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Interview with Dr Wi l lia m Chittick

MO: Me, and probably my Swedish readers as well, would very much like to know about how
your interest in Islam and Sufism began.

After graduating from high school in the town of my birth (Milford, Connecticut), I
enrolled in the College of Wooster (Ohio) with the intention of studying mathematics. After
completing the first year, I took advantage of an the opportunity to live with relatives and attend
the International Christian University in Tokyo. Having returned to Ohio with an appreciation
for traditional Japanese culture, I switched my major to psychology, but I found it uninspiring,
especially after a year in Tokyo. Then I had an opportunity to attend the American University
of Beirut, so I changed my major to history and did that. I needed a topic for an independent
study project (required for all third-year students at the college). In the books that I was reading
for courses on Middle Eastern history, I found that “Sufism” was an interesting subject for a
paper. I immediately set out studying books and articles by orientalists, and after two or three
months I was fairly sure that I had a good grasp of the topic. In the meantime, Seyyed Hossein
Nasr was a visiting professor at the university, and he was offering a series of public lectures during
the fall semester (lectures that were later published as Ideals and Realities of Islam). I saw that he
would be talking about Sufism, so I attended the lectures from the beginning and found them
fascinating. When he gave the fourth lecture, on Sufism—about which I thought I was
informed—it seemed like a completely new topic to me. I immediately went out and bought his
Three Muslim Sages and read the chapter on Ibn Arabi. That really stirred my interest. During
the second semester, I audited his graduate course on Sufism, and by the end of the year, I had
decided to go to Iran to learn more. I then returned to America and spent another year at
Wooster, writing my senior-year independent study project on Rumi (based on Nicholson’s
translation). After graduation, I went to Iran and enrolled in a PhD program in Persian language
and literature for foreigners at Tehran University. Eventually I did a dissertation under Dr. Nasr’s
guidance on Abd al-Rahman Jami, a fifteenth-century follower of Ibn Arabi’s line of thought.

MO: A question which has fascinated me for quite some time is the relation between Shiism and
Sufism. If you speak to most Shiites you will find that they prefer to use the term “irfan” instead of
Sufism or “tasawuf”. Is there a real difference between irfan and tasawuf? How are Shiism and
Sufism interlinked through history?

Iranian Shi’ites prefer the term irfan for various reasons having to do with their
history since the Safavid period. Up until that time the word irfan—and much more commonly
the word ma’rifa (from the same root and with the same meaning)—was one of several
expressions that was used to speak about the doctrinal side of Sufism. The practical side was often
called tasawwuf, and more commonly faqr (“poverty”). Because of the complicated events
connected with the gradual transformation of Iran into a majority-Shi’ite country during the
Safavid period, the Safavid rulers (who themselves began as a Sufi order) marginalized the various
Sufi orders in society, not least because the Sufis liked to follow their own shaykhs rather than the
Shi’ite ulama who had been imported from Lebanon and Bahrain and were being given authority
over religious affairs in society. The Safavids wanted a Shi’ite identity not only because they
themselves were Shi’ites, but also to differentiate their dynasty from the two great Sunni dynasties
of the time—the Ottomans and the Moguls.

To make a long story short, as a result of the Safavid transformation, the word
tasawwuf came to be associated with popular and deviated Islam, and few people of any
importance in the Safavid state would admit to being “Sufis.” However, the word irfan was
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associated with the sophisticated teachings of the great shaykhs of the past, and it was considered
perfectly legitimate for a Shi’ite scholar to study irfan. This happened gradually, but the upshot
was that irfan eventually became a good word and tasawwuf a bad word. It was fine for a Shi’ite
Muslim too study irfan, but he should avoid tasawwuf, because that is deviant, popular religion.
This perception of the difference between irfan and tasawwuf is extremely common among
Iranians, even though it is simply a question of terminology and definitions. And, for many other
Iranians—today and in the past—the two words are simply synonyms.

This whole discussion has to do with how terminology has been used over Islamic
history. And we also need to keep in mind that it is part of a broader discussion about the
relationship between tasawwuf and the Islamic tradition. After all, everything that has gone by
the name tasawwuf has not necessarily represented authentic Islamic teachings. Already in
classical times, teachers like Ibn Arabi and Rumi were harshly critical of unqualified people
claiming to be “Sufi” shaykhs and taking advantage of gullible followers. The harsh criticisms
directed against “Sufism” by many of the ulama were often appropriate, given that calling oneself
a “Sufi” (or an “arif”) proves nothing. Carl Ernst has shown (in The Shambhala Guide to Sufism)
that the word tasawwuf itself was given a high profile by the British in India. Before that time it
was one word among several that were employed to refer to the more inward and “spiritual”
dimensions of Islamic teachings.

The question of the interlinking of Shi’ism and Sufism over history is enormously
complicated, and I will not try to get into it (Dr. Nasr does a good job discussing it in the last
chapter of Ideals and Realities of Islam). Let me say, however, that this is a bit like comparing
apples and oranges. Shi’ism and Sunnism pertain to the same level of discussion, but Sufism
relates to another issue altogether. The distinction between Shi’ism and Sunnism goes back to a
dispute over religious and political authority in the nascent Islamic community. A minority held
that Ali was the rightful successor of the Prophet, appointed by him, and the majority held that
the community had to agree on the new leader, in the time-honored tribal fashion. Over history,
two other main issues enter into the distinction between the two groups, one on the level of the
Shariah and the other on the level of dogmatics (`aqâ’id). Most Shi’ites follow the madhhab of
the Sixth Imam, Ja’far al-Sadiq, whereas most Sunnis follow one of the four Sunni madhhabs.
The distinctions in teachings are in fact rather minor. In most issues, the difference between the
Ja’fari position and, let’s say, that of the Malikis is on the same order as the distinction between
the positions Malikis and the Hanbalis. As for dogmatics, generally Sunnis hold that there are
three principles of faith (tawhid, nubuwwa, and ma’ad) and Shi’ites add two more to the list: `adl
(justice), which is a codicil to tawhid, and ima ma, which explains the theological justification for
giving authority to the Imams after the Prophet.

As for Sufism—as I understand the word (more on this later)—it does not address
either of these levels, that is, Shariah and dogmatics. Rather, it provides instructions on how to
practice the Shariah sincerely and how to understand the dogma correctly, always keeping in mind
the final goal of both practice and faith, which is to find the presence of God everywhere and in
everything that one does. In this definition, “Sufism” is a central concern of both Sunnis and
Shi’ites, and this helps explain why there have been Sufi orders everywhere, in Shi’ite
communities as well as in Sunni communities.

MO: Do you view both Sunnism and Shiism as expressions of Islamic orthodoxy?

Yes.
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MO: What is the place of Sufism in Islamic orthodoxy?

What do you mean by “Sufism” and what do you mean by “orthodoxy”? Both of
these words are thrown around freely, typically with the assumption that they have clear
meanings. They do not. “Orthodoxy” in particular is highly problematic, given the lack of a
central authority in the Islamic tradition. And “Sufism,” as I suggested earlier, means different
things to different people.

The only way we can answer this sort of question is to define the terms. Let me try
to do so, very briefly. “Orthodoxy” is “right speech,” that is, teachings and doctrine that are
true, right, appropriate, and correct (that is, teachings that are haqq, given that this Arabic word
has all of these meanings). Truth and rightness is judged in terms of the agreement of the
teachings with the sources of the tradition, both the historical sources (Koran and Hadith) and the
ahistorical Haqq Itself (that is, the Divine Reality). The historical agreement follows on the
second Shahadah, “Muhammad is God’s messenger.” The ahistorical agreement follows on the
first Shahadah, “No god but God,” i.e., the doctrine of tawhîd. Already, with this brief definition,
I have raised many other questions, each of which deserves discussion. For example, Who judges
rightness? What does “agreement” mean? How do we weigh the two historical sources, Koran and
Hadith, against each other? These and many other questions implied in my definition were
discussed endlessly by Muslim scholars in the past, and they are still being discussed today.
Personally, I think that each Muslim (and every religious person, given that parallel issues arise in
other religions) is called upon to deal with these questions for himself or herself. One cannot
have “faith” on the basis of taqlîd, that is, by imitating and following blindly the words of
someone else (even if those words are “orthodox”). One needs to understand what one believes.
Although taqlîd is mandatory in practical matters—how to pray, how to fast, etc.—it is typically
considered harâm in matters of belief. You cannot say, “I believe in God because my shaykh told
me to.” But it is perfectly legitimate to say, “I pray this way because my shaykh taught me to.”
This is, after all, the way all Muslims pray, given that prayer is a transmitted, historical teaching.
It makes no difference who your “shaykh” is—it may well be a teacher, a parent, a sibling.

In short, there is no simple answer to what “orthodoxy” is. Or rather, there is one
simple answer: It is right doctrine, true teaching. In terms of Koranic formulae, it is to have faith
in God, the angels, the scriptures, the prophets, and the Last Day. But, each Muslim has a duty to
establish his or her own understanding of who God is, what the angels are, how to understand the
teachings of the prophets and scriptures, what is the significance of the Last Day—these are the
issues that are discussed in theology, philosophy, and the theoretical side of Sufism. Moreover, no
two person’s understanding will ever be exactly the same—my belief in God will never be identical
to your belief in God, my understanding of God cannot be the same as your understanding of God.
There is one God, but an infinity of creatures and an infinity of beliefs about the one God. Even
for a single person, there will never be “one understanding” and “one belief.” Anyone who is
honest with himself knows that his understanding of things—not least of his own beliefs—is
changing all the time, hopefully for the better—that is, more in conformity with tawhid.

As for “Sufism,” as I said, it has been understood in many ways, often mutually
contradictory. I take it to mean the tendency among Muslims to seek a personal relationship
with God, and I see it as normative for the Islamic tradition. In other words, every Muslim should
seek for this personal relationship, so every Muslim should have some “Sufi” dimension to his or
her religious life. I have no particular attachment to the word “Sufism,” and I use it simply
because it is the best of the alternatives. Words like “mysticism” and “esotericism” have too
many negative connotations.
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In our Vision of Islam, Sachiko Murata and I have tried to unpack the implications
of the famous hadith of Gabriel, which talks about dînukum, “your religion,” as having three
dimensions—islâm or practice, îmân or faith and understanding, and ihsân, or “doing the
beautiful,” i.e., living in both inner and outer harmony with God, who, according to the Prophet,
is “beautiful and loves beauty.” These three words are Koranic designations for the three basic
dimensions of human existence—one can call them body, mind, and heart. In any case, as we
have illustrated in detail in that book, in classical, “orthodox” Islam, all three dimensions were
considered essential to every Muslim’s religious life, and ignoring any one of them distances a
person from the prophetic Sunnah, that is, the “beautiful model” (uswa hasana) that God has
established for human guidance. Each of these three dimensions has produced specialists over
Islamic history. The jurists are experts in islâm, the theologians experts in îmân, and the great
spiritual guides were experts in ihsân. This third group were often known as “Sufis.”

MO: I’m a Swedish Muslim and my interest in Islam came through Swedish converts associated
with the Traditional School, like Ivan Aguéli, Kurt Almqvist (Sidi Abd al-Muqsit) and Tage
Lindbom (Sidi Zayd), the later which I knew personally. What role do you think the Traditional
School has had, and will, have for the formation of a Western Islam?

I take “Western Islam” to mean not the Islam of immigrants, but the Islam of
Westerners who were raised as Christians, Jews, atheists, or agnostics. Western Islam can also
include the Islam of the immigrants’ children and grandchildren, who are trying to rediscover their
own identity. For these “Westerners,” the traditional school has played, and will continue to
play, an important role, because it has translated Islamic teachings into terms that are
comprehensible to people with a modern, secular education. Immigrant Islam is generally too
culturally specific to appeal to people who do not share that culture; notice that when Turks,
Arabs, Malaysians, and so forth immigrate, each group will establish its own mosque, separate
from the others, as soon as it can. Very few immigrants come with the combination of traditional
and modern education that is needed to speak intelligently in the West about religion generally
and Islam specifically. They may be good doctors or engineers, but they do not know
“religion” in the full sense of islam, iman, and ihsan. And if they do know it, they do not speak
the same language as the doctors and the engineers. It is significant here that politicized Islam—
so-called “fundamentalism”—is largely led by doctors and engineers, who are ignorant of anything
but a smattering of Islam’s first dimension (law, practice), and who see religion as something like
a grid that can be imposed on society, an engineering problem to be solved.

In short, without the help of the traditional school, it is extremely difficult for a
Westerner to understand what Islam is all about. And those few Westerners who do find authentic
Islam in all three dimensions—for example, by spending years in a Muslim country—are, in a
way, simply discovering “traditional Islam,” the Islam that the traditional school has described as
authentic and full Islam.

MO: One of the main ideas of the Traditional School is the “Transcendent Unity of Religions”.
How does one explain this idea within an Islamic framework using Islamic concepts?

What I understand by this concept is that there is no unity but God’s unity, just as
there is no life but God’s life, no knowledge but God’s knowledge, no truth but God’s truth. These
are divine attributes, and in God they are identical with God. In God all truth is one truth, all
reality is one reality. This is tawhîd, and anyone with a semblance of Islamic theological learning
knows that God alone is truly real, really true, and absolutely one. This means that everything
other than God, including religion, is many. According to the Koran, God sent a messenger to
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every people. He has told us the names of some of these messengers, and others He has not told
us (Koran 4:164). Hadiths speak of 124,000 prophets, and classical Islamic literature often
mentions this number. God gave every messenger the same message: “ There is no god but I, so
worship Me” (21:25). al-Tawhîd wâhid, as the saying goes—“Tawhîd is one,” and it is
everywhere the same. Tawhîd here does not mean the sentence that expresses tawhîd, i.e, lâ ilâha
illallâh. It means rather the reality of tawhîd, the unity of God, which was known to every
prophet. After all, God sent every prophet speaking “the language of his own people” (14:4), not
Arabic.

So, the basic Koranic picture is that God is one, that He is the source of all the
religions established by all the prophets, and that these religions are unified by two basic elements:
tawhid and worship, that is, orthodoxy and orthopraxy. Tawhid is one teaching, and it expresses
the unity of the Real. All divinely-established religions accept that—all the traditions founded by
the 124,000 prophets—even if Muslims find it difficult to see how some of them do so
(Buddhism, for example). As for worship, it takes many, many forms; the Koran often refers to
the differences in practices given to various prophets, such as the “heaviness” of the burden
imposed on the followers of Moses.

As far as I can see, the Koran among all the world’s scriptures has by far the
clearest expression of the transcendent unity of religions. Most modern-day Muslims find it
difficult to accept this unity because preachers have told them that Islam “abrogated” the
previous religions, and most classical theologians took that position. But the Koran certainly
does not say that it abrogated them. This is a theological opinion, by no means accepted by all
Muslim scholars over history.

I don’t mean to claim that the Koran is completely explicit on this issue of
religious unity, or that it provides no counter-arguments. It does, of course. For example, there
is always the issue of tahrif, “perversion” of religious teachings, but Muslims are not exempt from
that either, as is proven by many, many preachers today who gain a great deal of public exposure.

There is also another issue that one should think about: When God sends a message,
He wants it to be accepted by its recipients. And, He knows His recipients better than they know
themselves. He knows, for example, that most of them will not be encouraged in their tawhid and
their worship by learning that God has sent other religions that also lead people to salvation. The
efficacy of the message depends upon its being taken seriously. It does not make sense to water
down the message by suggesting that you can follow any message you want. Nonetheless, there
are always those who know that God is not like people—He is not small-minded. Rather, He is
infinitely merciful, and “He forgives all sins” (39:53). People like this will have no problem
understanding that, when the Koran says that it has come to “confirm” the previous messages, it
means that it is confirming their truth and their continuing efficacy and legitimacy. If the Koran
had come to abrogate those messages, God would have said so in clear and undeniable language.