Professional Documents
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Global Governance Initiative: Annual Report 2006
Global Governance Initiative: Annual Report 2006
Nike, Inc.
Preface iv
Executive summary v
Introduction ix
The views expressed in the articles in this publication do not necessarily reflect
the views of the World Economic Forum.
ISBN 0-9741108-9-2
Nike, Inc.
Expert group chairs and members George Alleyne, Director Emeritus, Pan American Health
Peace and security Organization, and Adjunct Professor, Bloomberg School of
Chair: Gareth Evans, President, International Crisis Group (Australia) Public Health, Johns Hopkins University (Barbados)
Paul Heinbecker, Director, Laurier Centre for Global Relations, Lincoln Chen, Director, Global Equity Initiative, Harvard
Governance and Policy (Canada) University (USA)
Ellen Laipson, President, Henry L. Stimson Center (USA) Tom Coates, Director of the Center for AIDS Prevention Studies,
Andrew Mack, Director, Human Security Centre, University of University of California at San Francisco (USA)
British Columbia (Australia) Mahmoud Fathalla, Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
Jane Nelson, Fellow, Center for Business and Government, John F. Assiut University (Egypt)
Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University (UK) Rick Steketee, Deputy Director, Program for Appropriate
Mohamed Sahnoun, Special Representative of the UN Secretary- Technology in Health (USA)
General for the Sudan (Algeria) Cesar Victora, Professor of Epidemiology, Federal University of
Ramesh Thakur, Senior Vice-Rector, United Nations University (India) Pelotas (Brazil)
Steve Bass, Senior Fellow, International Institute for Environment Tom Arnold, CEO, Concern Worldwide (Ireland)
and Development (UK) Rev. David Beckmann, President, Bread for the World (USA)
Belinda Calaguas, Advocacy Manager, Water Aid Nancy Birdsall, President, Center for Global Development (USA)
Angela Cropper, President, Cropper Foundation (Trinidad and Fan Gang, Director, National Economic Research Institute,
Tobago) China Reform Foundation (China)
John Elkington, Founder and Co-director, SustainAbility (UK) Hans Jöhr, Corporate Head of Agriculture, Nestle Ltd.
John Forgach, Chairman, ForestRe (USA) (Switzerland)
Mark Halle, European Representative and Director, Trade & Mercy Karanja, Executive Director, Kenyan National Farmers
Investment, International Institute for Sustainable Union (Kenya)
Development (Switzerland) Dr. John Joseph Otim, President, Agricultural Council of Uganda
Richard Sandbrook, Special Advisor to UNDP (UK) (Uganda)
John Whalley, Director of the Centre for Development and
International Economics Research at the University of
Health Warwick, UK (Canada)
Chair: Alfred Sommer, Dean, Bloomberg School of Public
Health, Johns Hopkins University (USA)
Steering committee Strobe Talbott President, The Brookings Institution
James Balsillie Chairman and Co-CEO, Research In
Motion Timothy E. Wirth President, United Nations Foundation
Carlos Bulgheroni President, Bridas Corporation Yu Yongding Director, Institute of World Economics
and Politics, Chinese Academy of Social
Mirai Chatterjee Coordinator, Self-Employed Women's Sciences
Association
Yotaro Kobayashi Chairman, Fuji Xerox Ltd. Christopher Colclough Chair, Expert Group on Education
Professor, Economics of Education, and
Christine Loh Founder and CEO, Civic Exchange Director, Centre for Commonwealth
Education, University of Cambridge
Simon Maxwell Director, Overseas Development Institute
Gareth J. Evans Chair, Expert Group on Peace and
Mark Moody-Stuart Chairman, Anglo American Plc Security
President, International Crisis Group
Kumi Naidoo Secretary-General and Chief Executive
Officer, CIVICUS Nicholas Howen Chair, Expert Group on Human Rights
Secretary-General, International
Moisés Naim Editor-in-Chief, Foreign Policy Magazine Commission of Jurists
Youssou N'Dour Artist and Chairman, Youth Network for David Runnalls Chair, Expert Group on Environment
Development Foundation President and CEO, International
Institute for Sustainable Development
Njongonkulu Archbishop, Anglican Archdiocese of
Ndungane Cape Town Alfred Sommer Chair, Expert Group on Health
Dean, Bloomberg School of Public
Sadako Ogata President, Japan International Health, Johns Hopkins University
Cooperation Agency
The World Economic Forum is pleased to present Centre for International Governance Innovation in
the third annual report of the Global Governance Canada, the United Nations Foundation and Nike,
Initiative, part of our series of public-private and Inc. The Forum is also grateful to the dedication of
multistakeholder projects to catalyse action on key the six expert groups and the organizations they
global challenges. represent, the eminent steering committee for its
project guidance and to Ann Florini, Senior Fellow
Each year, the Global Governance Initiative has at the Brookings Institution and GGI Project
convened more than 40 leading experts from Director, and Parag Khanna, Global Governance
Preface
academia, the private sector and civil society to Fellow at the Brookings Institution, for their
assess the level of effort around the world on a leadership in carrying the Initiative’s work forward.
range of internationally agreed goals in six major Not every Global Governance Initiative steering
areas: peace and security, poverty and hunger, committee or expert group member necessarily
education, health, the environment and human agrees with the views expressed in this report.
rights. The conclusions of this year’s report Nor do the views necessarily represent an
characterize the world’s performance in institutional position of the World Economic Forum
implementing the Millennium Declaration as mixed, or its members.
with some important new signs of movement but
much still left to be done. 2006 could turn out to be a watershed year for the
international goals. Much will depend on how the
The report provides both a scorecard to measure international community now responds to the new
the effort exerted by governments, international commitments and challenges that received so
organizations, business and civil society during much public attention during the year. We at the
2005 towards these goals—and a concise Forum hope the Global Governance Initiative will
discussion of key actions taken and opportunities contribute to progress by helping to hold all of
missed. It then looks ahead to 2006 and outlines us—governments, business and civil society
what must happen in the coming year for the world alike—to greater account for the effort required.
to be on track to achieve its goals.
Richard Samans
The Global Governance Initiative would not be Managing Director
possible without the generous support of the Swiss World Economic Forum
Agency for Development and Cooperation, the Geneva, December 2005
iv
Executive summary
2005 proved that the world can make real progress had in previous years. That matters not only
Executive summary
towards achieving its most fundamental goals. It because of the inherent importance of these
got slightly better at reducing hunger and extreme issues, but because progress in one area depends
poverty, improving global public health, ensuring so heavily on progress in the others. Global public
peace and security and providing access to basic health, for example, requires access to clean water
education. New and badly needed roadmaps and sanitation. Climate change is already
emerged, thanks to the extraordinary reports of the exacerbating malaria, malnutrition and diarrhoea
UN Millennium Project, the UK Africa Commission throughout the world. The world’s poorest people
and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Under need sustainably managed ecosystems to preserve
the leadership of UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and their livelihoods, and the scarcity of natural
the powerful pressure of a heavily mobilized resources can fuel violent conflict.
transnational civil society, the G-8 governments
agreed to provide substantial new funds to Yet 2005 also demonstrated how much non-
promote development. Large developing countries, traditional actors are starting to do. Civil society
notably China, India and Brazil, took major strides, groups mobilized on an unprecedented scale to
and Asia in general exuded new confidence and force governments to get more serious about their
excitement. commitments to the world’s poor. Local and
regional governments did more than their national
But 2005 also demonstrated the power of inertia counterparts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
and shortsightedness. At the World Summit of Private business grappled with notions of social
almost all nations in September, political leaders responsibility, and private foundations and
had the opportunity to commit themselves to a pharmaceutical firms now account for an
“grand bargain” that could have led to real enormous share of the progress on global public
breakthroughs on much of the global agenda, health.
from development to security to human rights.
They largely wasted the chance to dramatically Overall, therefore, 2005 was a mixed year of
improve how they run the world, taking only small grand opportunities and inadequate actions,
steps—not meaningless, but far from the major leaving ever more riding on what the world can
strides that are both needed and possible. The muster the courage to do in 2006. We do not yet
new aid promised by the rich countries is know whether the slight improvement in several
significant, but even if the promises are met in of the scores for 2005 is a blip in a continuing
full—a rarity in the history of such promises—they cycle of neglect and apathy, or the start of a
still fall far short of what is needed. The fight serious trend toward real progress in the human
against AIDS alone could use most of the new condition. Will historians look back one day and
money. say that 2005 was the real beginning of the 21st
century—the century when humanity achieved
And on such key issues as human rights and the meaningful stability and prosperity throughout the
environment, the world actually did worse than it world?
v
Scores inching up in 2005
10
5
Global Governance Initiative 2006
2003
2004
2005
0
Peace Poverty Hunger Education Health Environment Human rights
and security
Executive summary
Executive summary
difference in realizing “quick wins”. The momentum substantially unless more resources are committed
of 2005 must translate into real action on the in 2006. Several dozen countries are devising
ground in 2006. workable education plans, and donors must boost
Fast Track Initiative funding to help turn these plans
into reality.
Education score: 4/10
The first international benchmark for education—to Health score: 5/10
eliminate gender disparities at all levels by 2005— 2005 provided no shortage of warning signs about
has passed us by, and at least 50 countries in the importance of global health. HIV/AIDS continued
Africa and Asia stand no chance of providing all to spread. Malaria killed upwards of a million more
children a primary education by 2015. While such people. And the world did little to reduce the under-
countries as China have moved to eliminate school five mortality rate and maternal mortality ratio.
fees, another 100 still impose them. Donor
countries lag badly in fulfilling their promise to Funding boosts for immunization from the European
bridge the funding gaps for the Education for All Union and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Fast Track Initiative (FTI), an international contributed to improving the world’s overall score to
partnership that promised to provide assistance to 5, but nowhere near enough is being done to
any country with credible education sector plans. address myriad shortfalls. The woeful state of the
world’s public health infrastructure, the lack of access
The debt relief and increased aid pledges in 2005 to laboratory supplies, drugs and medications, and
could fill that funding gap, but rich countries made the shortage of health workers make it highly unlikely
no specific commitments to education. The UN that Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Oceania will
World Summit and the World Bank–International meet the goals. In Africa 35% of children face a
Monetary Fund (IMF) meetings in the fall also failed greater risk of dying prematurely than a decade ago,
to boost funding for education; only US$ 1.5 billion while AIDS remains the leading cause of early death.
of the estimated US$ 10 billion needed annually is Even though addressing malaria mainly requires
currently being provided. Were it not for civil society deploying known treatments, very little progress was
initiatives like the Global Campaign for Education made in 2005 due to only small funding increases for
and corporate foundation investments such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and
those in India, there would be even less good news Malaria and poor organization of the Roll Back
to report. Malaria Partnership.
A hundred million children are still not enrolled in To reverse the decay of crumbling health
primary school, a number that will not fall infrastructure and information networks around the vii
Global Governance Initiative 2006
world will require the commitment of significant Human rights score: 2/10
additional long-term resources, along the lines The status of human rights in the world continued
outlined in the Millennium Project’s reports. to decline in 2005. Not only did persistent
challenges remain unaddressed, but the serious
Environment score: 2/10 erosion of human rights by counterterrorism
The world’s environmental goals—to stabilize policies accelerated.
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at
safe levels, reverse biodiversity loss and cut in half The International Criminal Court issued its first
Executive summary
the proportion of people without safe access to warrants. But up to 2 million people in Darfur,
drinking water and sanitation—require but did not Sudan, still faced the violent attacks and total
receive high-level political commitment. impunity of the perpetrators, indicating how far the
world has to go to prevent crimes against humanity
Few countries managed to reduce emissions of in the year that marked the 60th anniversary of the
heat-trapping gasses. Ecosystem protection Nuremberg Tribunal. And it is still unknown whether
frameworks are simply absent. And hundreds of the precedent-setting trial of Saddam Hussein will
millions of people, particularly in Africa, remain deliver impartial justice or be a political show. From
without clean water or sanitation, threatening the the United Kingdom to Thailand, laws passed in
achievement of goals on curbing hunger, the name of fighting terrorism shifted the center of
eradicating poverty and combating disease. High gravity from protecting rights to restricting them—
energy prices helped spur renewed attention with uncertain consequences for democracy. The
towards clean and efficient technologies. Local continued practice of outsourcing torture to
governments and some corporations moved boldly countries with scant human rights protection, the
ahead of their national leaders on emission refusal to end the legal black hole in which
reduction initiatives. And in Asia, particularly in Guantanamo Bay prisoners languish, the failure to
China and India, access to clean water and deal with the systemic attitudes that led to the Abu
sanitation has improved, and there is some hope of Ghraib torture—all were unfortunate features of
reaching the goal there. 2005. It remains to be seen whether the proposed
Human Rights Council will achieve more legitimacy
For 2006 the world must take advantage of high than its predecessor in the United Nations.
oil prices to boost investment in clean energy and
technology transfer. The private sector must One notable area of progress occurred with the
emulate General Electric’s newfound commitment growing requirements and regulations on the
to clean technology and emissions reduction, but private sector to report on the social impact of their
the market alone will not be our saviour. Other activities, measures driven by both the European
governments must follow the lead of the Union and the voice of civil society. In 2006 much
European Union to take serious action on climate more should be done to spread economic and
change. And all actors should begin to heed the social rights norms, which will require civil society
findings of the Millennium Ecosystem to continue to strengthen its demands to move
Assessment. from charity to rights.
viii
Introduction
Introduction
intensive pressures were lacking—notably on governments (with support from other actors) are
environment and human rights—government efforts making the effort to carry out their commitments.
were especially anaemic. Bubbling under the
surface frenzy of high-level commissions and global This year, as in past years, the Global Governance
summits were uncounted numbers of less Initiative has graded the world on its performance
publicized and smaller initiatives involving everyone in each of six issue areas: peace and security;
from local governments to businesses to dedicated poverty and hunger; education; health;
individuals. environment; and human rights. The grades are on
a zero to ten scale, with ten representing not stellar
What did all the rhetoric and activity add up to over effort but merely what the world should be doing to
the year? Did it get us on track to achieve the be on track to achieve its basic goals. Every
world’s goals? number below ten is a step down from the level of
effort needed. One indicates that the total level of
This report, the third in an annual series produced effort accomplished essentially nothing, and zero
by the World Economic Forum’s Global means that human activity over the course of the
Governance Initiative, provides the assessments of year moved us in the wrong direction.
some of the world’s leading experts about how
large the gap remains between the rhetoric of Overall the news is positive, but only a bit. On most
global goals and the reality of action on the ground. of the goals the world’s efforts for 2005 earned
As in previous years, those assessments cover the slightly higher scores than in previous years—
contributions of all the types of actors on the global although still no score higher than a five,
stage: governments, intergovernmental representing a level of effort about half what was
organizations, the business community and civil needed. And because the scores have for several
society. Governments are the key actors with the years fallen far below ten, the gap between action
lion’s share of responsibility for ensuring the and aspiration is growing ever larger: more will
achievement of the goals, and the need to be done in the future to make up for what
intergovernmental organizations they create are was not done in the past.
essential tools in that struggle. But governments
are unlikely to meet the challenge without the active Progress came on several fronts. The world got
and large-scale participation of both the private better at agreeing on what is needed to achieve the
sector and civil society. various goals. The UN Millennium Project released
a series of extraordinary roadmaps on exactly what
Our assessments begin with the specific goals it will take to achieve the set of global goals
agreed on by the world’s leaders in such collectively known as the Millennium Development
documents as the UN Millennium Declaration, Goals (MDGs), which cover poverty, hunger, health
across the full range of security, development, and education. The Africa Commission, chaired by
environmental and human rights issues so UK Prime Minister Tony Blair, highlighted the need
fundamental to global stability and prosperity. The for a massive increase in assistance to that ix
Global Governance Initiative 2006
continent. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment actually emerge. Moreover, the lion’s share of
delivered the first comprehensive evaluation of the responsibility for achieving the development goals
state of the world’s ecosystems, along with a lies with the developing countries themselves.
sobering set of proposals for what would be Some, such as China, India and Brazil, have taken
needed to maintain them. major strides, and Asia in general exudes new
confidence and excitement. But other nations are
Even before the roadmaps emerged, there were still mired in conflict, destitution and, too often,
signs that people were becoming more willing to corruption.
Introduction
10
1
2003
2004
2005
0
Peace Poverty Hunger Education Health Environment Human rights
and security
Introduction
already driving up rates of malaria, malnutrition and on climate change. Governments make progress
diarrhoea (a major killer of children) throughout the on the development goals largely in response to
world, contributing to more than 150,000 deaths civil society pressures. And businesses are
and 5 million illnesses a year. The world’s poorest beginning to investigate the opportunities to do well
people need sustainably managed ecosystems to by doing good at the bottom of the pyramid.
preserve their livelihoods. Scarcity of natural
resources can fuel violent conflict. This project takes a year-by-year approach,
necessary to hold decision-makers accountable.
Indeed, all of the struggles are connected. Sick Journeys start with single steps. To date, we have
children don’t go to school, uneducated people are taken too few steps every year. We do not yet
less likely to climb out of destitution, poverty and know whether the slight improvement in several of
hunger are strongly correlated with ill health. Violent the scores for 2005 is a blip in a continuing cycle of
conflict disrupts societies, impoverishes people and neglect and apathy, or the start of a serious trend
undermines essential ecosystems. Poverty often towards greater promise-keeping and
occurs not as an inherent condition of humanity but accountability. The subsequent chapters each
as the result of systemic human rights violations. conclude by looking ahead to identify how to pick
up the pace in 2006.
Despite the disappointing results of the September
World Summit, the growing likelihood that we will These goals also demand a long-term perspective.
not meet all of the international development goals The development goals, for example, have ten
and the disastrous performance of governments on more years to go. But goals themselves are just
environmental commitments, 2005 also had some way stations to further destinations. Even if we
surprisingly good news. Real innovation was under achieve the poverty goal, that will still leave close
way, but it was often not to be found in the minutes to a billion people in utter destitution. On global
of the negotiations. warming, it may already be too late to avoid
dangerous man-made interference with the
This report contains numerous examples of climate, and we will be dealing with the problem
impressive action by local governments, civil for generations to come. Overall, we must decide
society groups and businesses—sometimes in how willing we are to roll the dice on humanity’s
partnership. It is not yet the norm to think about future.
such actors and their partnerships as the model for
problem-solving, and they generally operate on too These are not reasons for despair. They are, very
small a scale to bring about transformational definitely, reasons to redouble our efforts. If we do,
change for the world. But already, pharmaceutical historians may look back one day and say that
firms and private foundations account for an 2005 was the real beginning of the 21st century—
enormous share of the movement on global public the century when humanity found ways to achieve
health. Subnational governments and the business meaningful stability and prosperity through the
sector are doing more than many national leaders world. xi
Score
Rationale for the score General Kofi Annan’s In Larger Freedom report. He
1
The year’s headlines in all these areas were mostly described the Summit as a “once-in-a-generation
50
40
Global Governance Initiative 2006
30
20
10 Intrastate
Interstate
0 Colonial
1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003
1 Source: Human Security Centre. 2005. Human Security Report 2005: War and Peace in the 21st Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
Peace and security
Significant encouragement for those looking for evidence as did calls for the withdrawal of allied troops. By
that good international governance makes a difference in year’s end the risk of de facto partition and full-
peace and security, as elsewhere, came with the publica- scale civil war remained high.
tion in October of the long-awaited Human Security Report
2005, a comprehensive study by the University of British There were positive steps in the Israel-Palestine
Columbia and supported by five governments. The report conflict, but the prospect of lasting peace remained
demonstrates, counterintuitively for most people, that there remote. In February newly elected Palestinian
has been a dramatic decrease in the number of conflicts Authority President Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli
(by 40% since the early 1990s)—with battle deaths declin- Prime Minister Ariel Sharon brokered an informal
ing even more dramatically over a longer period. It also ceasefire with Palestinian militant groups, which,
shows an even more striking reduction in the number of while tested to its limits, helped bring casualties in
mass killings (by 80% since the late 1980s) despite 2005 to their lowest level since 2000. Israel
Rwanda, Srbrenica and Darfur, and a large increase in the unilaterally withdrew its soldiers and settlers from
number of civil conflicts resolved by negotiation. the Gaza Strip, but construction of settlements and
the controversial separation barrier continued in the
Several factors contributed to these results—including the West Bank.
end of the Cold War, with all its proxy wars and resented
authoritarian governments. But the crucial ingredient identi- Elsewhere in the Middle East relations between
fied in the study is the huge increase in the level and effective- Lebanon and Syria deteriorated dramatically, with
ness of international preventive diplomacy, diplomatic peace- outrage over the shocking February assassination
making, peacekeeping and peacebuilding operations—for of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, forcing the
the most part authorized and mounted by the United Nations, withdrawal of Syrian troops from the country—long
and strongly supported by many other international players, demanded by the UN Security Council. A UN
including non-governmental organizations. inquiry implicated top Syrian officials, with the
Security Council demanding Syrian cooperation
with the investigation.
leaders failed to find common ground with Sunni The peace maintained by Ethiopia and Eritrea since
Arabs over the country’s constitution, producing a formal cessation of hostilities in December 2000
draft text that, while approved in a nationwide frayed dangerously, with neither side showing a
referendum in October, was deeply divisive. The willingness to compromise in their ongoing border
frequency and deadliness of attacks against Iraqi dispute. The UN expressed its serious concern
2
and coalition forces—and Iraqi civilians—increased, over the deterioration.
The responsibility to protect
At the September UN World Summit global leaders unani- missions civilisatrices—had been used against them in the
mously endorsed the emerging international norm of the past.
Responsibility to Protect. By so doing they acknowl-
edged—to an extent unthinkable during the divisive The Canadian-sponsored International Commission on
debates on “humanitarian intervention” in the 1990s—that Intervention and State Sovereignty turned this debate on its
there were inherent limits to state sovereignty in the cases head in 2001, focusing—from the perspective of victims—on
of catastrophic human rights violations. They accepted a state responsibilities rather than rights. It argued that the
Tensions eased for the second straight year The conclusion in Sudan of the January 2005
between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. Bus Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the
service resumed across the Line of Control for the Khartoum government and the southern-based
first time since partition in 1947, and Sudan People’s Liberation Movement, formally
unprecedented discussions began between bringing to an end one of the world’s longest and
moderate Kashmiri separatists and New Delhi. The most destructive wars, was a good start to the
devastating October earthquake, which killed year. But implementation remained fragile, despite
scores of thousands in Kashmir, created hopes for the deployment of 10,000 UN peacekeepers to the
further relaxation of the separation barrier, but south.
continuing government mistrust left most of them
unrealized, and separatist violence continued. The security and humanitarian situation in Darfur
remained dire. The small and belatedly deployed
Elsewhere in Asia tensions between China and African Union peace force could not adequately
Taiwan abated after a series of visits to the protect displaced civilians, new fighting erupted.
mainland by Taiwanese opposition leaders and With the rebel movement still divided and
Beijing’s subsequent decision to lift some cross- Khartoum less than cooperative, the political
strait travel restrictions. settlement sought by the African Union looked far
off. One positive development was the UN Security
Little progress was made in resolving the frozen Council’s referring, with the United States
conflicts in the southern Caucasus— abstaining rather than opposing, Darfur atrocity
Nagorno–Karabakh, Georgia/South crimes to the International Criminal Court.
Ossetia–Georgia/Abkhazia and
Moldova–Transdniestria. The Democratic Republic of Congo’s shaky
transition inched forward amid widespread
Eliminating war within states insecurity, with as many as 1,000 still dying every
3
No new intrastate wars began in 2005, and two day from disease, malnutrition and sporadic
Annual fatalities in the Israeli-Palestinian
Steps were taken to strengthen the conflict, 2000–05
500
250
Israelis
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005a
violence. A new constitution was adopted in May, off-again peace process with the brutal Lord’s
but with preparations lagging the scheduled June Resistance Army (LRA) rebels yielded no substantial
elections were postponed to 2006. Militia in the progress, and the International Criminal Court
Ituri and Katanga regions, and Rwandan Hutu issued its first arrest warrants for LRA leaders.
rebels in the east, continued to prey on civilians.
Corruption and mismanagement in the national Better news came with Liberia’s successful
army left many troops with little or no income, elections, choosing in November the continent’s
making the army an added threat to locals. The UN first woman president, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf.
peacekeeping force adopted a more aggressive Burundi’s peace process progressed with major
posture but remained inadequately staffed and victories by the former opposition (and insurgent)
without the resources or mandate to provide CNDD-FDD in communal and legislative elections
security throughout the country. and with the inauguration in August of its candidate
Pierre Nkurunziza.
Elsewhere in Africa several other states remained
on the edge of failure. The transitional government Steps were taken to strengthen the monitoring
in Somalia was divided into armed camps, led capability and credibility of the Kimberley Process,
respectively by the president and speaker of the the UN-backed voluntary initiative stemming the
parliament, and a possibly disastrous military trade in conflict diamonds. Participating countries,
intervention by regional governments was only which now account for more than 90% of the global
narrowly averted. Côte d’Ivoire looked set to production of rough diamonds, agreed in November
explode as the government of national to start monitoring all diamond production in West
reconciliation neither reconciled anyone nor Africa and profiling all exports from the region.
managed to prepare credible elections before the
end of President Laurent Gbagbo’s constitutional In Asia a major breakthrough was achieved in
mandate in October. Indonesia’s long-running Aceh conflict with the
signing of a peace agreement in August. But
Zimbabwe’s March parliamentary election gave the Central Asia underwent considerable upheaval in
ruling ZANU-PF party a controversial landslide over 2005, with an uprising in Andijan provoking a
the opposition but failed to resolve the five-year murderous crackdown by Uzbekistan’s security
political impasse. It was followed in less than two forces and with street protestors ousting
months by a notorious government clean-up Kyrgyzstan’s President Askar Akayev.
operation that left more than 700,000 slum dwellers
homeless or without livelihoods, exacerbating Democracy collapsed in Nepal following King
already serious food insecurity and HIV/AIDS crises. Gyanendra’s February coup, while Maoist rebels
4 In more stable Uganda the government’s on-again intensified their insurgency before declaring a
There was no progress towards
eliminating weapons of mass
destruction
6000
5000
4000
Global Governance Initiative 2006
3000
2000
1000
0
1982 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Source: Human Security Centre. 2005. Human Security Report 2005: War and Peace in the 21st Century. New
York: Oxford University Press.
1
Peace and security
“full civil nuclear energy cooperation”. There was Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear
some concern internationally that India received too Terrorism, the first international anti-terrorism treaty
much return for too few commitments, and that— since the 11 September 2001 attacks, calling on
while re-engagement by the de facto nuclear states to develop appropriate legal frameworks
weapons states in non-proliferation issues was to criminalizing nuclear terrorism–related offenses.
be welcomed—NPT objectives were not sufficiently
advanced by this bilateral deal. With much of its leadership captured or killed and
its organizational effectiveness drastically
Eliminating terrorism reduced, Al Qaeda’s influence in 2005 appears
International efforts to eliminate terrorism were largely to have become more inspirational than
unsuccessful in 2005, with coordinated attacks on organizational. The London bombings in July
the London transport system, the targeting of tourists increased concern because they were
in Egypt and Indonesia, major attacks in Delhi and perpetrated by what appear to be small self-
Amman, insurgents’ continued kidnapping and killing motivated groups of alienated second or third
of aid workers in Afghanistan, and daily bombings in generation immigrants. Deadly attacks occurred
Iraq. Although international cooperation among police in Egypt, Bangladesh, Indonesia, India and
and intelligence agencies improved, the underlying Jordan as well as the United Kingdom.
political and economic causes of the problem
remained mostly unaddressed. Iraq continued to be the scene of the most
devastating and regular attacks, blamed variously
The number of significant international terrorist on followers of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, Al Qaeda’s
events rose dramatically in 2004, the latest year reported field commander in Iraq, and disgruntled
with statistics. Nearly three-quarters of the attacks former Baathists. The rushed constitutional process
took place in Iraq, India and Indian-controlled deepened rifts between Sunni Arabs and Iraq’s two
Kashmir, but the frequency of major incidents also other principal communities—Shiites and Kurds—
increased outside these regions. It seems likely, and fueled rather than dampened the insurgency.
when the figures are in, that this trend will have Iraqi security forces and recruitment centres were
continued in 2005. primary targets, as were coalition troops and
Shiites.
Although world leaders at the September Summit
condemned terrorism “in all its forms and Suicide attacks in Israel came down dramatically
manifestations”, they failed to agree on a norm- from 2004, as Palestinian militant groups largely
setting definition making clear that any attacks adhered to an informal ceasefire brokered in
against civilians, whatever the context, were as February with the Israeli government.
globally unacceptable as piracy and slavery.
There was positive news in Northern Ireland, as the
In April the General Assembly did take a step Irish Republican Army renounced violence for the
6 forward with the adoption of the International first time in its 30-year armed campaign and
The UN Summit failed to produce
a commitment to address the
international transfer and
brokering of small arms
In July the first global treaty on small arms, the • Former Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari—for
UN Firearms Protocol, entered into force, with its mediating the Aceh peace agreement.
state parties undertaking to exercise strict control • Kenyan General Lazarus Sumbeiywo—for
over the manufacture, export, import and in- leading the successful north-south peace
transit movement of firearms. In a further negotiations in Sudan.
development, by year’s end 38 governments had • The people of Liberia—for their overwhelming
expressed support for an Arms Trade Treaty that participation in the country’s post-Taylor
would subject international arms transfers to election, and their selection of Africa’s first
agreed principles, though the four main world woman president, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf.
traders in small arms and light weapons—the • The Canadian Government and Prime Minister
United States, Russia, China and Ukraine, in that Paul Martin—for their sustained promotion of
order—remain aloof. the “responsibility to protect”, showing at the
World Summit how real political leadership
There was little movement on arms brokers able to can produce results.
circumvent national laws by operating in one
country while arranging deals in others. Despite Among the more blameworthy:
calls by UN Secretary-General Annan for member
states to address the issue and considerable • The World Summit “spoilers”—on the one
lobbying by civil society activists, the UN Summit hand a small group of developing countries,
failed to produce a commitment to address the with Egypt and Pakistan among the most
international transfer and brokering of small arms. consistently prominent, and on the other the
United States—which, by refusing consensus
At the regional and national levels there were some on numerous issues, undermined what were
useful developments. The United Nations otherwise overwhelming majorities for change.
Development Programme (UNDP) and other • Iran and Korea DPR—for resisting international
international agencies supported disarmament, concern about their weapon-making intentions.
demobilization and reintegration (DDR) • The nuclear weapons states—for resisting
programmes around the world, which can help movement on arms control and disarmament 7
Global Governance Initiative 2006
initiatives, which are both inherently worthwhile settlements around Jerusalem do not become
and necessary to strengthen global new flashpoints.
commitment to non-proliferation. • Achieving sustainable peace and stability in
• Zimbabwe’s President Mugabe—for his Afghanistan, a resolution of the conflicts in
government’s callous “clean-up” operation Nepal and Sri Lanka and further progress in
8
Scores
Percent
50
1990 2001
46.4
44.6
40
39.4
33
30
29.9
Global Governance Initiative 2006
2015 target
20
19.6
16.6
10 11.3
10.2 9.5
0
Sub-Saharan Africa Southern Asia Eastern Asia South-Eastern Asia Latin America
and Oceana and the Caribbean
2 Source: United Nations. 2005. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005. New York.
Poverty and hunger
people’s access to food and livelihoods, resulting in Based on the work of 10 task forces supported by
acute hunger. At the end of 2005, 39 countries about 250 high-level experts from around the
faced food emergencies. Nineteen of them were world, it provided a wealth of information and
suffering from conflict, civil strife or an influx of valuable guidelines to help developing countries
refugees, with 14 of the conflict zones in Africa. formulate their MDG-based poverty reduction
Sixteen countries in Africa faced successive food strategies. The report argued that national poverty
shortages and drought at the end of the year. The reduction strategies should anchor the scaling up
situation worsened in the Sahel region of West of public investments, capacity building, domestic
Africa, affected by locusts and drought, and severe resource mobilization and official development
malnutrition was reported to be on the rise in Mali, assistance. They should also provide a framework
Mauritania and Niger. Owing to poor harvests and for strengthening governance, promoting human
the lack of policy action in Malawi and Zimbabwe, rights, engaging civil society and promoting the
parts of Southern Africa were sliding into a hunger private sector.
crisis. And with poor harvests, conflict and
displaced populations Sudan continued to face a The report called on international donors to
precarious food situation. But even as transitory identify at least a dozen MDG “fast-track”
hunger received attention, chronic hunger remained countries for a rapid scale-up of official
widespread and persistent. development assistance in 2005—and to launch
“quick wins” such as free or subsidized
Major policy events and initiatives of 2005 distribution of chemical fertilizers, free mass
Since the adoption of the MDGs in September distribution of insecticide-treated malaria bednets
2000, poverty has climbed to the top of the global and the expansion of school meal programmes
agenda, leading to a paradigm shift in development using locally produced foods. It argued for a
thinking and economic policies across the globe. In substantial increase in official development
2005 this shift showed up in international decisions assistance and debt relief in support of the global
on aid, debt and trade and in national development development goals. It also called on high-income
strategies and policies. The year saw a remarkable countries to open their markets to developing
array of high-level initiatives for addressing poverty country exports through the Doha “development
and hunger and a new focus on agriculture and round” and help least developed countries raise
rural areas, where most hunger persists. export competitiveness through investments in
critical trade-related infrastructure. And it called
International initiatives on international donors to mobilize support for
In January 2005 the UN Millennium Project, headed global scientific research and development to
by Columbia University Professor Jeffrey Sachs, address special needs of the poor in areas of
released Investing in Development: A Practical Plan health, agriculture, energy, climate and natural
10 to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. resource and environmental management.
Proportion of people living with insufficient food,
1990–92 and 2000–02
Percent
40
1990–92
36 2000–02
33
30
25
18
16
13 13
10 11 10
0
Sub-Saharan Southern South-Eastern Eastern Latin America
Africa Asia Asia Asia and the Caribbean
Source: United Nations. 2005. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005. New York.
2
Examples of commitments by individual donors problem of aid quality and the perennial lack of
include: adequate coordination among donors. Such
concerns led more than a hundred donors and
• The European Union pledged total official developing countries to sign up in March to the
development assistance of 0.7% of gross Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, and they
partnerships will be developed to unleash win-win (United States), Weltweite Aktion gegen Armut
business opportunities at the bottom of the (Germany), Hottekenai Sekai no Mazushisa (Japan)
pyramid in the dry areas of South Asia. and 2005 plus d’excuses (France). The Live-8
concerts before the G-8 Summit meeting in
After the G-8 Summit, Business Action for Africa, a Gleneagles were the largest ever global events
coalition of international companies working to calling for an end to extreme poverty. The
attract investment to Africa, was launched to campaigners also focused on the UN Summit in
showcase good business practices and influence New York in September and the WTO Ministerial
pro-poor growth and policies. Business Action for meeting in Hong Kong in December.
Development—a partnership of the UN Global
Compact, the International Business Leaders The global campaigns helped create the political
Forum and the UNDP—brought together climate for the positive decisions on increased aid
executives, civil society leaders and development and debt relief. They raised public awareness about
experts to scale up business contributions to the scale of extreme poverty, its moral and political
achieving the MDGs. The UN Department of unacceptability in a world of plenty, and some of
Economic and Social Affairs and the World the key political decisions that must be taken for its
Economic Forum partnered to stimulate progress eradication. Millions of young people engaged in
on some of the interdisciplinary and public-private the campaigns.
problems through a new, informal process to
develop policy alternatives and issue The media, an important actor in civil society, did
recommendations. much to raise awareness and stimulate private
giving after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. But it
In October the public and private sectors came missed the opportunity in 2005 in Niger, whose
together to launch a Business Alliance for Food food crisis was not reported until very late.
Fortification (BAFF) chaired by Coca-Cola, Danone
and Unilever, sponsored by the Global Alliance for Praise and blame
Improved Nutrition in partnership with the World For the poverty and hunger MDGs, praise is due at
Bank Institute. The network aims to ensure a the global level to the UN Millennium Project’s Task
long-term, market-viable supply of fortified foods Force on Hunger for its sound research-based
for the 2 billion people living with vitamin and recommendations and advocacy for action, the
mineral deficiencies that cause untold human Commission for Africa initiated by Prime Minister
suffering and large productivity losses and Blair for energizing major aid and debt relief
curative healthcare costs. BAFF will identify new initiatives for Africa, and civil society campaigns for
financial mechanisms and new business models, assuring that the MDGs stayed high on the global
expand scientific knowledge and expertise in agenda. At the national level, praise goes to
fortification and catalyse joint action by leaders in China, India and Brazil for investing in
companies, development partners and large policy initiatives, such as eliminating taxes on
14 governments. farming in China, initiating a National Employment
For 2006 a key question is whether
promised aid increases, debt relief
and improved trade policy will really
be delivered
15
Score
3 Education 4
Global Governance Initiative 2006
Goals
• Ensure that by 2015 children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able
to complete a full course of primary schooling.
• Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education,
preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015.
3 Rationale for the score decade saw actual declines in enrolments in some
In 2005 the world took some small steps towards Central Asian and European countries, where
Education
fulfilling the commitments on education made in political transition often brought economic
2000. Rich countries agreed to substantially difficulties that undermined state services.
increase overall development assistance by 2010. Economic and political difficulties in some African
Some developing country governments made real countries, including Equatorial Guinea, Gabon,
progress at the national level. Several developing Kenya, Namibia and Zambia, led to enrolment
countries put forward new action plans for declines of 5% or more. At current rates of
education as part of the Education for All Fast progress, the net enrolment ratio—which stood at
Track Initiative (FTI)—an international partnership 82% of primary-school-age children actually
that promises to bridge funding gaps for poor enrolled in 1990—will increase only to 87% by
countries that develop credible education sector 2015. Nearly 50 countries, mostly in Sub-Saharan
plans. China is revising its “law of compulsory Africa and South Asia, will fall short of achieving
education” to eliminate school fees. In South Asia universal primary education by 2015.
summits of government leaders gave renewed
emphasis to achieving the education goals. Civil Gender parity
society groups mobilized public opinion, spurring In 2005 the world failed to eliminate the gap
government action in these directions. between the numbers of boys and girls in primary
and secondary schools. About a third of all
But 2005 was also the year that we missed the first countries failed to achieve parity in primary, and
of the deadlines outlined in the global goals— nearly two-thirds in secondary. Overall, 94
gender parity in primary and secondary education. countries missed the goal, making gender
The leaders of the rich countries who promised to disparities the rule rather than the exception. Why?
increase aid failed to specify what that aid would Usually because households place less value on
be used for. Donor countries in general failed to educating girls than boys—a reflection of broader
honour their financial commitments under the FTI. inequalities outside the home, particularly
pronounced in the poorer countries of Africa and
The state of education South Asia. On present trends, more than 40 poor
Universal primary education countries, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South
Over the past ten years primary school enrolments Asia, will still not have gender parity by 2015.
were up by some 50 million more children. Some of
the poorest African countries have shown But discrimination in schooling is not an inevitable
particularly rapid progress, with improvements of consequence of poverty. Benin, Chad, Gambia,
more than 20% in Benin, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mauritania, Morocco, Nepal and Yemen all
Gambia, Guinea, Malawi and Mauritania. But some increased the proportion of girls enrolled relative to
100 million children who should be in primary boys by 20% or more after 1990. Bangladesh
school are not enrolled. Population growth in the rapidly achieved full gender parity at the primary
poorest countries nearly matches the increases in level, in part by providing stipends for girls at both
enrolments, meaning that the percentage of primary and secondary level. This not only raised
16 children in school rose only slightly. And the past the level of girls’ participation in schools—it also
Primary school enrolment ratios, girls to boys,
1990–91 and 2001–02
60
50
30
1990–91
2001–02
20
10
ia
an
ia
a
a
ia
ia
ric
ric
an
As
As
As
be
Af
Af
ce
rn
rib
rn
n
n
er
n
te
he
Ca
er
ra
st
es
ut
rth
ha
Ea
e
W
So
Sa
th
No
h-
d
b-
ut
an
So
Su
tin
Am
er
ica
3
La
Education
Source: United Nations. 2005. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005. New York.
had other positive side effects, such as enabling in support of country-led plans. It failed even to
girls to marry later and making them more aware of mention that the world had missed achieving
their rights. Tanzania achieved gender parity too. gender parity by 2005, something that should
Both impoverished countries show that policy have received major attention. And the World
changes (in education and other areas) can shift Bank–IMF sessions became consumed with debt
enrolments towards gender parity—sometimes relief, with guidance on likely sectoral allocations
quickly. What is required is greater public of the additional aid.
commitment to this objective, a consistent
approach to reform and the deliberate provision of For education this failure to secure agreement is a
resources to support strategic policy changes. serious lost opportunity. Education needs (and is
ready to absorb) a good bit more money, yet it has
Key events and policies of 2005 historically been underfunded relative to other
In 2005 donor countries made big promises on aid development sectors. Recent work commissioned
and debt relief, as described in the introduction to by UK government agencies has shown that the
this report and in the chapter on poverty and total additional aid needed to achieve the goals of
hunger. They promised to increase overall universal primary education and gender parity will
development assistance by about two-thirds be approximately US$ 10 billion a year over the
(including a doubling of aid to Africa), and they decade to 2015. Total aid to basic education is
agreed to cancel all the debt owed by the world’s now only about 15%, or US$ 1.5 billion a year. This
poorest countries to the World Bank, the IMF and additional investment alone would account for
the African Development Bank. They did not, more than 20% of the total additional aid
however, make any particular commitments on commitments agreed at the G-8 summit at
education. Gleneagles. If agreed, it would help to set the
majority of countries back on track to achieve the
The G-8 meeting in July did not deal with how education goals.
the additional aid resources should be spent.
Such sectoral allocations could have been Donors failed to take advantage of the main
discussed in September at the UN Summit and mechanism for channelling aid to education. The
at the World Bank–IMF meetings a few weeks FTI, established in 2002, is an international
later. But the UN Summit barely managed to eke partnership to accelerate progress towards
out a general document, merely reaffirming the universal primary completion by 2015. It aims to
global commitment to education for all and the achieve this by promoting more efficient aid for
need to provide more resources through the FTI primary education, sustained increases in aid, 17
Net enrolment ratio in primary education, 1990–91 and 2001–02
Enrolment (%)
100 2015 target
90
80
70
60
Global Governance Initiative 2006
50
40
30
1990–91
20 2001–02
10
0
ia
an
ia
ns
e
ia
ia
a
a
ia
ia
3
ric
ric
an
As
As
As
As
As
io
be
ro
Af
Af
ce
g
Eu
rn
rn
S,
rib
rn
rn
re
O
n
n
e
he
CI
te
Ca
ra
er
S,
ng
st
st
es
ut
ha
rth
Ea
CI
Ea
pi
e
So
W
Sa
th
lo
No
Education
h-
ve
d
b-
ut
an
De
So
Su
ica
er
Am
tin
La
Source: United Nations. 2005. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005. New York.
sound sector policies, adequate and sustainable But direct resources for disbursement through the
domestic financing for education and greater FTI over 2004–07 have remained at about
accountability for sector results. It emerged in US$ 300 million, and indirect funding raised
direct response to the promise in Dakar that “no through bilateral programmes probably amounts to
countries seriously committed to education for all little more—small sums indeed, when compared
will be thwarted in their achievement of this goal by with the additional US$ 10 billion required each
a lack of resources”. It was supposed to raise year to achieve the education goals across the
additional resources to support countries with developing world.
credible plans to achieve the education goals. But
donors have provided few such resources. As a 2005 also saw little progress on ways to deliver
result, the programme (located at the World Bank) additional aid. One potential innovation was the
shifted to helping build development partnerships International Finance Facility (IFF) advocated by UK
between donors and recipients to strengthen Chancellor Gordon Brown. This proposed facility—
domestic capacity in education planning and to allow international borrowing against future aid
analysis—and to facilitate increased transfers of aid commitments, underpinned by long-term economic
through the “normal” channels, not through growth in developed countries, and thus at no net
separate, parallel mechanisms. cost to recipients—was advocated as a means of
front-loading aid to speed progress on
The FTI could have done much more. Donors and development. Chancellor Brown argued that
partner countries recognize that it is one of the education would be a particular beneficiary, noting
most important partnerships for delivering on the in a January 2005 Lancaster House speech that
MDGs. The G-8 communique specifically endorsed “with the IFF we can ensure all developing
it, with the aim “that every FTI-elected country will countries have the increased, predictable, up-front
develop the capacity and have the resources funding they need to abolish user fees and enable
necessary to implement their sustainable education more effective teacher recruitment and training,
strategies”. In 2005 the number of countries eligible greater provision of teaching and learning materials,
for FTI funding increased to 16, with as many as 44 improvements to school buildings and sanitation
18 more to be included in the next two years. facilities, and special help to get girls into
Most regions saw a flurry of
activities in 2005, inspired in
part by the schedule of
international meetings
Education
international progress on aid and debt relief, civil advocacy campaigns for primary education. They
society groups continued to contribute directly in reflect the growing global discourse on basic
education. The Global Campaign for Education—a education as a fundamental right, not merely an
coalition of non-governmental organizations and instrument for economic development.
teachers’ unions in more than 150 countries—
mobilized an estimated 5 million children in 113 China moved to revise its 1986 Law of Compulsory
countries to produce 3.5 million paper cut-out Education to introduce an unprecedented notion of
“buddies”. Some 40,000 buddies were presented free education. Since 1985 China’s policy of
to Tony Blair at the outset of the G-8 summit to financial decentralization so successfully mobilized
demand education to end poverty. Later in the local and non-government resources that it led to
year, some 100,000 went to the UN Summit in near-universal attendance and put China close to
New York. achieving the enrolment goals. But decentralization
also created extreme disparities, leaving poorer
Regional and national initiatives regions to rely on themselves to pay the
Most regions saw a flurry of activities in 2005, considerable recurrent costs of education. They
inspired in part by the schedule of international responded by charging fees on various items,
meetings, which required preparation, negotiation though formal tuition is still forbidden by law.
and lobbying at country and regional levels. And Despite repeated government intervention and
developing countries from Kenya to Madagascar to continual public pressure, fee-charging remains a
Moldova put forward education plans that received severe problem—ironically in regions of poverty
the endorsement of the FTI. where schools lack other means to sustain their
operations. Free education entails, however, a
In South Asia representatives from 200 companies minimum cost for local governments and a
met in March to share knowledge and present commitment to students’ rights to education and
lessons from corporate-led initiatives, particularly thus to public resources. Although signifying a
those relevant to the development goals. The fundamental turn in ideology, the new law was
meeting’s closing declaration urged more company nonetheless enthusiastically advocated by the
initiatives in primary education. In India several legislators in the National People’s Congress,
private companies started programmes for perhaps a local reflection of a global movement.
improving thousands of schools across different
states. The Azim Premji Foundation, a charitable Latin America’s progress towards the education
organization set up by the founder of WIPRO, the goals is generally more advanced than that of other
Indian multinational, has invested substantial sums, developing regions. But Nicaragua, Honduras and
working with thousands of state schools across the Guyana are each partners in the FTI, supported by
country to improve quality and introduce finance and technical assistance from the Inter-
information technologies in schools as well as American Development Bank. Identifying and
helping state governments in governance reforms. disseminating best practices in primary
The Fifth South Asia Regional Ministerial education—at conferences in Mexico and 19
2005 leaves something to build on,
with more funding generally
available for development and more
attention to the need to achieve the
global goals
Global Governance Initiative 2006
El Salvador—has been a leit motif in the region. In same as those for many other development goals.
September 2005 a high-profile regional study was The G-8 countries deserve praise for making
launched to identify business interest in primary meaningful financial commitments, though the
education, and corporate initiatives for education figures they propose still fall short of what is
continued to develop, mainly in the form of needed to achieve the whole range of development
Praise and blame The FTI could become a key instrument for
Because 2005 focused generally on development, channelling such aid. The bilateral donors have
rather than specifically on the education goals, the agreed to fund partner countries up to the levels
20 leaders and laggards relevant to education are the identified as necessary, but there is no explicit
The momentum developed in 2005
needs to be strengthened by
continuing advocacy and action on
the part of international education
non-governmental organizations
Education
such as fee-free primary schooling, which brings towards what could and should be achieved by
many more poor children to school—are strongly international dialogue. Will such successful lobbying
and quickly supported. Kenya, for example, continue?
recently abolished school fees and joined the FTI
during 2005. But the quality of education can suffer The business community has done little to
as enrolments expand. The opportunity to provide promote the education goals. It could do much
quick and substantial increases in aid resources in more, not only by providing direct financial or
such cases would have an important human support, but by advocating national and
demonstration effect for other countries. The international action for education. The quality of
absence of resources could as easily establish an national human resources is a central and direct
opposite dynamic, leading poorer countries to concern of the business sector. Yet business has
conclude that they need not bother putting their engaged in only a few efforts for education,
own very limited resources into education reform particularly in Asia. Will business take on a more
because the rich world will not help. Will countries active role?
that take such difficult but important steps receive
the support they need? 2005 may not have turned out to be a make-or-
break year, it leaves us on the cusp of a decisive
Although the commitment to education is high in moment. Developing countries are making plans
most poorer countries, expenditures on education for—and increasingly adopting—better policies.
in some cases fall well short of the 5%–6% of GDP Civil society groups have mobilized massively in
typical in richer countries. Some of those that fall support of the goals. Donors have promised
particularly short of universal primary enrolment increased support. Will all this come together in a
spend less than 2% of GNP on primary schooling. new and improved global compact for education
Will enough developing countries increase their in 2006?
21
Score
4 Health 5
Global Governance Initiative 2006
Goals
• Stop and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and malaria.
• Reduce by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate and by three-quarters
the maternal mortality ratio by 2015.
remains far off track on all its health goals. The from AIDS. The three regions with the worst
minor steps forward in 2005 include: problems—Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and
Oceania—have the least progress and the least
• Renewed attention to global public health chance of catching up to meet the goals.
issues, particularly child mortality.
• A modest increase in resources for malaria Key developments in 2005
and HIV/AIDS. In early November 2005 the U.S. public television
• Significant new funds from Europe and the Bill programme NOVA broadcast a six-part series on
& Melinda Gates Foundation for immunizations three consecutive nights, describing in chilling detail
against childhood diseases. the grotesque inadequacies of the global public
• New resources dedicated to health information health system. It showed, for example, that
systems to better apply resources, to respond Vietnam, with the largest number of human avian
effectively and to monitor and evaluate flu deaths, has no effective surveillance for the
outcomes. disease. Countries most affected by HIV/AIDS have
• The UN Millennium Project’s roadmaps for how little capacity to test for infections or to deliver
to achieve health goals. drugs to those who need them, even if they were
available. More than half the people living in the
These steps, while laudable, are nowhere near poorest countries lack any source of safe drinking
enough to overcome accumulated shortfalls in water. But the broadcast raised awareness in a
global efforts on the public health front. constituency that is key to progress on global
health—the U.S. public.
The state of global public health
The great obstacle to serious progress towards the Time magazine hosted a three-day summit that
global health goals remains the woeful state of the brought together scientists, activists, advocates
world’s public health infrastructure. The trained and celebrities (from Alicia Keyes to Bill Clinton and
personnel, medicine, equipment, physical facilities Bill Gates) to focus on today’s global health
and governance systems to combat infectious problems. The summit stressed that many of those
disease and other threats to public health simply problems, especially those incorporated in the
do not exist to the needed degree in far too many MDGs, can be dealt with today, with existing
places. Many places lack reliable supplies of technology, if only donor nations and the
essential drugs. Basic laboratory testing supplies developing world made the commitments and
and equipment are often unavailable. Health investments they can readily afford.
information systems remain inadequate, making it
impossible to monitor the delivery and coverage of Global public health is now firmly on the global
interventions in a timely and effective way. agenda. But the accomplishments of 2005,
detailed below, remain an awkward patchwork
The poorer countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan of disjointed efforts on a decidedly inadequate
22 Africa, face dire shortages of health workers. Few scale.
The world is far off track to reduce the under-five mortality rate by two-thirds by 2015
180 185
172
160
140
100 105
90 87 88
80 83 86
2015 target
78 77 78
60 68
60
54
40 46 48
38 37
32
1990
2004
20 21 21
0
Sub- Southern CIS, Asia Oceania Western South- Northern Eastern Latin CIS, Developing
4
Saharan Asia Asia Eastern Africa Asia American Europe regions
Health
Africa Asia and the
Caribbean
Source: World Health Organization. 2005. Health and the Millennium Development Goals. Geneva.
Maternal and child mortality • The choice of maternal and child health as the
Mothers and children have not fared well on the theme of the 2005 World Health Day.
global agenda. Child survival, a global priority in • The Delhi Declaration on Maternal, Newborn
the 1980s and 1990s, gave way to the and Child Health.
emergence or recognition of other pressing public • The first of a recurring series of international
health problems, from AIDS to tuberculosis. conferences on “Countdown to 2015: Tracking
Dying mothers have never figured high on the Progress in Child Survival”, in December in
list of global health priorities. The good news for London.
2005 was that the world finally seemed to be • A WHO General Assembly resolution on
noticing that half a million mothers and more maternal, neonatal and child health.
than 6 million children die every year— • A series on neonatal survival in renowned
unnecessarily. medical journal The Lancet.
The year started with an important development. But such baby steps represented only minor
The UN Millennium Project’s task force on Child tinkering with business as usual. And business as
Health and Maternal Health issued a call to arms in usual means continuing massive human suffering.
Who’s Got the Power? Transforming Health
Systems for Women and Children, laying out the On current trends the maternal mortality ratio will
initiatives the world should undertake to kick-start not change noticeably, remaining a horrendous
progress and launch a decade of bold ambition. A 400 deaths per 100,000 live births for the world
renewed emphasis on child and maternal health as a whole. Countries where childbirth is most
also appeared in the World Health Organization’s risky are experiencing stagnation or even
(WHO) World Health Report 2005: Make Every reversals. Most developing countries are not on
Mother and Child Count. Important groups decided track for the child mortality goal. Reaching the
to start working together. To increase their target in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia,
efficiency and impact, the Partnership for Safe where the problems are most severe, will require
Motherhood and Newborn Health, the Healthy drastic action. Of the deaths of children under
Newborn Partnership and the Child Survival five, 80% occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and South
Partnership merged into a single Partnership for Asia. Sub-Saharan African has reduced under-
Maternal, Neonatal and Child Health. Other five mortality by only 7% since 1990. And today
advocacy initiatives included: more than 35% of Africa’s children face a greater 23
AIDS spreading, not retreating
1.20
1.2
1.0
Global Governance Initiative 2006
0.8 0.72
0.68
0.59
0.6 0.51
0.47
0.4
0.30
0.21
0.18
0.2 0.14 0.14
1990
2004
0.07 0.08
0.03 0.03
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 0.0
CIS, Latin Southern Oceania South- Developed CIS, Asia Eastern Northern Western
Europe America Asia Eastern regions Asia Africa Asia
Health
Source: United Nations. 2005. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005. New York.
risk of dying than they did ten years ago. For a AIDS
number of countries in Sub-Saharan African, this AIDS remained the leading cause of early death in
can in part be attributed to mother-to-child Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth biggest killer
transmission of HIV and the orphaning of children worldwide, with 3.1 million deaths in 2004,
whose parents have died of AIDS. Instead of including 510,000 child deaths. At the beginning of
reducing child mortality by two-thirds, we are on 2005 an estimated 39 million people globally were
track to reducing it by perhaps one-quarter— infected with HIV, just under half of them women.
meaning that every year 4.5 million children, who No region in the developing world is on track to
would have lived had the goal been taken stop and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Infections
seriously, will die. are still increasing in East Asia, South Asia, Oceania
and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
It may still be—just barely—possible to salvage the Prevalence rates in Sub-Saharan Africa and the
chance of achieving the goals of reducing maternal Caribbean have stabilized at very high levels, with
and child mortality. If all children under five had the increasing number of deaths from AIDS roughly
access to interventions already known to be matching the number of new infections. HIV/AIDS
effective and feasible for delivery at high coverage spending in 2006 is projected to be US$ 8.9 billion,
in low-income settings, 63% of child mortality could US$ 6 billion short of the estimated amount
be averted. And if all women had access to the needed to respond effectively to the crisis.
interventions for addressing complications of
pregnancy and childbirth, especially emergency In 2005 the compelling need to treat HIV/AIDS
obstetric care, 74% of maternal deaths could be victims had the world’s attention, if belatedly. While
avoided. treatment programmes were reinvigorating medical
communities in such places as South Africa and
But this will require a vastly increased Uganda, prevention received short shrift,
commitment to bolstering public health systems undermining efforts to halt and begin to reverse the
around the world, especially where they are spread of HIV/AIDS. According to the WHO, the
most badly broken. This must be a long-term lack of funds and priority meant that prevention
commitment. It will take time to build the needed programmes reached only one of every five people
physical and human infrastructure. But the goals who needed them. The Joint United Nations
will not be met unless that infrastructure is in Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that
24 place. more than half of available funds should be spent
Global Governance Initiative 2006
on prevention and about 20% on treatment, but together and one monitoring and evaluation system
some major funding organizations preferred to to provide necessary feedback to everyone
emphasize treatment. For example, the U.S. involved in the effort to control malaria in a given
President’s Emergency Program for AIDS Relief country. On the negative side, the Roll Back Malaria
was required by Congress to spend 70% of its Partnership—formed in 1998 through the joint
budget on treatment and palliative care and only
20% on prevention (of which a third must be spent
leadership of the WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank
and national governments—continues to suffer
4
on abstinence programmes of unproven from organizational problems and turf battles
Health
effectiveness). internally and externally, a serious challenge to
major progress against malaria.
Well intentioned donor programmes sometimes
worked at cross-purposes. A major constraint on Most of the steps forward in 2005, while promising,
global health progress continued to be the are more indications of what could be
shortage of personnel capable of providing services accomplished than significant accomplishments in
and managing programmes, and donor funds themselves.
sometimes attracted people to higher-paying
positions elsewhere. Donor procurement practices • Over the past few years, 14 of the 42
that bypass national networks threatened to countries where malaria is endemic increased
undermine national systems that desperately their use of insecticide-treated bed nets
needed strengthening for the long struggle against (perhaps the single most effective means of
HIV/AIDS. Concerns arose that gains in some prevention) by as much as tenfold—but for
countries such as Uganda might be facing many the increase was from so small a base,
reversals due to the availability of anti-retroviral 1%–3%, that they remain far short of the
drugs or changes in prevention strategies. Other target.
countries still needed to bolster and strengthen • The World Bank announced that a Malaria
their AIDS programmes. South Africa’s national Booster Program for Africa will spend
programme, for example, continued to suffer from US$ 500 million over three years, targeted to
a lack of focused leadership. 17 malaria-endemic countries—but the funds
come from existing Bank resources and thus
Malaria represent just a change of priorities, not new
The disease and death burden from malaria funding.
remains very high, with something on the order of • U.S. President Bush announced in July 2005 a
300–500 million infections and a million deaths in President’s Malaria Initiative of US$ 1.2 billion
2005. No technological breakthroughs are needed over the next five years to battle malaria in
to halt and reverse this trend—merely the Africa—but such pledges for development
deployment on available proven effective funding in the past have rarely been met in full.
interventions, for both prevention and treatment.
2005 saw limited progress. Fully 90% of malaria deaths occur in Sub-Saharan
Africa, so any effort to reverse the spread of
On the positie side, more funding became available malaria must focus on this region. Despite real
through the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, progress in the delivery of bed nets and
Tuberculosis and Malaria, the major international insecticides, only 15% of African children in malarial
funding mechanism for the global health goals. And risk areas sleep under a bed net, fewer than 5%
new thinking took hold on the need to have one under an insecticide-treated bed net. For the
strategic plan for each country, one national majority of African countries with data, at least half
coordination mechanism to bring all the pieces the children under five with fever are treated with 25
Other diseases
The epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria are receiv- Pakistan—and Egypt and India could be polio-free within
ing much attention and more resources as diseases of inter- months. But when local governments in northern Nigeria tem-
national concern. AIDS is the pandemic of the era. porarily suspended polio vaccinations two years ago,
Tuberculosis kills widely, is worsened by HIV, and yet is treat- responding to baseless fears that vaccinations would sterilize
able. And malaria kills an extraordinary number of children, Muslims and cause AIDS, they undermined a US$ 4 billion,
though it is both preventable and treatable with existing inter- 17-year worldwide effort to eradicate a disease that once par-
ventions. A wide array of other parasitic and infectious dis- alyzed 1,000 children each day. Though vaccination resumed
Global Governance Initiative 2006
eases, covered in the global goals as “other diseases”, in Nigeria in July 2004, the 12-month hiatus allowed polio to
imposes major health burdens and is often preventable or rebound across the country and re-infect other countries.
treatable at relatively low cost.
The world thus missed its goal of eradicating polio by the end
The international community came tantalizingly close to elimi- of 2005. Thanks to vigorous national and international efforts
nating a major health threat, but in 2004–05 it fell short. Polio by the African Union, with funding from the European
is a highly infectious disease that targets children, invades the Commission, Canada and Sweden, the polio epidemic was
nervous systems and can cause paralysis in a few hours or stopped in ten African countries during the year, and they and
even death. Since the 1988 inception of the Global Polio another 18 African nations launched a “maintenance” pro-
more than 99.5%, from 350,000 cases to only 1,262 cases in gramme was short some US$ 200 million. With appropriate
2005. Today, only six countries are the source of the polio funding, it may still be possible to eradicate polio within the
virus—Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Niger, Nigeria and next year to two.
anti-malarial drugs. In practice, however, coverage partners who represent the major health donors
rates for effective, life-saving treatment are likely to have agreed to promote and use a common
be significantly lower because of late treatment, framework “that sets standards for health
inadequate dosing, poor quality drugs and drug information systems”. This framework also
resistance. includes an assessment and monitoring tool. The
partnership should spur the development of
Information single, country-owned information systems to
A major development in 2005, with implications for replace the multiple systems established to
every health programme, is a new focus on satisfy the peculiar requirements of individual
information as a key ingredient for decision-making. donors. The commitment of the partners and
Many of the statistics and measures cited presumably the countries is to ensure that the
throughout this report are crude estimates. The information collected will be accessible by local,
lack of comprehensive registration of births or regional and global constituencies.
medical certification of death in many countries
forces us to rely on proxy indicators and estimates The year also saw the start of the Ellison Institute
for maternal and child mortality. Estimates of for World Health at Harvard University, funded by
malaria infection and its contribution to illness, Larry Ellison, founder of the Oracle Corporation. Its
debilitation and death are inherently challenging. mission is to “improve population health and the
Although such estimates do provide a general efficiency of health-system resources through the
sense of trends and are good enough to show that regular reporting of inputs, outputs and impacts of
the global public health picture remains bleak, the world’s health systems and major health
better measures would make it possible to do a far funders”. While the objectives of the institute and
better job of mobilizing and targeting resources the network may appear very similar, there are
effectively. important differences. The network is essentially
governmental, while the institute is an independent
To that end the Health Metrics Network, a non-governmental agency concerned more with
US$ 70 million seven-year project funded by the the analysis and dissemination of the information to
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, was launched at monitor as well as to effect change in health
the World Health Assembly to assist countries in systems and programmes. In addition, it will be
improving their information systems. The most developing new methods for assessing population
26 promising aspect of the project is that the health.
The question for 2006 is whether
the world will start investing for the
long term, committing resources on
the scale necessary to cope with
these global threats
Health
those responsible for the successes and failures: investment in an HIV vaccine, a high-risk, low-
financial-reward undertaking, Novartis’s work
Successes: on tuberculosis and dengue fever,
GlaxoSmithKline’s on malaria and tuberculosis,
• The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation—for Astra Zeneca’s on tuberculosis and Pfizer’s on
extraordinary financial and leadership a range of infectious diseases.
contributions across much of the spectrum of
global public health, including long-term Failures and missed opportunities:
investments in malaria vaccines and in
reducing the costs of treatment for AIDS and • The WHO—for its “3 by 5” campaign to treat
other diseases, and its partnership announced 3 million AIDS sufferers with anti-retroviral
late in 2005 with the Global Fund to reduce treatments by the end of 2005, which fell short
the malaria infection rate in Zambia by 75% by more than a million.
over three years. • The United States—for bypassing multilateral
• The UN Millennium Project—for the release of forums intended to coordinate aid on health
its crucial reports: Who’s Got the Power? and for undermining AIDS prevention efforts by
Transforming Health Systems for Women and promoting approaches not supported by
Children; Combating AIDS in the Developing scientific evidence.
World; Coming to Grips with Malaria in the
New Millennium; Investing in Strategies to Looking ahead
Reverse the Global Incidence of TB; and It will not be easy to overcome the major hurdles to
Prescription for Healthy Development: achieving the goals. Because facilities are
Increasing Access to Medicines. crumbling, they require massive investment. But
• Brazil—for its continuing commitment to the goals themselves have proved crucial in
universal access to anti-retroviral medications focusing attention and mobilizing resources. Now
for all of its HIV-infected citizens. Brazil’s that global public health is so firmly on the world’s
response has also been characterized by the agenda, the question for 2006 is whether the world
integration of prevention and treatment, local will start investing for the long term, committing
manufacture of medications and capacity resources on the scale necessary to cope with
building for treatment management. Its these global threats.
prevention programmes are based on
evidence and on principles of reducing harm The UN Millennium Project reports provide detailed
and are community developed. roadmaps of the steps to take across the range of
• The United States—for its important goals. Will those recommendations shape the
commitment to HIV/AIDS research. The 2005 policies of national governments and
budget, more than US$ 2 billion, intergovernmental organizations? Will the private
encompassed the entire range of efforts from sector become broadly involved in promoting the
basic science to epidemiology to therapeutics adoption of good global public health policies, 27
Will the various strategies for
distributing drugs between and
within countries strengthen, or
weaken, national health
infrastructures?
Global Governance Initiative 2006
going beyond individual corporate philanthropy? On child survival, the London conference at the
Will civil society groups mount effective advocacy end of 2005 developed measures and targets so
campaigns around these strategies? that governments could be held to account for
specific actions. What will governments do against
Western countries recognize that they are those targets in 2006?
significant efforts to help developing countries keep drugs. Will the various strategies for distributing
their medical personnel gainfully employed at drugs between and within countries strengthen, or
home? weaken, national health infrastructures?
28
Score
5 Environment 2
Environment
Rationale for the score gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere.
In 2005 the continuing lack of serious high-level Over the last 150 years the planet has warmed, and
political commitment to global environmental goals studies reported in 2005, the warmest on record,
earned the world a very low score of two for its have decisively shown that alternative explanations
environmental efforts for the year, one lower than in are insufficient to explain the total change. At present
previous years. Few countries slowed or reduced rates, atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping
greenhouse gas emissions, and prospects for an gases will double from pre-industrial levels by the
effective global effort to reduce emissions significantly middle or end of this century, warming the world
are uncertain at best. No serious frameworks are in between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees Celsius.
place to ensure the integrity of the ecosystems that
human societies ultimately depend on. Hundreds of As a consequence, we are likely to exceed the
millions of people still lack access to clean water, and threshold beyond which climate change becomes
very little progress is being made to bring adequate dangerous to millions of people. Already the
sanitation to the 2.3 billion people who now lack it. fingerprints of warming are visible, including the
steady retreat of polar ice over the last 25 years, an
Even in this gloom, flickers of light were unusually intense hurricane season, including the
perceptible. One significant international agreement first recorded hurricane in the South Atlantic, and
on climate change—the Kyoto Protocol—came into the melting of glaciers. Possible impacts include
effect, as did the European Union’s emission rising seas that inundate coastal cities, collapsing
trading system. And many local governments marine ecosystems and even a new ice age in
moved boldly ahead of their national leaders on Western Europe if the Atlantic Gulf Stream current
emission reduction initiatives. The landmark shuts down.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment detailed for the
first time humanity’s impact on nature, providing the The Kyoto Protocol became international law in
foundation for better policies. Asia made significant February with 156 parties, which thereby
strides in providing access to clean water. committed themselves to a global regime for
slowing and adapting to climate change during
Preventing harmful climate change 2008–12. But Kyoto requires only small reductions
Despite compelling evidence, spiraling energy from only a subset of countries, which together
prices, the ratification of a binding international account for less than 30% of total emissions. Not
legal framework and available and proven all these countries were on track to meet their
technologies for efficient and lower intensity energy targets, and the United States, responsible for
generation, global efforts to prevent climate change more than a fifth of all emissions of heat-trapping
remained anaemic. gases, refused to join Kyoto. That refusal and poor
performance by other wealthy nations imperiled
There is no longer any reasonable doubt that humans efforts to motivate rapidly industrializing countries
contribute to climate change by releasing greenhouse like China and India to curb their own emissions.
29
The sustained rise in world energy
prices helped drive substantial new
investment in renewable
alternatives and conservation
Global Governance Initiative 2006
2005 did see other efforts on climate change. UK alternatives and conservation. Already in 2004
Prime Minister Tony Blair identified climate change about US$ 30 billion was invested in renewable
as one of the highest priorities for the G-8 summit energy worldwide (excluding large hydropower),
he chaired in July. He included several large compared with conventional power sector
developing countries in the discussions. By investment of roughly US$ 150 billion. The fastest
supplement to the battered Kyoto/UN process. generation capacity has tripled since 1999, with
Also in July the Australia and United States agreed installations in 2004 up 20% from the year before
with China, India, Japan and the Republic of Korea and projections for 2005 even higher. Brazil, the
on a framework that consolidates their existing world leader in “flex fuel” motors that can run on
technology cooperation agreements, particularly any combination of alcohol or gasoline, saw sales
around cleaner combustion of coal. No new of such vehicles surpass gasoline-only vehicles in
resources were included in the package. China, August.
which has publicly recognized its need to enhance
the efficiency of its rapidly growing economy, The private sector in developed countries
brought stringent vehicle mileage standards into increasingly recognized that climate change and
effect. In September the European Union and emissions regulations are becoming significant
China agreed on a partnership aimed at developing issues for shareholder value and global economic
and demonstrating by 2020 advanced “zero- stability. A UK coalition of insurance companies
emissions” coal technology, significantly reducing reported in June that even a small increase in the
the cost of key energy technologies, promoting intensity of extreme weather events brought on by
deployment and dissemination and reducing the climate change—and affecting the Europe, Japan
energy intensity of their economies. and United States—might destabilize capital
markets and significantly impede economic
The UN Climate Conference in Montreal in growth. The Carbon Disclosure Project, which
December marked a significant step forward. Most aims to get leading companies to disclose the
developed countries—including Canada, Japan regulatory costs or threats to physical
and those of the European Union—launched new infrastructure from climate change, this year
negotiations under the Kyoto Protocol for binding doubled the assets it represents to more than
emissions reductions beyond 2012. Under the non- US$ 21 trillion. Two-thirds of FT500 companies
binding framework of the 1992 UN Climate took steps in 2005 to assess their climate risk and
Convention, they agreed with the United States to implement strategies to reduce emissions and
begin discussions on the future of the global seize emerging market opportunities.
climate regime. Negotiators streamlined the Clean
Development Mechanism, which allows emissions Carbon became a global commodity with the
reductions in developing countries to be banked launch of the carbon emissions trading market in
and traded internationally. Developing countries, Europe. Such steps are necessary to make
rather than simply pressuring the developed world carbon emissions controllable through market
to do more, became proactive in identifying and mechanisms. Within Europe high energy prices—
supporting domestic efforts to reduce greenhouse and fears that European industry might exceed
gas emissions. emissions targets—boosted prices to € 30 per
ton of emissions, almost three times its price at
The sustained rise in world energy prices helped launch, though trading remains light. Seeing an
30 drive substantial new investment in renewable opportunity to attract more foreign investment,
The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, released in 2005,
provided compelling evidence of
our failure to keep pace with the
rate at which we are damaging
nature
Environment
companies to finance projects in developing company in China and initiate a program in the
countries, where emissions reductions can be United States to show preference to suppliers that
more cheaply achieved than in their industrial home set their own goals for aggressive emissions
countries, and receive credit for the resulting reductions.
emission reductions. This is intended to drive
foreign investment in cleaner energy and industrial Reversing the loss of biological resources
processes, helping poorer countries to develop Protecting biological resources requires not
faster and more sustainably. In practice, of the 170 simply the preservation of individual species but
projects submitted by July 2005, only 12 had the maintenance of whole ecosystems. The
been approved, with the first emission reductions Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, released in
certified in October. The approval process is 2005, provided compelling evidence of our failure
underfunded and mired in bureaucracy. to keep pace with the rate at which we are
damaging nature. This landmark study, involving
In the United States President Bush’s more than 1,300 scientists from 95 countries
administration found itself more isolated in its over the past four years, offered an audit of our
refusal to take the problem seriously. In June, by management of the planet. It showed that most
a vote of 53-44, the Senate passed a resolution of the 24 ecosystem services key to human well-
stating that “It is the sense of the Senate that being are now being degraded or used
Congress should enact a comprehensive and unsustainably—from fisheries and forests to
effective national programme of mandatory, freshwater resources. The global frameworks for
market-based limits and incentives on emissions conserving natural systems were simply not in
of greenhouse gases that slow, stop, and reverse place, and national policies were moving in the
the growth of such emissions . . .” Lower levels wrong direction. For that reason, we gave the
of government went beyond rhetoric to action. world zero out of ten.
California set emission reduction targets that
would reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 2000 Such degradation is not just a matter of losing a
levels by 2010, and cut them to 80% below 1990 few—or even many—cuddly species. Defending
levels by 2050. Nine northeastern states capped ecosystem integrity is key to alleviating poverty,
emissions from some 600 power stations and protecting against natural disasters, ensuring
worked on plans to reduce them by 10% from global public health and redressing some of the
2015 to 2020, while 187 mayors committed to causes of violent conflict. Impoverished rural
reducing municipal emissions by 7% or more. communities depend overwhelmingly on natural
systems and services for survival. That lesson
Individual corporations also acted. General became clear at the end of 2004, when the Asian
Electric, the company with the largest market tsunami did far less damage in coastal areas
capitalization in the world, announced that it will where mangrove forests and coral reefs were
spend US$ 1.5 billion annually on clean intact than where they had been stripped away by
technologies in an initiative to seize market shrimp aquaculture and other development 31
Level of water stress for the global population, 1990 and 2025
Population (billions)
5
3
Global Governance Initiative 2006
1990
0
Surplus Marginal Stressed Scarce
activities. In 2005 Hurricane Katrina proved so “perverse subsidies”, but little progress was
devastating to the southern United States in part expected from the December 2005 Ministerial
because 1,900 square miles of protective coastal meeting in Hong Kong.
mangrove wetlands had disappeared in Louisiana
since the 1930s. Brazil and Peru decided to start construction of the
long-contested Transoceanic Highway project,
As people push into once-inaccessible wild without appropriate social and environmental
spaces, as they trade exotic species and as they impact assessments or mitigation measures. In
fail to protect animal health, they disrupt existing their absence, this new strategic link to Asian
ecosystems and render themselves more markets will fuel deforestation and human
vulnerable to the spread of disease pathogens, settlement in the Western Amazon. The United
such as avian bird flu, SARS and (originally) HIV. States continued to refuse to become party to the
And as natural resources such as water and soil Convention on Biodiversity, the key global
degrade, their scarcity can combine with other mechanism for ecosystem management, despite
stresses to drive violent conflict—a reality broad business support.
recognized in the award of the Nobel Peace Prize
to a Kenyan environmentalist last year. In 2005 On a small scale, the need to preserve natural
several aid agencies began compiling lessons from sources of key resources, such as drinking water,
environmental efforts for conflict prevention and led to some innovative efforts to pay private actors
reconstruction. to manage the environment sustainably. The
Panamanian government and private investors
Despite the compelling needs, economic incentives worked with ForestRe, a forest insurance company
and policy choices continued to drive human based in London, to restore key sectors of the
behaviour in the wrong directions. Marine Canal’s denuded watershed in order to regulate
ecosystems that supply more than an eighth of the and improve the quality of its fresh water supplies.
world’s animal protein were collapsing everywhere, Preserving the Canal watershed with reforestation
the result of rampant overfishing, pollution and of native species is equivalent to building reservoirs
other factors. Subsidies of US$ 10–30 billion a year and filtration beds for this gravity-operated canal,
overwhelmed modest efforts at conservation. The though at far less cost.
European Union, for example, continued to
subsidize access to other countries’ fish stocks to There were also inroads to the sustainable
make up for overfishing in EU waters. Many of production of commodities. Certified coffee went
these overseas fleets place no limit on harvesting, mainstream this year, as both Kraft and Nestle
in contrast to sharp constraints in domestic waters. launched competing organic or fair-trade products,
The Doha round of international trade negotiations joining the other dominant players Procter &
32 is expected to discuss the need to phase out these Gamble and Sara Lee. But sustainable coffee—
Sanitation coverage lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia
80
60
40
Percentage point change, 1990–2002
+9 –2 –1 +15 +8 +6 0 +17 +13 +21 +4 –3
0 e er ica
ia
ia
ia
W bea d
ia
ia
ia
ld
s
on
on
ric
n
As
As
as
As
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r
Af
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a
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er
rn
O
ou
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d
ng
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Ea
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lo
Sa
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lo
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ve
ve
ut
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Su
Source: World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund. 2004. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and
Sanitation Target: A Mid Term Assessment of Progress. Geneva: World Health Organization.
5
including organic, Fairtrade, premium and shade- In 2005 decision-makers began confronting access
Environment
grown coffee—remained a niche market. to water and sanitation with greater resolve. Some
countries, such as Bangladesh, Tanzania and
Delivering water and sanitation Uganda have begun working with stakeholders to
In 2005, 1 billion people lacked access to safe develop sector-specific investment plans and
drinking water, and more than twice that number performance monitoring frameworks. India’s Total
lacked basic sanitation. China and India have been Sanitation Campaign has substantially increased
making significant progress, so the world as a coverage in many rural districts through innovative
whole will likely achieve the goal of halving the marketing practices, sanitation and hygiene
number without safe water, though Sub-Saharan promotion at schools, and needs-based subsidies
Africa will not. On sanitation, following current and technology choices that respond to variations
trends, we will fall 500 million people short of the in socioeconomic levels and water availability. The
international goal by 2012. Because results are so programme aims to cover the entire country by
uneven and because effort on sanitation lags far 2007. Bangladesh set aside 20% of local
below what is needed, we gave the world three out government funds specifically for sanitation
of ten for progress in 2005. provision, and offers additional funding when
independently verified targets are achieved.
Unsafe water is the most common cause of illness
among the poor, killing a child every 15 seconds. In 2005 the UN General Assembly proclaimed the
Half the urban population in Africa, Asia and Latin upcoming ten years as the International Decade of
America and the Caribbean suffers from one or “Water for Life”. Kenya sought this year to enshrine
more diseases associated with inadequate water a constitutional commitment to water and
quality. sanitation access, following similar commitments in
South Africa and Uruguay, although voters rejected
The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative the constitution in a November referendum. A
Council estimates that the water and sanitation coalition of NGOs has taken up the cause of
targets could be met by spending as little as assuring a basic right to water and sanitation, with
US$ 23–60 billion a year until 2015. Today, annual former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev as their
investments total US$ 13 billion for water services spokesman. The United Kingdom announced a
and US$ 1 billion for sanitation. Donor support to doubling of its water spending in Africa. The
this sector has steadily declined for years, now European Union has established a new Water
accounting for less than 1% or so of total aid. Even Facility to provide € 500 million in additional funds
when the fall in overall aid was reversed in 2002, over 2004–07, and the United States has similar
aid to water and sanitation continued to drop, most legislation pending. Finally, the World Bank has
to a small number of countries, only a few of them nearly quadrupled its water and sanitation lending
low-income. Yet many developing countries, since 2002 and will continue to increase its
particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, depend on aid investment in this sector. As with energy, the focus
receipts for the bulk of water-related investments: remained more on supply and waste management
57% of the total in Zambia, 40% in Malawi. than on demand. And the catastrophic release of 33
More than 80% of the world’s population use improved drinking
water sources
80
60
20
e er ica
ia
ia
sia
W bea d
ia
ia
ia
ld
s
on
on
ric
n
As
As
As
As
an
or
rib a a
ra
es n
fr
Af
gi
gi
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Ca ic
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rn
O
te
ra
d
ng
So
st
st
La the
th Am
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ha
Ea
Ea
pi
r
lo
Sa
No
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tin
ve
ve
ut
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De
De
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Su
Source: World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund. 2004. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and
Sanitation Target: A Mid Term Assessment of Progress. Geneva: World Health Organization.
5
benzene into the major drinking water source for Also in 2005 a unique partnership emerged—Water
Environment
Harbin, China, in late November provided a painful and Sanitation for the Urban Poor—to develop
reminder that even countries doing well on water commercially viable models for expanding water
access still face serious hurdles. and sanitation services. Comprising NGOs,
companies, universities and the United Nations, the
One sign of the growing importance of water coalition agreed to design and implement projects
investment this year was the return of the that make a limited profit (capped at 10%) on the
megaproject. Despite well documented negative resources they commit, while balancing cost
impacts of large-scale hydropower, the World Bank recovery for operation and maintenance with
committed to scale up its investments in delivering services to the poor in a participatory
infrastructure in the developing world in a policy and environmentally sound manner. Projects
statement this year, notably for large dams, citing initiated in 2005 target the needs of slum dwellers
the need to respond to urbanization and the in Naivasha, Kenya, and Bangalore, India.
demands for water and electricity. Five African
nations led by South Africa announced plans to Praise and blame
construct the world’s largest dam on the Congo Among the heroes of 2005 were:
River, to spur development and integration across
the continent. In Brazil mass protests and a hunger • The European Union—for its Emissions Trading
strike by a leading bishop forced the government System and other environmental regulation
to delay construction of a water diversion project efforts.
from the São Francisco river to the country’s • China’s State Environmental Protection
semiarid northeast. Administration under Vice Minister Pan Yue—
for efforts to dramatically increase energy and
Avid efforts by donors and development banks to resource use efficiency.
privatize water service delivery in the 1990s led to a • Toyota Motors and Natura Cosmeticos—
sobering lesson—these projects are hard to make for demonstrating the viability of more-
profitable. Companies became unwilling to accept sustainable products, and the Enhanced
reputation risks, exchange rate risks and political Analytics Initiative for driving research on
risks including nationalizations and abrupt contract non-financial risks into mainstream financial
terminations. Even so, the short-term contracting analysis.
out of management of water utilities, such as • General Electric—for its new commitment to
Kampala’s, has in some instances dramatically clean energy and water technology, backed by
improved coverage, collection and productivity. more than US$ 1.5 billion in research
With a view towards a more informed and less investment annually by 2010.
emotional debate, the multistakeholder Global • Wal-Mart—for its new commitment to reduce
Review of Private Sector Participation in the Water its greenhouse gas emissions by 20% in seven
Sector began documenting experience in Brazil, years, pursue positive regulatory change and
Indonesia, the Philippines, South Africa and show preference to suppliers that also pursue
34 Uganda. aggressive emissions targets.
The global environmental situation
is bad and getting worse. To change
that depressing assessment in 2006
will require leadership at all levels
and in all parts of the globe
Environment
we face, and will they start to reward those citizens
• Governments in general—for failing to live up more publicly who already lead “low carbon” lives?
to commitments on emission caps and
biodiversity protection. Regardless of the alternatives, fossil fuels will
• China—for its domestic forest management continue to supply most of the world’s energy for
programme, driving deforestation across Asia. the foreseeable future. Energy demand is expected
• The U.S. government—for reversing progress to rise by more than 50% by 2025, nearly half of
on domestic environmental legislation (Alaskan this in Asia. China alone will add some 500 MW of
National Wildlife Refuge, Endangered Species electricity generating capacity each week until
Act) and stalling international efforts on climate 2020, most powered by coal. There is no shortage
change, sending a global signal that these of proposals for how to cut global carbon dioxide
issues do not matter. emissions by the 22 billion tons experts say is
• The Brazilian and Peruvian governments—for needed by 2050. Those proposals include
approving the construction of the Transoceanic replacing 2 billion of today’s cars with hydrogen-
Highway without undertaking appropriate powered vehicles, reinforcing shifts away from
impact assessments and implementing private car use, sequestering carbon from
necessary mitigation measures. 1,400 1-GW coal-fired power plants and (most
controversially) increasing the world’s current
Looking ahead nuclear capacity by a factor of ten. Will the world
The global environmental situation is bad and begin to undertake adequate investment in clean
getting worse. To change that depressing energy technology and carbon capture?
assessment in 2006 will require leadership at all
levels and in all parts of the globe. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment included a
report, released in November, on response options,
The lack of adequate and effective action on showing that sustainable management of
climate change in the face of clear evidence of ecosystems will require substantial changes in
damage already under way brings to mind institutions and governance, economic policies and
uncomfortable thoughts of Nero fiddling while incentives, social and behavioral factors, and
Rome burned. But there are initiatives worth technology and knowledge. Will governments make
building on, initiatives that may become politically the needed policy changes?
easier if oil prices stay at high levels. Will other
governments follow the European Union’s lead to Another report from the assessment, released in
establish an effective emissions trading system for July, laid out related opportunities and challenges
greenhouse gases? Will more local and regional for business and industry, which depend on the
governments take the kind of action seen within services provided by ecosystems. Some in the
the United States in 2005? Will more business private sector have already begun to act. Perrier-
leaders follow the example of General Electric’s Vittel, for example, has begun paying farmers to
new devotion to clean technology? Will adopt modern techniques and organic practices 35
Global Governance Initiative 2006
to preserve the quality of its water sources. evidence. The public sector’s tremendous
Moreover, the world’s major pension funds are purchasing power should be oriented preferentially
awakening to the long-term risks from towards more-sustainable products and services,
environmental mismanagement. Both risk providing a tipping point for these niche products
avoidance and new market opportunities could to move into the mainstream. This would
36
Score
6 Human rights 2
Goals
Human rights
Rationale for the score cultural rights, sometimes receiving the backing of
2005 continued the trend, evident since 2001, of a courts for their claims. But the rights of the poor
retreat on human rights. The score fell to two this received short shrift in international trade policy.
year because relevant institutions failed to address
chronic problems. Denials of human rights became On the business front, last year’s polarization over
a more entrenched part of national political rhetoric, proposed UN norms on the human rights
as evident in state behaviour on counter-terrorism responsibilities of business temporarily eased, with
and labour standards. Internationally, governments agreement to appoint a UN Special Representative
fought bitterly over whether to create a new UN charged with helping to clarify standards for
Human Rights Council with more authority and business. In Europe business faced new
teeth to replace the discredited Commission on accountability requirements, as an EU directive
Human Rights, agreeing only on the name but not required companies to report on the social impact
the substance of a new body. of their activities, while individual European
governments imposed even more stringent
The world inched selectively closer to ending reporting requirements.
impunity for massive human rights violations, as the
International Criminal Court issued its first warrants 2005 in review
and former political leaders from Chad, Chile, Ending genocide, crimes against humanity and
Liberia and Serbian Bosnia were more likely to face war crimes
justice for their crimes. But in Darfur, Sudan, The agreement on the principle of the
millions continued to suffer while their attackers international community’s responsibility to protect
enjoyed total impunity. And one effort at civilians at the UN World Summit in September
accountability—the precedent-setting trial of former represented an important breakthrough. But too
Iraqi President Saddam Hussein—raised questions many people remained unprotected, and too
about the justice and fairness of its process. often the international community was
sidetracked into semantic squabbles. In February
With new terrorist attacks, governments justified 2005 a UN commission of inquiry found that
restrictions on such fundamental rights as freedom Janjawiid militias, supported by the Sudanese
from torture and freedom of expression, all in the government, had “conducted indiscriminate
name of counter-terrorism. More countries were attacks, including killing of civilians, torture,
ready to expel more people to countries where they enforced disappearances, destruction of villages,
faced torture, to hold suspects in secret detention rape and other forms of sexual violence, pillaging
centres or to accept intelligence information and forced displacement”. It did not find a
gathered through torture. genocidal intent, but sought to avoid semantic
excuses for inaction by underlining that “the
Marginalized and vulnerable groups increasingly crimes against humanity and war crimes that
rejected charity in favour of claiming their whole have been committed in Darfur may be no less
range of rights, including economic, social and serious and heinous than genocide”. 37
The year saw positive steps to put
into practice the principle of
universal jurisdiction
Global Governance Initiative 2006
In response to the report in March the UN weapon can have a similar effect to napalm,
Security Council took the unprecedented step of which was banned by a 1980 treaty (which the
referring Sudan to the International Criminal Court United States has not ratified).
for investigation and possible prosecution of
individuals responsible. Yet the Sudanese But 2005 also showed signs of progress on
peacekeepers. At least 2 million people still Lord’s Resistance Army, accused of war crimes
required emergency aid. In October the UN and crimes against humanity. It seemed more likely
Secretary General’s Special Advisor on that the Bosnian Serb leaders Radovan Karadžić
Prevention of Genocide, Juan Mendez, warned of and Ratko Mladić would be arrested and brought
the continuing “culture of impunity” in relation to to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for
Darfur and a lack of “serious good faith” on the the Former Yugoslavia. In a shift of policy the
government side. Serbian government began to cooperate with the
Hague tribunal. In Cambodia, after years of political
In October the trial of Saddam Hussein and seven prevarication and despite continuing concerns
co-defendants, charged with killing more than 140 about the procedures, the Extraordinary Chambers
people in Dujail, Iraq, in 1982, opened in Baghdad. for Prosecution under Cambodian Law of Crimes
The positive message—of accountability and an Committed during the Khmer Rouge Period moved
end to impunity—was tempered by strong towards bringing human rights violators to justice
misgivings about the process. Created originally by after more than a quarter century.
the U.S.-led occupying forces, the court faced an
uphill struggle to prove that it could operate Pressure mounted on the Nigerian government to
independently and deliver calm, fair and impartial extradite former Liberian ruler Charles Taylor to
justice amidst escalating violence, including the stand trial before the UN-mandated Special Court
murder of two defence lawyers. Concerns in Sierra Leone—on 17 counts of contributing to
persisted about the precedents that might be set the murder, rape and mutilation of thousands of
for Iraq and the wider Middle East, including the people during the Sierra Leone conflict. In
lowering of the standard of proof, the problems November, in a lawsuit brought by two amputees
with access to defence, the lack of a right to from Sierra Leone, the Nigerian Federal High Court
appeal and the potential imposition of the death threw out government objections to the court
penalty after one trial, preventing accounting for reviewing the asylum granted by the Nigerian
many other crimes. government to Taylor.
The conflict in Iraq raised concerns about The year also saw positive steps to put into
possible war crimes. No authoritative practice the principle of universal jurisdiction—that
investigation examined allegations that the United those who commit international crimes can be
States breached the Geneva Conventions by tried anywhere in the world, making it possible to
targeting hospitals in its November 2004 attack bring human rights violators to justice even if their
on Fallujah. Iraqi human rights groups also home countries cannot or will not prosecute. In
alleged that Fallujah was the victim of collective Canada in October Rwandan national Désire
punishment. In November 2005 the U.S. military Munyaneza became the first person to face trial
admitted, after earlier denials, that it had used under a four-year old Canadian universal
white phosphorous weapons in Fallujah. If used jurisdiction law, for alleged involvement in the
38 as an incendiary anti-personnel device, this 1994 genocide in Rwanda. In Senegal the legal
Governments often responded to
terrorist threats by restricting rights
and weakening vital protections
Human rights
extradition to Peru. active encouragement of torture. There was
continuing evidence in 2005 that the United States
persisted with its policy of “extraordinary
Terrorism, counter-terrorism and the rule of law rendition”—that is, handing suspects to “friendly”
The year saw major terrorist outrages in Amman intelligence services, which then torture them and
(Jordan), Bali (Indonesia), London (United hand over the information gathered. Controversy
Kingdom), New Delhi (India) and Cairo and Sharm exploded over alleged U.S. secret detention
el-Sheikh (Egypt). In the ongoing intense debate centers in Europe and whether European
between those who argue that human rights need governments had acquiesced in allowing the
to be limited in the struggle against terrorism and United States to run them.
those who maintain that democratic values are
best upheld by a staunch commitment to human Within the United States new opposition arose to
rights, 2005 saw early signs of a rhetorical shift at the Bush administration’s apparent willingness to
the international level from the former to the latter. allow torture. Congress considered a bill reaffirming
The International Summit on Democracy, Security the prohibition on torture and ill treatment by U.S.
and Terrorism, in Madrid in March, stressed the forces anywhere in the world. The administration
fundamental role of human rights and the rule of argued that the Central Intelligence Agency should
law in anti-terror strategy. be exempt and threatened to veto the bill, but
relented as it became clear that the bill would not
But in practice, as in previous years, governments pass both houses with veto-proof majorities.
often responded to terrorist threats by restricting Although low-level personnel were convicted of
rights and weakening vital protections, creating abuses at Abu Ghraib and one general was
victims of counter-terrorism to add to the victims of relieved of her command, the United States
terrorism. Governments were more willing to expel undertook no action to address the systemic
foreigners to countries where they risked torture. attitudes that led to the Abu Ghraib torture.
The UN Committee against Torture criticized
Sweden for deporting to Egypt a man suspected of Excessive counter-terrorism measures are hardly
involvement in terrorism, because Egypt’s unique to the United Kingdom and the United
diplomatic assurances were not adequate States. They have long plagued such countries as
protection against torture, a widespread practice Colombia, Egypt, India, Israel, Malaysia and the
there. Austria, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands Russian Federation. Serious human rights concerns
and the United States all sought to engage in were expressed during the year about proposed or
similar deportations. adopted new counter-terrorism laws or other
actions in the name of fighting terrorism in
The United Kingdom and other governments countries across all regions, including in Australia,
appeared willing to use information gathered Bahrain, Colombia, Egypt, Israel, Italy, Jordan,
through torture, even if they ban the practice at Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Maldives, Philippines,
home, on the rationale that the rights of terror Swaziland, Thailand and Uzbekistan. 39
Migrants continued to be especially
vulnerable to legal restrictions on
their rights in the more xenophobic
atmosphere of the “war on terror”
Global Governance Initiative 2006
China announced that it would adopt an Anti- discriminatory and in breach of the European
Terrorism Law by the end of 2005. None of the Convention on Human Rights. Rejecting
provisions under consideration has been made government policy, the House of Lords outlawed
public. China has been conducting a repressive the use, in any court, of evidence obtained by
anti-terrorism campaign in the Autonomous Region torture, even when no UK authorities are involved.
two reviews of laws brought in shortly after encroachment on their ancestral lands. In Israel in
September 2001. September the Supreme Court again held that
parts of the Separation Barrier, justified because of
In the name of fighting terrorism several suicide bomb attacks, inflict disproportionate and
governments, including Nepal, Thailand and the acute hardship on Palestinians and must be re-
United Kingdom, adopted new laws to restrict routed. But the court rejected last year’s
freedom of expression. Freedom of expression International Court of Justice opinion that the
(unlike torture) is not absolute under international barrier could never be built on Occupied Territory.
standards, which explicitly prohibit incitement to
hatred and violence. Governments suggested that From charity to rights
advocating a political platform close to that of the During the year several marginalized or vulnerable
terrorists constitutes incitement. But human rights groups argued that they have minimum economic,
standards require a much closer causal link social and cultural rights that cannot be violated
between the words spoken and the likelihood of and that they should be able to claim remedies
terrorist acts being carried out. Only after sustained from courts and governments for breaches. The
opposition did the UK government slightly modify a global disability movement led the way in moving
proposal to make a criminal offence of “glorifying” from charity to rights. The argument that they must
terrorism—which might have prevented support for be able to claim their rights to live in dignity drove
former South African President Nelson Mandela rapid progress in 2005 towards a new United
had the law been in force during apartheid. Nations human rights treaty on the rights of the
disabled.
Migrants continued to be especially vulnerable to
legal restrictions on their rights in the more International treaties ratified by many countries
xenophobic atmosphere of the “war on terror”. The already set out the range of economic, social and
entire framework of international refugee cultural rights—to education, health, shelter, food,
protection—the right to seek asylum from social security and so on. Yet some governments—
persecution—was under sustained attack. The a shrinking minority—do not recognize the validity
Global Commission on International Migration, in its of these rights. Some are concerned that these
final report issued in October, set out six principles rights represent a hostile political agenda. The
for action, which could help strengthen the rights treaties do not specify exactly how or when the
and protection of migrants around the world. rights should be realized, though they do imply that
the unfettered operation of the market may not
Although courts faced pressure to fall into line with always be adequate to achieve such rights.
executive policies, some reasserted their vital role
as a check and balance. The UK government was The focus of the G-8 summit in Scotland in July—
forced to abandon the indefinite detention of on debt cancellation, poverty reduction and trade—
foreign terrorist suspects without trial after the again highlighted the claim of rights over charity.
40 country’s highest court declared it was Two alternative visions of how the developing world
Courts in many countries, such as
Brazil, India and South Africa,
increasingly enforce people’s
rights to water, shelter, health,
education and other basic rights
Human rights
and the World Bank. Governments hailed the G-8 corporations also need to prevent their activities
deal as a triumph for Africa. But anti-poverty from harming the economic, social and cultural
campaigners from developing countries actively rights of communities their operations affect. Amid
advocated their own view, articulated in the allegations that Coca-Cola’s operations in India
language of rights and social justice, not of have caused severe water shortages and produced
development and reform. Not by coincidence, contamination, the Rajasthan High Court ruled at
these campaigners adopted a slogan from the the end of 2004 that all soft drinks should state the
disability rights movement: “Never about us without level of pesticides on the product label. Coca-Cola
us”. The view from developing countries was appealed, arguing that small traces of pesticide
generally that the types of policy reform tied to debt were not harmful. The court rejected the appeal,
cancellation were themselves sources of poverty, saying, “commercial interests are subservient to
not routes out of it. fundamental rights”. In Kerala, where the local
community opposes Coca-Cola’s largest bottling
In June the Committee on the Rights of the Child plant in the country because of alleged damage to
warned that free trade agreements could have a the water system, the state High Court ruled that
negative impact on access to affordable medicines groundwater belonged to the people. The
and social services for the poor. The expert government had no right to allow a private party to
committee raised its concerns as a number of extract huge amounts of groundwater, “a property
countries were in the process of negotiating or held by it in trust”.
ratifying free trade agreements, including Costa
Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua and the Philippines. Impoverishment and human rights
Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child The debate prompted by the G-8 summit relates to
countries have an obligation to consider the best the very nature of poverty. It centres on whether
interests of the child in all their decisions, including poverty is a state in which a large part of the
trade policy. The Swiss company Roche’s world’s population unfortunately finds itself—or a
negotiations with generic drug manufacturers for process of impoverishment, where disadvantage
the cheaper production of Tamilflu to combat avian and dependency are constantly renewed. This
flu further supported the argument that the debate is fundamental, since it goes to the
internationally recognized right of everyone to the international obligation to realize economic and
highest attainable standard of health should social rights in the International Covenant on
sometimes override profit-making. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
A central plank of the argument that economic, In 2005 concerns arose that the abolition of the
social and cultural rights are not proper human Multi-Fibre Arrangement in January could have a
rights is that they are too vague and imprecise to disastrous impact on the rights of workers in many
be adjudicated by courts. In reality, courts in many poorer countries. By deregulating export of
countries, such as Brazil, India and South Africa, garments to Europe and the United States, the
increasingly enforce people’s rights to water, abolition of the arrangement is likely to shift millions 41
This year saw significant new
attacks on the urban poor’s
right to shelter
Global Governance Initiative 2006
of jobs from formerly protected producers, such as This year saw significant new attacks on the urban
Bangladesh, to cheaper producers, particularly poor’s right to shelter. The most widely condemned
China and India. That shift is also likely to put was the Zimbabwe government’s Operation
pressure on labour standards and working Murambatsvina (“Operation Drive Out Trash”),
conditions as the formerly protected countries which began in May. Some 700,000 people were
free trade zones or export processing zones that built with the explicit encouragement of national or
sometimes undercut minimum wage levels, reduce local government. An unusually hard-hitting UN
other benefits and limit or prohibit collective investigation concluded that the “indiscriminate and
bargaining. Women often make up the majority of unjustified” evictions violated national and
the workforce in free zones. They are paid less and international human rights standards and plunged
are less likely to be organized in trade unions. In already poor communities “deeper into poverty,
June, following a formal complaint by the deprivation and destitution”. Murambatsvina
International Textile, Garment and Leather Workers’ appeared to have an explicit political purpose:
Federation, the International Labour Organization expelling urban supporters of the main opposition
(ILO) struck down the government of Bangladesh’s party. Yet disputes over access to urban land and a
blanket ban on trade unions in its export governmental desire for clean and glittering cities
processing zones until 2006. The committee mean that the phenomenon is widespread,
recalled that workers in export processing zones including neighbouring South Africa and several
should enjoy the trade union rights guaranteed in major Asian cities.
the ILO’s conventions on freedom of association.
Praise and blame
Where national laws do not meet international Praise:
standards on such issues as the right to collective
bargaining or the protection of the land tenure rights • For legal efforts to battle impunity and
of women or of indigenous peoples displaced in uphold human rights law: civil society
large development projects, corporations have groups for seeking extradition of perpetrators
found that they are still expected to respect such of international human rights crimes; the
rights. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation International Criminal Court for steady work
and Development’s Guidelines for Multinational leading to its first warrants of arrest; 11 retired
Enterprises, for example, calls on corporations to U.S. military leaders for supporting a Senate
“respect the human rights of those affected by their bill that reaffirmed the prohibition of torture or
activities consistent with the host government’s ill treatment by U.S. forces.
international obligations and commitments” • For efforts at promoting economic and
(emphasis added). In September Yahoo claimed it social rights: the disability movement and
was merely abiding by local laws when it helped anti-poverty protestors from developing
Chinese police identify a local journalist who used a countries for arguing the need for social justice
Yahoo account to send to foreign websites official and human rights rather than charity.
instructions that his newspaper had received in the
lead-up to the 15th anniversary of the killings in Blame:
Tiananmen Square. The journalist has been
imprisoned for ten years for leaking state secrets, in • For attacks on human rights law: the
clear violation of international standards on the United States, United Kingdom and other
42 freedom of expression. governments for attempting to dismantle the
It is urgent that in 2006 the
international community calls a
halt to the normalization of policies
and actions hostile to respect for
human rights
Human rights
thousands of people: governments they stop sending suspects back to countries
including the Sudanese government (and the where they risk being tortured and stop using
Janjawiid militia) for continuing attacks on information extracted by torture in third
civilians in Darfur—and the Zimbabwean countries?
government for forcibly evicting 700,000 • Will the Guantanamo Bay detainees be able to
people in its cities. challenge the legality of their detention in a
U.S. court?
Looking ahead • Will the recommendations of the 2005 Global
It is urgent that in 2006 the international community Commission on Migration be implemented?
calls a halt to the normalization of policies and • Will the impact of the abolition of the Multi-
actions hostile to respect for human rights. Fibre Arrangement be closely monitored and
Developments to watch for: action taken to protect workers and
communities in countries that lose vital textile
• Will there be effective steps to end systematic and garment contracts and investments?
violence against civilians in Darfur, and will the • Will human rights impact assessments be
International Criminal Court receive the political carried out before free trade agreements are
support to prosecute those responsible? concluded?
• Will former leaders Charles Taylor of Liberia, • Will the hundreds of thousands of people
Hissène Habré of Chad and Radovan Karadžić wrongly evicted from their homes in Zimbabwe
and Ratko Mladić of Bosnia be extradited, and and other countries receive reparation and
will they and former Khmer Rouge leaders face justice?
trial? • Will business, civil society and governments
• Will the trial of Saddam Hussein and his co- agree on the human rights standards that all
defendants deliver impartial and fair justice or businesses should abide by and on what this
be a political show? means in practice for their behaviour?
43
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the views of the World Economic Forum.
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