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Ebook - Electronics Tutorial PDF
Ebook - Electronics Tutorial PDF
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Beginner Tutorials
Microcontroller Beginner Kit Instructions (includes all tutorials below and intermediate tutorials) Basic Concepts Basic Components (Resistors, Diodes, LEDs, Switches) Finding the value of a resistor by reading it's color codes Using a Breadboard (Socket Board) Using Ohm's Law Learning to use LEDs and Transistors (Kit Available) Pulses, Oscillators, Clocks... (Kit Available) Building a 5 Volt Power Supply (Kit Available) Using a Multimeter - Some Simple Pointers -5 Volt DC & -10 Volt DC Power Supply (Kit Available)
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PG302 Microcontroller Programmer Experimenter/Controller Board Tutorials for Electronics 8051 Assembly Language Library Chip Pinouts Assemblers and other free tools Other 8051 web sites Prototyping Supplies Catalog Online Secure Order Form Support Information Privacy Policy
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(includes shipping) Features - Speeds - Device List - Software - PC Interface - Ordering Information
Features:
-Programs many popular 8051 microcontrollers from Atmel, AMD, Dallas, Intel and Phillips, as well as AVR microcontrollers from Atmel. -Comes with High Quality 3M Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) Socket. (Don't Buy a Programmer without a ZIF socket!) -Complete control of power to socket. Power is only applied to target chip during an operation.
No need to turn off power when inserting/removing chip. -Tested and Certified by Atmel. -Price includes power supply (US and Canada), DB9 cable, software and USPS Priority Mail shipping (in the US). UPS and FedEx shipping are also available.
Supported Devices:
The PG302 with no adapters lets you program the following microcontrollers: Atmel: AT89C1051, AT89C2051, AT90S1200, AT90S2313, AT89C4051
Add the ADT87 Adapter for $21 to program the following microcontrollers:
AMD: 87C51, 87C52, 87C521, 87C541 Atmel: 89C51, 89C52, 89C55, 87F51, 87F52 Dallas: 87C520 Intel: 8751BH, 8752BH, 87C51, 87C51FA, 87C51FB, 87C52, 87C54 Phillips: 87C51, 87C51FA, 87C51FB, 87C52, 87C504, 87C524, 87C528, 87C550, 87C575, 87C576, 87C652, 87C654
Add the ADT32K Adapter for $25 to program the following microcontrollers:
Atmel: 89C51RC, 89C55WD Add the ADT90 Adapterfor $19 to program the following microcontrollers: Atmel: 90S4414, 90S8515, 89S53, 89S8252
Other AVR chips (2323, 2333, 2343, 4433, 4434, 8535) can be programmed indirectly. Click here for more information. The PG302 also supports in circuit programming with the ISP302. The PG302 communication protocol is provided in the document at
http://www.iguanalabs.com/pg302pro.htm . Custom programs can be written using this protocol for custom applications.
Speeds
Sample speeds for fully programming some microcontrollers. Atmel AT89C2051, 11 seconds (2K file, test.hex) Atmel AT90S2313, 17 seconds (2K file, test.hex) Atmel AT89C52, 44 seconds (8K file, 89C52.hex)
PC Interface:
Connects to your computer's serial port (Comm 1, 2, 3 or 4) with a standard DB9 Male to DB9 Female cable. (Cable Included) No PC Card Required. Uses Intel Hex Data Format (Default output of most assemblers and compilers.)
Full Warranty - If you are not completely satisfied, you may return it within 30 days for a full refund. Parts and Labor are covered for three years.
Links - Ordering Information - International Distributors - More About Iguana Labs and PG302 Software If you would like to learn how to use microcontrollers, get our Microcontroller Beginner Kit which
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(click picture for larger view) The ExpBoard is a prototyping/experimenting board that comes completely assembled and ready to use. It includes a built in programmer for the target microcontroller which can be an 8051 based microcontroller or an AVR based microcontroller. The documentation works through some simple projects that show how to program the microcontroller and use it in some simple circuits with a speaker, a 7 segment display, input switches, the serial port, and the optional LCD Module. The web version of the instruction manual is at http://www.iguanalabs.com/expboard .
Features
Crystal socket allows for experimenting with different oscillator speeds. Complete programming features for the target microcontroller as taken from our PG302 device programmer. Can be expanded with modules that plug into sockets (in place of 7 segment displays). Works with the 8051 based AT89S8252 and the AVR based AT90S8515 microcontrollers Several sample programs included.
2 Serial Ports - One exclusively for programming the chip and one just for the microcontroller 2 Status LEDs for each serial port. One for the transmit line and one for the receive line. Power Indicator LED
(includes compiler, assembly language editor, and more) Click here to see list of CD contents. Free Shipping! (USPS Priority Mail (2-4 Days). US Orders Only. Faster shipping methods are also available.) Technical Support (During business hours, call 800-297-1633 or send an email to [email protected])
PC Interface:
Connects to your computer's serial port (Comm 1, 2, 3 or 4) with a standard DB9 Male to DB9 Female cable. (Cable Included) Uses Intel Hex Data Format (Default output of most assemblers and compilers.)
Expansion Modules
Currently there is one expansion module available for the ExpBoard. It is the LCD Module. The LCD Module plugs into U1 of the ExpBoard and can be mounted on the ExpBoard as shown below.
(click to enlarge)
For pricing click here for the order information page. Send any questions to [email protected]
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Hex File
ledtest.hex ledproj2.hex sounds.hex sounds2.hex
sounds2.asm 250 Hz Tone 440 Hz Tone sound440.asm (Musical A Note) Alternating sounds3.asm Tone and Silence sounds4.asm Alternating Tones
sound/index.htm sound440.hex
sound/index.htm
sounds3.hex
sounds5.asm Spaceship? sounds6.asm Spaceship?2 sounds7.asm Weird sounds8.asm Laser Gun Fight?
Numbers on 7 Segment Display Switch as Input Light Sensor Send Data to PC Serial Port Send Data to PC Serial Port Receive Data From PC Serial Port Write Data to LCD
spexp2.asm
exp.htm
spexp2.hex
lcdexp.asm
exp.htm
lcdexp.hex
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Assemblers and other free tools TASM Assembler 8051 / 2051 / 6502 / 6800 / 6805 / TMS32010 / TMS7000 / 8048 / Z80 Metalink Assembler ASM Editor - Great Color syntax highlighting for 8051 assembly language, AVR assembly language and others! Acebus 8051 Integrated Editor, Simulator, and Assembler - Fully Functional Evaluation Version BascomLT Basic Compiler - Mostly Functional Evaluation Version 8051 Basic Compiler - Allows you to write programs in basic 8051 C Compiler - Franklin's Eval version is fully functional (for small programs).
8051 Simulator - DOS based Simulator allows you to run hex files and see all register contents. 8051 Disassemblers - Two are included in this file About the 8051 8048 and 8049 Assembler AVR Tools - Assembler and Simulator for Atmel's AVR Microcontrollers AVRASM - Command Line Assembler for AVRs WinBoard PCB Schematic Software - Free version is limited to boards with less than 100 pins. PKZIP Tools - Popular tools for zipping and unzipping Chip Pinouts - Easy to use (no big PDFs) Free Tutorials for Electronics
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- Lots of Atmel and PIC products Robot Books, Kits, Etc. Advanced Microcomputer Systems - Tools and Kits for Microcontrollers
Home Page
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Prototyping Supplies
Alberta - 1 day 'Quick Turn' circuit boards Express PCB - Easy PCB Production Mental Automation - CAD schematic tools NOHAU - 8051 Emulator CEIBO - 8051 Emulator
Home Page
Click here to send email to [email protected]
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Shipping is free for United States (First Class Mail, Allow 7-10 days for delivery). USPS Priority Mail is free (in the US) for orders over $100 or over 1 pound (PG302 or Microcontroller Beginner Kit for example). FedEx and UPS are also available. Orders received before 11:00 AM Mountain Time (1:00 PM Eastern and 10:00 AM Pacific) are shipped same day. To order, use the secure order form or call us at 1-800-297-1633 or (303) 823-5557. Click here to view our Information Privacy Policy To contact us: Email: [email protected] Phone: 800-297-1633 or (303) 823-5557 Mail: Iguana Labs Inc
Device Programmer
PG302, $69.00
Kits
Beginner's Kit, $24.00, - Learning to use Transistors and LEDs + Pulses, Oscillators, Clocks... Microcontroller Beginner Kit, $89.00 - Beginner's Kit + PG302 and More ExpBoard, $79.00 - Experimenter Board for 8051s and 8515s (assembled and tested) LCD Module, $25.00 - LCD Display for ExpBoard (assembled and tested) 555Kit, $3.00, - Pulses, Oscillators, Clocks... 5voltKit, $1.50, - 5 Volt Regulator Kit -5&10Kit, $4.00, - Negative 5 Volts DC and Negative 10 Volts DC Kit 2051Kit, $7.50, - Learning to use a 2051 Microcontroller 8951Kit, $7.50, - Learning to use a 8951 Microcontroller 8952Kit, $8.00 8515Kit, $8.50 - Basic parts needed for an 8515 system MAX232Kit, $5.00 - Basic parts needed for communicating to a PC ADC2051Kit, $15.00 - Data Collection (Analog to Digital Conversion and sending data to a PC) LightKit, $15.00 - Light Sensor Printed Copy of Kit Instructions, $1.00 each
Microcontrollers
AT89C2051-24PC, $4.50 AT89C4051-24PC, $5.00 AT89C51-24PC, $4.50 AT89C52-24PC, $5.00
AT89S8252-24PC, $7.00 AT90S1200-12PC, $2.00 AT90S2313-10PC, $5.00 AT90S8515-8PC, $7.00 ATmega161-8PC, $12.00 24LC256-I/P, $3.00
Other Components
Mating Header for ISP302, $ 0.50 7 Segment Display, $1.50 8 pin Socket, $0.50 16 pin Socket, $0.50 20 pin Socket, $0.50 40 pin Socket, $0.50 20 pin ZIF Socket (Made by 3M), $11.00 40 pin ZIF Socket (Made by ARIES), $11.00 6.0000 MHz Crystal (HC-49/US), $1.50 8.0000 MHz Crystal (HC-49/U), $1.50 10.0000 MHz Crystal (HC-49/US), $1.50 11.0592 MHz Crystal (HC-49/US), $1.50 24.0000 MHz Crystal (HC-49/US), $1.50 MAX232, $2.50 ADC0804, $3.00
Accessories
6 Ft DB9 Male to DB9 Female Serial Cable, $6.00 IC Extractor (8 to 40 pins), $2.00 Small Breadboard, $9.00 Large Breadboard, $25.00 Iguana Labs Software CD, $3.00
Printed Tutorials
Our tutorials are available as full color printouts for $ 1.00 each.
Complete all of the necessary information below and then click the Submit button at the bottom of the page to submit your order to us. Orders received before 11:00 AM Mountain Time (1:00 PM Eastern and 10:00 AM Pacific) are shipped same day. If you have any problems with this order form please call us at 1-800-297-1633 or send an email to [email protected] . Click here for our Information Privacy Policy
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Troubleshooting Guide and FAQ for PG302 device programmer and adapters.
Testing the PG302.
Here is a sample hex file that can be used for 2051s or the various versions of 8051s. ledtest.hex The tutorial at http://www.iguanalabs.com/1st2051.htm gives the basic steps of how to program a chip.
Error Messages
'Comm Port Not Available' 1.) Do you get the same message if the PG302 is not plugged into the PC? If so, the problem is probably in the PC system set up or PC hardware. 2.) If this occurs before any programming occurs, it may mean another program or device (modem?) may be using the comm port. 3.) If this occurs during programming, it probably indicates a problem with the hex file. Try the test file above. If the file above works but you can't get your hex file to work, try sending it to us and we will check to see if it is a valid hex file.
'Programmer Not Responding' 1.) If the programmer was working but seems to have died, try unplugging the power and plugging it back in. The on board firmware may have gotten confused due to a bad hex file, power glitch, etc... 2.) No power to unit. Check if there is a DC voltage coming from the power supply. (The voltage should be around 15 to 16 Volts) Check if there is 5 Volts on pin 20 of the AT89C2051 (with respect to ground on pin 10). 3.) Hex File is empty. If the Hex file is blank, the software may give this error. 4.) Comm port not set up correctly Check the settings under Control Panel, Ports, ... Try setting it to 9600 baud, No Parity, 8 bits, 1 stop bit. 5.) Try a terminal program In the terminal program, set up the Comm port for 9600, N, 8, 1. Type a '1' in the window (to send a 1 to the programmer). The programmer should respond with a Y. 6.) To check if the adapter may be causing a problem, you can try running the unit with out an adapter or chip in the 20 pin ZIF socket. If the programmer is working correctly, it should go through the programming sequence (0 to 100% in the progress bar) and then say 'Device Not Equal to File'.
'Device Not Equal to File' 1.) Make sure the correct chip type is selected. The current chip type is shown in the upper right corner of the PC software. 2.) The file may be too large. Try a small test program like the one at the top of the page. 3.) The chip you are trying to program may be a bad chip (unlikely put possible). Try another chip if you have one. 4.) The chip may be backwards. Pin 1 should go next to the handle. When using an adapter, Pin 1 should go next to the handle of the adapter.
Adapters
Which adapter is which? The ADT87 is the adapter with two 14 pin chips on the bottom (usually 74HC573 or 74HCT573). The ADT90 is almost bare on the bottom except for two small brown capacitors and a crystal.
been set. 2.) How do I read a chip that has already been programmed? You should be able to read a chip by using the read option in the PG302 software. Press Read and then type in the name of a new file and then press Save. If you are trying to read a chip that was programmed by someone else, it may have the lock bits set (especially chips from commercial products). If the lock bits are set, the checksum will be the same as it is for a blank chip. We don't know of any way to read a chip that has had the lock bits set. 3.) I can program the Flash on an AVR chip but I can't seem to program the EEPROM. The EEPROM is much smaller. Make sure the file is not too big. (If the file is too big it probably just says 'Device Not Equal to File') 4.) Can the PG302 program Atmel's 29Cxxx chips? No. 5.) How do I erase the lock bits on an AT90S2313-10PC? Due to a manufacturing defect, some 2313 chips will not let you erase the lock bits once the lock bits have been set. However it is possible to erase the lock bits if Vcc is lowered to less than 4 volts. To accomplish this with the PG302, Put the 2313 on a breadboard,
Connect jumper wires from the 20 pin ZIF socket to the 2313 on the breadboard.
International
What are the power supply specifications? The power supply should provide at least 15VDC (but not more than 24VDC). Most power supplies put out more than the voltage rating on the box. We have seen power supplies that are rated at 24VDC but actually put out 33VDC even when running the PG302. If the power supply is putting out more than 24VDC, the power regulator (the 7805) will probably overheat and may fail. An unregulated power supply of 12VDC usually works. The power supply should be able to provide at least 200mA of current. Plug size should be 2.1 mm x 5.5mm. (where 2.1 is the diameter and 5.5 is the length.) Center positive, Outside negative
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IntermediateTutorials
Truth Tables First Microcontroller Project - 8951 (Kit Available) Microcontroller Beginner Kit Instructions (includes most beginner tutorials and the tutorials listed below) First Microcontroller Project - 2051 (Kit Available) Second MC Project - 2051 as 8 bit Counter (Kit Available) Making Sound With The 2051 Microcontroller Using a 7 Segment LED Display with a 2051 Using Switches as Inputs
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Advanced Tutorials
Data Collection - Analog to Digital Conversion and Communicating with a PC through the Serial Port (Kit Available) Light Sensor Kit LCD Instruction Set
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Truth Tables
Introduction
Calculators look at a list of inputs and produce an output. Computers do the same thing. We use truth tables to show this list of inputs and outputs. Inputs are limited to two possibilities, either 0 or 1. This is the meaning of digital. The name digital (or binary) means two values. A 0 is called False and a 1 is called True.
Theory
The simplest truth table is for one input and one output. In this case there are two possible truth tables. These are shown below.
Input 0 1 Figure A
Output 0 1
Input 0 1 Figure B
Output 1 0
For Figure A it is the same as having a wire connecting the input and the output. Whatever appears on the input is transferred to the output. For Figure B, the opposite happens. This is called a NOT operation (NOT gate). The output is not the input. The output is True (1) if the input is not True (1). The output is False (0) if the input is not False (0). To learn how to build a NOT gate, go to LED and Transistor Kit. Another way to look at a truth table is as a list of possible events and what will happen in each case. Suppose your friend John might come to visit. If he comes you will not watch Matlock. If he does not come you will watch Matlock. Then the table would look like the following.
Event
Result
NOT GATE
We will build a device with one input and one output. We will give the device an input, either True (1) or False (0). The device will give us an output (either True or False) to tell us what happened as a result of our input. Later we will build devices with more inputs and outputs so it can do more complex things for us. When we build this first device we will use 0 volts for False (0) and we will use 5 volts for True (1). If the input to our device is 0 volts then the output will be 5 volts. If the input is 5 volts then the output will be 0 volts. This will be our first logic gate, the not gate. It is also called an inverter. Logic gates are devices that are built to do truth tables. Computer chips like the Pentium are made of logic gates.
AND GATE
Now lets look at a device with two inputs and one output. First, we will look at a device that does an AND operation. Our inputs will be A and B. Our output will be C. If A and B are both True (1) then the output, C, will be True (1). Otherwise C will be False (0). This operation is shown in the truth table given below.
Input A 0 0 1 1
Input B 0 1 0 1
Output 0 0 0 1
The table gives a list of all possible combinations of inputs and the resulting output for each combination. This is not the only possible combination of outputs, but this paticular combination is called an AND gate.
OR GATE
Another possibility for a device with two inputs and one output is an OR operation. For inputs A and B and output C : If A or B is True (1) then C is True (1). Otherwise C is False (0). To build the truth table, we first look at the inputs. A can be True or False. B can be True or False. First we make a table of all possible combinations of A and B.
A False
B False
Now we can determine the output by saying for each combination, if A or B is true then the output, C, is True. Then we have the following table.
Then to convert this to a form we can build (using 5 Volts for True and 0 Volts for False) we make the following table.
A 0V 0V 5V 5V
B 0V 5V 0V 5V
C 0V 5V 5V 5V
Boolean Algebra
These three gates (the NOT gate, the OR gate, and the AND gate) are the basic building blocks of digital design. They are all that is needed to build the most complex computers that exist. To build complex designs, a type of math has been developed to deal with binary numbers. It is called Boolean Algebra. It gives you a way to combine these three gates into bigger designs. The three basic operations have symbols. A NOT operation is represented by a line over a letter. Instead of using this line we will just say bar. For example Abar means 'not A'. So if Abar is 1 then A is 0. If Abar is 0 then A is 1. An OR operation is represented by a + sign. For example, A + B = A OR B. An AND operation is represented by a *. For example, A * B means A AND B.
Examples
1.) If A = 1 (5V) and B = 0 (0V) then what is A * B? Since 1 is a True and 0 is a False then we can say the problem is ~ True * False = ?. If we put in AND for * then the problem
is ~ True AND False = ?. To answer this we can look back at the truth table for the AND operation and see that True AND False is False. Another way to find the answer is to look at the definition of the AND operation. It says if A and B are True then the output is True. Otherwise the output is false. In the above example since B is False the output is False so A * B = False (A * B = 0). 2.) If A = 1 (5V) and B = 0 (0V) then what is A + B? To do this problem we can say that A = 1 = True and B = 0 = False. Then the problem is ~ True OR False = ? We can either look at the truth table for the OR operation or we can look at the definition of the OR operation which says. If A or B is True then the output is True. Otherwise the output is False. Since A is True in our question then the output is True. So True + False = True (1 + 0 = 1).
Try doing the following problems using the truth tables and the definitions above. The answers are given below.
1.) A = 1 (5V) and B = 0 (0V). What are the answers for the following problems? a.) A + B = ? b.) A * B = ? c.) Abar = ? d.) Bbar = ? 2.) A = 0 (0V) and B = 0 (0V). What are the answers to the following problems? a.) A + B = ? b.) A * B = ? c.) Abar = ? d.) Bbar = ? 3.) A = 1 and B = 1. What are the answers to the following problems? a.) A + B = ? b.) A * B = ? c.) Abar = ? d.) Bbar = ? 4.) A = 0 and B = 1. What are the answers to the following problems? a.) A + B = ? b.) A * B = ? c.) Abar = ? d.) Bbar = ?
Answers:
1. a.) 1 (5V) b.) 0 (0V) c.) 0 (0V) d.) 1 (5V) 2. a.) 0 (0V) b.) 0 (0V) c.) 1 (5V) d.) 1 (5V) 3. a.) 1 (5V) b.) 1 (5V) c.) 0 (0V) d.) 0 (0V) 4. a.) 1 (5V) b.) 0 (0V) c.) 1 (5V) d.) 0 (0V)
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The only thing we want to do with this project is to make the LED blink. By doing this, you will be able to learn the basic process of compiling a program written in assembly language and then programming the resulting file into the microcontroller. First we will assume we already have the assembly code written. ledtest.asm is the assembly language program we are going to use. (This file is included with TASM ) Step 2.) Compiling the Code Move the assembly language program (ledtest.asm) to the directory where you have TASM. Bring up a DOS prompt, change to the directory where the TASM files are, and compile the code using the command tasm -51 ledtest.asm ledtest.hex This will create a file called ledtest.hex. Close the DOS prompt window now. Step 3.) Downloading the code to the Microcontroller. Make sure the serial cable and the power supply are connected to the PG302 programmer. Put your microcontroller into the PG302 programmer. Run PG302. From the Setup Menu, select the type of device (microcontroller) you are using From the Setup Menu, select the Comm port you are using. Press PROGRAM DEVICE. Press BROWSE. Find ledtest.hex and click on it (single click). Press OK to select the file.
Press OK to program the file into the microcontroller. Now the program should be loaded into the microcontroller. Make sure the power is off for the circuit you have built. Move the microcontroller back to the circuit you have built. Turn on the power to the circuit. If the LED starts blinking, then you have succesfully built your first microcontroller project. For more information on using microcontrollers, look at the Microcontroller Beginner Kit (click here). The parts for this project are available. See 8951Kit.htm for the parts list and look for 8951Kit on Order Form for pricing information or call 800-297-1633. You may also be interested in the ExpBoard. It is a fully assembled board designed for experimenting with microcontrollers. Click here for more information. Send Questions to [email protected]
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Table of Contents
Microcontroller Beginner Kit, Parts List Overview of Instruction Book
Chapter 1: Basic Electronics 1.1 Basic Definitions and Concepts 1.2 Basic Components 1.3 Finding the Value of a Resistor by Color Codes 1.3.1 Resistor Color Codes 1.3.2 Resistor Rules 1.4 Finding Voltage and Current Using Ohm's Law 1.5 Using a Bread Board 1.6 Transistors and LEDs 1.6.1 The Transistor
1.6.2 Introduction to Digital Devices - The Inverter 1.7 Oscillators, Pulse Generators, Clocks... Capacitors and the 555 Timer IC 1.7.1 The Capacitor 1.7.2 The 555 Timer Chapter 2: Microcontrollers 2.0.1 PG302 Setup 2.0.2 AY Pad Software Setup 2.0.3 TASM Software Setup 2.0.4 Chapter 2 Summary 2.1 Building a 5 Volt Power Supply 2.2 The 2051 Microcontroller 2.3 Making an LED Blink 2.3.1 Partial Instruction Set for 2051 Microcontroller 2.4 A Simple Microcontroller System 2.5 Making Sound with a Speaker 2.6 Using a 7 Segment Display 2.7 Using a Switch as an Input to the Microcontroller
1 IC Extractor (4 inch metal gadget) 1 Power Supply Adapter (Use with the PG302 power supply to run the projects on the breadboard.) Resistors: (light tan with colored stripes) (Section 1.3 shows how to find the resistor value from the stripes) 10 - 100 ohm resistors 10 - 330 ohm resistors 5 - 510 ohm resistors 5 - 2,200 ohm resistors 5 - 8,200 ohm resistor 5 - 10,000 ohm resistors 5 - 15,000 ohm resistor 5 - 100,000 ohm resistors Capacitors 2 - 33pf capacitors (small brown flat disks) 2 - 10uf capacitor (small can shaped component) 2 - 220uf capacitor (larger can shaped component) 10 - LEDs (small green components) 5 - NPN Transistors (small black components with 3 legs) 1 - 11.0592 MegaHertz Crystal (metal, silver colored component) 1 - LM7805, 5 Volt Regulator (black 3 leg component) 2 - 555, Timers (black 8 leg components) 2 - AT89C2051, Microcontrollers (black 20 leg component)
1 - Speaker (with wires for breadboard) 1 - 7 Segment Display 2 - Normally Open Push Button Switches Jumper Wires for Breadboard The CD has all the software needed for PG302 Device Programmer and the microcontroller projects. Click here to see list of CD contents.
Current
Current is what flows through a wire. Think of it as water flowing in a river. The current flows through wires from one point to another point just like water in a river. Current flows from points of high voltage to points of low voltage. Current can be shown in circuit diagrams by using arrows as in Figure 1. The arrow shows which way the current is flowing. An I is included beside the arrow to indicate current.
Figure 1
The unit of measurement for current is the Ampere, or Amp for short, and abbreviated as A. Common currents are 0.001 Amps (0.001A) to 0.5 Amps (0.5A). Since currents are usually small, they are often given in the form of milliAmps (abbreviated mA.) The milli means divided by 1000, so 0.001 Amps equals 1 milliAmp (1 mA) since 1 / 1000 = 0.001. Also, 0.5 Amps equals 500 milliAmps (500mA) since 500 / 1000 = 0.5. Voltage
Voltage is a measure of how much electricity is at a point. If we continue the river comparison, a point at the top of a hill would be at a high voltage level and a point at the bottom of a hill would be at a low voltage level. Then, just as water flows from a high point to a low point, current flows from a point of high voltage to a point of low voltage. If one point is at 5 volts and another point is at 0 volts then when a wire is connected between them, current will flow from the point at 5 volts to the point at 0 volts. (Voltage is measured in volts.) A measurement of voltage is much like a measurement of height. It gives you the difference in voltage between those two points. If point A is at 10 volts and point B is at 2 volts then the voltage measured between A and B is 8 volts (10 -2). This is
similar to measuring height. We measure the height of hills the same way. We say the sea level is at zero feet and then compare other points to that level. On top of Marys Peak you are 4000 ft high (compared to sea level). In the same way we call the lowest voltage in a circuit zero volts and give it the name ground. Then all other points in the circuit are compared to that ground point. Rivers always flow towards sea level and currents always flow towards ground. A battery is similar to a dam. On one side is a lot of stored up energy. When a path is formed from that side to the other side then current flows. If there is no path then current does not flow and the energy just stays there waiting for a path to form to the other side. The path can be a big path with lots of current flowing or a small path with just a little bit of current flowing. With a dam, a little bit of water flow could go on for a long time, but flow through a big path that lets all the water go at once would only last a short while. A battery is the same. If there is a big path from the high voltage side to the low voltage side then the battery will not last long.
Open Circuit
An open circuit is when two points are not connected by anything. No current flows and nothing happens. If a wire in your vacuum cleaner breaks it can cause an open circuit and no current can flow so it does not do anything. There may be a voltage between those two points but the current can not flow without a connection.
Short Circuit
A short circuit (or short) is when two points with different voltage levels are connected with no resistance (see resistors) between two points. This can cause a large amount of current to flow. If a short circuit happens in your house, it will usually cause a circuit breaker to break or a fuse to blow. If there is nothing to limit the current, the wires may melt and cause a fire. This situation is something like a dam breaking. There is a large amount of energy suddenly free to flow from a high point to a low point with nothing to limit the current. There are two basic ways that components can be connected. One is in series and the other is in parallel. We will refer to these types of connections later when we are building circuits.
Series Connection
A series connection is when two components are joined together by a common leg and nothing else is connected to that point as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Parallel Connection
A parallel connection is when two components are joined together by both legs as shown below.
Figure 3
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are also common components. They have a dial or a knob that allows you to change the resistance. This is very useful for many situations. Volume controls are variable resistors. When you change the volume you are changing the resistance which changes the current. Making the resistance higher will let less current flow so the volume goes down. Making the resistance lower will let more current flow so the volume goes up. The value of a variable resistor is given as its highest resistance value. For example, a 500 ohm variable resistor can have a resistance of anywhere between 0 ohms and 500 ohms. A variable resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short). No variable resistors are included in this kit.
Diodes
Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction. They have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on the positive leg is higher than on the negative leg then current flows through the diode (the resistance is very low). When the voltage is lower on the positive leg than on the negative leg then the current does not flow (the resistance
is very high). The positive leg of a diode is the one with the line closest to it. Usually when current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on the positive leg is 0.65 volts higher than on the negative leg.There are no standard diodes in this kit but a special kind of diode called an LED is included.
LEDs
Light Emitting Diodes are great for projects because they provide visual entertainment. LEDs use a special material which emits light when current flows through it. Unlike light bulbs, LEDs never burn out unless their current limit is passed. A current of 0.002 Amps (2 mA) to 0.02 Amps (20 mA) is a good range for LEDs. They have a positive leg and a negative leg just like regular diodes. To find the positive side of an LED, look for a line in the metal inside the LED. It may be difficult to see the line. This line is closest to the positive side of the LED. Another way of finding the negative side is to find a flat spot on the edge of the LED. This flat spot is on the negative side. Also, the positive leg is usually longer than the negative leg (this is true for the LEDs in this kit). When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is about 1.4 volts higher than the voltage on the negative side. Remember that there is no resistance to limit the current so a resistor must be used in series (see Series Connection in Section 1.1) with the LED to avoid destroying it.
Switches
Switches are devices that let you control whether two points in a circuit are connected or not, depending on the position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means connected (current flows through the switch, lights light up and people dance.) There is practically no resistance through the switch when it is turned on. When the switch is OFF, that means there is an open circuit (no current flows, lights go out and people settle down. This effect on people is used by some teachers to gain control of loud classes.) When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is OFF there is no connection.
Look at the third stripe from the left. This corresponds to a multiplication value. Find the value using the table below. Step Four: Multiply the two digit number from step two by the number from step three. This is the value of the resistor in ohms. The fourth stripe indicates the accuracy of the resistor. A gold stripe means the value of the resistor may vary by 5% from the value given by the stripes.
1.3.1 Resistor Color Codes (with gold or silver strip on right end)
Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple Gray White Gold Silver Color First Stripe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Second Stripe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5% 10% Third Stripe x1 x10 x100 x1,000 x10,000 x100,000 x1,000,000 Fourth Stripe
Follow the procedure above with the examples below and soon you will be able to quickly determine the value of a resistor by just a glance at the color coded stripes.
Example 1:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as brown, black, orange, gold. Find the resistance value.
Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is brown which has a value of 1. The second stripe is black which has a value of 0. Therefore, the first two digits of the resistance value are 10. Step Three: The third stripe is orange which means x 1,000. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 10 x 1000 = 10,000 ohms (10 kilo ohms = 10 k ohms). The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 9,500 ohms and 10,500 ohms. (Since 5% of 10,000 = 0.05 x 10,000 = 500)
Example 2:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as orange, orange, brown, silver. Find the resistance value. Step One: The silver stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is orange which has a value of 3. The second stripe is orange which has a value of 3. Therefore, the first two digits of the resistance value are 33. Step Three: The third stripe is brown which means x 10. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 33 x 10 = 330 ohms. The silver stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 10% meaning the actual value will be between 297 ohms and 363 ohms. (Since 10% of 330 = 0.10 x 330 = 33)
Example 3:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as blue, gray, red, gold. Find the resistance value. Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is blue which has a value of 6. The second stripe is gray which has a value of 8. Therefore, the first two digits of the resistance value are 68. Step Three: The third stripe is red which means x 100. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 68 x 100 = 6800 ohms (6.8 kilo ohms = 6.8 k ohms). The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 6,460 ohms and 7,140 ohms. (Since 5% of 6,800 = 0.05 x 6,800 = 340)
Example 4:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as green, brown, black, gold. Find the resistance value. Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is green which has a value of 5. The second stripe is brown which has a value of 1. Therefore, the first two digits of the resistance value are 51. Step Three: The third stripe is black which means x 1. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 51 x 1 = 51 ohms. The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 48.45 ohms and 53.55 ohms. (Since 5% of 51 = 0.05 x 51 = 2.55)
R1 + R2
A
Figure 4
The resistors add together. For example if R1 = 500 ohms and R2 = 250 ohms then the resistance between points A and B would be R1 + R2 = 500 + 250 = 750 ohms. Section 1.5 has a picture that shows what a series connection of two resistors looks like on a breadboard.
When two resistors are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 5, the new resistance is smaller than either R1 or R2. The new resistance between points A and B is (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2).
A
Figure 5
For example, if R1 = 500 and R2 = 250 then the resistance between points A and B = (500 x 250) / (500 + 250)= (125,000) / (750) = 167 ohms. If R1 = R2 then the new resistance is just R1 / 2. Using these two rules, resistors can be combined to form new resistance values. Section 1.5 has a picture that shows what a parallel connection of two resistors looks like on a breadboard.
or I = DV / R (units are Amps = Volts / Ohms) Form 3: Resistance = Difference in Voltage / Current or R = DV / I (units are Ohms = Volts / Amps) These formulas are always used for situations where there are two points with a resistor between them. DV is the difference in voltage between the two points and current is what flows between the two points. These simple relationships allow us to calculate many things. Given any two of the three values (Current, Resistance, and Difference in Voltage) the third can be found. The most common calculation is for current. Voltage is easy to measure and the resistance can be found from the resistor (see color codes). Once these values are known, current can be calculated using Form 2 of Ohms law, I = DV / R. For example, consider the problem shown in Figure 6. One side is at 0 volts (ground) and the other side is at 5 volts (with a multimeter, black probe on right side, red probe on left side). The squiggly line is the symbol we use to represent a resistor.
Figure 6
The voltage difference between Point A and Point B is 5 - 0 = 5 volts (DV=5). Assume the resistor between the two points has a value of 500 ohms (R=500). We know that current flows from a point of high voltage to a point of low voltage so we can draw an arrow from the higher voltage to the lower voltage.
Figure 7
Now we can find the current flowing through the resistor by using Form 2 of Ohm's Law. I = DV / R If we put in values for DV and R we get I = DV / R = 5 / 500
I = 5 / 500 = 0.01 Amps I = 0.01 Amps = 10 milliAmps 10 milliamps can be abbreviated as 10 mA This means the current is 10 mA. ( I = 10mA ) Now to check our answer we can use Form 1 and Form 3 of Ohms law. We have to use the value of current in Amps for these formulas. So if we have I = 0.01 Amps and Resistance = 500 ohms then by using Form 1 of Ohms law we can find: DV = I * R DV = I * R = 0.01 * 500 DV = 0.01 * 500 = 5 volts So DV = 5 volts 5 volts is the voltage we started with so the value we found for the current must be correct. We can also check the answer with Form 3 by using I = 0.01 Amps and DV = 5 volts. R = DV / I R = DV / I = 5 / 0.01 R = 5 / 0.01 = 500 ohms So R = 500 ohms Now consider the problem shown in Figure 8. The voltage on one side is 10 volts and the voltage on the other side is 3 volts. Therefore the voltage difference between the two points is 10 - 3 = 7 volts (DV = 7 V). The resistor is 400 ohms (R = 400).
Figure 8
Then the current flowing from left to right is I = DV / R I = DV / R = 7 / 400 I = 7 / 400 = 0.0175 Amps I = 0.0175 Amps = 17.5 milliAmps I = 17.5 milliAmps = 17.5 mA This means the current flowing from the left to the right is 17.5 mA. Now suppose we have two points with a voltage difference of 5 volts. Point A is at 5 volts and Point B is at 0 volts (ground). (Notice that the voltage difference is the important part. If Point A is at 7 volts and Point B is at 2 volts then the voltage difference is the same, 7 - 2 = 5 volts.) Now suppose we want a current to flow between Points A and B and we want the current to be 0.02 Amps ( I = 0.02 Amps = 20 mA). Now we need to find the value of the resistor so we use Form 3 of Ohms Law. Resistance = Difference in Voltage / Current or R = DV / I (Ohms = Volts / Amps) DV / I = 5 / 0.02 = 250 ohms This means that putting a resistor with a value of 250 ohms between Points A and B will make a current flow from Point A to Point B and the current will be 0.02 Amps (20 mA). Now using the values of voltage and resistance, check the value of the current using Form 2 of Ohms law. 0.2 Amps = 5 Volts / 250 Ohms (Amps = Volts / Ohms)
The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below.
These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to connect components together to build circuits. To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in the holes. The holes are made so that they will hold the component in place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the hole. Each strip forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common node. On the bread board, a node is the row of holes that are connected by the strip of metal underneath. The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The row with the blue strip beside it is used for the negative voltage (usually ground) and the row with the red strip beside it is used for the positive voltage. The circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper wires. Then when a path is formed from the positive supply node to the negative supply node through wires and components, we can turn on the power and current flows through the path and the circuit comes alive. A series connection of 2 resistors on a breadboard looks like the picture below on the left and a parallel connection of 2 resistors looks like the picture below on the right.
For chips with many legs (ICs), place them in the middle of the board (across the middle dividing line) so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half are on the other side. A completed circuit might look like the following. This circuit uses two small breadboards.
The LED
An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be yellow, green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode. If you are unfamiliar with diodes, take a moment to review the components in Basic Components, Section 1.2. The important thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that current can only flow in one direction. To make an LED work, you need a voltage supply and a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a resistor, you will probably burn out the LED. The LED has very little resistance so large amounts of current will try to flow through it unless
you limit the current with a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a power supply, you will be highly disappointed. So first of all we will make our LED light up by setting up the circuit below.
Step 1.) First you have to find the positive leg of the LED. The easiest way to do this is to look for the leg that is longer. Step 2.) Once you know which side is positive, put the LED on your breadboard so the positive leg is in one row and the negative leg is in another row. (In the picture below the rows are vertical.) Step 3.) Place one leg of a 2.2k ohm resistor (does not matter which leg) in the same row as the negative leg of the LED. Then place the other leg of the resistor in an empty row. Step 4.) Unplug the power supply adapter from the power supply. Next, put the ground (black wire) end of the power supply adapter in the sideways row with the blue stripe beside it. Then put the positive (red wire) end of the power supply adapter in the sideways row with the red stripe beside it. Step 5.) Use a short jumper wire (use red since it will be connected to the positive voltage) to go from the positive power row (the one with the red stripe beside it) to the positive leg of the LED (not in the same hole, but in the same row). Use another short jumper wire (use black) to go from the ground row to the resistor (the leg that is not connected to the LED). Refer to the picture below if necessary. The breadboard should look like the picture shown below.
Now plug the power supply into the wall and then plug the other end into the power supply adapter and the LED should light
up. Current is flowing from the positive leg of the LED through the LED to the negative leg. Try turning the LED around. It should not light up. No current can flow from the negative leg of the LED to the positive leg. People often think that the resistor must come first in the path from positive to negative, to limit the amount of current flowing through the LED. But, the current is limited by the resistor no matter where the resistor is. Even when you first turn on the power, the current will be limited to a certain amount, and can be found using ohms law.
The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E). Sometimes they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor. Transistors always have one round side and one flat side. If the round side is facing you, the Collector leg is on the left, the Base leg is in the middle, and the Emitter leg is on the right.
Transistor Symbol
Basic Circuit
The Base (B) is the On/Off switch for the transistor. If a current is flowing to the Base, there will be a path from the Collector (C) to the Emitter (E) where current can flow (The Switch is On.) If there is no current flowing to the Base, then no current can flow from the Collector to the Emitter. (The Switch is Off.) Below is the basic circuit we will use for all of our transistors.
To build this circuit we only need to add the transistor and another resistor to the circuit we built above for the LED. Unplug the power supply from the power supply adapter before making any changes on the breadboard. To put the transistor in the breadboard, seperate the legs slightly and place it on the breadboard so each leg is in a different row. The collector leg should be in the same row as the leg of the resistor that is connected to ground (with the black jumper wire). Next move the jumper wire going from ground to the 2.2k ohm resistor to the Emitter of the transistor. Next place one leg of the 100k ohm resistor in the row with the Base of the transistor and the other leg in an empty row and your breadboard should look like the picture below.
Now put one end of a yellow jumper wire in the positive row (beside the red line) and the other end in the row with the leg of the 100k ohm resistor (the end not connected to the Base). Reconnect the power supply and the transistor will come on and the LED will light up. Now move the one end of the yellow jumper wire from the positive row to the ground row (beside the blue line). As soon as you remove the yellow jumper wire from the positive power supply, there is no current flowing to the base. This makes the transistor turn off and current can not flow through the LED. As we will see later, there is very little current flowing through the 100k resistor. This is very important because it means we can control a large current in one part of the circuit (the current flowing through the LED) with only a small current from the input.
So when the 100k resistor is connected to 12VDC, the circuit will look like this:
So the current flowing through the 100k resistor is (12 - 0.6) / 100000 = 0.000114 A = 0.114 mA. The current flowing through the 2.2k ohm resistor is (10.6 - 0.2) / 2200 = 0.0047 A = 4.7 mA. If we want more current flowing through the LED, we can use a smaller resistor (instead of 2200) and we will get more
current through the LED without changing the amount of current that comes from the Input line. This means we can control things that use a lot of power (like electric motors) with cheap, low power circuits. Soon you will learn how to use a microcontroller (a simple computer). Even though the microcontroller can not supply enough current to turn lights and motors on and off, the microcontroller can turn transistors on and off and the transistors can control lots of current for lights and motors. For Ohms law, also remember that when the transistor is off, no current flows through the transistor.
Input 1 0
Output 0 1
To help us practice with transistors we will build an inverter. Actually we have already built an inverter. The transistor circuit we just built is an inverter circuit. To help see the inverter working, we will build a circuit with two inverters. The circuit we will use is shown below. First Inverter (already built)
Second Inverter
To build the circuit, use the transistor circuit we just built as the first inverter. The first inverter input is the end of the 100k ohm resistor connected to the yellow jumper wire. Build another circuit identical to the first (the basic transistor circuit from Section 1.6.1) except leave out the yellow jumper wire connected to the 100k ohm resistor (the inverter input). This circuit is
the second inverter. Connect the output of the first inverter to the input of the second inverter by putting one end of a jumper wire in the same row of holes as the 2.2k ohm resistor and the Collector of the transistor (the output of the first inverter) and putting the other end in the same row of holes as the leg of the 100k ohm resistor of the second inverter (the input to the second inverter). Here is how to check if you built it correctly. Connect the first inverter input (the yellow jumper wire) to 12V (the positive row). The LED in the first inverter should come on and the LED in the second inverter should stay off. Then connect the first inverter input to 0V (the ground row). (You are turning off the switch of the first inverter.) The first LED should go off and the second LED should come on. If this does not happen, check to make sure no metal parts are touching. Check to make sure all the parts are connected correctly. The input can either be connected to 12V or 0V. When the Inverter Input is 12V, the transistor in the first inverter will turn on and the LED will come on and the Inverter Output voltage will be 0.2V. The first Inverter Output is connected to the input of the second inverter. The 0.2V at the input of the second inverter is small enough that the second transistor is turned off. The circuit voltages are shown in the diagram below.
When the Inverter Input is connected to 0V, the transistor in the first inverter is turned off and the LED will get very dim. There is a small amount of current still flowing through the LED to the second inverter. The voltage at the first Inverter Output will go up, forcing the second inverter transistor to come on. When the second inverter transistor comes on, the second inverter LED will come on. To find the voltage at the output of the first inverter (10.4V), use Ohm's law. There is no current flowing through the transistor in the first inverter so the path of the current is through the first LED, through the 2.2k resistor, through the 100k resistor, through the second transistor to ground. The voltage at the negative side of the first LED is fixed at 10.6V by the LED. The voltage at the second transistor base is fixed at 0.6V by the transistor. Then given those two voltages, you should be able to find the voltage at the point in the middle (10.4V) using Ohms law. (Hint: First find the current and then work through Form 1 of ohms law to find the voltage at the point between the 2.2k resistor and the 100k resistor.)
Switch the input back and forth from 0V to 12V and you can see that when the first stage is on, the second stage is off. This demonstrates the inverting action of the Inverter.
1.7 Oscillators, Pulse Generators, Clocks... Capacitors and the 555 Timer IC
Introduction
As electronic designs get bigger, it becomes difficult to build the complete circuit. So we will use prebuilt circuits that come in packages like the one shown above. This prebuilt circuit is called an IC. IC stands for Integrated Circuit. An IC has many transistors inside it that are connected together to form a circuit. Metal pins are connected to the circuit and the circuit is stuck into a piece of plastic or ceramic so that the metal pins are sticking out of the side. These pins allow you to connect other devices to the circuit inside. We can buy simple ICs that have several inverter circuits like the one we built in the LED and Transistor section or we can buy complex ICs like a Pentium Processor.
The picture above on the left shows two typical capacitors. Capacitors usually have two legs. One leg is the positive leg and the other is the negative leg. The positive leg is the one that is longer. The picture on the right is the symbol used for capacitors in circuit drawings (schematics). When you put one in a circuit, you must make sure the positive leg and the negative leg go in the right place. Capacitors do not always have a positive leg and a negative leg. The smallest capacitors in this kit do not. It does not matter which way you put them in a circuit. A capacitor is similar to a rechargable battery in the way it works. The difference is that a capacitor can only hold a small fraction of the energy that a battery can. (Except for really big capacitors like the ones found in old TVs. These can hold a lot of charge. Even if a TV has been disconnected from the wall for a long time, these capacitors can still make lots of sparks and hurt people.) As with a rechargable battery, it takes a while for the capacitor to charge. So if we have a 12 volt supply and start charging the capacitor, it will start with 0 volts and go from 0 volts to 12 volts. Below is a graph of the voltage in the capacitor while it is charging.
The same idea is true when the capacitor is discharging. If the capacitor has been charged to 12 volts and then we connect both legs to ground, the capacitor will start discharging but it will take some time for the voltage to go to 0 volts. Below is a graph of what the voltage is in the capacitor while it is discharging.
We can control the speed of the capacitor's charging and discharging using resistors. Capacitors are given values based on how much electricity they can store. Larger capacitors can store more energy and take more time to charge and discharge. The values are given in Farads but a Farad is a really large unit of measure for common capacitors. In this kit we have 2 33pf capacitors, 2 10uf capacitors and 2 220uF capacitors. Pf means picofarad and uf means microfarad. A picofarad is 0.000000000001 Farads. So the 33pf capacitor has a value of 33 picofarads or 0.000000000033 Farads. A microfarad is 0.000001 Farads. So the 10uf capacitor is 0.00001 Farads and the 220uF capacitor is 0.000220 Farads. If you do any calculations using the value of the capacitor you have to use the Farad value rather than the picofarad or microfarad value. Capacitors are also rated by the maximum voltage they can take. This value is always written on the larger can shaped capacitors. For example, the 220uF capacitors in this kit have a maximum voltage rating of 25 volts. If you apply more than 25 volts to them they will die. We dont have to worry about that with this kit because our power supply can only put out 12 volts.
Deep Details
Pin 2 (Trigger) is the 'on' switch for the pulse. The line over the word Trigger tells us that the voltage levels are the opposite of what you would normally expect. To turn the switch on you apply 0 volts to pin 2. The technical term for this opposite behavior is 'Active Low'. It is common to see this 'Active Low' behavior for IC inputs because of the inverting nature of transistor circuits like we saw in the LED and Transistor Tutorial. Pin 6 is the off switch for the pulse. We connect the positive side of the capacitor to this pin and the negative side of the capacitor to ground. When Pin 2 (Trigger) is at Vcc, the 555 holds Pin 7 at 0 volts (Note the inverted voltage). When Pin 2 goes to 0 volts, the 555 stops holding Pin 7 at 0 volts. Then the capacitor starts charging. The capacitor is charged through a resistor connected to Vcc. The current starts flowing into the capacitor, and the voltage in the capacitor starts to increase. Pin 3 is the output (where the actual pulse comes out). The voltage on this pin starts at 0 volts. When 0 volts is applied to the trigger (Pin 2), the 555 puts out Vcc on Pin 3 and holds it at Vcc until Pin 6 reaches 2/3 of Vcc (that is Vcc * 2/3). Then the 555 pulls the voltage at Pin 3 to ground and you have created a pulse. (Again notice the inverting action.) The voltage on Pin 7 is also pulled to ground, connecting the capacitor to ground and discharging it.
Place the 555 across the middle line of the breadboard so that 4 pins are on one side and 4 pins are on the other side. (You may need to bend the pins in a little so they will go in the holes.) Leave the power disconnected until you finish building the circuit. The diagram above shows how the pins on the 555 are numbered. You can find pin 1 by looking for the half circle in the end of the chip. Sometimes instead of a half circle, there will be a dot or shallow hole by pin 1.
Before you start building the circuit, use jumper wires to connect the red and blue power rows to the red and blue power rows on the other side of the board. Then you will be able to easily reach Vcc and Ground lines from both sides of the board. (If the wires are too short, use two wires joined together in a row of holes for the positive power (Vcc) and two wires joined together in a different row of holes for the ground.) Connect Pin 1 to ground. Connect Pin 8 to Vcc. Connect Pin 4 to Vcc. Connect the positive leg of the LED to a 330 ohm resistor and connect the negative end of the LED to ground. Connect the other leg of the 330 ohm resistor to the output, Pin 3. Connect Pin 7 to Vcc with a 10k resistor (RA = 10K). Connect Pin 7 to Pin 6 with a jumper wire. Connect Pin 6 to the positive leg of the 220uF Capacitor (C = 220uF). (You will need to bend the positive (long leg) up and out some so that the negative leg can go in the breadboard. Connect the negative leg of the capacitor to ground. Connect a wire to Pin 2 to use as the trigger. Start with Pin 2 connected to Vcc. Now connect the power. The LED will come on and stay on for about 2 seconds. Remove the wire connected to Pin 2 from Vcc. You should be able to trigger the 555 again by touching the wire connected to pin 2 with your finger or by connecting it to ground and removing it. (It should be about a 2 second pulse.)
Making it Oscillate
Next we will make the LED flash continually without having to trigger it. We will hook up the 555 so that it triggers itself. The way this works is that we add in a resistor between the capacitor and the discharge pin, Pin 7. Now, the capacitor will charge up (through RA and RB) and when it reaches 2/3 Vcc, Pin 3 and Pin 7 will go to ground. But the capacitor can not discharge immediately because of RB. It takes some time for the charge to drain through RB. The more resistance RB has, the longer it takes to discharge. The time it takes to discharge the capacitor will be the time the LED is off. To trigger the 555 again, we connect Pin 6 to the trigger (Pin 2). As the capacitor is discharging, the voltage in the capacitor gets lower and lower. When it gets down to 1/3 Vcc this triggers Pin 2 causing Pin 3 to go to Vcc and the LED to come on. The 555 disconnects Pin 7 from ground, and the capacitor starts to charge up again through RA and RB.
To build this circuit from the previous circuit, do the following. Disconnect the power. Take out the jumper wire between Pin 6 and Pin 7 and replace it with a 2.2k resistor (RB = 2.2K). Use the jumper wire at pin 2 to connect Pin 2 to Pin 6. Now reconnect the power and the LED should flash forever (as long as you pay your electricity bill). Experiment with different resistor values of RA and RB to see how it changes the length of time that the LED flashes. (You are changing the amount of time that it takes for the Capacitor to charge and discharge.)
Formulas
These are the formulas we use for the 555 to control the length of the pulses. t1 = charge time (how long the LED is on) = 0.693 * (RA + RB) * C t2 = discharge time (how long the LED is off) = 0.693 * RB * C T = period = t1 + t2 = 0.693 * (RA + 2*RB) * C Frequency = 1 / T = 1.44 / ((RA + 2 * RB) * C)
t1 and t2 are the time in seconds. C is the capacitor value in Farads. 220uF = 0.000220 F. So for our circuit we have: t1 = 0.693 * (10000 + 2200) * 0.000220 = 1.86 seconds t2 = 0.693 * 2200 * 0.000220 = 0.335 seconds T = 1.86 + 0.335 = 2.195 seconds Frequency = 0.456 (cycles per second)
Chapter 2: Microcontrollers
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that is programmable. When you turn on the power to the microcontroller it goes through a series of commands. These commands are put in the chip by you. You can make it do different things by changing the commands (usually called the program). To change the commands you need a device like the PG302. The PG302 lets you download the program from your computer to the microcontroller. This chapter will show you some simple programs and how to download those to the microcontroller. 2.0.1 PG302 Setup The Software CD contains a setup.exe file in the PG302 folder. Double click on this file to run it and follow the instructions. (Click here to download the software from our website.) There are two setup options that you may want to change at some point in the future. The first option is Auto Erase. In most situations you will want to leave this on so that the chip is erased before programming it with new code. The second option is Auto Verify. This option automatically verifies that the code was programmed correctly. If a chip has not been erased before programming, this option will find that error. Leave these options on while working through the projects in this chapter. When programming a chip, insert it in the green socket so that pin 1 of the chip is in the same corner as the handle of the socket. The handle of the green socket should be in the up (open) position. Then lock the chip into the socket by pushing the handle down into the closed position.
2.0.2 AY Pad Software Setup AY Pad is the software we will use to view and edit the commands (programs) for the microcontroller. It is a fancy text editor that colorizes text files. Look for a file on the CD in the MBKit/AY Pad folder called setup.exe (or click here). Double click the setup.exe file. This will install AY Pad. To run AY Pad, go to Start->Programs->AY Software->AY Pad 2.0.3 TASM Software Setup Make a new folder called tasm on your C hard drive that you can use for these projects. Look for a file on the CD in the MBKit folder called tasminst.exe (or click here). Copy this file and paste it in the new tasm folder on your C drive. Now double click on tasminst.exe. This will extract all the files we need for the projects. The main file we will use is TASM. It is called a compiler or assembler. It converts the microcontroller commands from a text version (that we can understand) to a number version (that the microcontroller can understand). 2.0.4 Chapter 2 Summary Build the 5 volt power supply as shown in Section 2.1. You should now be ready to work through section 2.3, Making an LED Blink, and section 2.4, the A Simple Microcontroller System. These show the basic steps of compiling programs and downloading them to the 2051 microcontroller. After doing these two projects you should be able to study the assembly language code and modify it to do various things with the LEDs. 2.1
Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5 volt power supply. To use these parts we need to build a regulated 5 volt source. Usually you start with an unregulated power supply ranging from 9 volts to 24 volts DC. To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a LM7805 voltage regulator IC (Integrated Circuit). The IC is shown below.
The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Ground pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the Output pin. This 5 volt output will be used as Vcc in the following projects. Connect the red wire from the power supply adapter to the input of the 7805. Connect the black wire from the power supply adapter to the ground row (with the blue line beside it). Run a black jumper wire from the ground row to the ground of the 7805. Then use a yellow jumper to connect the 5 volt output to the row of holes with the red stripe beside it. The breadboarded circuit is shown below.
Sometimes the input supply line (the 12VDC above) may be noisy. To help smooth out this noise and get a better 5 volt output, a capacitor is usually added to the circuit, going between the input and ground (GND). Find the 220 uF capacitor and put the long leg (positive leg) in the row of holes with the 12VDC line and put the short leg (negative leg) in ground (the row of holes next to the blue line).
Pin 1 is Reset. This pin can be used to force the 2051 to start over at the beginning of the program. Pin 2 and Pin 3 can be used to communicate with the computer or other devices (RXD is receive and TXD is transmit). Pin 2 and Pin 3 are also part of Port 3. Port 3 includes P3.0, P3.1, P3.2, P3.3, P3.4, P3.5 and P3.7 (there is no P3.6). These pins are usually used as general input/output pins. They can be connected to LEDs to turn them on and off (this would be using them as outputs). Or they can be connected to switches so that the 2051 can look and see if a user has turned a switch on or off (this would be using them as inputs). Pins 4 and 5 are connected to the 11.0592 MHz crystal. The 2051 uses this crystal to create a clock. The speed of the crystal determines the speed that the 2051 runs at. You can make programs run faster by using a faster crystal such as 24 MHz. Pin 10 is the ground connection for the 2051. Pins 12 to 19 make up Port 1. This is another set of pins that can be used as general inputs and outputs. Pins 6, 7, 8, 9, 12 and 13 also have other possible uses that we will not get into here. You can learn more about them in the documents listed at the end of Section 2.3.1
The first step is to build the circuit. At this point you should be familiar with the parts used. (2 resistors, 3 capacitors, 1 LED). The 2051 chip should be placed across the middle of the breadboard (like the 555 IC was) so each leg will have its own row of holes. You will probably need to bend the legs in slightly so the chip will go in the holes. Do this by placing the chip sideways on a hard flat surface so 10 pins from one side of the chip are laying flat against the surface. Then bend all the chips at once by pressing gently on the chip. This project will require you to remove the 2051 from the board to program it. Be careful when removing the 2051 from the board. Always use the chip extractor to pull the chip off the board. Try not to bend the pins (legs) when removing the chip.
port you are using, try choosing the other Comm ports). Now the program should be loaded into the microcontroller. Leave the power disconnected from the circuit you have built. Move the microcontroller back to the circuit you have built. Plug the power supply into the power supply adapter (which should be connected to the board). If the LED starts blinking, then you have succesfully built your first microcontroller project. The assembly language program is shown below. Everything in green is just comments (created by using a ; in front of the comment). The real commands are in blue. Black is used for numbers and also for names that we create. Red is also used for numbers. If the number actually starts with a number then it is red. Otherwise it will be black. Numbers in the microcontroller are stored in registers. The register names show up in purple. In this program we use the register A (the main register), and the registers R5, R6, and R7. We can also use R0, R1, R2, R3, and R4. Take a look at the program and see if it makes sense. The program starts with the first command AJMP START at the top which tells the 2051 to jump to the point labeled START: at the bottom. Next, the ACALL INITIALIZE command jumps back up to INITIALIZE: . Here we just move (MOV) the default number 0 into the control registers and then return (RET) to the next command after the ACALL INITIALIZE command. (You can move different values into those control registers to change how the 2051 operates, but dont worry about that yet.) The next command, CPL P1.0, turns the LED on or off (makes it the opposite of what it was). Then we go to the DELAYHS routine to make a delay before we turn the LED on or off again. (Without a delay, the LED would go on and off so fast that it would just look like it was staying on all the time.) Finally we use the AJMP LOOP command to jump back up to the point labeled LOOP: to turn the LED on or off. The microcontroller will keep going through this loop until you turn the power off. The commands we use the most are shown in section 2.3.1. For a complete list of commands and descriptions, look at the file Programmers Guide and Instruction Set.pdf in the MBKit folder. See if you can follow the program through, using the green comments for guidance. Start up the AY Pad software. Open the ledtest.hex file and try changing the command MOVR6, #00H (in the DELAYHS loop) to MOVR6, #70H . Save the file and then go back and do steps 2 and 3 to see how this changes the program.
;*************************************************************************** ;* LED Blinker * ;* Iguana Labs * ;* 4/1/97 * ;*************************************************************************** #INCLUDE "8051EQU.INC" ;include predefined constants ;************************************************************************** ; RESET ;reset routine .ORG0H ;locate routine at 00H AJMP START ;jump to START ;**************************************************************************
; INTERRUPTS (not used) ;place interrupt routines at appropriate ;memory locations .ORG03H ;external interrupt 0 RETI .ORG0BH ;timer 0 interrupt RETI .ORG13H ;external interrupt 1 RETI .ORG1BH ;timer 1 interrupt RETI .ORG23H ;serial port interrupt RETI .ORG25H ;locate beginning of rest of program ;************************************************************************** INITIALIZE: ;set up control registers MOVTCON,#00H MOVTMOD,#00H MOVPSW,#00H MOV IE,#00H ;disable interrupts RET ;************************************************************************** ; Real code starts below. The first two routines are for delays so we ; can slow down the blinking so we can see it. (Without a delay, it ; would blink so fast it would look like it was always on. ;************************************************************************** DELAYMS: ;millisecond delay routine MOVR7,#00H ;put value of 0 in register R7 LOOPA: INCR7 ;increase R7 by one (R7 = R7 +1) MOVA,R7 ;move value in R7 to Accumlator (also known as A) CJNEA,#0FFH,LOOPA ;compare A to FF hex (256). If not equal go to LOOPA RET ;return to the point that this routine was called from ;************************************************************************** DELAYHS: ;half second delay above millisecond delay MOVR6,#00H ;put 0 in register R6 (R6 = 0) MOV R5,#002H ;put 2 in register R5 (R5 = 2) LOOPB: INC R6 ;increase R6 by one (R6 = R6 +1) ACALL DELAYMS ;call the routine above. It will run and return to here. MOVA,R6 ;move value in R6 to A JNZ LOOPB ;if A is not 0, go to LOOPB DEC R5 ;decrease R5 by one. (R5 = R5 -1) MOVA,R5 ;move value in R5 to A JNZ LOOPB ;if A is not 0 then go to LOOPB. RET ;**************************************************************************
START: ;main program (on power up, program starts at this point) ACALL INITIALIZE ;set up control registers LOOP: CPLP1.0 ;ComPLement (invert) P1.0 (this makes LED change) ACALL DELAYHS ;go to above routine that causes a delay AJMP LOOP ;go to LOOP(always jump back to point labeled LOOP) .END ;end program (never reaches this point)
Command ADD SUBB INC DEC MUL DIV ANL ORL XRL CLR CPL MOV SETB JB JNB
Description Add Two Numbers Subtract Two Numbers Increment Data (Add 1 to existing amount) Decrement Data (Subtract 1 from existing amount) Multiply Two Numbers Divide Two Numbers Logical AND Two Numbers Logical OR Two Numbers Logical XOR Two Numbers Clear (reset) data to 0 Complement (Flip) Data (1s go to 0 and 0s go to 1) Move data around in the chip from register to register Set a number to 1 Jump to a new location if a number is 1 Jump to a new location if a number is 0
Jump to a subroutine, then return to this point when done with subroutine Return from subroutine (used at end of subroutine) Jump to a new location Jump if a number is 0 Jump if a number is not 0 Compare two numbers and jump if they are not equal Decrease a number by 1 and jump if result is not zero No Operation (used to waste time when waiting for something to happen)
For a complete list of commands and descriptions, look at the file Programmers Guide and Instruction Set.pdf. You may also want to look at the file 8051mem.pdf for more information on the memory structure of the 8051 (for storing data). The file 8051arch.pdf has more information on the chip architecture. The file 8051hardware.pdf has more information on the hardware (registers, port structure, etc.). The above files have general information for the Atmel family of 8051 microcontrollers. For information specific to the 2051, look at the file AT89C2051.pdf.
Vcc = 5V
In this project the program is similar to the previous one but instead of just making one LED blink, we are using all of Port 1. The program for this is ledproj2.asm. (Look in the TASM folder) Once you have compiled the program, download it to the 2051. Make sure the power is off for the circuit you have built. Then move the microcontroller to the circuit. Turn on the power to the circuit. The LEDs should all come on. Then they should start blinking on and off as the counter counts up from 0 to 255 (all on to all off). The numbers are in digital (binary) format. For more information on working with digital numbers, look at http://webster.cs.ucr.edu/Page_asm/ArtofAssembly/CH01/CH01-1.html Use AY Pad to look at this program and see how it is different from ledtest.hex. Click here to see the next tutorial on using the 2051 to make sound with a speaker.
Click here to see the tutorial on using the 2051 with a 7 segment display. Click here to see the tutorial on using a switch as an input to the microcontroller. Click here to see the tutorial on using Light Sensors with the microcontroller.
To see the sales ad for the Microcontroller Beginner Kit, click here. For pricing, ordering information, other kits and products, click here or call 800-297-1633.
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The only thing we want to do with this project is to make the LED blink. By doing this, you will be able to learn the basic process of compiling a program written in assembly language and then programming the resulting file into the microcontroller. First we will assume we already have the assembly code written. ledtest.asm is the assembly language program we are going to use. (This file is included with TASM ) Step 2.) Compiling the Code Move the assembly language program (ledtest.asm) to the directory where you have TASM. Bring up a DOS prompt, change to the directory where the TASM files are, and compile the code using the command tasm -51 ledtest.asm ledtest.hex This will create a file called ledtest.hex. Close the DOS prompt window now.
Step 3.) Downloading the code to the Microcontroller. Make sure the serial cable and the power supply are connected to the PG302 programmer. Put your microcontroller into the PG302 programmer. Run PG302. From the Setup Menu, select the type of device (microcontroller) you are using From the Setup Menu, select the Comm port you are using. Press PROGRAM DEVICE. Press BROWSE. Find ledtest.hex and click on it (single click). Press OK to select the file. Press OK to program the file into the microcontroller. Now the program should be loaded into the microcontroller. Make sure the power is off for the circuit you have built. Move the microcontroller back to the circuit you have built. Turn on the power to the circuit. If the LED starts blinking, then you have successfully built your first microcontroller project. The parts for this kit are included in 2051Kit and the Microcontroller Beginner Kit. See part 2 for parts list and see Order Form for price and ordering information or call 800-297-1633. You may also be interested in the ExpBoard. It is a fully assembled board made for experimenting with microcontrollers. Click here for more information on the ExpBoard.
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The basic process of compiling an assembly language program and loading it into the microcontroller was covered in the first microcontroller project.In this project the program is similar. Instead of just making an LED blink, we are using all of Port 1 on the 2051 to make an 8 bit counter. The program for this is ledproj2.asm. Once you have compiled the program, download it to the 2051. Make sure the power is off for the circuit you have built. Then move the microcontroller to the circuit. Turn on the power to the circuit. The LEDs should all come on. Then they should start blinking on and off as the counter counts up from 0 to 255 (all on to all off).
AT89C2051-24PC Microcontroller 1 - 11.0592 MHz Crystal 2 - 33pF Capacitors 1 - 10 uF Capacitor 1 - 8.2k Resistor 10 - 330 ohm Resistors 10 - LEDs Jumper Wires
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The basic process of compiling a program written in assembly language and then programming the resulting file into the microcontroller was covered in the first microcontroller tutorial. This project uses the same code as the first program. To start, we just make a minor change to the original assembly language program, ledtest.asm. Replace the line at the bottom that says ACALL DELAYHS with ACALL DELAYMS. This changes the delay from half a second to one millisecond. Save it as a new file called sounds.asm . That change makes it so that rather than delaying a half a second, we are only delaying one millisecond. Compile the sounds.asm file, load sounds.hex into the 2051 and put the chip back in the circuit. Connect the power. You should hear a tone coming from the speaker. If the LED was hooked up, it would be going on and off so fast that it would look like it was on all the time. But with the speaker, we can hear the voltage going on and off. You can only see the LED going on and off up to about 25 blinks per second. You can start to hear the speaker making noise at about 50 blinks per second. But instead of calling it blinks, we call it cycles. Right now the microcontroller is putting out about 500 cycles per second. This is also called the frequency. It is a frequency of 500 Hertz (where Hertz means cycles per second). If you want to make the frequency go down, you can add more delay. Try adding another millisecond delay by inserting another ACALL DELAYMS (see sounds2.asm). This will make the frequency 250 Hertz. You can hear that the sound is lower in frequency. The information below is fairly advanced so don't worry if you want to skip it. Click here for the next tutorial - Using a 7 Segment Display with the 2051 Click here for more sound examples.
Lets start by determining what frequency the sounds.asm program is creating. First lets look at the DELAYMS routine. We need to figure out how long this routine lasts. By just looking at the code, we can figure out that it goes through a loop 255 times. Each time through the loop it does 3 commands. The first two commands each take 12 clock cycles and the 3rd command (CJNE) takes 24 clock cycles. (You can find this out by looking for information on the commands in 2051arch.pdf). So each loop takes 48 clock
cycles. To translate this into time, we need to look at the clock speed of the microcontroller. We are using an 11.0592 MHz crystal. This means the clock is running at a frequency of 11,059,200 cycles per second. (MHz is MegaHertz which is millon cycles per second). Each cycle takes 1/11,059,200 seconds = 0.00000009 seconds. So each loop takes 48 * 0.00000009 = 0.00000434 seconds. And 255 loops takes 255*0.00000434 = 0.001106771 seconds which is slightly longer than 1 millisecond (1 millisecond = 0.001 seconds). If we wanted to get closer to exactly 1 ms we could change the loop so that it only repeats 230 times rather than 255. So, the program makes the output go from 0 to 5 volts, then waits 1 ms, then goes from 5 volts to 0 volts, then waits 1 ms and that makes one cycle. So one cycle takes about 2 ms (This is called the period). To convert that to frequency, divide 1 cycle by 2 ms (1/0.002 = 500). Then you get 500 cycles per second. Or, to be exact, using the numbers above, one cycle takes 2.213542 ms for a frequency of 451.76 Hz. So, to get an exact frequency, you can start with the frequency and work backwards. Say you want to make 440 Hz, which is a musical A note. To find the period, divide 1 by 440. This gives you the period equal to 0.002272727 seconds. Then divide this by 2 to find out how long each delay must be (there will be 2 delays per cycle). Each delay should be 0.001136364. Then find out how many microcontroller clock cycles this is by dividing by 0.00000009. This equals 12626 cycles (after dropping the decimal part). Using our loop that takes 48 cycles, this would be about 263 loops (12626 / 48 = 263). We can only go up to 255 loops so then we can either make our loop take more time, or add in an extra DELAY routine that adds in the extra 8 loops. The easiest solution is to make our loop longer. We can add in an extra 12 cycles per loop by putting in a NOP (no operation) command. Then each loop is 60 cycles and we need about 210 loops (12626 / 60 = 210). The resulting code is shown in sound440.asm . That will not be exactly 440 Hz because we had to round off in some places (you can't do 210.43 loops but 210 is close. To figure out exactly what frequency that we made, we can do the same as we did above with the DELAYMS routine. Each loop is 0.00000009 * 60 = 0.0000054 seconds. Each DELAYMS takes 210 * 0.0000054 = 0.001134 seconds. With 2 delays per cycle this is a period of 0.002268. In terms of frequency, 1/0.002268 = 440.9 cycles per second which is close to 440. Note: To really be exactly right on the frequency you are making, you need to include the time in each cycle for the other commands, CPL, ACALL and RET, and the commands in the DELAYMS loop, MOV and RET. These add an extra 96 clock cycles each time through. Since it takes 2 times through to make a cycle on the output, That is an extra 192 cycles. This equals 192 * 0.00000009 = 0.00001728 seconds. So the period is actually 0.002268 + 0.00001728 = 0.00228528 and the frequency is actually 437.6. So this extra time must be considered if you are trying to get a very precise frequency. Note: You are limited in how close you can get to an exact frequency by the microcontroller clock speed. The faster the clock is, the more accurate you can be. For example, with a 11.0592 MHz clock where each cycle is 0.00000009 seconds, the closest you can get to 440 Hz is 440.0788621 Hz. This is found by 1/440 = 0.002272727 seconds and 0.002272727 / 0.00000009 = 25253 cycles (must round to closest whole number because you can't have part of a cycle). Since the shortest commands take 12 clock cycles, then you won't be able to write a routine that takes exactly 25253 cycles. It has to be some multiple of 12. The closest multiple of 12 is 25248. Then 25248 * 0.00000009 = 0.00227232 seconds and 1 / 0.00227232 =
440.0788621 Hz. If you have a faster microcontroller clock speed you can be more accurate. For example, with a 24 MHz clock (The fastest you can use with a 2051 microcontroller) then you can get 440.0440044 Hz. Also, if you use a clock that gives you a different period you may be able to get exactly 440 Hz. For example, if you have a microcontroller clock that is 22,440,002.69 MHz then you can get much closer to 440 Hz, but you have to find a crystal that runs at that exact speed, and there probably is not one. The parts for this kit are included in Microcontroller Beginner Kit. See the MB Kit page for parts list and see Order Form for price and ordering information. Send Questions to [email protected] Click here to go to the Main Tutorial Page Click here for more sound examples.
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This version is a common anode version. That means that the positive leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is pin 3 in this case. Each LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To make it work you need to connect pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up, connect the ground pin for that led to ground. A resistor is required to limit the current. Rather than using a resistor from each LED to ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to pin 3 to limit the current. The following table shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, b, C, d, E, and F. '0' means that pin is connected to ground. '1' means that pin is connected to Vcc.
a (Pin 1) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A b C d E F 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
b (Pin 10) 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
c (Pin 8) 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
d (Pin 6) 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
e (Pin 5) 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
f (Pin 2) 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
g (Pin 9) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Now, we want to run the display with the 2051 microcontroller. We will use Port 1 to run the display. Use the same configuration as in the first 2051 tutorial. Connect the 2051 to the 7 segment display as follows. 2051 pin 12 to display pin 9 (P1.0 will control segment g) 2051 pin 13 to display pin 2 (P1.1 will control segment f) 2051 pin 14 to display pin 5 (P1.2 will control segment e) 2051 pin 15 to display pin 6 (P1.3 will control segment d) 2051 pin 16 to display pin 8 (P1.4 will control segment c) 2051 pin 17 to display pin 10 (P1.5 will control segment b) 2051 pin 18 to display pin 1 (P1.6 will control segment a) Connect the display pin 3 to 5 volts using a 100 ohm resistor. Here is a program that cycles through the numbers and letters above. 7seg.asm Compile the program using TASM and load the hex file into the 2051. Put the 2051 into the circuit and connect the power.
The parts for this project are included in the Microcontroller Beginner Kit. See the ordering information page for pricing.
Back To Tutorials Menu Previous - Making Sound with the 2051 Microcontroller Next - Using a Switch as an Input to the Microcontroller
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Software
Our first program will constantly check the input to see if the input (P3.0) is a '0' or a '1'. This is called polling. We will use the command JB (Jump if Bit is set) to check if pin 2 is a '1' or a '0'. (If pin 2 is '1' then we say that the bit is set. In this case the bit is P3.0 so we would say P3.0 is set.) Below is the little bit of assembly code we will use to monitor the input and change the display. It is colorized as it is in the AY Pad software. SETB P3.0 LOOP: JB P3.0, NOT_PRESSED ACALL DISPLAY_0 AJMP LOOP NOT_PRESSED: ACALL DISPLAY_1 AJMP LOOP ; This is required to use P3.0 as an input ; If the button is not pressed, skip the next line ; Display '0' on the 7 segment display ; Jump back up to LOOP: ; Display '1' on the 7 segment display ;go to LOOP(always jump back to point labeled LOOP)
The first line sets up pin 2 as an input by writing a '1' to P3.0. Then "JB P3.0, NOT_PRESSED" checks to see if P3.0 is a '1' which means the button is not pressed. If the button is not pressed, it jumps to that label (NOT_PRESSED) and calls the routine to make a '1' on the display. If the button is pressed, it will not jump but instead will go to the next line which calls the routine to make a '0' on the display. So the display will show the value of P3.0. Note: Another command you may want to use is JNB (Jump if Not Bit set) which is the opposite of JB. The program is switch.asm. Compile the program using TASM and load the hex file into the 2051. Put the 2051 into the circuit and connect the power. The display should say '1' until you press the button and then should say '0' while the button is being pressed. Send Questions to [email protected]
Back To Tutorials Page Previous - Using a 7 Segment Display Next - Using a Light Sensor
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The easiest way to do analog to digital conversion is to use an IC such as the ADC0804 that does the work for you. The analog voltage is applied to pin 6 and the result is available at pins 11 through 18. We will connect pin 1 (Chip Select) to ground so that the chip is always enabled. (If you wanted to use more than one ADC you could use this pin to control which chip is currently enabled). Connect pin 7 (Vin - ) to ground. The ADC0804 includes an internal oscillator which requires an external capacitor and resistor to operate. Connect the 150 pF capacitor from pin 4 to ground and the 10k ohm resistor from pin 4 to pin 19. Also for power, Connect pin 20 to 5 volts. Connect Pin 8 to ground. Connect pin 10 to ground. For more information on the ADC0804 click here to get the data sheet for it.
For the 2051 oscillator, Connect the 11 MHz Crystal from pin 4 of the 2051 to pin 5 of the 2051. Connect one 33 pF capacitor from pin 4 of the 2051 to ground. Connect the other 33 pF capacitor from pin 5 of the 2051 to ground. For the 2051 reset circuit, Connect the 8.2k ohm resistor from pin 1 of the 2051 to ground. Connect the 10 uF capacitor from pin 1 of the 2051 to 5 volts. The 2051 controls the analog to digital conversion process. The conversion process has several stages. Stage 1) To trigger a new conversion, we must make pin 3 (Write) low and then return it to the high state. The conversion process starts when Write goes high (rising edge triggered). Stage 2) When the conversion process is complete, pin 5 (Interrupt) will go low. Stage 3) When we see pin 5 (Interrupt) go low, we must make pin 2 (Read) low to load the new value into the outputs D0 - D7. Stage 4) Next we read the values into the 2051 Port 1. Stage 5) Finally, we return pin 2 (Read) to the high state. The next conversion can be started immediately.
The MAX232 requires 5 external 1uF capacitors. These are used by the internal charge pump to create +10 volts and -10 volts. For the first capacitor, the negative leg goes to ground and the positive leg goes to pin 16. For the second capacitor, the negative leg goes to 5 volts and the positive leg goes to pin 2. For the third capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 3 and the positive leg goes to pin 1. For the fourth capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 5 and the positive leg goes to pin 4. For the fifth capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 6 and the positive leg goes to ground. The MAX232 includes 2 receivers and 2 transmiters so two serial ports can be used with a single chip. We will only use one transmiter for this project. The only connection that must be made to the 2051 is one jumper from pin 3 of the 2051 to pin 11 of the MAX232. To power the MAX232, Connect pin 16 to 5 volts. Connect pin 15 to ground. For more information one the MAX232 chip click here to get the data sheet for it. The only thing left is that we need some sort of connector to connect to the serial port. The sample code below is written for Comm1 and most computers use a 9 pin DB9 male connector for Comm1 so a 9 pin female connector is included for this project. You may also want to buy a DB9 extension cable (Shown on order form as DB9 to DB9 cable) to make the connection easier. There should be 3 wires soldered to the DB9 connector pins 2, 3 and 5. Connect the wire from pin 5 of the connector to ground on the breadboard. Connect the wire from pin 2 of the connector to pin 14 of the MAX232. (The other wire is for receiveing and is not used in this project.)
The Software
The basic process of compiling an assembly language program and loading it into the microcontroller was covered in the first microcontroller project. The 2051 assembly language program for this project is adcproj.asm. The 2051 in this kit comes preprogrammed with the adcproj program so you can build this kit without having a device programmer. If you need to alter the 2051 software you will need a device programmer such as the PG302 to reprogram the 2051. Make sure the power is off to the circuit you have built. Connect the circuit to the PC's serial port, Comm1. Turn on the power to the breadboard. The circuit should send a continuous stream of values to the PC. To see the values on the PC, try this sample program. This program takes the received value and
divides it by 51 to find the corresponding voltage level. (The minimum value is 0 which is 0 volts and the maximum value is 255 which is 5 volts.) The source code for the sample program (written in VB 3.0 and 5.0) is included on the CD included with the kit. Two files your computer may need to run the sample program are Vbrun300.dll and Mscomm.vbx
You may also be interested in the Microcontroller Beginner Kit. It includes a power supply, a breadboard, and the PG302 so you can reprogram the 2051 microcontroller with your own custom programs. Click here for more information. Send Questions to [email protected]
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internal software. If the voltage at P1.0 is higher than P1.1 then P3.6 will be a 1. If the voltage at P1.0 is lower than P1.1 then P3.6 will be a 0. By using the other 6 Port 1 pins (P1.2 through P1.7) we can generate a voltage using a resistor network connected to those pins. By changing the values of the Port 1 pins we will get as close as possible to matching the voltage from the sensor circuit. Then we will have a 6 bit digital value that is a reflection of the sensor voltage at P1.1. Each of the 6 Port 1 pins is connected to V0 through a resistor. Setting a pin to 0 or 1 subtracts from the voltage at V0 or doesn't. The value of the resistor determines how much voltage is subtracted. If all 6 pins are set to 1 then no current is flowing through the resistor network and V0 = 5V. The small resistor on P1.7 (240 ohms) can subtract the most voltage. When we set it to 0 current flows through Ra and the voltage at V0 goes down. The exact amount depends on the value of Ra. The resistors are chosen so they are roughly twice the value of the resistor connected to the next higher pin. (Ideally they would be exactly double the other value but it is difficult to get resistors that have exactly the right values.) By doubling the resistance, the pin can subtract half as much voltage. When you get to P1.2 with the 10K resistor, it only has a small effect on the voltage at V0 when you set P1.2 to 0 or 1. Now we can control the voltage at V0 fairly accurately with P1.2 through P1.6. To make a small change in voltage, change the lower pins and to make a large change in voltage change the higher pins. By starting with P1.6 through P1.2 set to 000000 (P1.6 is on the left and P1.2 is on the right) and counting up to 111111 you can get 64 different voltages! To find the right voltage to match the voltage at P1.1, we start at 000000 and count up until the comparator output at P3.6 switches to1 to tell us our generated voltage is higher than the sensor voltage. Then we can "track" the voltage by adjusting the value up and down depending on the output of the comparator. Since the comparator only tells us high or low (it can not tell you if you have an exact match) then one possibly annoying aspect of this approach is that the P1.2 bit is constantly switching from 0 to 1 to 0 to 1... as the comparator output tells us we are low, then high, then low. To avoid having to watch the 6 bit value oscillate we just use the top 5 digits as our answer. Look at the documentation in the software for the 2051 in light.asm for more details on the tracking routine. The details of communicating with the PC are covered in the Data Collection Tutorial. For this project we are sending the upper 5 digit value (P1.3 through P1.6) to the PC. This can be displayed on the screen using the sample light program.
The Software
The basic process of compiling an assembly language program and loading it into the microcontroller was covered in the first microcontroller project. The 2051 assembly language program for this project is light.asm. The 2051 in this kit comes preprogrammed with the light program so you can build this kit
without having a device programmer. If you need to alter the 2051 software you will need a device programmer such as the PG302 to reprogram the 2051. Make sure the power is off to the circuit you have built. Connect the circuit to the PC's serial port, Comm1. Connect the power to the breadboard. The circuit should send a continuous stream of values to the PC. To see the values on the PC, try this sample light program. The source code for the sample program (written in VB 5.0) is on the CD included with the kit. Two files your computer may need to run the sample program are Vbrun300.dll and Mscomm.vbx You can order the parts for this project. It includes: 1 - AT89C2051-24PC Microcontroller (programmed with the light software) 1 - 11.0592 MHz Crystal 2 - 33pF Capacitors 1 - 10 uF Capacitor 1 - 8.2k Resistor 5 - 240 Ohm Resistors 5 - 510 Ohm Resistors 5 - 1k Resistors 5 - 2.2k Resistors 5 - 5.1k Resistors 5 - 10k Resistors 1 - MAX232 5 - 1 uF capacitors 1 - DB9 connector 1 - CDS Photocell Light Sensor Jumper Wires 1 - CD with source code (click here to see full contents of CD) For Price and Ordering Information, look at LightKit on the Order Information Page or call 800-2971633. You may also be interested in the Microcontroller Beginner Kit. It includes a power supply, a breadboard, and the PG302 so you can reprogram the 2051 microcontroller with your own custom programs. Click here for more information. Send Questions to [email protected]
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Links ExpBoard with LCD Module 8051 Device Programmer Analog to Digital Converter Kit Microcontroller Beginner Kit Order Page Back to Tutorials Menu
This page last updated on March 21, 2002.
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Resistors: 10 - 100 ohm resistors 10 - 330 ohm resistors 5 - 510 ohm resistors 5 - 2,200 ohm resistors 5 - 8,200 ohm resistor 5 - 10,000 ohm resistors 5 - 15,000 ohm resistor 5 - 100,000 ohm resistors Capacitors: 2 - 33pf capacitors 2 - 10uf capacitors
2 - 220uf capacitors Other Components: 10 - LEDs (Green) 1 - 7 Segment Display 5 - NPN Transistors 1 - 11.0592 MegaHertz Crystal 1 - LM7805, 5 Volt Regulator 2 - 555 Timer ICs 2 - AT89C2051 Microcontrollers (20 pin versions of the popular 8051 microcontroller) 1 - Speaker 2 - Normally Open Push Button Switches 1 - Power Supply Adapter (To use the power supply with the breadboard) IC Extractor Small Breadboard PG302 Device Programmer (click here for more information on PG302) Power Supply (US and Canada Orders Only) 6 Ft DB9 Cable CD with PG302 Software for Windows (Free Updates From Web Site) and MBKit Software (includes compiler, assembly language editor, and more) Click here to see list of CD contents. 45 page Printed Color Manual Free Shipping! (USPS Priority Mail (2-4 Days). US Orders Only. Faster shipping methods are also available.) Technical Support (During business hours, call 800-297-1633 or send an email to [email protected])
For price and ordering information click here for the Order Information Page or call 800-297-1633
Send any questions to [email protected]
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ExpBoard Software
AY Pad - Customizable Text Editor featuring color syntax highlighting for 8051 assembly language, AVR assembly language and others. Assembly Language Files for ExpBoard Tasm - Turbo Assembler used for compiling 8051 assembly language programs avrasm.exe - Command Line Compiler for AVR assembly language programs
Tools
binhex.zip - Binary to Hex converter - converts files in Binary format to Hex format so the PG302 can use them bas051.zip - Basic Compiler for the 8051
pacific.exe - C compiler for the 8051 emily52.zip - Dos based simulator sim51eng.zip - Dos based simulator disasm.zip - Two programs that can convert hex files to assembly language (disassemblers) astudio3.exe - AVR assembler and simulator avrasm.exe - Command Line Compiler for AVR assembly language programs pkz204g.exe - PK Zip tools for creating and extracting zip files Adobe Acrobat pdf Reader
This disk is included with the PG302, ExpBoard, ADC2051Kit, and the Microcontroller Beginner Kit. It can also be ordered separately. See Order Information Page for pricing or call 800-2971633.
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Features: Works on Windows 3.1, 95, 98, Me, 2000, NT, XP Programs Lock Bits Chip Checksum Optional Auto Erase Optional Auto Verify Optional Auto Difference Check Status Bar Easy access to any of the latest files you've programmed. Select Comm1, 2, 3 or 4 On Start Up, restores last settings (Comm Port, Device, etc.) Very easy to use
EEPROM so you don't have to keep switching the settings and file names. -Make a shortcut on the desktop for each copy with a different name so you can easily start up the version you currently need. -Install a new copy each time you start a new project so you will have a version that only lists the files you need for that project.
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The 2051 is a low voltage (2.7V - 6V), high performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 2 Kbytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). This device is compatible with the industry standard 8051 instruction set and pinout. The 2051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications. The 2051 provides the following features: ~ 2 Kbytes of Flash ~ 128 bytes of RAM ~ 15 I/O lines ~ two16-bit timer/counters ~ five vector, two-level interrupt architecture ~ full duplex serial port ~ precision analog comparator ~ on chip oscillator and clock circuitry In addition, the 2051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
To learn how to use the 2051 microcontroller, get the Microcontroller Beginner Kit (click here) 2051 - 24MHz DIP Available See Order Form For Pricing or call 800-297-1633 The 2051 can be programmed using a device programmer such as the PG302 (Click Here). We also have Projects that use the 2051 Microcontroller. See the Intermediate Tutorial Section.
This page last updated on May 1, 2002.
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Current
Current is what flows through a wire. Think of it as water flowing in a river. The current flows from one point to another point just like water in a river. Current flows from points of high voltage to points of low voltage. Current can be shown in circuit diagrams by using arrows as in Figure 1. The arrow shows which way the current is flowing. An I is usually included beside the arrow to indicate current.
Figure 1
The unit of measurement for current is the Ampere, or Amp for short, and abbreviated as A. (The name Ampere comes from Mr. Ampere who played with electricity as a small boy in Vermont.) Common currents are 0.001 Amps (0.001A) to 0.5 Amps (0.5A). Since currents are usually small, they are usually given in the form of milliAmps (abbreviated mA.) The milli means divided by 1000, so 0.001 Amps equals 1 milliAmp (1 mA) since 1 / 1000 = 0.001. Also, 0.5 Amps equals 500 milliAmps (500mA) since 500 / 1000 = 0.5.
Voltage
Voltage indicates the power level of a point. Voltage is measured in volts. If we continue the river
comparison, a point at the top of a hill would be at a high voltage level and a point at the bottom of a hill would be at a low voltage level. Then, just as water flows from a high point to a low point, current flows from a point of high voltage to a point of low voltage. If one point is at 5 volts and another point is at 0 volts then when a wire is connected between them, current will flow from the point at 5 volts to the point at 0 volts. A measurement of voltage is much like a measurement of height. It gives you the difference in voltage between those two points. If point A is at 10 volts and point B is at 2 volts then the voltage measured between A and B is 8 volts (10 -2). This is similar to measuring height. We measure the height of hills the same way. We say the sea level is at zero feet and then compare other points to that level. On top of Marys Peak you are 4000 ft high (compared to sea level). In the same way we call the lowest voltage in a circuit zero volts and give it the name ground. Then all other points in the circuit are compared to that ground point. Rivers always flow towards sea level and currents always flow towards ground. A battery is similar to a dam. On one side is a lot of stored up energy. When a path is formed from that side to the other side then current flows. If there is no path then current does not flow and the energy just stays there waiting for a path to form to the other side. The path can be a big path with lots of current flowing or a small path with just a little bit of current flowing. With a dam, a little bit of water flow could go on for a long time, but flow through a big path that lets all the water go at once would only last a short while. A battery is the same. If there is big path from the high voltage side to the low voltage side then the battery will not last long. There are two special cases that we give names. One is when the current is zero (open circuit) and the other is when the voltage is zero (short circuit).
Open Circuit
An open circuit is when two points are not connected by anything. No current flows and nothing happens. If a wire in your vacuum cleaner breaks it can cause an open circuit and no current can flow so it does not do anything. There may be a voltage between those two points but the current can not flow with out a connection.
Short Circuit
A short circuit (or short) is when two points with different voltage levels are connected with no resistance (see resistors) between two points. This can cause a large amount of current to flow. If a short circuit happens in your house, it will usually cause a circuit breaker to break or a fuse to blow. If there is no device to limit the current, the wires may melt and cause a fire. This situation is something like a dam breaking. There is a large amount of energy suddenly free to flow from a high point to a low point with nothing to limit the current.
Series Connection
A series connection is when two components are joined together by a common leg and nothing else is connected to that point as shown in Figure 2.
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Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are also common components. They have a dial or a knob that allows you to change the resistance. This is very useful for many situations. Volume controls are variable resistors. When you change the volume you are changing the resistance which changes the current. Making the resistance higher will let less current flow so the volume goes down. Making the resistance lower will let more current flow so the volume goes up. The value of a variable resistor is given as its highest resistance value. For example, a 500 ohm variable resistor can have a resistance of anywhere between 0 ohms and 500 ohms. A variable resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short).
Diodes
Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction. They have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on the positive leg is higher than on the negative leg then current flows through the diode (the resistance is very low). When the voltage is lower on the positive leg than on the negative leg then the current does not flow (the resistance is very high). The negative leg of a diode is the one with the line closest to it. It is called the cathode. The postive end is called the anode. Usually when current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on the positive leg is 0.65 volts higher than on the negative leg.
LED
Light Emitting Diodes are great for projects because they provide visual entertainment. LEDs use a special material which emits light when current flows through it. Unlike light bulbs, LEDs never burn out unless their current limit is passed. A current of 0.02 Amps (20 mA) to 0.04 Amps (40 mA) is a good range for LEDs. They have a positive leg and a negative leg just like regular diodes. To find the positive side of an LED, look for a line in the metal inside the LED. It may be difficult to see the line. This line is closest to the positive side of the LED. Another way of finding the positive side is to find a flat spot on the edge of the LED. This flat spot is on the negative side. When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is about 1.4 volts higher than the voltage on the negative side. Remember that there is no resistance to limit the current so a resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid destroying it. To learn about LEDs through an interactive kit, look at LED and Transistor Kit
Switches
Switches are devices that create a short circuit or an open circuit depending on the position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means short circuit (current flows through the switch, lights light up and people dance.) When the switch is OFF, that means there is an open circuit (no current flows, lights go out and people settle down. This effect on people is used by some teachers to gain control of loud classes.) When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is OFF there is no connection.
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Step Three: Look at the third stripe from the left. This corresponds to a multiplication value. Find the
value using the table below.
Step Four: Multiply the two digit number from step two by the number from step three. This is the
value of the resistor n ohms. The fourth stripe indicates the accuracy of the resistor. A gold stripe means the value of the resistor may vary by 5% from the value given by the stripes. Resistor Color Codes (with gold or silver strip on right end)
First Stripe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Second Stripe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fourth Stripe
7 8 9
7 8 9 5% 10%
Follow the above procedure with the examples below and soon you will be able to quickly determine the value of a resistor by just a glance at the color coded stripes.
Examples
Example1:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as brown, black, orange, gold. Find the resistance value.
Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is brown which has a value of 1. The second stripe is black which has a
value of 0. Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 10.
Step Three: The third stripe is orange which means x 1,000. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 10 x 1000 = 10,000 ohms (10 kilohms = 10 kohms).
The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 9,500 ohms and 10,500 ohms. (Since 5% of 10,000 = 0.05 x 10,000 = 500)
Example2:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as orange, orange, brown, silver. Find the resistance value.
Step Two: The first stripe is orange which has a value of 3. The second stripe is orange which has a
value of 3. Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 33.
Step Three: The third stripe is brown which means x 10. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 33 x 10 = 330 ohms.
The silver stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 10% meaning the actual value will be between 297 ohms and 363 ohms. (Since 10% of 330 = 0.10 x 330 = 33)
Example3:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as blue, gray, red, gold. Find the resistance value.
Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is blue which has a value of 6. The second stripe is gray which has a value
of 8. Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 68.
Step Three: The third stripe is red which means x 100. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 68 x 100 = 6800 ohms (6.8 kilohms = 6.8 kohms).
The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 6,460 ohms and 7,140 ohms. (Since 5% of 6,800 = 0.05 x 6,800 = 340)
Example 4:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as green, brown, black, gold. Find the resistance value.
Step One: The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step Two. Step Two: The first stripe is green which has a value of 5. The second stripe is brown which has a
value of 1. Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 51.
Step Three: The third stripe is black which means x 1. Step Four: The value of the resistance is found as 51 x 1 = 51 ohms.
The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor mar vary by 5% meaning the actual value will be somewhere between 48.45 ohms and 53.55 ohms. (Since 5% of 51 = 0.05 x 51 = 2.55)
A
Figure 1
The resistors add together. For example if R1 = 500 ohms and R2 = 250 ohms then the resistance between points A and B would be R1 + R2 = 500 + 250 = 750 ohms.
B Figure 2
For example, if R1 = 500 and R2 = 250 then the resistance between points A and B = (500 x 250) / (500 + 250) = (125,000) / (750) = 167 ohms. If R1 = R2 then the new resistance is just R1 / 2. Using these two rules, resistors can be combined to form new resistance values.
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An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be yellow, green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode. If you are unfamiliar with diodes, take a moment to review the components in the Basic Components Tutorial. The important thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that current can only flow in one direction. To make an LED work, you need a voltage supply and a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a resistor, you will probably burn out the LED. The LED has very little resistance so large amounts of current will try to flow through it unless you limit the current with a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a power supply, you will be highly disappointed. So first of all we will make our LED light up by setting up the circuit below.
Step 1.) First you have to find the positive leg of the LED. The easiest way to do this is to look for the leg that is longer.
Step 2.) Once you know which side is positive, put the LED on your breadboard so the positive leg is in one row and the negative leg is in another row. (In the picture below the rows are vertical.) Step 3.) Place one leg of a 2.2k ohm resistor (does not matter which leg) in the same row as the negative leg of the LED. Then place the other leg of the resistor in an empty row. Step 4.) Unplug the power supply adapter from the power supply. Next, put the ground (black wire) end of the power supply adapter in the sideways row with the blue stripe beside it. Then put the positive (red wire) end of the power supply adapter in the sideways row with the red stripe beside it. Step 5.) Use a short jumper wire (use red since it will be connected to the positive voltage) to go from the positive power row (the one with the red stripe beside it) to the positive leg of the LED (not in the same hole, but in the same row). Use another short jumper wire (use black) to go from the ground row to the resistor (the leg that is not connected to the LED). Refer to the picture below if necessary. The breadboard should look like the picture shown below.
Now plug the power supply into the wall and then plug the other end into the power supply adapter and the LED should light up. Current is flowing from the positive leg of the LED through the LED to the negative leg. Try turning the LED around. It should not light up. No current can flow from the negative leg of the LED to the positive leg. People often think that the resistor must come first in the path from positive to negative, to limit the amount of current flowing through the LED. But, the current is limited by the resistor no matter where the resistor is. Even when you first turn on the power, the current will be limited to a certain amount, and can be found using ohms law.
This is the current flowing through the path from 12V to GND. This means that 4.8 mA is flowing through the LED and the resistor. If we want to change the current flowing through the LED (changing the brightness) we can change the resistor. A smaller resistor will let more current flow and a larger resistor will let less current flow. Be careful when using smaller resistors because they will get hot. Next, we want to be able to turn the LED on and off without changing the circuit. To do this we will learn to use another electronic component, the transistor.
The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E). Sometimes they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor. Transistors always have one round side and one flat side. If the round side is facing you, the Collector leg is on the left, the Base leg is in the middle, and the Emitter leg is on the right.
Transistor Symbol
The following symbol is used in circuit drawings (schematics) to represent a transistor.
Basic Circuit
The Base (B) is the On/Off switch for the transistor. If a current is flowing to the Base, there will be a path from the Collector (C) to the Emitter (E) where current can flow (The Switch is On.) If there is no current flowing to the Base, then no current can flow from the Collector to the Emitter. (The Switch is Off.) Below is the basic circuit we will use for all of our transistors.
To build this circuit we only need to add the transistor and another resistor to the circuit we built above for the LED. Unplug the power supply from the power supply adapter before making any changes on the breadboard. To put the transistor in the breadboard, seperate the legs slightly and place it on the breadboard so each leg is in a different row. The collector leg should be in the same row as the leg of the resistor that is connected to ground (with the black jumper wire). Next move the jumper wire going from ground to the 2.2k ohm resistor to the Emitter of the transistor. Next place one leg of the 100k ohm resistor in the row with the Base of the transistor and the other leg in an empty row and your breadboard should look like the picture below.
Now put one end of a yellow jumper wire in the positive row (beside the red line) and the other end in the row with the leg of the 100k ohm resistor (the end not connected to the Base). Reconnect the power supply and the transistor will come on and the LED will light up. Now move the one end of the yellow jumper wire from the positive row to the ground row (beside the blue line). As soon as you remove the yellow jumper wire from the positive power supply, there is no current flowing to the base. This makes the transistor turn off and current can not flow through the LED. As we will see later, there is very little current flowing through the 100k resistor. This is very important because it means we can control a large
current in one part of the circuit (the current flowing through the LED) with only a small current from the input.
So when the 100k resistor is connected to 12VDC, the circuit will look like this:
So the current flowing through the 100k resistor is (12 - 0.6) / 100000 = 0.000114 A = 0.114 mA. The current flowing through the 2.2k ohm resistor is (10.6 - 0.2) / 2200 = 0.0047 A = 4.7 mA. If we want more current flowing through the LED, we can use a smaller resistor (instead of 2200) and we will get more current through the LED without changing the amount of current that comes from the Input line. This means we can control things that use a lot of power (like electric motors) with cheap, low power circuits. Soon you will learn how to use a microcontroller (a simple computer). Even though the microcontroller can not supply enough current to turn lights and motors on and off, the microcontroller can turn transistors on and off and the transistors can control lots of current for lights and motors. For Ohms law, also remember that when the transistor is off, no current flows through the transistor.
name suggests, it's output is the opposite of the input (Output is NOT the Input). If the input is 0 then the output is 1 and if the input is 1 then the output is 0. We can summarize the operation of this device in a table.
Input 1 0
Output 0 1
To help us practice with transistors we will build an inverter. Actually we have already built an inverter. The transistor circuit we just built is an inverter circuit. To help see the inverter working, we will build a circuit with two inverters. The circuit we will use is shown below. First Inverter (already built)
Second Inverter
To build the circuit, use the transistor circuit we just built as the first inverter. The first inverter input is the end of the 100k ohm resistor connected to the yellow jumper wire. Build another circuit identical to the first (the basic transistor circuit from Section 1.6.1) except leave out the yellow jumper wire connected to the 100k ohm resistor (the inverter input). This circuit is the second inverter. Connect the output of the first inverter to the input of the second inverter by putting one end of a jumper wire in the same row of holes as the 2.2k ohm resistor and the Collector of the transistor (the output of the first inverter) and putting the other end in the same row of holes as the leg of the 100k ohm resistor of the second inverter (the input to the second inverter). Here is how to check if you built it correctly. Connect the first inverter input (the yellow jumper wire) to 12V (the positive row). The LED in the first inverter should come on and the LED in the second inverter should stay off. Then connect the first inverter input to 0V (the ground row). (You are turning off the switch of the first inverter.) The first LED should go off and the second LED should come on. If this does not happen, check to make sure no metal parts are touching. Check to make sure all the parts are connected correctly. The input can either be connected to 12V or 0V. When the Inverter Input is 12V, the transistor in the first inverter will turn
on and the LED will come on and the Inverter Output voltage will be 0.2V. The first Inverter Output is connected to the input of the second inverter. The 0.2V at the input of the second inverter is small enough that the second transistor is turned off. The circuit voltages are shown in the diagram below.
When the Inverter Input is connected to 0V, the transistor in the first inverter is turned off and the LED will get very dim. There is a small amount of current still flowing through the LED to the second inverter. The voltage at the first Inverter Output will go up, forcing the second inverter transistor to come on. When the second inverter transistor comes on, the second inverter LED will come on. To find the voltage at the output of the first inverter (10.4V), use Ohm's law. There is no current flowing through the transistor in the first inverter so the path of the current is through the first LED, through the 2.2k resistor, through the 100k resistor, through the second transistor to ground. The voltage at the negative side of the first LED is fixed at 10.6V by the LED. The voltage at the second transistor base is fixed at 0.6V by the transistor. Then given those two voltages, you should be able to find the voltage at the point in the middle (10.4V) using Ohms law. (Hint: First find the current and then work through Form 1 of ohms law to find the voltage at the point between the 2.2k resistor and the 100k resistor.)
Switch the input back and forth from 0V to 12V and you can see that when the first stage is on, the second stage is off. This demonstrates the inverting action of the Inverter. The next project in the series is called Pulses, Oscillators, Clocks... It introduces capacitors and the LM555 timer. With these you can make circuits with LEDs that will continually flash! Click here to go to the Pulses, Oscillators, Clocks... page.
For more details on digital logic, go to Truth Table Page. You can order the parts to build this circuit. The kit includes the parts for this project and the parts needed for the 555 project. Beginner's Kit, $19.00 (includes shipping): 5 - 330 ohm Resistors 5 - 510 ohm Resistors 5 - 2.2K ohm Resistors 5 - 10K ohm Resistors 5 - 100K ohm Resistors 1 - 220 uF Capacitor 5 - LEDs 5 - NPN Transistors 2 - 555 Timer ICs 1 - Small Breadboard 1 - 12 Volt DC Power Supply for Breadboard Jumper Wires
To Order, go to the Order Information Page or call 800-297-1633. If you would like a printed copy of this tutorial (as well as our other other tutorials), remember to mark that on the order form. You may also be interested in the Microcontroller Beginner Kit which includes all the parts from this kit plus several additional projects. Click here for more information. Volume discounts and variations on the kit are also available (for example, if you already have a breadboard or power supply and don't want another). Write to [email protected] for more information.
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1 of Ohm's Law.
To find current and resistance the following forms can be used. They are the same as the above formula but in a different form.
Figure 1
The voltage difference between Point A and Point B is 5 - 0 = 5 volts (DV=5). There is a resistor between the two points which has a value of 500 ohms (R=500). We know that current flows from a point of high voltage to a point of low voltage so we can draw an arrow from the higher voltage to the lower voltage.
Figure 2
Now we can find the current flowing through the resistor using Form 2 of Ohm's Law. I = DV / R DV / R = 5 / 500 5 / 500 = 0.01 Amps 0.01 Amps = 10 milliAmps 10 milliamps can be abbreviated as 10 mA This means the current is 10 mA. ( I = 10mA ) Now to check our answer we can use Form 1 and Form 3 of Ohms law. We have to use the value of current in Amps for these formulas. So if we have I = 0.01 Amps and Resistance = 500 ohms then by using Form 1 of Ohms law we can find: Difference in Voltage = DV DV = I * R
I * R = 0.01 * 500 0.01 * 500 = 5 volts This is the voltage we started with so the value we found for the current must be right. We can also check the answer with Form 3 by using I = 0.01 Amps and DV = 5 volts. Resistance = R R = DV / I DV / I = 5 / 0.01 5 / 0.01 = 500 ohms. So R = 500 ohms Now consider the problem shown in Figure 3. The voltage on one side is 10 volts and the voltage on the other side is 3 volts. Therefore the voltage difference between the two points is 10 - 3 = 7 volts (DV = 7 V). The resistor is 400 ohms (R = 400).
Figure 3
Then the current flowing from left to right is I = DV / R DV / R = 7 / 400 7 / 400 = 0.0175 Amps 0.0175 Amps = 17.5 milliAmps 17.5 milliAmps = 17.5 mA
This means the current flowing from the left to the right is 17.5 mA. Now suppose we have two points with a voltage difference of 5 volts. Point A is at 5 volts and Point B is at 0 volts (ground). (Notice that the voltage difference is the important part. If Point A is at 7 volts and Point B is at 2 volts then the voltage difference is the same, 7 - 2 = 5 volts.) Now suppose we want a current to flow between Points A and B and we want the current to be 0.02 Amps ( I = 0.02 Amps = 20 mA). Now we need to find the value of the resistor so we use Form 3 of Ohms Law. Resistance = Difference in Voltage / Current or R = DV / I DV / I = 5 / 0.02 = 250 ohms This means that putting a resistor with a value of 250 ohms between Points A and B will make a current flow from Point A to Point B and the current will be 0.02 Amps (20 mA). Now using the values of voltage and resistance, check the value of the current using Form 2 of Ohms law.
Back to Tutorials Menu Previous - Finding The Value of a Resistor By Reading It's Color Codes Next - Using a Breadboard
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The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below.
These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to connect components together to build circuits. To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in the holes (the sockets). The holes are made so that they will hold the component in place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the board. Each wire forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common node. On the
bread board, a node is the row of holes that are connected by the strip of metal underneath. The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The rest of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper wires. Then when a path is formed by wires and components from the positive supply node to the negative supply node, we can turn on the power and current flows through the path and the circuit comes alive. For chips with many legs (ICs), place them in the middle of the board so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half are on the other side. A completed circuit might look like the following. This circuit uses two small breadboards.
We have two sizes of breadboards for sale. See Order Form for more information Back to Tutorials Menu Previous - Using Ohm's Law
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Introduction
As electronic designs get bigger, it becomes difficult to build the complete circuit. So we will use prebuilt circuits that come in packages like the one shown above. This prebuilt circuit is called an IC. IC stands for Integrated Circuit. An IC has many transistors inside it that are connected together to form a circuit. Metal pins are connected to the circuit and the circuit is stuck into a piece of plastic or ceramic so that the metal pins are sticking out of the side. These pins allow you to connect other devices to the circuit inside. We can buy simple ICs that have several inverter circuits like the one we built in the LED and Transistor tutorial or we can buy complex ICs like a Pentium Processor.
The Capacitor
If you already understand capacitors you can skip this part.
The picture above on the left shows two typical capacitors. Capacitors usually have two legs. One leg is the positive leg and the other is the negative leg. The positive leg is the one that is longer. The picture on the right is the symbol used for capacitors in circuit drawings (schematics). When you put one in a circuit, you must make sure the positive leg and the negative leg go in the right place. Capacitors do not always have a positive leg and a negative leg. The smallest capacitors in this kit do not. It does not matter which way you put them in a circuit. A capacitor is similar to a rechargable battery in the way it works. The difference is that a capacitor can only hold a small fraction of the energy that a battery can. (Except for really big capacitors like the ones found in old TVs. These can hold a lot of charge. Even if a TV has been disconnected from the wall for a long time, these capacitors can still make lots of sparks and hurt people.) As with a rechargable battery, it takes a while for the capacitor to charge. So if we have a 12 volt supply and start charging the capacitor, it will start with 0 volts and go from 0 volts to 12 volts. Below is a graph of the voltage in the capacitor while it is charging. .
. The same idea is true when the capacitor is discharging. If the capacitor has been charged to 12 volts and then we connect both legs to ground, the capacitor will start discharging but it will take some time for the voltage to go to 0 volts. Below is a graph of what the voltage is in the capacitor while it is discharging. .
We can control the speed of the capacitor's charging and discharging using resistors. Capacitors are given values based on how much electricity they can store. Larger capacitors can store more energy and take more time to charge and discharge. The values are given in Farads but a Farad is a really large unit of measure for common capacitors. In this kit we have 2
33pf capacitors, 2 10uf capacitors and 2 220uF capacitors. Pf means picofarad and uf means microfarad. A picofarad is 0.000000000001 Farads. So the 33pf capacitor has a value of 33 picofarads or 0.000000000033 Farads. A microfarad is 0.000001 Farads. So the 10uf capacitor is 0.00001 Farads and the 220uF capacitor is 0.000220 Farads. If you do any calculations using the value of the capacitor you have to use the Farad value rather than the picofarad or microfarad value. Capacitors are also rated by the maximum voltage they can take. This value is always written on the larger can shaped capacitors. For example, the 220uF capacitors in this kit have a maximum voltage rating of 25 volts. If you apply more than 25 volts to them they will die. We dont have to worry about that with this kit because our power supply can only put out 12 volts.
Deep Details
Pin 2 (Trigger) is the 'on' switch for the pulse. The line over the word Trigger tells us that the voltage levels are the opposite of what you would normally expect. To turn the switch on you apply 0 volts to pin 2. The technical term for this opposite behavior is 'Active Low'. It is common to see this 'Active Low' behavior for IC inputs because of the inverting nature of transistor circuits like we saw in the LED and Transistor Tutorial. Pin 6 is the off switch for the pulse. We connect the positive side of the capacitor to this pin and the negative side of the capacitor to ground. When Pin 2 (Trigger) is at Vcc, the 555 holds Pin 7 at 0 volts (Note the inverted voltage). When Pin 2 goes to 0 volts, the 555 stops holding Pin 7 at 0 volts. Then the capacitor starts charging. The capacitor is charged through a resistor connected to Vcc. The current starts flowing into the capacitor, and the voltage in the capacitor starts to increase. Pin 3 is the output (where the actual pulse comes out). The voltage on this pin starts at 0 volts. When 0 volts is applied to the trigger (Pin 2), the 555 puts out Vcc on Pin 3 and holds it at Vcc until Pin 6 reaches 2/3 of Vcc (that is Vcc * 2/3). Then the 555 pulls the voltage at Pin 3 to ground and you have created a pulse. (Again notice the inverting action.) The voltage on Pin 7 is also pulled to ground, connecting the capacitor to ground and discharging it.
Place the 555 across the middle line of the breadboard so that 4 pins are on one side and 4 pins are on the other side. (You may need to bend the pins in a little so they will go in the holes.) Leave the power disconnected until you finish building the circuit. The diagram above shows how the pins on the 555 are numbered. You can find pin 1 by looking for the half circle in the end of the chip. Sometimes instead of a half circle, there will be a dot or shallow hole by pin 1. Before you start building the circuit, use jumper wires to connect the red and blue power rows to the red and blue power rows on the other side of the board. Then you will be able to easily reach Vcc and Ground lines from both sides of the board. (If the wires are too short, use two wires joined together in a row of holes for the positive power (Vcc) and two wires joined together in a different row of holes for the ground.) Connect Pin 1 to ground. Connect Pin 8 to Vcc. Connect Pin 4 to Vcc. Connect the positive leg of the LED to a 330 ohm resistor and connect the negative end of the LED to ground. Connect the other leg of the 330 ohm resistor to the output, Pin 3. Connect Pin 7 to Vcc with a 10k resistor (RA = 10K). Connect Pin 7 to Pin 6 with a jumper wire. Connect Pin 6 to the positive leg of the 220uF Capacitor (C = 220uF). (You will need to bend the positive (long leg) up and out some so that the negative leg can go in the breadboard. Connect the negative leg of the capacitor to ground. Connect a wire to Pin 2 to use as the trigger. Start with Pin 2 connected to Vcc.
Now connect the power. The LED will come on and stay on for about 2 seconds. Remove the wire connected to Pin 2 from Vcc. You should be able to trigger the 555 again by touching the wire connected to pin 2 with your finger or by connecting it to ground and removing it. (It should be about a 2 second pulse.)
Making it Oscillate
Next we will make the LED flash continually without having to trigger it. We will hook up the 555 so that it triggers itself. The way this works is that we add in a resistor between the capacitor and the discharge pin, Pin 7. Now, the capacitor will charge up (through RA and RB) and when it reaches 2/3 Vcc, Pin 3 and Pin 7 will go to ground. But the capacitor can not discharge immediately because of RB. It takes some time for the charge to drain through RB. The more resistance RB has, the longer it takes to discharge. The time it takes to discharge the capacitor will be the time the LED is off. To trigger the 555 again, we connect Pin 6 to the trigger (Pin 2). As the capacitor is discharging, the voltage in the capacitor gets lower and lower. When it gets down to 1/3 Vcc this triggers Pin 2 causing Pin 3 to go to Vcc and the LED to come on. The 555 disconnects Pin 7 from ground, and the capacitor starts to charge up again through RA and RB.
To build this circuit from the previous circuit, do the following. Disconnect the power. Take out the jumper wire between Pin 6 and Pin 7 and replace it with a 2.2k resistor (RB = 2.2K). Use the jumper wire at pin 2 to connect Pin 2 to Pin 6. Now reconnect the power and the LED should flash forever (as long as you pay your electricity bill). Experiment with different resistor values of RA and RB to see how it changes the length of time that the LED flashes. (You are changing the amount of time that it takes for the Capacitor to charge and discharge.)
Formulas
These are the formulas we use for the 555 to control the length of the pulses. t1 = charge time (how long the LED is on) = 0.693 * (RA + RB) * C t2 = discharge time (how long the LED is off) = 0.693 * RB * C T = period = t1 + t2 = 0.693 * (RA + 2*RB) * C Frequency = 1 / T = 1.44 / ((RA + 2 * RB) * C)
t1 and t2 are the time in seconds. C is the capacitor value in Farads. 220uF = 0.000220 F. So for our circuit we have: t1 = 0.693 * (10000 + 2200) * 0.000220 = 1.86 seconds t2 = 0.693 * 2200 * 0.000220 = 0.335 seconds T = 1.86 + 0.335 = 2.195 seconds Frequency = 0.456 (cycles per second)
All the parts in this kit are included with the Beginners Kit and the Microcontroller Beginner Kit.
If you already have a breadboard and a power supply, and you just want the parts for this kit, order the 555Kit.
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The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the Output pin. The breadboarded circuit is shown below.
Sometimes the input supply line (the 9VDC above) may be noisy. To help smooth out this noise and get a better 5 volt output, a capacitor is usually added to the circuit, going between 9VDC and ground (GND). We use a 220 uF capacitor.
For Price and Ordering Information, look at 5voltKit on Order Form. If you want a printed copy of this and the other tutorials, remember to mark that on the order form.
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Vcc = 5 Volts DC The schematic above shows how to build a simple -5 Volt DC and -10 Volt DC power supply using a MAX232CPE chip and a 5 volt supply. A 5 volt supply is easy to build using a common DC wall adapter (9 to 20 volts DC or so) and a 7805 chip (as in our 5 Volt Kit). The MAX232 chip is intended to be used for communicating with a PC through a serial port. (See the Data Collection Kit for more information on communicating with a PC.) A serial port requires a negative 10 volt signal to work properly so the most important thing that the MAX232 chip does is generate a -10 Volt power source for those signals. But negative voltages are also needed for other applications such as operational amplifiers (op-amps). The MAX232 chip can be used for this as long as the current requirements are not too high. With no load, the outputs are about -5 Volts and -9.5 Volts. (The -10 Volt Source does not quite reach 10 Volts but it is still referred to as the -10 Volt Source.) For the -10 Volt Source: At 4 mA the voltage drops to about -8.5 volts. At 10 mA, the voltage drops to about -6 volts. For the -5 Volt Source: At 3.3 mA, the voltage drops to about -4.6 volts.
At 9 mA the voltage drops to about -3.5 volts. The graph below shows how the -10 Volt Source drops as current increases.
Note: The -5 Volt output and the -10 Volt output are not independent. If you are using both outputs, the voltages will drop off faster. Since the chip can not provide much current, one common way it is used is in a double opamp configuration. The first opamp acts as a buffer, inverting the signal to a negative signal then a second opamp reinverts the signal to positive and supplies the power, drawing current from the positive voltage source, Vcc. For more information on the MAX232 chip click here for the Data Sheet. This kit includes: 1 - MAX232CPE 5 - 1 uF capacitors Jumper Wires For Price and Ordering Information, look at -5&10Kit on the Order Information Page (click here). Links Main Tutorial Page 5 Volt Kit Data Collection Kit
MAX220MAX249
________________________Applications
Portable Computers Low-Power Modems Interface Translation Battery-Powered RS-232 Systems Multidrop RS-232 Networks
PART MAX220CPE MAX220CSE MAX220CWE MAX220C/D MAX220EPE MAX220ESE MAX220EWE MAX220EJE MAX220MJE
Ordering Information
TEMP. RANGE 0C to +70C 0C to +70C 0C to +70C 0C to +70C -40C to +85C -40C to +85C -40C to +85C -40C to +85C -55C to +125C PIN-PACKAGE 16 Plastic DIP 16 Narrow SO 16 Wide SO Dice* 16 Plastic DIP 16 Narrow SO 16 Wide SO 16 CERDIP 16 CERDIP
Ordering Information continued at end of data sheet. *Contact factory for dice specifications.
Selection Table
Part Number MAX220 MAX222 MAX223 (MAX213) MAX225 MAX230 (MAX200) MAX231 (MAX201) MAX232 (MAX202) MAX232A MAX233 (MAX203) MAX233A MAX234 (MAX204) MAX235 (MAX205) MAX236 (MAX206) MAX237 (MAX207) MAX238 (MAX208) MAX239 (MAX209) MAX240 MAX241 (MAX211) MAX242 MAX243 MAX244 MAX245 MAX246 MAX247 MAX248 MAX249 Power Supply (V) +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 and +7.5 to +13.2 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 and +7.5 to +13.2 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 No. of RS-232 Drivers/Rx 2/2 2/2 4/5 5/5 5/0 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 4/0 5/5 4/3 5/3 4/4 3/5 5/5 4/5 2/2 2/2 8/10 8/10 8/10 8/9 8/8 6/10 Nominal No. of Cap. Value Ext. Caps (F) 4 0.1 4 0.1 4 1.0 (0.1) 0 4 1.0 (0.1) 2 1.0 (0.1) 4 4 0 0 4 0 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 4 4 1.0 (0.1) 0.1 1.0 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 1.0 1.0 (0.1) 0.1 0.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 SHDN & ThreeState No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Rx Active in SHDN Data Rate (kbps) 120 200 120 120 120 120 120 (64) 200 120 200 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 200 200 120 120 120 120 120 120 Features Ultra-low-power, industry-standard pinout Low-power shutdown MAX241 and receivers active in shutdown Available in SO 5 drivers with shutdown Standard +5/+12V or battery supplies; same functions as MAX232 Industry standard Higher slew rate, small caps No external caps No external caps, high slew rate Replaces 1488 No external caps Shutdown, three state Complements IBM PC serial port Replaces 1488 and 1489 Standard +5/+12V or battery supplies; single-package solution for IBM PC serial port DIP or flatpack package Complete IBM PC serial port Separate shutdown and enable Open-line detection simplifies cabling High slew rate High slew rate, int. caps, two shutdown modes High slew rate, int. caps, three shutdown modes High slew rate, int. caps, nine operating modes High slew rate, selective half-chip enables Available in quad flatpack package
For pricing, delivery, and ordering information, please contact Maxim/Dallas Direct! at 1-888-629-4642, or visit Maxims website at www.maxim-ic.com.
Note 1: Input voltage measured with TOUT in high-impedance state, SHDN or VCC = 0V. Note 2: For the MAX220, V+ and V- can have a maximum magnitude of 7V, but their absolute difference cannot exceed 13V.
Stresses beyond those listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only, and functional operation of the device at these or any other conditions beyond those indicated in the operational sections of the specifications is not implied. Exposure to absolute maximum rating conditions for extended periods may affect device reliability.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICSMAX220/222/232A/233A/242/243
(VCC = +5V 10%, C1C4 = 0.1F MAX220, C1 = 0.047F, C2C4 = 0.33F, TA = TMIN to TMAX unless otherwise noted.) PARAMETER RS-232 TRANSMITTERS Output Voltage Swing Input Logic Threshold Low Input Logic Threshold High Logic Pull-Up/lnput Current Output Leakage Current Data Rate Transmitter Output Resistance Output Short-Circuit Current RS-232 RECEIVERS RS-232 Input Voltage Operating Range RS-232 Input Threshold Low RS-232 Input Threshold High RS-232 Input Hysteresis RS-232 Input Resistance TTL/CMOS Output Voltage Low TTL/CMOS Output Voltage High TTL/CMOS Output Short-Circuit Current IOUT = 3.2mA IOUT = -1.0mA Sourcing VOUT = GND Shrinking VOUT = VCC 3.5 -2 10 VCC = 5V VCC = 5V All except MAX243 R2IN MAX243 R2IN (Note 2) All except MAX243 R2IN MAX243 R2IN (Note 2) 0.2 3 0.8 -3 1.8 -0.5 0.5 1 5 0.2 VCC - 0.2 -10 30 7 0.4 2.4 -0.1 1 1.3 30 V V V V k V V mA VCC = V+ = V- = 0V, VOUT = 2V VOUT = 0V 300 7 All devices except MAX220 MAX220: VCC = 5.0V All except MAX220, normal operation SHDN = 0V, MAX222/242, shutdown, MAX220 VCC = 5.5V, SHDN = 0V, VOUT = 15V, MAX222/242 VCC = SHDN = 0V, VOUT = 15V 2 2.4 5 0.01 0.01 0.01 200 10M 22 40 1 10 10 116 All transmitter outputs loaded with 3k to GND 5 8 1.4 1.4 0.8 V V V A A kb/s mA CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNITS
_______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX220MAX249
Receiver Propagation Delay RS-232 to TLL (normal operation), Figure 2 Receiver Propagation Delay RS-232 to TLL (shutdown), Figure 2
Receiver-Output Enable Time, Figure 3 tER Receiver-Output Disable Time, Figure 3 tDR Transmitter-Output Enable Time (SHDN goes high), Figure 4 Transmitter-Output Disable Time (SHDN goes low), Figure 4 Transmitter + to - Propagation Delay Difference (normal operation) Receiver + to - Propagation Delay Difference (normal operation) tET tDT tPHLT - tPLHT tPHLR - tPLHR
10 8 6 OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V) 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 0 5 EITHER V+ OR V- LOADED VCC = 5V NO LOAD ON TRANSMITTER OUTPUTS (EXCEPT MAX220, MAX233A) V- LOADED, NO LOAD ON V+ 0.1F
1F
11 10 OUTPUT CURRENT (mA) 9 8 7 6 5 ALL CAPS 0.1F ALL CAPS 1F VCC = +5.25V OUTPUT LOAD CURRENT FLOWS FROM V+ TO V-
+10V
0.1F
1F
VCC = +4.75V
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Stresses beyond those listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only, and functional operation of the device at these or any other conditions beyond those indicated in the operational sections of the specifications is not implied. Exposure to absolute maximum rating conditions for extended periods may affect device reliability.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICSMAX223/MAX230MAX241
(MAX223/230/232/234/236/237/238/240/241, VCC = +5V 10; MAX233/MAX235, VCC = 5V 5% C1C4 = 1.0F; MAX231/MAX239, VCC = 5V 10%; V+ = 7.5V to 13.2V; TA = TMIN to TMAX; unless otherwise noted.) PARAMETER Output Voltage Swing VCC Power-Supply Current CONDITIONS All transmitter outputs loaded with 3k to ground MAX232/233 No load, TA = +25C MAX223/230/234238/240/241 MAX231/239 MAX231 MAX239 TA = +25C MAX223 MAX230/235/236/240/241 2.0 2.4 1.5 -30 200 30 V A V MIN 5.0 TYP 7.3 5 7 0.4 1.8 5 15 1 10 15 1 5 15 50 10 0.8 mA A V mA MAX UNITS V
V+ Power-Supply Current Shutdown Supply Current Input Logic Threshold Low Input Logic Threshold High Logic Pull-Up Current Receiver Input Voltage Operating Range
TIN; EN, SHDN (MAX233); EN, SHDN (MAX230/235241) TIN EN, SHDN (MAX223); EN, SHDN (MAX230/235/236/240/241) TIN = 0V
_______________________________________________________________________________________
TA = +25C, VCC = 5V
1.7
2.4 V
TA = +25C, VCC = 5V
1.5 0.5 5
RS-232 Input Hysteresis RS-232 Input Resistance TTL/CMOS Output Voltage Low TTL/CMOS Output Voltage High TTL/CMOS Output Leakage Current Receiver Output Enable Time
VCC = 5V, no hysteresis in shutdown TA = +25C, VCC = 5V IOUT = 1.6mA (MAX231/232/233, IOUT = 3.2mA) IOUT = -1mA 0V ROUT VCC; EN = 0V (MAX223); EN = VCC (MAX235241 ) Normal operation Normal operation MAX223 MAX235/236/239/240/241 MAX223 MAX235/236/239/240/241
3.5
ns
Propagation Delay
tPHLS tPLHS 3
4 6 5.1
MAX223/MAX230/MAX234241, TA = +25C, VCC = 5V, RL = 3k to 7k CL = 50pF to 2500pF, measured from +3V to -3V or -3V to +3V MAX231/MAX232/MAX233, TA = +25C, VCC = 5V, RL = 3k to 7k, CL = 50pF to 2500pF, measured from +3V to -3V or -3V to +3V VCC = V+ = V- = 0V, VOUT = 2V
V/s 4 300 10 30 mA mA
_______________________________________________________________________________________
TRANSMITTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE (VOH) vs. LOAD CAPACITANCE AT DIFFERENT DATA RATES
MAX220-05
12.0
7.0
6.5 4.5
3 TRANSMITTERS LOADED TA = +25C C1C4 = 1F TRANSMITTER 4 TRANSMITTERS LOADS = 3k || 2500pF LOADED 5.0 VCC (V) 5.5
160kbits/sec 80kbits/sec 20kbits/sec TA = +25C VCC = +5V 3 TRANSMITTERS LOADED RL = 3k C1C4 = 1F 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
TRANSMITTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE (VOL) vs. LOAD CAPACITANCE AT DIFFERENT DATA RATES
-6.2 -6.4 -6.6 VOL (V) -6.8 -7.0 -7.2 TA = +25C VCC = +5V 3 TRANSMITTERS LOADED RL = 3k C1C4 = 1F 160kbits/sec 80kbits/sec 20Kkbits/sec
MAX220-08
-6.0 -6.5 -7.0 VOL (V) -7.5 -8.0 -8.5 -9.0 4.5 5.0 VCC (V) 1 TRANSMITTER LOADED 2 TRANSMITTERS LOADED 3 TRANSMITTERS LOADED
-6.0
V+ LOADED, NO LOAD ON V-
-6 -8 -10 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 5 LOAD CAPACITANCE (pF) ALL TRANSMITTERS UNLOADED 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 CURRENT (mA)
V+
O V-
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Note 4: Input voltage measured with transmitter output in a high-impedance state, shutdown, or VCC = 0V.
Stresses beyond those listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only, and functional operation of the device at these or any other conditions beyond those indicated in the operational sections of the specifications is not implied. Exposure to absolute maximum rating conditions for extended periods may affect device reliability.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICSMAX225/MAX244MAX249
(MAX225, VCC = 5.0V 5%; MAX244MAX249, VCC = +5.0V 10%, external capacitors C1C4 = 1F; TA = TMIN to TMAX; unless otherwise noted.) PARAMETER RS-232 TRANSMITTERS Input Logic Threshold Low Input Logic Threshold High Logic Pull-Up/lnput Current Data Rate Output Voltage Swing Tables 1a1d Normal operation Shutdown 5 2 1.4 1.4 10 0.01 120 7.5 0.01 0.01 300 7 10M 30 25 VCC = 5V VCC = 5V VCC = 5V IOUT = 3.2mA IOUT = -1.0mA Sourcing VOUT = GND Shrinking VOUT = VCC Normal operation, outputs disabled, Tables 1a1d, 0V VOUT VCC, ENR_ = VCC 3.5 -2 10 0.2 3 0.8 1.3 1.8 0.5 5 0.2 VCC - 0.2 -10 30 0.05 0.10 2.4 1.0 7 0.4 25 A 25 mA V V V V k V V mA A 50 1 64 0.8 V V A kbits/sec V CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNITS
Tables 1a1d, normal operation All transmitter outputs loaded with 3k to GND ENA, ENB, ENT, ENTA, ENTB = VCC, VOUT = 15V VCC = 0V, VOUT = 15V
Tables 1a1d
Transmitter Output Resistance Output Short-Circuit Current RS-232 RECEIVERS RS-232 Input Voltage Operating Range RS-232 Input Threshold Low RS-232 Input Threshold High RS-232 Input Hysteresis RS-232 Input Resistance TTL/CMOS Output Voltage Low TTL/CMOS Output Voltage High TTL/CMOS Output Short-Circuit Current TTL/CMOS Output Leakage Current
_______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX220MAX249
Receiver-Output Enable Time, Figure 3 tER Receiver-Output Disable Time, Figure 3 tDR
tDT
Note 5: The 300 minimum specification complies with EIA/TIA-232E, but the actual resistance when in shutdown mode or VCC = 0V is 10M as is implied by the leakage specification.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
TRANSMITTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V+, V-) vs. LOAD CAPACITANCE AT DIFFERENT DATA RATES
8.5 8.0 V+, V (V) 7.5 7.0 6.5 VCC = 5V WITH ALL TRANSMITTERS DRIVEN LOADED WITH 5k 10kb/sec 20kb/sec 40kb/sec 60kb/sec
MAX220-12
10 8 6 OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V) V+ AND V- LOADED VCC = 5V EXTERNAL CHARGE PUMP 1F CAPACITORS 8 TRANSMITTERS DRIVING 5k AND 2000pF AT 20kbits/sec V+ AND V- LOADED V+ LOADED EITHER V+ OR V- LOADED
9.0
EXTERNAL POWER SUPPLY 1F CAPACITORS 40kb/s DATA RATE 8 TRANSMITTERS LOADED WITH 3k
4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 0
V- LOADED 6.0 5.5 5.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 LOAD CURRENT (mA) 1 200kb/sec ALL CAPACITIORS 1F 2 3 4 5 100kb/sec
10
______________________________________________________________________________________
tPLHT
EN RX OUT RX IN a) TEST CIRCUIT 150pF EN INPUT +3V 0V EN OUTPUT ENABLE TIME (tER) +3.5V RECEIVER OUTPUTS +0.8V a) TIMING DIAGRAM b) ENABLE TIMING +3V EN INPUT VOH RECEIVER OUTPUTS VOL c) DISABLE TIMING VOL + 0.5V 0V OUTPUT DISABLE TIME (tDR) VOH - 0.5V VCC - 2V b) TEST CIRCUIT EN 1 OR 0 TX 3k 50pF VV+ +5V 0V -5V RX 1k VCC - 2V SHDN +3V 0V OUTPUT DISABLE TIME (tDT)
______________________________________________________________________________________
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
Shutdown
All 3-State
All Active
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
12
______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX220MAX249
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
All 3-State
Shutdown
All 3-State
All 3-State
All 3-State
______________________________________________________________________________________
13
RS-232 Receivers
EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 specifications define a voltage level greater than 3V as a logic 0, so all receivers invert. Input thresholds are set at 0.8V and 2.4V, so receivers respond to TTL level inputs as well as EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 levels. The receiver inputs withstand an input overvoltage up to 25V and provide input terminating resistors with
RS-232 Drivers
The typical driver output voltage swing is 8V when loaded with a nominal 5k RS-232 receiver and VCC = +5V. Output swing is guaranteed to meet the EIA/TIA232E and V.28 specification, which calls for 5V minimum driver output levels under worst-case conditions. These include a minimum 3k load, VCC = +4.5V, and maximum operating temperature. Unloaded driver output voltage ranges from (V+ -1.3V) to (V- +0.5V). Input thresholds are both TTL and CMOS compatible. The inputs of unused drivers can be left unconnected since 400k input pull-up resistors to VCC are built in (except for the MAX220). The pull-up resistors force the outputs of unused drivers low because all drivers invert. The internal input pull-up resistors typically source 12A, except in shutdown mode where the pull-ups are disabled. Driver outputs turn off and enter a high-impedance statewhere leakage current is typically microamperes (maximum 25A)when in shutdown
14
__
__
______________________________________________________________________________________
ShutdownMAX222MAX242
On the MAX222 MAX235 MAX236 MAX240 and MAX241 all receivers are disabled during shutdown. On the MAX223 and MAX242 two receivers continue to operate in a reduced power mode when the chip is in shutdown. Under these conditions the propagation delay increases to about 2.5s for a high-to-low input transition. When in shutdown, the receiver acts as a CMOS inverter with no hysteresis. The MAX223 and MAX242 also have a receiver output enable input (EN for the MAX242 and EN for the MAX223) that allows receiver output control independent of SHDN (SHDN for MAX241). With all other devices SHDN (SHDN for MAX241) also disables the receiver outputs. The MAX225 provides five transmitters and five receivers while the MAX245 provides ten receivers and eight transmitters. Both devices have separate receiver and transmitter-enable controls. The charge pumps turn off and the devices shut down when a logic high is applied to the ENT input. In this state, the supply current drops to less than 25A and the receivers continue to operate in a low-power receive mode. Driver outputs enter a high-impedance state (three-state mode). On the MAX225 all five receivers are controlled by the ENR input. On the MAX245 eight of the receiver outputs are controlled by the ENR input while the remaining two receivers (RA5 and RB5) are always active. RA1RA4 and RB1RB4 are put in a three-state mode when ENR is a logic high.
MAX220MAX249
Negative ThresholdMAX243
The MAX243 is pin compatible with the MAX232A, differing only in that RS-232 cable fault protection is removed on one of the two receiver inputs. This means that control lines such as CTS and RTS can either be driven or left floating without interrupting communication. Different cables are not needed to interface with different pieces of equipment. The input threshold of the receiver without cable fault protection is -0.8V rather than +1.4V. Its output goes positive only if the input is connected to a control line that is actively driven negative. If not driven, it defaults to the 0 or OK to send state. Normally the MAX243s other receiver (+1.4V threshold) is used for the data line (TD or RD) while the negative threshold receiver is connected to the control line (DTR DTS CTS RTS, etc.). Other members of the RS-232 family implement the optional cable fault protection as specified by EIA/TIA232E specifications. This means a receiver output goes high whenever its input is driven negative left floating or shorted to ground. The high output tells the serial communications IC to stop sending data. To avoid this the control lines must either be driven or connected with jumpers to an appropriate positive voltage level.
______________________________________________________________________________________
15
MAX220MAX249
The MAX249 provides ten receivers and six drivers with four control pins. The ENRA and ENRB receiver enable inputs each control five receiver outputs. The ENTA and ENTB transmitter enable inputs control three drivers each. There is no always-active receiver. The device enters shutdown mode and transmitters go into a three-state mode with a logic high on both ENTA and ENTB. In shutdown mode, active receivers operate in a low-power receive mode at data rates up to 20kbits/sec.
__________Applications Information
Figures 5 through 25 show pin configurations and typical operating circuits. In applications that are sensitive to power-supply noise, VCC should be decoupled to ground with a capacitor of the same value as C1 and C2 connected as close as possible to the device.
16
______________________________________________________________________________________
TOP VIEW
C5 C1+ 1 V+ 2 C1- 3 C2+ 4 C2- 5 V- 6 T2OUT 7 R2IN 8 16 VCC 15 GND 14 T1OUT C2 1 C1 C1+ 16 VCC +5V TO +10V VOLTAGE DOUBLER V+ 2 +10V 6 -10V C4
3 C14 C2+ +10V TO -10V 5 C2- VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k 11 T1IN
V-
T1OUT 14 +5V 400k RS-232 OUTPUTS T2OUT 7 R1IN 13 5k RS-232 INPUTS R2IN 8 5k GND 15
DIP/SO
CAPACITANCE (F) C1 C2 C3 C4 4.7 4.7 10 10 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
TOP VIEW
(N.C.) EN 1 (N.C.) EN 1 C1+ 2 V+ 3 C1- 4 C2+ 5 C2- 6 V- 7 T2OUT 8 R2IN 9 18 SHDN 17 VCC 16 GND 15 T1OUT C1+ 2 V+ 3 C1- 4 C2+ 5 C2- 6 V- 7 T2OUT 8 R2IN 9 R2OUT 10
C1
C2
MAX222 MAX242
MAX222 MAX242
DIP/SO
SSOP
TOP VIEW
0.1 +5V T1IN +5V 400k 4 T2IN +5V 400k 25 T3IN +5V 400k 24 T4IN +5V 400k 23 26 5 T5IN ENT T5OUT R1OUT 5k 6 R2OUT 5k 7 R3OUT 5k 22 R4OUT 5k 21 R5OUT 5k 1 2 ENR ENR R5IN 20 R4IN 19 R3IN 8 R2IN 9 R1IN T5OUT 16 15 10 T4OUT 17 T3OUT 18 T2OUT 12 T1OUT 28 VCC 400k 3 ENR 1 ENR 2 T1IN 3 T2IN 4 R1OUT 5 R2OUT 6 R3OUT 7 R3IN 8 R2IN 9 R1IN 10 T1OUT 11 T2OUT 12 GND 13 GND 14 28 VCC 27 VCC 26 ENT 25 T3IN 11 27 VCC
MAX225
24 T4IN 23 T5IN 22 R4OUT 21 R5OUT 20 R5IN 19 R4IN 18 T3OUT 17 T4OUT 16 T5OUT 15 T5OUT
SO
MAX225 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 5 RECEIVERS 5 TRANSMITTERS 2 CONTROL PINS 1 RECEIVER ENABLE (ENR) 1 TRANSMITTER ENABLE (ENT)
PINS (ENR, GND, VCC, T5OUT) ARE INTERNALLY CONNECTED. CONNECT EITHER OR BOTH EXTERNALLY. T5OUT IS A SINGLE DRIVER.
GND 13
GND 14
18
______________________________________________________________________________________
12 1.0F
C1+
1.0F V+ 13
1.0F
V-
17 1.0F
MAX223 MAX241
23 R4IN* 22 R4OUT* 21 T4IN 20 T3IN 19 R5OUT* 18 R5IN* 17 V16 C215 C2+ 5 R2OUT 8 R1OUT
R1 5k
R1IN 9
R2 5k
R2IN 4
LOGIC OUTPUTS
26 R3OUT
R3 5k
R3IN
27
RS-232 INPUTS
22 R4OUT
R4 5k
R4IN
23
19 R5OUT *R4 AND R5 IN MAX223 REMAIN ACTIVE IN SHUTDOWN NOTE: PIN LABELS IN ( ) ARE FOR MAX241 24 EN (EN)
R5 5k GND 10
R5IN
18
SHDN 25 (SHDN)
______________________________________________________________________________________
19
1.0F T3OUT 1 20 T4OUT 19 T5IN 18 N.C. 17 SHDN 1.0F T1OUT 2 T2OUT 3 T2IN 4 T1IN 5 GND 6 VCC 7 C1+ 8 V+ 9 C1- 10
MAX230
DIP/SO
11 +10V TO -10V C2+ 12 VC2- VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k T1OUT 5 T1IN T1 +5V 400k T2OUT 4 T2IN T2 +5V 400k T3OUT 14 T3IN T3 +5V 400k T4OUT 15 T4IN T4 +5V 400k T5OUT 19 T5IN T5 GND 6
RS-232 OUTPUTS
20
16 17 SHDN
N.C. x 18
+5V INPUT
TOP VIEW
1 1.0F C+ 1 CV2 3 14 V+ 13 VCC 12 GND C+ 1 C- 2 V- 3 T2OUT 4 R2IN 5 R2OUT 6 T2IN 7 N.C. 8 16 V+ 15 VCC 14 GND TTL/CMOS INPUTS 7 (11) TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS 9 (10) 8 T1IN 2
1.0F 13 (15) C1+ C1+5V 400k T1 400k T2IN R1OUT T2 R1 5k 6 R2OUT VCC +12V TO -12V VOLTAGE CONVERTER
+7.5V TO +12V
V+ V-
14 3
T1OUT 11
MAX231
MAX231
RS-232 OUTPUTS
DIP SO
R2
Figure 10. MAX231 Pin Configurations and Typical Operating Circuit 20 ______________________________________________________________________________________
TOP VIEW
1.0F 7 +5V 400k T2IN 1 20 R2OUT 19 R2IN 18 T2OUT 17 VTTL/CMOS INPUTS 1 3 TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS 20 R2OUT 8 (13) DO NOT MAKE CONNECTIONS TO 13 (14) THESE PINS 12 (10) INTERNAL -10 17 POWER SUPPLY INTERNAL +10V POWER SUPPLY C1+ C1V5k T2IN R1OUT 5k 2 T1IN +5V 400k T2OUT 18 RS-232 OUTPUTS R1IN 4 RS-232 OUTPUTS R2IN 19 C2+ C2+ C2C2GND 6 GND 9 10 (11) 11 (12) 15 16 T1OUT 5 VCC
T1IN 2 R1OUT 3 R1IN 4 T1OUT 5 GND 6 VCC 7 (V+) C1+ 8 GND 9 (V-) CS- 10
MAX233 MAX233A
DIP/SO
V14 (8) V+
TOP VIEW
C1+ C1C2+
6 VCC +5V TO +10V VOLTAGE DOUBLER +10V TO -10V VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k
T1
1.0F 8 V+ 12 1.0F
1.0F
11 C2-
V-
T1OUT 1
MAX234
+5V 400k
T3
T3OUT 16
DIP/SO
T4OUT 15
Figure 12. MAX234 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit ______________________________________________________________________________________ 21
TOP VIEW
1.0F 12 +5V 400k 8 T1IN +5V 400k 7 T2IN +5V 400k TTL/CMOS INPUTS 15 T3IN +5V 400k 16 T4IN +5V 22 T5IN T4 400k T5 T5OUT 19 T4OUT 1 T3 T3OUT 2 RS-232 OUTPUTS T2 T2OUT 4 T1 T1OUT 3 VCC
T4OUT 1 T3OUT 2 T1OUT 3 T2OUT 4 R2IN 5 R2OUT 6 T2IN 7 T1IN 8 R1OUT 9 R1IN 10 GND 11 VCC 12
MAX235
9 R1OUT
T1 5k
R1IN 10
6 R2OUT
R2 5k
R2IN 5
DIP
TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS
23 R3OUT
R3 5k
R3IN 24
RS-232 INPUTS
17 R4OUT
R4 5k
R4IN 18
14 R5OUT
R5 5k
R5IN 13
20 EN GND 11
SHDN
21
22
______________________________________________________________________________________
TOP VIEW
1.0F
+5V INPUT
9 10 1.0F 12 13 1.0F C1+ C1C2+ +10V TO -10V VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k 7 T1IN T3OUT 1 T1OUT 2 T2OUT 3 R1IN 4 R1OUT 5 T2IN 6 T1IN 7 GND 8 VCC 9 C1+ 10 V+ 11 C1- 12 24 T4OUT 23 R2IN 22 R2OUT 21 SHDN TTL/CMOS INPUTS 18 T3IN +5V 400k 19 T4IN T4 T4OUT 24 6 T2IN +5V 400k T3 T3OUT 1 +5V 400k T2 T2OUT 3 T1 T1OUT 2 VCC +5V TO +10V VOLTAGE DOUBLER V+ 11
1.0F
V-
15 1.0F
14 C2-
MAX236
RS-232 OUTPUTS
R1 5k
R1IN 4
DIP/SO
TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS 22 R2OUT R2 5k 17 R3OUT R3IN 5k 20 EN GND 8 SHDN 21 16 R2IN 23 RS-232 INPUTS
R3
______________________________________________________________________________________
23
10 1.0F 12 13 1.0F 14
V-
15 1.0F
400k T1 T1OUT 2
MAX237
DIP/SO
5 R1OUT
R1 5k
R1IN 4
TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS
22 R2OUT
R2 5k
R2IN
23
RS-232 INPUTS
17 R3OUT
R3 5k GND 8
R3IN
16
24
______________________________________________________________________________________
15 1.0F
MAX238
6 R1OUT
R1 5k
R1IN 7
DIP/SO
TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS
4 R2OUT
R2 5k
R2IN
3 RS-232 INPUTS
22 R3OUT
R3 5k
R3IN
23
17 R4OUT
R4 5k GND 8
R4IN
16
______________________________________________________________________________________
25
+5V 24 T1IN R1OUT 1 R1IN 2 GND 3 VCC 4 V+ 5 C+ 6 C- 7 V- 8 R5IN 9 R5OUT 10 R4OUT 11 R4IN 12 24 T1IN 23 T2IN 22 R2OUT 21 R2IN TTL/CMOS INPUTS 23 T2IN +5V 16 T3IN +5V
MAX239
1 R1OUT
R1 5k
R1IN 2
15 N.C. 14 EN 13 T3OUT 22 R2OUT R2 5k TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS 17 R3OUT R3IN 5k 11 R4OUT R4IN 5k 10 R5OUT R5IN 5k N.C. GND 3 9 12 18 RS-232 INPUTS R2IN 21
DIP/SO
R3
R4
R5
14 EN
15
26
______________________________________________________________________________________
25 1.0F
C1+
1.0F V+ 26
1.0F
V-
30 1.0F
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34
N.C. R2OUT T2IN T1IN R1OUT R1IN GND VCC N.C. N.C. N.C.
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
MAX240
N.C. SHDN EN T5OUT R4IN R4OUT T4IN T3IN R5OUT R5IN N.C.
R1IN 17
R2
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
R3
Plastic FP
R4
______________________________________________________________________________________
27
1 0.1F C1+ 1 V+ 2 C1- 3 C2+ 4 C2- 5 V- 6 T2OUT 7 R2IN 8 16 VCC 15 GND 14 T1OUT
C1+
16 VCC +5V TO +10V VOLTAGE DOUBLER +10V TO -10V VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k
V+
+10V
0.1F
V-
-10V 0.1F
MAX243
DIP/SO
12 R1OUT TTL/CMOS OUTPUTS 9 R2OUT RECEIVER INPUT -3 V OPEN +3V R1 OUTPUT HIGH HIGH LOW R2 OUTPUT HIGH LOW LOW 5k GND 15 5k R2IN 8 R1IN 13 RS-232 INPUTS
28
______________________________________________________________________________________
TOP VIEW
1F 21 TB4OUT TA4OUT TA3OUT TA2OUT TA1OUT TB1OUT TB2OUT TB3OUT 1F RB5IN 1F
6 5 4 3 2 1 44 43 42 41 40
1F 20 VCC +5V TO +10V VOLTAGE DOUBLER +10V TO -10V VOLTAGE INVERTER +5V 400k +5V TB1OUT 44 TB1IN 30 +5V 400k 16 TA2IN 3 TA3OUT 17 TA3IN 4 TA4OUT 18 TA4IN 9 RA1IN 5k 10 RA1OUT 8 RA2IN 5k 11 RA2OUT 7 RA3IN 5k 12 RA3OUT 6 RA4IN 5k 13 RA4OUT 5 RA5IN 5k 14 RA5OUT 5k RB5OUT 31 5k RB4OUT 32 RB5IN 40 5k RB3OUT 33 RB4IN 39 5k RB2OUT 34 RB3IN 38 5k RB1OUT 35 RB2IN 37 +5V 400k TB4IN 27 RB1IN 36 +5V +5V 400k TB3IN 28 TB4OUT 41 +5V TB2IN 29 TB3OUT 42 +5V TB2OUT 43
22 V+ 26 V- 1F
RA4IN RA3IN RA2IN RA1IN RA1OUT RA2OUT RA3OUT RA4OUT RA5OUT TA1IN TA2IN TA3IN
RA5IN
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
39 RB4IN 38 RB3IN 37 RB2IN 36 RB1IN 35 RB1OUT 34 RB2OUT 33 RB3OUT 32 RB4OUT 31 RB5OUT 30 TB1IN 29 TB2IN
MAX244
C1-
TA4IN
C2-
TB4IN
PLCC
MAX249 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 10 RECEIVERS 5 A-SIDE RECEIVER 5 B-SIDE RECEIVER 8 TRANSMITTERS 4 A-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 4 B-SIDE TRANSMITTERS NO CONTROL PINS
TB3IN
C1+
GND
C2+
V+
VCC
V-
GND 19
Figure 20. MAX244 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit ______________________________________________________________________________________ 29
TOP VIEW
1F 40 VCC ENR TA1IN TA2IN TA3IN TA4IN RA5OUT RA4OUT RA3OUT RA2OUT RA1OUT RA1IN RA2IN RA3IN RA4IN RA5IN TA1OUT TA2OUT TA3OUT TA4OUT GND 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 40 39 38 37 36 35 VCC ENT TB1IN TB2IN TB3IN TB4IN RB5OUT RB4OUT RB3OUT RB2OUT RB1OUT RB1IN RB2IN RB3IN RB4IN RB5IN TB1OUT TB2OUT TB3OUT TB4OUT 9 RA2OUT RB2OUT 31 RB3IN 27 5k 5k RB3OUT 32 RB4IN 26 5k 7 RA4OUT 15 RA5IN 5k 6 RA5OUT GND 20 5k RB5OUT 34 5k RB4OUT 33 RB5IN 25 13 RA3IN 10 RA1OUT 12 RA2IN 5k 5k RB1OUT 30 RB2IN 28 11 RA1IN 5k 5k RB1IN 29 18 TA3OUT 4 TA3IN 19 TA4OUT 5 TA4IN 1 ENR +5V 400k TB4IN 35 ENT 39 +5V +5V 400k TB3IN 36 TB4OUT 21 +5V TB3OUT 22 17 TA2OUT 3 TA2IN +5V 400k TB2IN 37 +5V TB2OUT 23 16 TA1OUT 2 TA1IN +5V 400k TB1IN 38 +5V TB1OUT 24
MAX245
34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
DIP
MAX245 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 10 RECEIVERS 5 A-SIDE RECEIVERS (RA5 ALWAYS ACTIVE) 5 B-SIDE RECEIVERS (RB5 ALWAYS ACTIVE) 8 TRANSMITTTERS 4 A-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 2 CONTROL PINS 1 RECEIVER ENABLE (ENR) 1 TRANSMITTER ENABLE (ENT)
8 RA3OUT 14 RA4IN
Figure 21. MAX245 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit 30 ______________________________________________________________________________________
TOP VIEW
1F 40 VCC +5V +5V 16 TA1OUT 400k 2 TA1IN +5V 17 TA2OUT 400k 3 TA2IN +5V 18 TA3OUT 400k 4 TA3IN +5V 19 TA4OUT 400k 5 TA4IN 1 ENA 11 RA1IN 5k 10 RA1OUT 12 RA2IN 5k 9 RA2OUT 13 RA3IN 5k 8 RA3OUT 14 RA4IN 5k 7 RA4OUT 15 RA5IN 5k 6 RA5OUT GND 20 5k RB5OUT 34 5k RB4OUT 33 RB5IN 25 5k RB3OUT 32 RB4IN 26 5k RB2OUT 31 RB3IN 27 5k RB1OUT 30 RB2IN 28 TB4IN 35 ENB 39 RB1IN 29 +5V TB4OUT 21 TB3IN 36 +5V TB3OUT 22 TB2IN 37 +5V TB2OUT 23 TB1IN 38 TB1OUT 24
ENA TA1IN TA2IN TA3IN TA4IN RA5OUT RA4OUT RA3OUT RA2OUT RA1OUT RA1IN RA2IN RA3IN RA4IN RA5IN TA1OUT TA2OUT TA3OUT TA4OUT GND
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
40 39 38 37 36 35
VCC ENB TB1IN TB2IN TB3IN TB4IN RB5OUT RB4OUT RB3OUT RB2OUT RB1OUT RB1IN RB2IN RB3IN RB4IN RB5IN TB1OUT TB2OUT TB3OUT TB4OUT
MAX246
34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
DIP
MAX246 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 10 RECEIVERS 5 A-SIDE RECEIVERS (RA5 ALWAYS ACTIVE) 5 B-SIDE RECEIVERS (RB5 ALWAYS ACTIVE) 8 TRANSMITTERS 4 A-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 4 B-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 2 CONTROL PINS ENABLE A-SIDE (ENA) ENABLE B-SIDE (ENB)
Figure 22. MAX246 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit ______________________________________________________________________________________ 31
TOP VIEW
1F 40 VCC +5V +5V 400k 2 TA1IN +5V 17 TA2OUT 400k 3 TA2IN +5V 18 TA3OUT 400k 4 TA3IN +5V 19 TA4OUT 400k 5 TA4IN 6 RB5OUT 5k TB4IN 35 RB5IN 25 +5V TB4OUT 21 TB3IN 36 +5V TB3OUT 22 TB2IN 37 +5V TB2OUT 23 TB1IN 38
1 ENTA ENTA TA1IN TA2IN TA3IN TA4IN RB5OUT RA4OUT RA3OUT RA2OUT RA1OUT ENRA RA1IN RA2IN RA3IN RA4IN TA1OUT TA2OUT TA3OUT TA4OUT GND 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 40 39 38 37 36 35 VCC ENTB TB1IN TB2IN TB3IN TB4IN RB4OUT RB3OUT RB2OUT RB1OUT ENRB RB1IN RB2IN RB3IN RB4IN RB5IN TB1OUT TB2OUT TB3OUT TB4OUT 10 RA1OUT 13 RA2IN 12 RA1IN 5k 16 TA1OUT
ENTB 39 TB1OUT 24
MAX247
34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
RB1IN 29 5k RB1OUT 31 RB2IN 28 5k 5k RB2OUT 32 RB3IN 27 5k 5k RB3OUT 33 RB4IN 26 5k 5k RB4OUT 34 ENRB 30 GND 20
DIP MAX247 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 9 RECEIVERS 4 A-SIDE RECEIVERS 5 B-SIDE RECEIVERS (RB5 ALWAYS ACTIVE) 8 TRANSMITTERS 4 A-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 4 B-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 4 CONTROL PINS ENABLE RECEIVER A-SIDE (ENRA) ENABLE RECEIVER B-SIDE (ENRB) ENABLE RECEIVER A-SIDE (ENTA) ENABLE RECEIVERr B-SIDE (ENTB)
9 RA2OUT 14 RA3IN
8 RA3OUT 15 RA4IN
7 RA4OUT 11 ENRA
Figure 23. MAX247 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit 32 ______________________________________________________________________________________
+5V 1F
44 43 42 41 40
V+ V-
22 26 1F
14 TA1IN +5V 2 TA2OUT 400k 15 TA2IN +5V 3 TA3OUT 400k 16 TA3IN +5V 4 TA4OUT 400k 17 TA4IN 8 RA1IN 5k 5k +5V +5V +5V
MAX248
C1-
C1+
C2+
C2-
ENTB
PLCC
TB4IN
ENTA
GND
VCC
V+
V-
Figure 24. MAX248 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit ______________________________________________________________________________________ 33
+5V 1F
44 43 42 41 40
V+ V-
22 26 1F
15 TA1IN +5V 2 TA2OUT 400k 16 TA2IN +5V 3 TA3OUT 400k 17 TA3IN 8 RA1IN 5k 10 RA1OUT 7 RA2IN 5k 11 RA2OUT 6 RA3IN 5k 12 RA3OUT 5 RA4IN 5k 13 RA4OUT 4 RA5IN 5k 14 RA5OUT 9 ENRA GND 19 5k 5k 5k 5k 5k +5V +5V
MAX249
C1-
C1+
C2+
C2-
ENTB
TB3IN
ENTA
GND
VCC
V+
V-
RB1OUT 35 RB2IN 38
PLCC
MAX249 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION 10 RECEIVERS 5 A-SIDE RECEIVERS 5 B-SIDE RECEIVERS 6 TRANSMITTERS 3 A-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 3 B-SIDE TRANSMITTERS 4 CONTROL PINS ENABLE RECEIVER A-SIDE (ENRA) ENABLE RECEIVER B-SIDE (ENRB) ENABLE RECEIVER A-SIDE (ENTA) ENABLE RECEIVER B-SIDE (ENTB)
RB2OUT 34 RB3IN 39
RB3OUT 33 RB4IN 40
RB4OUT 32 RB5IN 41
RB5OUT 31 ENRB 36
Figure 25. MAX249 Pin Configuration and Typical Operating Circuit 34 ______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX220MAX249
______________________________________________________________________________________
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