of the old sounds
were simply dropped, and in the combination of dissimilar sound they were either change to
similar ones or modified and replaced by an easier altogether different sound. This tendency is
generally regarded as a phase of linguistic decay. When pali is a literal speech came to be
standardized, some of the lost sounds were restored in it and a few others were compensated.
The process of decay in the sound system which is started from early times and continued to
operate 操作 freely on all Prakrit dialects. Thus to a considerable extend by the standardization,
the phonetics changes in pali as the other languages may be broadly divided into two classes,
one comprising 包 含 those that can be explained by some universal principles and the other
relating to those that are attributed to local or dialectic reasions. The content changes belonging
to the second class, takes place more or less owing to the influence of other local or neighboring
dialects having their own peculiar 奇特,特殊 words and pronunciation.
As mentioned earlier, sandhi is the union or combination of two letters or sound. Sandhi
helps to utter words easily and simply like tadhita (secondary derivative), kitaka (primary
derivative), samasa (compound). Sandhi also shorten the sound, samada, kitaka and tadhita
summarize not only the sound but also meaning. It is important that by combination, sound can
be shortened. In Sanskrit, combination are rigid 精密的 and highly formulized, but in pali it is
free and unconventional 非傳統的. Tada sandhi or word sandhi is not importing 含 in pali, it
depends on the writer. Both Sanskrit and Pali combination are much more frequent 時常發生的
in verses than prose for the sake of meter, e.g., - v v v – v v v = mano pubbangama dhamma. It
is accession combine word in verses. According to Wineisch, words sandh of pali in
comparison with Sanskrit certainly appear to be more order and natural. They do not pretend to
be consistent and universal because they are lots of exception in most cases. So we have lot of
variation in pali combination. It is very important that this variation reveal the phases and
influences of the different provincial mode of pronunciation.
17/2/2000
1. Elision (lopa) – e.g., loka + aggo > lokaggo (the great of the world, i.e, Buddha)
2. Insertion (agama) – e.g., atta + attam > attadattam (each and everybody)
- Mitra vadagamo = like a friend
3. Substitution (adesa), e.g., saj + yoga > sabbogo
- Satru vadadeso = like a enemy
4. Lengthening (dirgha) e.g., guru + upadesa > gurupadesa (advise of the teacher)
5. Shortening (hrasva), e.g., eso + dhammo > esa dhammo
6. Assimilation (samikarana) e.g., atma > atta
- utpala > uppala (lotus)
- unmada > ummada (mad)
7. Dissimilation (asamikarana) e.g., guru > garu
8. Reduplication (dvitva) e.g., ni + mala > nimmala; maha + dhana > mahaddhana.
All the middle Indo-Aryans speeches including Pali are marked by the simplification of the sound
system which prevail in the Old Indo-Aryans speeches (Vedic and Sanskrit). Some of the old sounds
were seemly dropped, and in a combination of dissimilar sound they either change to similar one or
modified and replace by and easier and all together different sound. This tendency is generally regarded
as a place of linguistic decay. When Pali a literally speech came to be standardise some of the last
sounds were restored in it and a few other were compensated. The process of decay in the sound system
which started from early time and continue to operate freely on all the Prakrit dialect. Thus to a
considerable extend by the standardisation of Pali the phonetic changes in Pali as in other languages
and it may be broadly divided into two classes:
1. Comprising those that can be explained by some universal principle and
2. The other relating to those that are attributed to local or dialect reason.
The phonetic changes belonging to the second class take place more or less owing to the influence of
other local or neighbouring dialect having their own federal mode of pronunciation.
As mentioned earlier Sandhi is the union or combination of two letters or sound. Sandhi help to utter
words easily and simply like taddhita-secondly derivative, Kittaka-primary derivative, Samasa-
compound Sandhi also shortens the sound. Samasa, taddhida and Kittaka summarise not only the sound
but also meaning. It is important that by combination of sound, sound can be shorten no meaning. In
Sanskrit combination are rigid and highly formulised but in Pali it is free and unconventional.
Padasandhi or word Sandhi is not imperative in Pali. It depends on writers. Both in Sanskrit and Pali
combination are much more frequent in verses than prose, for the sake of metre (prosody). It is
essential to combine word in verses. According to E.windisch words Sandhi of Pali in comparison with
Sanskrit certainly appear to be older and natural. They do not pretend to be consistent and universal
because there are lot of exception in more cases. So we have lot of variation in Pali combination. It is
very important that the variation prevail the traces and influences of the different provincial modes of
pronunciation.
There are many rules to combine words. They are run as follows:
1. Elision (Lopa) = e.g. Loga+aggo = lokagga
2. Insertion (Agama) = e.g. Atta+ attam = attadattam
3. Substitution (Adesa) = e.g. Sam+ yogo =sannogo
4. Lengthening (dIrgha) = e.g. Guru+ upadesa =gurupadesa
5. Assimilation (sAmikara) = e.g. Atma>atta
6. Dissimulation (asAmikaraBa) = e.g. Guru>garu
7. Reduplication (Dvitva) =e.g. Ni+ mala= nimmala.
1.Svara Sandhi
1.There is the dropping of final vowel, followed by a vowel, at the end of the first also vowel, and
initial also vowel. E.g:
1. Attha + ime = atthime
2. ekA + itthi = ekitthi ( one woman)
3. Eka + Una = ekuna ( 19)
4. Giri + agga = giragga (mountain peak)
5. Maha + inda = mahinda (owl)
2.Sometimes the succeeding vowel is dropped when there is preceding vowel( Purva svara lopa).E.g:
1. chAyA+iva=chayava
2. cakkhU+indriyam=cakkhundriyam
3. Vande+ahaM= vandehaM
Yassa+idAni= yassadAni ( what now)
3.When there are dissimilar vowels in the place preceding and succeeding, another vowel is inserted,
instead of both preceding and succeeding.
1. Canda+udaya=candodaya
2. Vijja+udaya=vijjodaya
3. Na+upeti=nopeti
4. Jina+iritam=jineritam
4. When “a” and “a” followed by “i” “i” and “u” “u” they change to “e” and “o”.
I,I > e
u,u> o. e.g:
1. up+ ikkhati =upekkhati
2. jina+ irita =jinerita
3. canda+ udaya =candodaya
4. vama+uru =vamuru-left thigh
5. “i” “i” or “e” before a dissimilar vowel is sometimes changed to “y” and then the
succeeding vowel is sometimes lengthened. e.g:
aggi+agara=agyagara
dasi+ahoti=dasyahoti
te+aham=tyaham
6. If final vowel is dropped, there is sometimes the lengthening of the succeeding vowel. e.g:
1. na+assa=nassa- not his, not for him
2. tada+aham=tadaham
3. bahu+upakaram=bahupakaram
4. appassuto+ayam=appassutayam- this one is uneducated.
7. If succeeding vowel is dropped, the proceeding is also lengthened. e.g:
1. aggi+iva+ aggiva
2. pati+iha=patiha
3. sadhu+iti=sadhuti
4. kimsu+idha=kimsudha- what is here
5. vijju+iva=vijjuva- like a lightening
8. When “o” and “u” are proceeding those vowels are sometimes chanced to “va” and
succeeding vowel is lengthened. e.g:
1. yo.+aham=yvaham-that I
2. anu+eti=anveti
3. anu+addhamasam=anvaddhamasam
4. su+akkhata=svakkhata
5. su+agatam=svagatam-welcome.
9.Sometimes the consonants” ya, va, ma,da, na, ta, ra, la” are inserted between two consecutive
vowels. e.g:
(ya)
1. na+imassa=nayimassa
2. vihare+eva=vihareyeva- only in the temple
3. na+idha=nayidha
4. na+idaM=nayidaM
5. Vuddhi=eva= vuddhiyeva
(va)
1. ti+aNgula=tivangula
2. pa+uccati=pavuccati
(ma)
3. idha+aham=idhamaham
4. lahu+essati=lahumessati
(da)
1. atta+attam=attadattam
2. puna+eva= punadeva, again indeed
3. tava+eva=tavadeva, initially
(na)
1. ito+ayati= itonAyati = come from here
2. ratti+utthana= ratthinutthana=getting up at night
(ta)
1. ajja+agge=ajjatagge-from today
2. tasmA+iha=tasmatiha-because of that
(ra)
1. dhi+atthu=dhirathu-may it be prosperous, wise
2. raja+iva=rajariva- like a king
3. patU+ahosi=paturahosi- become manifest
(la)
1. cha+abbiGGA=chalabhinna-six super-knowledge
2. cha+aNga=chalanga-six parts
(H)
Su+ujUca= suhujUca
putha+eva=puthAgeva
10. Sometimes the prefix (upasagga) “adhi” followed by a vowel is changed to “ ajjha” e.g:
1. adhi+acara=ajjhacara-sexual transgression
2. adhi+asaya=ajjhasaya-intention
3. adhi+esita=ajjhesita-requested
12.”ati” sometimes becomes “acca”. “pati” becomes “pacca”. “iti” becomes “icca” e.g:
1. ati+anta=accanta-extreme end
2. pati+anta=paccanta-border
3. iti+eva=iccaeva
Vyanjanasandhi -combination of a vowel and a consonant, when a word ending in a vowel is joined to
a word begins with a consonant.
When the two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is sometimes elided.
a+a, a+a, a+a, a+a are simillar; so are i+i, etc., a+i, u, e, or o are dissimilar; so are i+a, u, e, o and so
on.
Examples
(II) Consonant-Sandhi
Examples
Rupa+khando =Rupakkhando
Du+karam =Dukkaram
Anu+gaho =Anuggaho
Pari+ cajati =Pariccajati
Seta+chatam =Settacchatam
Tatre+thino =Tatratthino
Patthama+ jhanam =Patthamajjhanam
Vi+nanam =Vinnanam
Upa+davo =Upaddavo
Ni+dhana =Niddhano
Su+patitthito =Suppatitthito
Ni+palam =Nippalam
Du+bhikkham =Dubbhikkam
Ni+malo =Nimmalo
Appa+suto =Appassuto
Example
Para+kamo =Parakkamo
A+khato =Akkhato
Tanha+khayo =Tanhakkhayo
Maha+phalam =Mahapphalam
A+sado =Assado
• A vowel before a consonant is sometimes lengthened and sometimes shortened for the sake of
prosody.
Example
Lengthened
Khanti+paramam =khantiparamam
Jayati+soko =jayati soko
Mannati+balo=mannati balo
Nibbattati+dukkham =nibbattatti dukkham
Shortened
Bhovadi+nama so hoti =bhavati nama so hoti
Yitthan va+hutan va+ loke =yattham va hutamva loke
Buddhe yadi va+ savake =buddhe yadi va savake
Example
(III)Niggahita-Sandhi
• N before a vagga-consonant may, sometimes, be transformed to the nasal or the fifth letter of the
group to which that consonant belongs.
Examples
Examples
San+ lahuko =Sallahuko
Pun+lingan =Pullingam
San+lapo =Sallapo
Patisan+lino =Patisallino
Example
San+yogo = Sannogo
Yan+ yad eva =Yannad eva
San+ yojanan = sannojanam
Anantarikan +yam ahu = anantarikannam ahu
Examples
Tan+ahan =Tam aham
Etan+ avoca =etad avoca
Kin+ etan = kim etam
Tan+ atthan =Tam attham
Tam+ anatta =Tad anatta
Yan+ idan = Yad idam; yam idam
• N followed by a vowel or a consonant is sometime elided; then the vowel in some cases is
lengthened.
Examples
Tasan+ ahan =tasaham
Evan+ ahan =evaham
Vidunam+aggan =vidunaggam
Buddhanan+sasanam =buddhana sasanam
Adasin+ahan = adasaham
Ariyasaccanam+dassanam =ariyasaccana sasanam
• A vowel after n is sometimes elided; the n undergoes the change stated in 0Sf1 in most instances.
Examples
Chakku+ udapadi =chakkum udapadi
Anu+thulani =anum-thuiani
Manopubba+ gama =manopubbangama
Yava c’idha = yavac’ idha
Ava+siro = avamsiro
Mixed Sandhi
When I before A dissimilar vowel is changed to Y (according to the above rule), that Y, together with
the preceding consonant, undergoes several changes.
I. ty becomes cc
II. dy beccomes jj
abhi+uggacchati=abhy+uggacchati = abbhuggachati
abhi+okasa=abhy+okaso =abbhokaso
abhi+accikhanan= abhy+acikkhanan =abbhcikkhanan
V. by becomes pp
api+ ekacce= apy+ekacce = appekacce
api+ekada=apy+ekada =appekada
666SANDHI
1. Sarasandhi = vowel sandhi
If there are 2 similar vowels, the first is deleted, after delete, we cannot sperate the wordl
e.g:
Loka + addapuggala = lokaggapuggalo (the greatest person in the world)
Pabba + indriyam = pabbindriyaj (the sense of wisdom/faculty of
wisdom)
Tini + mani = tinimani (these three) neuter
No hi + etaj = no hetaj (this is not so)
Bhikkhuni+ ovado = bhikkunovado (advise for nun/instruction for nun)
Matu + upatthanaj = matupatthanaj (supporting of the mother)
sametu + ayasma = sametayasma (venerable may classify himself)
abhibhu + ayatanaj = abhibhayatanaj (faculty oppression)
dhanamme+ atthi = dhana + me (dhanamme) dhanammatthi (I have
wealth)
sabbe + eva = sabbeva (almost all; definitely all ; certainly all)
tayo + assudhamma = tayassudhamma (three facts; there will be three
facts)
asanto + ettha = asantettha (here the bad people; unculture people)
When two sounds are joined together, they sometimes undergo changes according to certain rules
for the sake of euphony is called Sandhi (combination or fitting together). The joining or combination
occurs between the last letter of the first word and the last letter of the second word. The former, if it is
a vowel, is called ‘pubbasara’ and if a consonant is called ‘pubbavyabjana’. The latter is called
‘parasara’ and ‘paravyabjana’ respectively.
According to the rules apply to the joining together of two vowels, two consonants, we have
vowel sandhi rules and consonant sandhi rules, and another is the combination of ‘j’ called
niggahitasandhi. There are also a few cases of joining together of consonants and vowels called mixed
sandhi.
Sandhi generally is divided into 4 sub-headings, namely:
1. sarasandhi
2. vyabjanasandhi
3. niggahitasandhi
4. Vomissakasandhi -
666SANDHI =EUPHONIC COMBINATION
The two letters of the similar word or of two different words are joined together for the sake of
euphony the union is called Sandhi (combination or fitting together). In the Sandhi, there are three
separations, Sarasandhi--combination of vowels, Vyanjanasandhi ---combination of a vowel and a
consonant, and
Sarasandhi--combination of vowels, when a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning with
a vowel, or when two adjacent vowels of the same word are joined together.
Vyanjanasandhi -combination of a vowel and a consonant, when a word ending in a vowel is joined to
a word begins with a consonant.
Combination of vowels is effected by elision or change of one of the two contiguous vowels. A vowel
before another vowel is sometimes elided.
Examples
Vandiyaggam = Vandiya+aggam, A before A, one must be
elided
Tan’evasanani = Tan’eva+asanani A ---- A, A --------
Amanussupaddavo = Amanussa+uppaddavo A ---- U, A --------
Pannindriyam = Panna+ indriyam A ---- I,A --------
Tinimani =Tini+ imani I I, I --------
Nohi h’ etam = Nohi+etam I E, I --------
Bhikkhunovado = Bhikkhuni+ ovado I O, I --------
Matupatthanam = Matu+ uppathanam U U, U --------
Sametayasma = Sametu+ayasma U A, U --------
Dhanam matthi = Dhanam me + atthi E A, E --------
Sabb’eva = Sabbe+ eva A E, E --------
Asant’ettha = Asanto+ettha O E, O --------
Tayassu = Tayo+assu O A, O --------
When the two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is sometimes elided.
a+a, a+a, a+a, a+a are simillar; so are i+i, etc., a+i, u, e, or o are dissimilar; so are i+a, u, e, o and so
on.
Examples
(II) Consonant-Sandhi
Examples
Rupa+khando =Rupakkhando
Du+karam =Dukkaram
Anu+gaho =Anuggaho
Pari+ cajati =Pariccajati
Seta+chatam =Settacchatam
Tatre+thino =Tatratthino
Patthama+ jhanam =Patthamajjhanam
Vi+nanam =Vinnanam
Upa+davo =Upaddavo
Ni+dhana =Niddhano
Su+patitthito =Suppatitthito
Ni+palam =Nippalam
Du+bhikkham =Dubbhikkam
Ni+malo =Nimmalo
Appa+suto =appassuto
Example
Para+kamo =Parakkamo
A+khato =Akkhato
Tanha+khayo =Tanhakkhayo
Maha+phalam =Mahapphalam
A+sado =Assado
The exceptions to this rule are:
Vedana+ khando =vedanakkhandho
Yath+kamam =yathakkamam
Panna+khandho =pannakkhandho
Example
Lengthened
Khanti+paramam =khantiparamam
Jayati+soko =jayati soko
Mannati+balo=mannati balo
Nibbattati+dukkham =nibbattatti dukkham
Shortened
Bhovadi+nama so hoti =bhavati nama so hoti
Yitthan va+hutan va+ loke =yattham va hutamva loke
Buddhe yadi va+ savake =buddhe yadi va savake
Example
(III)Niggahita-Sandhi
(1) N before a vagga-consonant may, sometimes, be transformed to the nasal or the fifth
letter of the group to which that consonant belongs.
Examples
Examples
San+ lahuko =Sallahuko
Pun+lingan =Pullingam
San+lapo =Sallapo
Patisan+lino =Patisallino
Examples
Paccattan+ eva =Paccattan-n-eva
Tan+hi tassa =Tan hi tassa
Evan +hivo =Evan hino
Tan+ khanan+eva = tankhanan n eva
Examples
Tan+ahan =Tam aham
Etan+ avoca =etad avoca
Kin+ etan = kim etam
Tan+ atthan =Tam attham
Tam+ anatta =Tad anatta
Yan+ idan = Yad idam; yam idam
• N followed by a vowel or a consonant is sometime elided; then the vowel in some cases is
lengthened.
Examples
Tasan+ ahan =tasaham
Evan+ ahan =evaham
Vidunam+aggan =vidunaggam
Buddhanan+sasanam =buddhana sasanam
Adasin+ahan = adasaham
Ariyasaccanam+dassanam =ariyasaccana sasanam
• A vowel after n is sometimes elided; the n undergoes the change stated in 0Sf1 in most instances.
I. ty becomes cc
II. dy beccomes jj
abhi+uggacchati=abhy+uggacchati = abbhuggachati
abhi+okasa=abhy+okaso =abbhokaso
abhi+accikhanan= abhy+acikkhanan =abbhcikkhanan
V. by becomes pp
api+ ekacce= apy+ekacce = appekacce
api+ekada=apy+ekada =appekada
QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE VOWEL (SANDHI) WITH EXAMPLE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA)
Combination of vowels is affected by elision or change of one of the two contiguous vowels.
(2) When two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is sometimes elided:
i after ā : chāyā + iva = chāyāva
a after i : iti + api = itipi
a after o : so + ahaṁ = so'haṁ
(4) When the first vowel is elided, the second is sometimes lengthened:
tatra + ayaṁ = tatr + ayaṁ = tatrāyaṁ
tadā + ahaṁ = tad + ahaṁ = tadāhaṁ
sace + ayaṁ = sac + ayaṁ = sacāyaṁ
(5) Sometimes the first vowel becomes long when the second is elided:
deva + iti = deva + ti = devāti
sādhu + iti = sādhu + ti = sādhūti
lokassa + iti = lokassa + ti = lokassāti
(6) i, ī or o before a dissimilar vowel is sometimes changed to y; then in some places the second vowel is
lengthened:
aggi + agāro = aggy + agāro= aggyāgāro
me + ayaṁ = my + ayaṁ = myāyaṁ
sattamī + at the= sattamyatthe
(7) o or ū before a dissimilar vowel is changed to v; sometimes the second vowel is lengthened:
so + ahaṁ = sv + ahaṁ = svāhaṁ
su + akkhāto = sv + akkhāto = svakkhāto
na tu + eva = natveva
(8) Consonants y, v, m, d, n, t, r, l, h are sometimes inserted between two vowels to avoid a hiatus.
na + idaṁ = nayida
pa + uccati = pavuccati
ajja + agge = ajjatagge
su + ujū ca = sujū ca
(3) When there are dissimilar vowels in a place of proceeding or succeeding, another vowel is
inserted instead of both proceeding and succeeding.
- canda + udaya > candodaya (the moon arises) i.e., a + u = o
- vijja + udaya > vijjodaya
- na + upeti > nopeti (not approach); apeti (to come)
(5) i, i or e before a dissimilar vowel is sometimes changed to ‘y’ and then the succeeding vowel is
sometimes lengthen.
- aggi + agara > agyagara (fire house)
- dasi + ahosi > dasyahosi (women slave)
- te + ahaj > tyahaj (that I)
(6) If final vowel is dropped there is sometimes the lengthening of the succeeding vowel.
- na + assa > nassa (not his, not to him)
- tada + ahaj > tadahaj (then I )
- bahu + upakaraj > bahupakaraj (support in many ways)
- appasuto + ayaj> appasutayaj
(8) When o and u are preceding, those vowels are sometimes changed to ‘v’ and succeeding is
lengthened.
- o, u > v
- yo + ahaj > yvahaja
- ‘yo gamaj gacchati so ahaj = who is go to the village that is I.
- anu + ati > anvati (follow)
(9) Sometimes the consonants ya, va, ma, da, na, ta, ra, la are inserted between two consecutive 連
續的 vowel.
- ya: na + imassa > nayimassa (not to this one)
vihare + eva > vihareyeva (only in the monastery)
na+ idha > nayidha (not here)
- va: ti + angula > tivangula (three fingers inches)
pa + uccati > pavuccati (utter well, clearly said)
- ma: idha + ahaj > idhamahaj (I am here)
lahu + essati > lahumessati (insignificant)
666SVARASANDHI
Combination of vowels, i.e., when a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning with
a vowel, or when two adjacent vowels of the same word are joined together.
The rules of vowel sandhi are based on the avoidance of hiatus 間隙. There is hiatus when two
vowels come together. Hiatus is avoided by the rules of elision, contraction, changing and insertion.
Thus, according to these rules, Sarasandhi may undergo changes as follows:
(1) ELISION
(a) First vowel is elided when before another vowel.
(b) Sometimes when the 1st vowel is elided, the 2nd is lengthened
(c) When two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is elided
(d) Sometimes when the 2nd vowel is elided, the 1st vowel is lengthened
(2) CONTRACTION
(a) When two vowels come together, they may be contracted into one
Examples: Two similar vowels are sometimes contracted into long of the same kind
a + a > a
a + a > a
a + a > a
a + a > a
(3) CHANGING
(a) i i e before dissimilar vowels is changed to y ,then the 2nd vowel sometimes is lengthened.
(4) INSERTION
(a) Consonants, y v m d n t r l h are sometimes inserted between two vowels to avoid a
hiatus.
v : ti + avgulaj> tivavgulaj (3
fingers)
pa + uccati > pavuccati (utter
well)
QUESTION: EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE THE CONSONANT SANDHI. (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA)
(1) A consonant after a vowel is generally reduplicated. An aspirate is reduplicated by an unaspirate, and an
unaspirate by itself:
rupa + karaṁ = rupakkhandho
pari + cajati = pariccajati
upa + davo = upaddavo
ni + malo = nimmalo
du + karaṁ = dukkaraṁ
tatra + thito = taratthito
ni + phalaṁ = nipphalaṁ
appa + suto = appassuto
(3) A vowel before a consonant is sometimes lengthened and sometimes shortened for the sake of prosody.
(a) Lengthened: khanti + paramaṁ = khantī paramaṁ
jāyati + soko = jāyatī soko
mannati + balo = mannatī balo
nibbattati + dukkhaṁ = nibbattatī dukkhaṁ
666NIGGAHITASANDHI
1.The Niggahita followed by a consonant is sometimes change to the final better of the group
(N,G,B,n,m) to which the consonant belonged or to the letter “ L”-e.g
1. Evam+me sutam= evamme sutam
2. Kim+ci= kinci
3. Kim+nara=kinnara
4. Kum+nadi=kunnadi
5. Pun+linga=pullinga
6. Sam+jata=sanjata
7. Sam+lapa=sallapa
2.The Niggahita followed by “ e” “h” are sometimes changed to “GG” and “G” respectively.
1. Aham+eva=ahaGGeva
2. Tam+eva=taGGeava
3. Aham+hi=ahaGhi
4. Tam+hi=taGhi
3. The Niggahita followed by “y” is also sometimes changed to “ GG” together with the “y”.
1. Sam+yama=saGGama
2. Sam+yutta=saGGutta.
3. Samam+yeva+samaGGeva
4. The Niggahita followed by a vowel is sometimes changed to “m” and somewhere to the “d”.
1. bahum+eva=bahudeva
2. etam+avoca=etadavoca
3. yam+idam=yadidam
4. Tam+antaram=tadantaram
5. Tam+anantaram=tadanantaram
6. yam+icchitam=Yadicchitam
5. the Niggahita too is sometimes inserted before a vowel or a consonant coming after final vowel.
1. Anu+thula=anumthulam
2. Cakkhu+udapadi=cakkhumudapadi
3. Ava+sira=avamsira.
9.When the vowel coming after the Niggahita is dropped, the next consonant if it be a double one
also becomes single.
1. Evam+assa=evam’sa
2. Puppham+assa=pupphamsa
666NIGGAHITASANDHI
When two letters of the same word or of two different words are joined together for the sake of
euphony the union is called Sandhi.
Niggahitasandhi is the combination of j and a vowel or a consonant. It occurs when a word or a
syllable ending in j is joined to a word or a syllable beginning either with a vowel or a consonant.
The following are the examples of niggahitasandhi.
1. The niggahita followed by a consonant is sometimes changed to the final letter of the group to
which the consonant belongs or to the letter ‘l’.
Examples:
Kij + ci > kibci (whatever)
Kij + nara > kinnara (which person)
Puj + linga > pullinga (masculine)
Saj + jata > sabjata (well born)
Kuj + nadi > kunnadi (polluted river)
2. The niggahita followed by “e, h” is sometimes changed to “bb” and ‘b’ respectively.
Examples:
Ahaj + eva > ahabbeva
Taj + eva > tabbeva
Ahaj + hi > ahabhi
Taj + hi > tabhi
3. The niggahita followed by “y” is also sometimes changed to “bb’ together with the ‘y’.
Examples:
Saj + yama > sabbama (control,
discipline)
Saj + yutta > sabbutta
(comprises)
Samaj + yeva > samabbeva (oneself)
Saj + yogo > sabbogo
Yaj + yad eva > yabbad eva
5. The niggahita too is sometimes inserted before a vowel or a consonant coming after the final
vowel.
Examples:
Cakkhu + udapadi > cakkhujudapadi
Manopubba + gama > manopubbajgama
Anu + thula > anujthulaj
Ava + sira > avajsiro
6. Sometimes there is a dropping of the niggahita before a vowel; then the vowel in some cases is
lengthened.
Examples:
Vidunaj + aggaj > vidunaggaj
Sayaj + anha > sayanha
Evaj + ahaj > evahaj
Tasaj + ahaj > tasahaj
9. When the vowel coming after the niggahita is dropped, the next consonant if it be a double one
also become single.
Examples:
Evaj + assa > evaj ’sa
Pupphaj + assa > pupphaj ’sa
1. The niggahita followed by a consonant is sometimes changed to the final letter of the group to
which the consonant belongs or to the letter ‘l’.
Examples:
Evaj me sutaj : evaj + me > evamme
Kij + ci > kibci (whatever)
Kij + nara > kinnara (which person)
Puj + linga > pullinga (masculine)
Saj + jata > sabjata (well born)
Kuj + nadi > kunnadi (polluted river)
Saj + lapa > sallapa (converse)
2. The niggahita followed by “e, h” is sometimes changed to “bb” and ‘b’ respectively.
Examples: e = bb ; h = b
Ahaj + eva > ahabbeva
Taj + eva > tabbeva (he himself)
Ahaj + hi > ahabhi
Taj + hi > tabhi
3. The niggahita followed by “y” is also sometimes changed to “bb’ together with the ‘y’.
Examples:
Saj + yama > sabbama
(control, discipline)
Saj + yutta > sabbutta
(comprises)
Samaj + yeva > samabbeva (oneself)
Saj + yogo > sabbogo
Yaj + yad eva > yabbad eva
5. The niggahita too is sometimes inserted before a vowel or a consonant coming after the final
vowel.
Examples:
Cakkhu + udapadi > cakkhujudapadi (got
the vision or eye)
Manopubba + gama > manopubbajgama
Anu + thula > anujthulaj (small or big)
Ava + sira > avajsiro (upside
down)
6. Sometimes there is a dropping of the niggahita before a vowel; then the vowel in some cases is
lengthened.
Examples:
Vidunaj + aggaj > vidunaggaj (chief of the wise
men)
Sayaj + anha > sayanha
Evaj + ahaj > evahaj
Tasaj + ahaj > tasahaj
Adasij + ahaj > adasi ahaj (I gave)
9. When the vowel coming after the niggahita is dropped, the next consonant if it be a double one
also become single.
Examples:
Evaj + assa > evaj ’sa
Pupphaj + assa > pupphaj ’sa
666EXERCISE – POINTING OUT THE NIGGAHITA SANDHI AND GIVES THE EXPLANATION.
1. “Tassa attano ca tasab ca devatanaj silab ca sutab ca cagab ca pabbab ca anussarato cittaj
pasidati.”
Tasaj + ca > tasab ca
silaj + ca > silab ca
sutaj + ca > sutab ca
cagaj + ca > cagab ca
pabbaj + ca > pabbab ca
# The Niggahita followed by a consonant is changed to the final letter of the group to which the
consonant belongs.
e.g.: ca belongs to the cavagga – ca cha ja jha ba. Therefore j is replaced by the last letter of the
ca group.
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10. “Imani cattari ariyasaccani ‘ti, bhikkhave,…yan taj vutaj, idam etaj paticca vuttaj.
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11. Tanhavkaro, Medhavkaro, Saranavkaro, Dipavkaro ti cattaro Buddha ekasmibb eva kappe
uppajjijsu.
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12. “Idam avoca Bhagava; attamana te bhikkhu Bhagavato bhasitaj abhinandun ti.”
QUESTION: EXPLAIN DIGU SAMASA WITH EXAMPLE IN PĀLI (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA)
When a numeral and a substantive is combined, it is called digu. The numeral must be the first number.
The numerals being a kind of adjectives this compound may be included in kammadnāraya. But it is separated and
given a different name for the convenience of students(?).
Here the objects indicated by the last member are considered individually:
Samahara-digu: dve + anguliyo = dvangulaṁ (two inches)
tayo + loka = tilokaṁ (three worlds)
catasso + disa = catuddisaṁ (four-quarters)
pañca + silani = pañcasīlaṁ (five precepts)
satta + ahani = sattahaṁ (a week)
sataṁ + yojanani= satayojanaṁ (hundred leagues)
666QUESTION: WHAT IS SAMĀSA? HOW MANY KINDS OF SAMĀSA? GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF EACH KIND OF SAMĀSA.
When two or more nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit it is called a samasa
(compound).
There are six kinds of samasa (compounds):
(1) Kammadharaya (adjectival compound)
nilaṁ + uppalaṁ = niluppalaṁ (blue water-lily)
sariputto + thero = sariputtatthero (the elder Sāriputta)
cando + viya + mukhaṁ = mukhacando (moon-like face)
mahanto + muni = mahamuni (great sage)
khattiya + kumārī = khattiyakumārī (princess of the warrior caste)
na + ariyo = anariyo (ignoble, low)
(2) Digu (numeral determinative):
(i) samahara (collective):
dve + anguliyo = dvangulaṁ (two inches)
(ii) asamahara (individual):
teyo + bhava = tibhava (the three states of existence)
666COMPOUND (SAMASA)
When two or more nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit it is called a Samasa
(Compound).
Some compounds have an indeclinable as their first member. A few compounds are made up entirely of
indeclinable.
There are six kinds of compounds:
Kammadharaya = Adjectival Compound (where an adjectival and a
Substantive is combined).
Digu = Numeral Determinative ( numeral+substantive).
Tappurisa = Dependent Determinitive (substantitive+substantive).
Dvanda = Copulative or Aggregative (two or more nouns).
Avyayibhava = Adverbial Compound (where an indeclimable-adverb
included-and a substantive is combined).
Bahubbihi = Relative or Attributive Compound (which bears a
signification different from that of the component words).
***The case endings of the first member or members of a compound are generally dropped; only in a
few instances they are preserved.
Kammadharaya
Adjectival Compound
The two members of an Adjectival Compound must, in their uncompounded state, be in the same case.
Examples
The qualifying word here is generally placed first; but in some cases it comes last.
Examples
(These four examples can also be called “Noun in Apposition” according to English grammarians).
Examples
Examples
Manhanto+ muni= mahamuni ( great sage)
Mahanti +pathavi= mahapathavi( great earth)
Mahantan+bhayan= mahabhayan( great fear)
When the two members of a Kammadharaya are feminine, the first one assumes the form of the
masculine, if the word had been formed from a masculine stem.
Examples
Khattiya+kumari= Khattiyakummari (princess of the warrior caste).
Brahmani+kanna= Brahmanikumari (a brahmin girl)
Nagi+ manavika = Nagimanavika ( maiden of the Naga tribes)
Dutiya +panti =Dutiyapanti ( second line or class)
Note- When the first feminine form is a proper noun, it does not take the masculine form,e.g.,
Examples
Devapokkharani ( the deity pond)
Nandadevi (Nanda Queen)
When the particle “na” (not) is combined to another word, it is replaced by “ a” before a
consonant, and by “an” before a vowel. (This is not included, anyhow, in the fifth class of compounds
though it has an indeclinable as its number).
Examples
Na+ manusso= amanusso (non-human being)
Na+samano = assamano (not a monk)
Na +ariyo = anariyo (ignoble; low)
Na+ittho = anittho (not agreeable)
Na+kusalan= akusalan( sin; bad action)
Digu- compound
When a number and a substantive is combined it is called digu. The numeral must be the first member.
The numerals being a kind of adjectives this compound may be included in Kammadharaya. But it is
separated and given a different name for the convenience of students.
1. Samahara = collective (which expresses a whole and takes the form of the neuter singular ).
2. Asamahara = individual, (which does not express a whole, but takes the plural form). Here the
objects indicated by the last member are considered individually.
Samahara-digu
Asamahara-Digu
Tapurisa –samasa
Dependent determinative compounds
If two nouns, related to each other by some oblique case, are joined together, it is called Tapurisa
Compound.
The first member, which may be in any case other than the Nominative (and the Vocative), qualifies or
determines the last member.
The last member determines the gender and the number of the compounds.
These compounds may be divided into six groups according to the cases belonging to the first
members;
Tatiya –Tapurisa
( with the Instrumental).
Catutthi-Tapurisa
(with the Dative).
The compounds formed with an infinitive and kama (desirous) or kamta (desire) are considered to be in
the Dative-Tapurisa.
Datun+kamata=datukamata (desire to give)
Vattun+kamo=vattukamo (desirous to say)
Gantun+kamo=gantunkamo (desirous to go)
Sotun +kamata=sotukamata (desire to hear)
Pancami-Tapurisa
(with the Ablative)
Rukkha+patito=rukkhapatito (fallen from the tree).
Bandhana+mutto=bandhanamatto (released from the bond or confinement)
Rajamha+bhito=rajabhito (afraid of the king).
Duccaritato+virati= duccaritavirati (abstinence from vice or bad conduct).
Chatthi-Tapurisa
(with the Possessive).
Sattami –Tapurisa
(with the Locative).
Game+vasi=gamavasi (villager).
Kupe+manduko=kupamanduko (frog in the well).
Vane+pupphani=vanapupphani (flower in the forest or wild flower0
Dhame+ rato= dhammarato (delighting in the doctrine)
***It is said at above beginning that the case endings of the first members of some compounds are not
dropped. In that case the compound is called aluttasamasa. Examples for this are mostly found in
Tapurisa.
Examples
Pabhan+karo= pabhankaro (generator of the light; the sun).
Ante+vasiko= antevasiko (a resident pupil)
Panke+ruhan=pankeruhan (grown in out of the mud, e.g. lotus)
Manasi+karo=manasikaro (keeping in the mind; attention).
Parassa+padan=parassapadam (word for another Reflective voice)
Pubbe+nivaso+ pubbenivaso (former lives; life in a former existence).
There is a variety of the tappurisa in which the last member is a verbal derivative which cannot be used
independently. It is named “Uppada_Tapurisa”
Examples
Kumbhan karoti= kumbhakaro ( a potter).
Dhamman carati=dhammacara (observer of the dhamma).
Urena gacchati ti= urago (a serpent).
Attamha jato= attajo (son)
Pabbate tittati ti=pabbatatitho ( one who stands on a rock).
Note = karo, go, jo and tho in these examples are not used independently. They stand in these forms
only in compounds.
Dvanda-samas
Copulative or aggregative compounds
Two or more nouns joined by “ca” (=and) may be combined together eliminating the intermediate
conjuntions. The compound thus formed is called dvanda.
Asamasahara- the first one stands in the plural, and takes the gender and declension of its last member.
Samasahara- the second one takes the form of a neuter singular and becomes a collective, whatever is
the numbers. This occurs with the names of birds, parts of the body, trees, herbs, arts, musical
instruments, etc.
Asammahara-Dvanda
Samahara-dvanda
All members of the Dvada-Compounds being coordinative, there arises the question of the order of
their position. The following rules are given as to the order:-
Examples
Gitan ca vaditanca =gitavaditan ( singing and music)
Cakkhu ca sotan ca=cakkhusotan (eyes and ears)
Jara ca marana ca= jaramaranan (decay and death)
Hatthi ca assa ca ratha ca pattika ca=hatth’ssa rattha pattikam ( elephants, horses, chariots and
infantry).
Hatthi ca gavo ca assa ca valava ca = hatthi- gavassa valavan (elephants, cattle, horses and mares).
Avyayibhava-samasa
Adverbial compounds
When the first member of a compound is an indeclinable and the second a substantive, it is called an
Avyayibhava-samasa.
The whole compound becomes an adverb, taking the ending of the ( neuter) accusative singular. Some
case (usually oblique) is implied in the substantial member according to the meaning of the
indeclinable.
Bahubbihi-samasa
(Relative compounds)
When two or more substantives are combined together and the resultant denotes something other than
what is meant by the two members severally, the compounds is called Bahubihi-samasa (Relative or
Attributive).
This compound requires the addition of such relative pronouns as: “he, who, that, which,” etc. to
express its full meaning; therefore; this is used as an adjective and takes any gender according to that of
the noun which it qualifies.
Examples
Chinna+hattha (yassa, so)= chinnahattho (a man) whose hands have been cut off).
Lohitena+makkaitan+sisan (yassak, so) ( a man ) whose head is besmeared with blood).
Arulha+vanija(yan,sa)=arulhavanija( a ship) on which the martinets have embarked.
Jitani+ indriyani(yena, so)=indriyo( a monk) who has subdued his senses.
Dinno+ sunko(yassa, so) dinnasunko(an official) to whom the tax is given.
Niggata+jana(yasma, so)niggatajano(a village) from where the people have departed.
Khina+asava(yassa, so)=khinasavo( a saint) whose passion are destroyed.
Sampannani+ sassani(yasmin, so)=sampannasasso (a province)in which the crops are abundant).
Feminine nouns ending in I,u, and the stems ending in –tu, generally take the suffix ka, when they are
the last member of a bahubahi.
When a feminine noun is the last member of a Bahubbihi, it takes the masculine, or neuter form, if it is
determining a masculine or neuter nouns; also the first member, if it is feminine, drops its feminine
sign.
Mahanti+ panna (yassa, so)= mahapannp( a person) who has great wisdom.
Pahuta+jivha(yassa, so)=pahutajivho (a man) whose tongue is broader (than that of other).
Acla+ saddha(yassa, so)= acalasaddho ( a man) with an unshakenable faith)
Digha+ jangha (yassa, so) dighajangho( a man) whose shanks are long.
666SAMASA
Samasa pada sankhepo, samasa means summarising, shortening boiling down the word. The
combine senses of related words denoting names, upasakka and nipada are called samasa or compound.
In a samasa a new base is formed according to the following rules.
• The case ending of the component words excepting the last is generally dropped. And
the compound take new ending according to its need
• The first word or part of a compound is called Pubbapada. And the next one is called
Parapada. Sometimes the final vowel of the pubbapada, if long, becomes short. E.g. Dasi ca
dasoca=dasidaso.
• If the pubbapada is in the feminine gender it is sometimes changed into the masculing
form. E.g: Brahmani+darika=Brahmanadarika
Pubba+disa=pubbadisa
Compounds are helpful towards economy of words time and space. Hence all languages utilize
pompons in all ages. In Pali one simple word or a noun can be combined with one or two other. When
combine two or more words together it forms a grammatical unit, which is called Samasa. The meaning
of the word Samasa is coordination or summary. The sense of related word is important in combining
word.
As we put earlier the case ending of compounds words excepting the last one are gradually drop and
new form gets new case ending. The genders of combined words are changed and the words are joined
together for the sake of Euphonic combination.
Pali grammarian divided compound into (6) classes. According to the interrelationship existing
between the members of compounds. Six kinds of compounds are:
666SAMASA
When two or more nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit is called a samasa
in Pali. In sandhi, we also find two or more words are combined together to make a noun. But sandhi is
done for easy pronunciation, while in compound, the meaning is emphasize, not the sound. Thus,
samasa connects meaning, sandhi is connected with the sound system.
Samasa or compound are not unknown in English language. They are usually short, like
‘unknown’, ‘outstanding’, ‘stationmaster’, but may reach considerable length, although usually written
with hyphen or interspace, like ‘welfare-reform plan’, ‘river-transport system’. They form a special
means of grammatical expression: they consist of a series of words, not necessary nouns, although
nouns are most common in English compounds, simply lined up without inflections. The whole unit
has a grammatical function in the sentence, as indicated by the inflection of the last component. The
Pali compounds fit into the same definition but they are much more varied and may be quite long.
Definition, Quality and Ornament of Samasa are:
(1) Definition:
(a) Samaso padasavkhepo = compound means the shortening of words (both in letter and sound)
(b) Samasoti bhinnatthanaj = having one meaning of the words which have various meaning.
(2) Quality: They are 10 qualities in every literary work. One such quality is Ojo which means ‘the
essence’.
(3) Ornament: Apart from the qualities, there are such 35 poetic ornament. Therefore samasa is one of
the poetic ornament, it can beautify the poet.
(1) The case ending of the component words excepting the last are generally dropped and the
compound takes new ending according to its need.
(2) The first word or part of a compound is called pubbapada, and the next one is called parapada.
Sometimes the final vowel of the pubbapada if long become short, e.g: dasi ca daso ca > dasidaso.
(3) If the pubbapada is in the feminine gender, it is sometimes changed into the masculine form, e.g.:
Brahmani + darika > Brahmanadarika.
Samasa are helpful towards economic of words, time and space. In pali, one simple word or a noun
can be combined with one or two other. When combined two or more words together, it forms a
grammatical unit which is coordination or summary. The sense of related words is important in
combining words. As we put earlier the case ending of compound words excepting the last one are
gradually dropped and new form gets new case ending. The genders of combine words are changed and
the words are joined together for the sake of euphony.
Pali grammarians divide compound into 6 classes according to the inter-relationship existing
between the members of compound.
666SAMASA
There are 7 types of samasa in Pali (including complex compound). Kammadharaya is one of
them. The definitions of samasa are given as follows:
1. Samasa padasavkhepo
= compoud means the shortening of words (both in letter and in meaning)
Samasa is one of the 35 poetic ornaments, it can beautify the poet. Therefore it is commonly
used as beautifying aspect.
1.Kammadharayasamasa
This is a dependent descriptive compound. The definition is given below:
ratta = qualifier
lata = qualifyee
1. Attribute e.g.
(1) Kalyanamitta→ kalyana = attribute
(2) Pubbakamma→ pubba = attribute
The adjective pubba is placed at the end of the samasa when it qualifies a past participle, e.g.
When the noun in apposition expresses a comparison, then this is placed at the end of the samasa.
e.g.
Kammadharaya is similar to the Tappurisa samasa. But the two component words of the
former refer to the same object or locus.
2.Tappurisasamasa
This is a dependent determinative compound which consists of two members of which the first
depends on the second as a noun or a pronoun in an oblique case, i.e., in any case other than the
nominative and the vocative.
This compound is a noun or an adjective according to the last member is a noun or an adjective.
The gender and the number of the compound are also determined by the last member.
There are 6 kinds of Tappurisa.
Notes:
1. The compounds formed with an infinitive and kama (desious) or kamata (desire) are
considered to be in the
Dative-Tappurisa.
e.g.
(1) gantuj + kamo = gantukamo
(2) sotuj + kamata = sotukamata
2. In some cases, the case-endings of the first member are not dropped. These compounds are
called ‘Aluttasamasa’, e.g.
3. If the last member of the compound is a verbal derivative which cannot be used independently.
It is named ‘upapada-Tappurisa’, e.g.
There are 7 types of samasa in Pali (including complex compound). Kammadharaya is one of
1. Samasa padasavkhepo
= having one meaning of the various words which have many meanings.
Samasa is one of the 35 poetic ornaments, it can beautify the poet. Therefore it is commonly
1.Kammadharayasamasa
= when two words of qualifier and qualifyee are combined together, then it is called
kammadharayasamasa, e.g.
ratta = qualifier
lata = qualifyee
an adverb.
1. Attribute e.g.
The adjective pubba is placed at the end of the samasa when it qualifies a past participle, e.g.
When the noun in apposition expresses a comparison, then this is placed at the end of the samasa.
e.g.
Kammadharaya is similar to the Tappurisa samasa. But the two component words of the former
This is a dependent determinative compound which consists of two members of which the
first depends on the second as a noun or a pronoun in an oblique case, i.e., in any case other than the
adjective. The gender and the number of the compound are also determined by the last member.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
Notes:
1. The compounds formed with an infinitive and kama (desious) or kamata (desire) are considered
to be in the
Dative-Tappurisa.
e.g.
2. In some cases, the case-endings of the first member are not dropped. These compounds are called
‘Aluttasamasa’, e.g.
3. If the last member of the compound is a verbal derivative which cannot be used independently. It
is named ‘upapada-Tappurisa’, e.g.
666COMPOUND OR SAMASA
Compounds are not unknown in English language. They are usually short, like ‘unknown’, ‘outstanding’,
‘stationmaster’, but may reach considerable length, although usually written with hyphen or interspace, like ‘welfare-reform
plan’, ‘river-transport system’. They form a special means of grammatical expression: they consist of a series of words, not
necessarily nouns, although nouns are most common in English compounds, simply lined up without inflections. The whole
unit has a grammatical function in the sentence, as indicated by the inflection of the last component. The Pali compounds fit
into the same definition but they are much more varied and may be quite long.
Therefore, when two or more nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit it called a Samasa
(compound) in Pali. In Sandhi, we also find two or more words are combined together to make a noun. But Sandhi is done
for easy pronunciation, while in compound, the meaning is emphasize, not the sound. Thus, Samasa connects meaning,
Sandhi is connected with the sound system.
Quality : There are 10 qualities in every literary work. One such quality is Ojo
which means ‘the essence’
Ornament : Apart from the qualities, there are such 35 poetic ornament.
Therefore, compound is one of the poetic ornament, it can beautify the poet..
(a) The qualifying word is generally placed first, but in some cases it comes last. And if the descriptive word in
comparison, it comes last in this compound.
The adjective ‘mahanta’ becomes ‘maha’ (lengthened), and if followed by a double consonant becomes ‘maha’
(shortened)
When two feminine words, the first one assumes the form of the masculine, if the word
had been formed from a masculine stem.
when the first feminine form is a proper noun, it does not take the masculine form.
e.g. Nandapokkharani (Nanda pond)
when the particle ‘na’ is combined to another word, it is replaced by ‘a’ before a consonant, and by ‘an’ before a vowel.
Samahara = collective (which expresses a whole and takes the form of the neuter singular)
Asamahara = individual (which does not express a whole, but takes the plural form)
- The first member, which may be in any case other than the nominative (and the vocative), qualifies or determines
the last member.
- The gender and the number of the compound are determined by the last member.
Tappurisa samasa may be divided into six groups according to the cases belonging to the first members:
(i) Dutiya-Tappurisa
Examples: gamaj + gato = gamagato (gone to the
village)
Sukkhaj + patto = sukkappatto (having attained
happiness)
(ii) Tatiya-Tappurisa
Examples: Buddhena + esito = Buddhadesito (preached by the Buddha)
Rabba + hato = rajahato (killed by the king)
Catutthi-Tappurisa
Examples: rabbo + arahaj = rajarahaj (worthy of a king)
Buddhassa + deyyaj = Buddhadeyyaj (that should be given to the Buddha)
The compounds formed with an infinitive and kama (desirous) or kamata (desire) are considered to be in the dative-
tappurisa.
(iv) Pabcami-Tappurisa
Examples: rukkha + patito = rukkhapatito (fallen form the tree)
Rajamha + bhito = rajabhito (afraid of the
king)
(v) Chatthi-Tappurisa
Examples: jinassa + vacanaj = jinavacanaj (word of the Buddha)
Rabbo + putto = rajaputta (king’s son)
(vi) Sattami-Tappurisa
Examples: game + vasi = gamavasi (villager)
Dhamme + rato = dhammarato (delighting in the doctrine)
If the case ending of the first members of some compounds are not dropped. In that case the compound is called
Aluttasamasa.
There is a variety of the Tappurisa in which the last member is a verbal derivative which cannot be used independently. It is
named Upapada-Tappurisa.
Examples: kumbhaj+ karoti ti = kumbhakato (a potter)
Attamha + jato = attajo (son)
Examples: chinna + hattha (yassa, so) = chinnahattho (a man) whose hands have been cut off.
Jitani + indriyani (yena, so) = jitindriyo (a monk) who has subduced his senses.
Feminie nouns ending in i, u and the stems ending in tu, generally take the suffix ka, when they are the last member of a
Bahubbihi.
Examples: bhavo + nadiyo = bahunadiko (a country) where there are many rivers.
When a feminine noun is the last member of a Bahubbihi, it takes the masculine, or neuter form, if it is determining a
masculine or neuter noun; also the first member, if it is feminine, drops its feminine sign.
Missaka samasa
Compounds themselves may become the members of another compound, and this new compound again may be a
member of another compound, thus forming compounds within compounds. These mixed compounds are called ‘Missaka
samasa’ (complex compounds)
Examples: Suranara-mahito
(a) sura ca nara ca = suranara (Dvanda)
(b) suranarehi + mahito = suranaramahito (Tappurisa)
sabbalavkara-patimandita
(a) sabbe + alavkara = sabbalavkara
(Kammadharaya)
(b) sabbalavkarehi + patimandita = sabbalavkarapatimandita
(Tappurisa)
666SAMASA (COMPOUND)
‘samaso pada sankhepo’. Samasa means summarizing the words (to save the time and
space). The combine sense of related words denoting names (noun), upasaga, prefixed and
nippata is called samasa or compound. In a samasa, a new base is formed according to the
following rules:
(1) The case ending of the component words excepting the last are generally dropped and the
compound takes new ending according to its need.
(2) The first word or part of a compound is called pubbapada, and the next one is called parapada.
Sometimes the final vowel of the pubbapada if long become short, e.g., dasi ca daso ca >
dasidaso.
(3) If the pubbapada is in the feminine gender, it is sometimes changed into the musculilne form,
e.g., brahmani + darika > brahmanadarika.
Compound are helpful towards economic of words, time and space. Hence all languages
utilize 利用 compound in all aids. In pali one simple word or a noun can be combined with one
or two others, when combined two or more words together, it forms a grammatical unit which is
called samasa. The meaning of the word samasa is coordination or summary. The sense related
word is important in combing words. As we put earlier the case ending of compound words
excepting the last one are gradually dropped and new form gets new case ending. The genders
of combine words are changed and the words are joined together for the sake of euphony.
Pali grammarians divide compound into 6 classes. According to the interrelationship
existing between the members of compound:
(1) Avyayibhava – adverbial compound
(2) Tappurisa – dependent determinative compound
(3) Kammadharaya – adjectival compound
(4) Digu – numerical determinative compound
(5) Bahubbihi – relative or attributive compound
(6) Dvanda – copulative or co-ordinative compound
(1) Avyayabhava
‘avyaya pubbako avyayibhavo’ – it is so called because the sense of the indeclinable word is
predominant in it. The compound in which and avyaya or indeclinable appears as the first
member of world is called avyayibhava or indeclinable compound. The base form by
avyayibhava compound is neuter and indeclinable. When it ends in ‘a’ sound, it takes only ‘j’.
For examples:
666GIVE THE MEANING OF THE WORD SAMASA WITH EXAMPLES AND EXPLAIN TAPPURISASAMASA IN PALI?
When two or nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit it is called a s Samasa some
compounds have an indeclinable as their first member. A few copounds are made up intirely of
indeclinables. There are six kinds of compounds. {1}kammadharaya= adjectival compound Examples:
nilam+upalam=niluppalam blue water-lily. Sarijputto+thero=Sariputtathero the elder Sariputta. Cando
viya mukham=mukhacando moonlike face. Mahanto+munij=mahamuni great sage.
Khattiya+kumari=khattiyakumari princess of the warrior casts. Na+ariyo=anariyo ignoble, low.
{2}Digu= numeral determinative, example 1,Samahara-collective Dve+anguliyo-dvangulam two
inches 2,Asamahara=individual Teyo+bhava=tibhava the three state of existence
3,Tappurisa=dependent determinative Example gamma+gato=gamagato gone to village,
Buddena+desito=Buddhadesito preached by the Buddha,
Yaguya+tandula=yaguya+tandula=yagutandula ricefor gruel, gantum+kamo=gantukamo desirous to
go, Rukkha+ptito=rukkhapatito fallen from the tree, Ranno+putto=rajaputto king`s son,
Vane+puphani=vanapupphani flowers in the forest or wild flowers, Manasi+karo=vanasikaro keeping
in the mind attention. Dhammam caratiti=dhammacari observer of the Dhamma. 4,Dvanda
Samasa=copulative or aggregative Example, Asamaharadvanda Mata ca pita ca=matapitaro parents,
Cakkhu ca sotan ca=Cakhusotam eye and ear. 5,Avvayibhava=Averbail compound Examples,
Rathassa+anu=anuratham behind the chariot. Sotam+pati=patistam against the current
Jivo+yava=jivajivam as long as life lasts. 6,Bahubbhihi=ralative or attributive compound Example
Chinna+hattha yassa so=channahattitho a man whose hands have been cut off. Bahavo+nadiyo
Yasmim so=Bahunadiko a country where there are many rivers. Mahanti+panna yassa so=Mahapanno
a person who has many wives.
QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE KICCA SUFFIXES WITH EXAMPLE AND SHOW HOW TO USE THEM IN SENTENCES.
(lectured by ven. Piyaratna)
(1) -tabba or -aniya may be annexed to all the roots to form potential participles expressing a passive meaning:
kara + tabba = kattabba or kātabba (that should be done)
Explanation: In a place'r of the root is similar to the first consonant of the suffix in the other'r is elided and the first
vowel is lengthened.(?)
(2) -nya and -niya are suffixed to some roots to form passive participles (ṇ is is the sign indicatory of strengthening).
The changes they undergo are:
dhya becomes jjha
dya becomes jja
mya becomes mma
jya becomes jja
gya becomes gga
cya becomes kya
-niya
kara + niya = kāriya (what should be done)
mara + niya = māriya (what should be killed)
(4) -icca and -tayya are suffixed only to form a limited number of words:
kara + icca = kicca 'that should be business)
(1) Indeclinable active past participles or gerunds or absolutives according to some modern grammarians are formed
with the suffixes -tvā, -tvāna, -tūna, -ya and -tya.
(ii) Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before these:
kara + tva = katva (having done)
chida + tva = chetva (having cut or broken)
(iii) The final long vowel of a root is sometimes shortened or strengthened before these:
da + tva = datva (having given)
ni + tva = netva (having carried)
(iv) t of the suffixes is dropped or changed together with the last consonant of the root in a
few cases:
disa + tva = disva (having seen)
ladha + tva = laddha (having got)
(v) Where nothing but the elision of the final vowel of the root has taken place:
hana + tva = hantva (having killed)
gamu + tva = gantva (having gone) – m is changed to n
(2) -ya is assimilated, in many cases, to the last consonant of the root; it is directly added to the roots ending in a long
vowel.
28 Actually this verb does not make sense, because „arrive“ is a verb that cannot be in a passive form.
(ii) Assimilated with the preceding consonant:
a + gamu + ya = agamya = agamma (having come)
vi + bhaja + ya = vibhajja (having divided)
(iii) -y is interchanged with the last consonant if the latter is h:
gaha + ya = gahya = gayha (having taken)
(iv) Sometimes -y is reduplicated:
vi + ci + ya = viceyya (having considered)
(3) -tya is always changed to -cca together or without the last consonant of the root:
upa + hana + tya= upahacca (having vexed)
ava + i + tya = avecca (having understood)
666T A DD H IT A (S EC O N D A R Y D E R IV A T IV E )
The stem of a noun is derived from a root by the addition of one or more suffixes. The stem that is
formed by the addition of one suffix to the root is called a primary derivative (kitaka). The stem that is
formed by adding one or more suffixes to a primary derivative is called a secondary derivative (taddhita).
Therefore Taddhita means a special kind of nouns which have been formed by adding suffixes
1. Samabba-Taddhita (General)
2. Bhava-Taddhita (Gerundial)
e.g.
e.g.
ways)
way; how)
e.g.
e.g.
(b) sabbattha
(Ima > I )
QUESTION: GIVE A DESCRIPTION BRIEFLY ON THE SECONDARY DERIVATION AND DESCRIBE APACCATHA SUFFIXES
WITH EXAMPLES.
Taddhita or secondary derivative is formed from a substantive or primary derivative by adding another suffix
(denoting some special meaning) to it.
These derivatives are adjectives in their nature, but in most cases used as substantives. The final vowel of a word is
often elided before a taddhita suffix. The first vowel of the word, to which the suffix is added, is often strengthened when it
is not followed by a double consonant. In this case:
a becomes ā,
i becomes ī,
ī becomes e,
u becomes o,
ū becomes o.
To indicate, that some suffix requires strengthening an indicatory letter (anabandha) is affixed by the grammarians
to it. This indicatory letter is generally n.
Appaccatha, suffix -na is added to some nouns to denote a lineage (not, that n is indicative of strengthening.)
Example: vasithassa apaccan = vāsittho(?)
-tiya is suffixed to dvi and ti to form ordinals: dvi becomes du and ti becomes ta before that suffix.
Example: dvi + tiya = du + tiya = dutiya
-ttha is suffixed to „catu“ and „ttha“ to „cha“ in order to form the ordinals.
Example: catu + ttha = catuttha
i is suffixed to dasa when it is preceded by some other numeral, to form ordinals denoting a longer day(?). In that
compound the last vowel of the preceding numeral sometimes becomes a.
Example: eka + dasa + i = ekadasi
Bhava (gerundial) – taddhita. -ta, -tta, -ttana, -nya and -neya are suffixed to some nouns to denote the state,
nature or quality of being:
n in naya is indicative of stregthening of the first vowel. Many consonants before -nya change their forms together
with -ya suffix:
Examples:
pandita + nya = panditya = pandicca
kosala + nya = kosalya = kosalla
suhada + nya = sohadya = sohajja
nipuna + nya = nepunya = nepuñña
bhisaja + nya = bhesajja = bhesajja
-neyya: adhipati + neyya = ādhipateyya. -na is suffixed to a few nouns to denote the state.
Examples:
patu + na = pātva
garu + na = gārava
INDECLINABLES
Notes:
The indeclinable are particles, they are incapable of any declension according to the rules of
grammar. In other words they remain alike or unchanged, irrespective of number, gender, person and
case. In pali grammatical text, nipatas are defined as follows:
Sadisam tisu lilngesu
Sabbasu ca vibhattisu
Vacanesu ca sabbesu
Yaj na vyeti tadavyayaj.
Same in three genders; in all cases, in all numbers; whateer does not decline or change that is
called avyaya (indeclinable).
Besides the upasaggas, all other particles are called the nipatas. Some of them are expletive
particles i.e., not necessary to the sense that inserted just to full a gap in a sentence, they are called
‘padapurana’. And the rest are meant to supply a specific sense, they are called ‘atthapurana’. There is
a different between nipatas and upasaggas in regard to they used. The former are used either alone or
with other words within a sentence but the latter can only be prefix to nominal or verbal bases. For
example, abhi + dhamma (dhamma is nominal); apa + gacchati (gacchati is verbal bases).
Nipatas like ca, ce, va, va, hi, kho, pana, khalu etc are never used at the beginning of a sentence.
There is a large number of nipatas in pali of which the following are most frequently used:
1. addha – timely, exactly, some places it has no20. Pana – (meaningless)
surely, indeed, certainly. meaning. Sukho have21. Sace – if
2. Aho – oh! sapurissena sanghamo22. Sakim – once
3. Amma – sometimes used for (associated or to meet a good23. Sakka – possible
dear (female) man indeed a happiness) 24. Patthaya – hence forth
4. Antara – between 10. Ijgha – look here. (to draw25. Sudam – just
5. Ara – away, far from. Rukkho attention). Ijgha gaso26. Uda, udahu – or
gamo ara (tree far from gacchama bhagavato dassana27. Vata – indeed, surely, truly
village) (look here, let go to see the28. Yava – as far as, until
6. Atha – then, but. Buddha.) 29. Tava – till then, yet
7. Bhiyyo – too much, much11. Kamam – inevitable,30. Ettha – here
more. Bhiyyo cittam willingly 31. Idani – now
passidati. (heart is much more12. Khalu – (meaningless) 32. Kacci – perhaps
please). Dukkhaj attha bhiyyo13. Kira – (meaningless) 33. Kaham – where
(suffering is too much here). 14. Nama – by name (namely) 34. Katham – now
8. Handa – addressing.15. Nissaya – near at, near to, or35. Kiva – how far
Sometimes no meaning, but because of that 36. Mabbe – perceive, think
we use at the beginning of the16. Ma – not 37. Tada – then
sentence. Handa, ahaj gamisaj17. Na – not 38. Tatha – like wise, accordingly
(well-go; it is emphatic18. Nu – (meaningless) kho nu39. Yebhuyyena – almost all,
particle.) tvaj (who are you?) frequently.
9. Have – indeed, certainly. In19. Nuna – surely
Some words which were originally pronominal dedicative were later used adverbially as nipatas.
Those are:
1. atra – here 7. yada – whenever
2. ettha – here 8. tada – then
3. ito – from here 9. ekada – once
4. tatra – there 10. sada – everyday, always
5. idha, idha – here 11. sabbada – everyday, always
6. kada – when 12. sabbattha – every where
13. ajja - today
666INDECLINABLE
“Tun”and “tave”are suffixed to the roots or the bases in order to form infinitives. (tava is employed
only in verse)
In the last two examples both bh+ t and dh+ t have become ddh.
Where “t” is nit doubled and strengthening of the vowel takes place:
To the causal bases, and the bases of the seventh conjugation, ending in a, these suffixes are joined
with the help of an i. They are directly added to those bases ending in e.
Causal base
Kare+tun= karetum
Karaya+i+tun= karayitum (to cause to do).
Marape+tun= marapetum
Marapaya+i+tun=marapayitum (to cause to kill).
Gahe+tun=gahetum
Gahapaya+i+tun=gahapayitum (to cause to take)
Core+tun= coretum
Coraya+i+tun= (to steal)
Pale+tun=paletum
Palaya+i+tun=palayitum (to protect or govern)
Dese+tun=desetum
Deseya+i+tun= (to preach)
Indeclinable active past participles or gerunds or absolute, according to some modern grammarians are
formed with the suffixes – tva, tvana, tuna, tu and tya.
Where nothing but the elision of the final vowel of the root has taken place:
Hana+ tva= hantva (having killed)
Mana+ tva=mantva (having thought)
Ni+ tva=nitva (having carried)
Ya+ tva=yatva (having gone)
Pa+ tva=tva (having drunk)
Ya is assimilated, in many cases, to the last consonant of the root; it is directly added to the roots
ending in a long vowel.
Directly added
A+dha+ya= adhaya (having taken)
Pa+ha+ya= pahaya (having abandoned)
A +ni +ya= aniya (having brought)
A+na+ya= anaya (having known)
Sometimes y is reduplicated:
Vi+ni+ya= vineyya ( having removed)
Vi+ci+ya= viceyya (having considered)
Tya is always changed to cca together or without the last consonant of the root.
Upa +hana+ tya= upahacca (having vexed)
A+hana+ tya= ahacca (having knocked)
Pati+ i (to know or go)+tya= paticca (following upon; on account of).
Anu+ vida+tya= anuvanicca (having known or considered)
Ava+ i+ tya= avecca (having understood)
Upa+i+ tya= upecca (having come near).
Ni+ pada+tya= nipacca ( having bowed down)
Ni+ hana+tya= nihacca (having knocked down)
San+ kara+tya= sankaracca ( carefully; respectfully)
Vi+vica+tya= vivicca= ( having separated).
666INDICLINABLE
The indiclinable words are divided into two groups: Upasagga and Nipata (particles and prefixes).
Upasagga
Upasaggas are prefixes, they are sometimes prefixed to verbs and their derivations. Generally, they modify the meaning of
the root, or intensify it, and sometimes alter it; in some cases they add nothing to the original meaning of the root.
‘Upecca atthaj sadantiti upasagga hi padayo’ (having come near the nouns and verbs, they decorate its meaning).
According to the traditional grammar the prefixes are 20 in number, viz., a, ati, adhi, anu, abhi, apa, api, ava, u, upa, du,
ni, ni, pa, para, pari, pati, vi, saj and su.
The following are some examples show how the prefixes alter the meaning of a root ‘kam’ (to go):
Each prefix indicates different meaning when prefixed to different root. The exmaples below formed with each prefix
together with their meanings.
(2) Nipata
Nipata are indeclinables which include adverbs, preposition (also including postposition) and paritcles (comprising
conjunction and interjection), infinite ending in tuj and tave and all the absolutives. They can be used independently and
indicate different meaning in different context.
‘Tattha tattha upatantiti nipata’ (nipata, stand everywhere in the sentence). They are pure or simple and derivative.
Adverbs
The adverb is a word which modifies the meaning or the application of a verb or of a whole sentence. According to their
meaning, the adverbs may be divided into:
Adverbs of time : kada, tada, sada, idani, ajja, suve, hiyo, yada, ekada, paccha, pura,
sayaj, pato, parasuve, parahiyo.
(ii) Adverbs of place : tattha, tatra, tahij, kutra, kutha, kuhim, kuto, yattha, uddhaj, adho,
purato, idha, abbatra, tiriyaj, abhito, sabbbadhi.
(iii) Adverbs of manner: evaj, tatha, kathaj, yatha, sahasa, sanikaj, sighaj, vegena,
vegasa, sukhaj, dukkhaj, samma, sanhena, anupubbhena.
Adverbs of quantity, extent, degree : ettavata, tava, tavata, yava, yavata, pabcaso,
ekadha, bhiyyoso, mattaya, sabbaso, vaggaso, bhagaso.
Adverbs of cause or reason : tena, tena hi, tasma, kasma, tato, yato, yatha,
(vi) Other adverbial particles : anga, api, alaj, kira, kho, nama, iti.
.
Preposition
The more common prepositional adverbs are:
governing the accusative case : antara, paccha, yava, vina, samanta, yatha.
governing the instrumental case : abbatra, vina, saddhim, saha, samaj, yatha.
governing the genitive case : hettha, antarena, anto, upari, purato, pure, samantato,
samanta, avidure, antara.
governing the ablative case : abbatra, antara, ara, araka, uddhaj, oraj, pabhuti, paraj, pubbe, pura, paccha, bahiddha,
yava, vina, adho.
governing the locative case : yatha.
Interjection are words indicating feelings of joy, sadness, anger, or words used to call the attention of someone else: handa,
aho, je, re, dhi, ivgha, he, sadhu, aho nuna, aho vata, yagghe, taggha, ambho.
666NIPATA- INDECLINABLE
The indeclinable are particle. They are incapable of any declension according to the rules of grammar.
In other words they remain alike or unchanged irrespective of number, gender, person and cases. In
Pali grammatical text Nipatas are defined as follows:
Sadisam tisu lingesu- similar in three genders
Sabbasu ca vibhattisu- in all cases
Vacanesu ca sabbesu- in all numbers
Yam na vyeti tada vyayam- whatever does not decline, that is called Avyaya.
Beside the Upasaggas all other particles are called the Nipatas. Some of them are expletive particles,
E.g not necessary to sense but inserted just fill a gab in a sentence. They are called Padapurana. And
the rest are meant to supply a specific sense. They are called Atthapurana. There is a different between
Nipatas and Upasakkas in regard to their use. The former are used either alone or with other words,
within a sentence but the later can only be prefix to nominal or verbal bases.
Nipata like ca, ce, va, vA,hi, kho, pana, khAlu, etc are never used at the beginning of the sentence.
There is a large number of Nipatas in Pali of which the following are most frequently used:
addhA – indeed, really.
aho – Oh
amma – mother, dear.
antarA – between.
ArA – far from.(rukkhato gamato ArA. ArA nibbAna santhike).
atha – then.
bhIyyo – too much.(bhIyyo so matthAya. BhIyyo cittam pasIdati.
DhukkhaM ettha bhIyyo)
handa – now. Well. (an emphatic particle used to express a resolution). Handa aham gamissAmi.
have – indeed, certainly. ( sukho have sappurisena sangamo- to meet a good man is indeed happiness.
Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacArI).
iBgha – look here (ingha Avuso gassAma bhagavato dassanAya).
amaM – inevitable, willingly.
khAlu- (no meaning)
kira – (no meaning)
nAma – by name ( kikI nAma kAsirAjA )
nissAya – near. At. Because of that.
ma - not
na – not
nu – ( no meaning)
nuna – surely.
Pana –
paTThAya- henceforth
Sace – if
Sake – once
SakkA – possible
Sudam – just
udAhu – or
uda – or
vata- indeed. Surely. Truly.
YAva- as far as. Until.
TAva- until then. Yet.
Ettha- here.
idAni- now
kaccI- perhaps.
Kaham- where.
Katham- how
Kiva- how far.
MaGGe- presumably.
tadA- then
tathA- likewise. Accordingly.
YebhUyyena- all most all. Frequently.
Some words, which were originally pronominal derivative, were later used adverbially as Nipatas. Such
as:
atra- here
ettha- here.
ito- from here.
iha, ida – here
kada- when
tatra- there
yada- whenever
tadA- then
ekada- once day
sadA- always
sabbadA- always
sabbattha- every where
ajja- to day
666AVYAYIBHAVA
“avyaya pubbako avyayibhavo” – It is so called because the sense of the indeclinable word is
predominant in it. The compound in which and avyaya or indeclinable appears as the first member or
word is called avyayabhava or indeclinable compound. The base form by avyayibhava compound is
neuter and indeclinable. When it ends in ‘a’ sound, it takes only ‘j’ , for examples:
(1) Nipatas are indeclinable particles which include conjunction, preposition, adverb, interjection,
the infinitives ending in ‘tuj’ and ‘tave’, and all absolutives.
Examples:
(a) conjunction = ca
- deva ca manussa ca (gods and men)
UPASAGGA
(1) Upasaggas are prefixes. They are sometimes prefixed to verbs and their derivatives.
(2) Generally, upsaggas modify the meaning of the root, or intensify it, and sometimes alter it; in some
cases they add nothing to the original meaning of the root.
(3) Upeccatthaj gadantiti upasaggahi padayo
(Having come near (the root), the upasagga decorate its meaning)
(4) They are twenty types of upasagga:
A ati adhi anu abhi apa api ava u upa
du ni ni pa para pari pati vi saj su
1 A + gacchati = agacchati
2 ati + rocati = atirocati (shines very much)
3 adhi + pati = adhipati (lord; superior)
4 anu + gacchati = anugacchati (follows)
5 abhi + rupa = abhirupa (handsome; beautiful)
6 apa + gacchati = apagacchati (moves away)
7 api + lapeti = apilapeti (talks idly)
8 ava + harati = avaharati (takes away; steal)
9 u + chindati = ucchindati (cuts off)
10 upa + kara = upakara (helps)
11 du + kara = dukkara (difficult to do)
12 ni + khamati = nikkhamati (goes out)
13 ni + gacchati = nigacchati (suffers; goes down to)
14 pa + janati = pajanati (knows clearly)
15 para + bhava = parabhava (ruin)
16 pari + bhasati = paribhasati (abuse)
17 pati + rupa = patirupa (resembling)
18 vi + gacchati = vigacchati (departs; goes away)
19 saj + vasati = sajvasati (lives together)
20 su + kara = sukara (easily done)
666P R ES E N T P A R T IC IP L E (V E R B A L A D J EC T IV E )
Participles are a kinds of adjective formed from the verbal bases. Like verbs, they are
divided into Present, Past and Future, and each group is again divided into Active and Passive.
Presents participles (missakiriya), active in meaning, are formed from the suffixes ‘nta’ or
‘mana’ and declining like nouns. They indicate an action which takes place simultaneously with
Present participles are used like ‘adjectives’ or ‘qualifying nouns’, with which they agree in
The ‘nta’ stem, which is much more commonly used for almost all verbs, is inflected as
Singular Plural
gacchantehi
gacchantasma gacchantehi
Gacchantamhi gacchantasmij
Feminine
Singular Plural
gacchantiyo
gacchantiyo
gacchantihi
gacchantiyaj
Neuter
Singular Plural
gacchantani
gacchantani
Notes:
1. The present participle expresses an action contemporaneous with that expressed by the main
verb, e.g.
3. The present participle is sometimes used as the verb of the sentence either alone or in
= then the Reverend Ananda entered the monastery and brust into tears.
4. The present participle with the particle ‘pi’ corresponds to a concessive clause.
‘acira-pakkantassa Bhagavato’
= not long after the Blessed One had gone away. (genitive absolutive)
666S Y N TA X
Syntax shows the different usages of cases. The accusative case has the following usages:
2. Both the direct and indirect objects in a causative sentence are in accusative, e.g.
i. sattahaj majsodanaj
7. The Accusatives are also used in the sense of possessive case with connection to the
10. The prefixes anu, abhi, adhi, pati and upa govern the Accusative, e.g.
= all of them are not worth 1 / 1 6 part of the emancipation of the mind through loving kindness.
2. Where there are the consonants l, k, s and y between the Padma -) paduma
two consonants, „i“ is inserted between them for the benefit Sva -) suve
of easy pronunciation as in the example: Dve -) duve
Suksma -) sukhuma
Glana -) gilana Usma -) usuma
Mlana -) milana Smarati -) sumarati
Sloka -) siloka
Sarya -) suriya ASSIMILATION
Arya -) ariya, ayya
Viriya -) viriya Vowel assimilation
Sri -) siri
Hri -) hiri Examples
Vajra -) vajira Shishu -) susu
Maryada -) moriyada Iksu -) uccu
Aynsmat -) ayasma
3. Inserting „u“ where there are „v“ and „m“ among the Nshanna -) nisinna
double consonant „un“ is inserted between them in order to Srungavera -) singavera
pronounce without any effort:
Consonant assimilation.
- Two consonants are similired(?) Cakra -) cakka
Examples: Shakra -) sakka
Ātma -) attā misra -) missa
Bhadra -) badda sarpa -) sappa
Asva -) assa
Ramya -) ramma (Group letters are more powerfull.)
Varga -) vagga
??? (BONUS: HISTORY OF PĀLI (BOOK: PĀLI LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, P. 42-45)) (NOT COMPLETED)
???
occur as in Pāli; in adaṇḍāraho we have a as the epenthetic vowel, not t as later; duguṇa shows du- for dvi-, later di- alone
is allowed, while Pāli has both forms: Aśvaghosa again uses turaṃ as in Pāli for the later tumaṅ, and has tava for tuha; he
has also karotha common in Pāli, in later Prākrit unknown and for gerund kariya, found in Pāli. Moreover we find pekkh
(Sanskrit prekṣ-) as in Pāli, and gamissiti may be compared with such Pāli forms as sakkiti, dakkhiti.
As against this evidence no stress can now be laid on the argument of Oldenberg who did not accept as historical
the mission of Mahinda, and held instead that Pāli came to Ceylong from Kaliṅga, a view accepted also by E. Müller, who
pointed out that the oldest settlements in Ceylon were founded from the mainland opposite, and not – as the Magadhan
theory of Pāli suggested – from Bengal. Oldenberg supported his view by comparing Pāli with the dialect of the
Khaṇḍagiri inscription. But the comparison yields nothing decisive, and there is now a substantial body of evidence which
points to western India as the prime source of the Āryan element in Ceylon. Lāṭa, Gujarat, is associated with the legend of
Vijaya, and, however slight is the value of that legend in other respects, there is no reason to dispute the importance of the
place name, when it is found that the affinities of Sinhalese lie with the western dialects.
We must, therefore, conclude that the basis of Pāli is a western dialect; but in its literary form, in which alone we
have it, it is a very mixed language of the literary type, far removed from a vernacular, and under a strong Sanskritic
influence. The date of the development of this literary speech and the evolution of the Pāli Canon, doubtless on the base of
older tradition largely in Magadhan dialects, cannot be ascertained with any certainty; probability points to a date posterior
to Aśoka, the silence of whose inscriptions on the existence of the Pli Canon is most naturally explained by the assumption
that it did not then exist. The ascription of a comparatively late date is greatly supported by the fact, which must be stressed
as against Rhys Davids, that the forms of Pāli are not historically the oldest of those Prākrit forms known to us. These are
to be found in the north-western dialect of the Aśokan inscriptions where the maintenance in some measure of the three
sibilants, the transformation of r into ir or ur, the maintenance of r in conjunction with other consonants, and the retention
of im are, among other points, indications of a state of affairs linguistically older than the facts of Pāli. Even in the case of
the Girnār dialect of the Aśokan inscriptions, it would be impossible to establish the priority of Pāli. Girnār manifests such
phenomena as the retention of long vowels before double consonants and traces of the retention of r in certain consonantal
combinations, as well as the use of sṭ which Pāli assimilates. Moreover, it appears that it preserved for a time the distinction
between the palatal and the lingual sibilants. There is accordingly nothing in the linguistic facts to throw doubt on the view
that the dialect on which Pāli is based was one current some time after the Aśokan period.
To sum up the conclusions suggested by our deplorably scanty evidence we may say (1) that the Buddha's
language cannot be definitely ascertained from the records, and it is only by conjecture that we can assert that it was of
Kośalan rather than Magadhan type. Similarly it is purely a matter of speculation how far the Kośalan or Old Ardha-
Māgadhī (if for convenience we so style it) and the Magadhan or Māgadhī corresponded with the Ardha-Māgadhī of the
Jain texts as we have them and the Māgadhī of the grammarians. In the former case certainly, and in the latter probably, we
should allow for much dialect mixture in the later forms. (2) The teachings, or the supposed teachings of the Buddha were
handed down in various dialects and in one at least of these the process of phonetic change had advanced further than is
normal in our Pāli texts. (3) The Pāli texts represent the doctrines accepted by a special school which used as the language
of their Canon the dialect of the educated classes of some western area whether Kauśāmbī or Ujjayinī or some other place
cannot be determined with any certainty. (4) The date of this Pāli Canon cannot be defined with any exactitude. The one
source of tradition on which we have to rely insists that a Council under Aśoka determined the Canon including as an
essential element the Kathāvatthu. The Aśokan inscriptions ignore entirely the Council and, when Aśoka in his Bhabra
edict mentions passages of special importance in the teaching of the Buddha, grave difficulties arise when supporters of the
existence of the Pāli Canon in Aśoka’s time seek to identify the passages, suggesting the obvious conclusion that Aśoka
knew nothing of the Canon. Further, it is certain that the language of the texts known to Aśoka was not the Pāli of the
Canon. Again, it is significant taht even those who are inclined to greater faith in the tradition than it is easy to feel have
much difficulty in believing that the Kathāvatthu is of Aśokan date, but what is clear is that this is an essential element in
the tradition of the Council, and that if it is not accepted as true, it becomes extremely difficult to attach any value to the
legend of the Council. We may well believe that the views embodied in the Pāli Canon were current in certain circles in
Aśokan time – it is clear that they were not the points which appealed to Aśoka himself whose Dhamma is far more popular
– and we can, if we like, suppose that in Aśoka’s reign some steps were taken towards formulating these views in definite
form and commencing the perparation of the Canon in the language we now know as Pāli. But there is no reason to accept
the alleged patronage of Aśoka, and we cannot be absolutely certain that even so much respect should be paid to the
tradition current in Ceylon.“
Prof. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee also gives an account of a development in the Pāli language in the earliest stage
when it was closely associated with ancient India’s spoken dialects. This Pāli language, which flourished from the Buddhist
times and is still continuing it up to our day, has a history of 2000 years. It cannot be mentioned as a uniform speech.
Numerous double forms inform us that it has a mixed character. There are many dialectal deposits in it. Prof. Suniti
Kumar Chatterjee gives four stages of its development. He states:
„(1) The speech of the metrical portions (gāthās) is canonical literature, is of a very heterogeneous character. On one hand,
it retains many old speech forms separated from those of the old Indo-Āryan only through sound change, while, on the other
hand, ???
1. Assimilation
When there is an influence of neighbouring sounds in other sound or when in other sounds
there is an influence of one of the neighbouring sounds, then this phenomenon is known as
assimilation.
assimilation, e.g.
(progressive) (regressive)
ty > tc > cc
2. Metathesis
Metathesis. Thus
3. Svarabhakti (Anaptyxis)
4. Nasal assimilation
The nasal of the prefix is assimilated to the first consonant of the word, e.g.
5. Cluster simplification
In Sanskrit there are more consonant in a word, but this is reduced in Pali, e.g.
cc
cc > cc > c
1. Unaspirated consonant in Sanskrit is always changed to aspirated consonant in Pali, e.g.
t > th
t > th
QUESTIONS
• Examine, on what basis the Pāli alphabet was classified and show voiced and voiceless letters
separately.
• Describe with examples the vowel sandhi in Pāli.
(a) Decline fully the stem ‘Jantu’ or ‘Bhikkhu’ in Pāli.
(b) Conjugate fully the Pāli root ‘gamu’ (to go) or ‘sara’ (to remember) in Parassapada of present tense
and potential mood (Sattamī).
• Clarify secondary derivatives (taddhita) in Pāli and describe with examples Apaccaṭṭha suffixes.
• Explain with examples Tappurisa Samāsa or Kammadhāraya Samāsa in Pāli.
• Describe the syntactical uses of either the accusative case or dative case in Pāli.
• Examine the various opinions of the scholars on the origin of Pāli language.
• Parse and explain the four of the following.
I. Niggahīta combination
II. Dvanda Samāsa
III. Past participles
IV. Prefixes
V. Bhāva Taddhita
VI. Pañcamī Vibhakti (verbs)
• Point out the various classifications of the Alphabet according to the traditional Pāli grammarians.
• (a) Show the combination and name of the following 10 disjoined words:
Tīni + imāni, Tatra + ayaṃ, Anu + eti, Tāva + eva, Pañca + indriyāni, Rūpa + Khandho, So + muni,
bahu + suto, abhinanduṁ + ti, Ati + antaṁ, Yadi + evaṃ, abhi + okāso
• (b) Disjoin the following 10 words and clarify their combination.
Pariccajati, Pancakkhandha, Chalabhiññā, nimmalo, Sabbeva, Cakkaṁvā, Bandhusseva, abbuggato,
tāvadeva, Svākkhāto, Jaccandho, Bojjhangā
• (a) Decline fully masculine 'i' ending the stem 'muni' in Pāli.
• (b) Conjugate the root bhū (to be) in both parassapada and attanopada.
• (a) Parse and explain 10 words of the following.
Buddhacaritaṁ, Antogāmaṁ, SamaṇaBrāhmaṇā, Paññāratanaṁ, Ānandatthero, Upanagaraṁ,
rājaputto, Pñcasīlaṁ, Puṇṇanadī, Jarāmaraṇaṁ, Khīṇāsavo, Sīladhanaṁ
• (b) Parse and explain 10 words of the following.
Manussattaṁ, tadā, Samaṇero, Janatā, Panītataro, bhāgineyyo, dhanavā, catukka, mānavo, kāyika,
medhāvi, māgadhiko
• Write an account on prefixes in Pāli and show with examples how is the meaning of the Pāli verbs
changed by the prefixes.
• Show with examples the process of assimilation as depicted in the Pāli language.
• Describe the classification of Pāli alphabet according to the Kaccāyana tradition.
• Explain with example the Niggahita combination in Pāli.
• (a) Decline fully the stem 'Muni' or 'Pitu' in Pāli
• (b) Conjugate the root 'Bhū' (to be) or 'Pā' (to drink) in Parassapada and Attanopada of present
tense and imperative mood.
• Define briefly the meaning of the word 'compound' and clarify with examples the 'kammadhāraya
samāsa' in Pāli.
• Define briefly the meaning of the word 'taddhita' and clarify with examples the bhāva taddhita in Pāli.
• Observe the Vedic features that preserved in Pāli language.
• Write grammatical notes on any two of the following:
I. Consonant combination
II. Dvanda samāsa
III. Apaccattha taddhita
IV. Absolutives
V. Janapadanirutti