Admixtures in Concrete
Admixtures in Concrete
Admixtures in Concrete
CHAPTER 6
105
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Alkali-aggregate reactivity inhibitors Antiwashout admixtures Bonding admixtures Coloring admixtures (ASTM C 979) Corrosion inhibitors Dampproofing admixtures
Foaming agents Fungicides, germicides, and insecticides Gas formers Grouting admixtures Hydration control admixtures Permeability reducers Pumping aids
Retarders (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type B) Shrinkage reducers Superplasticizers* (ASTM C 1017, Type 1)
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Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete Table 6-1. Concrete Admixtures by Classification (Continued)
Type of admixture Superplasticizer* and retarder (ASTM C 1017, Type 2) Water reducer (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type A) Water reducer and accelerator (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type E) Water reducer and retarder (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type D) Water reducerhigh range (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type F) Water reducerhigh rangeand retarder (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194, Type G) Water reducermid range Desired effect Increase flowability with retarded set Reduce watercement ratio Reduce water content at least 5% Material See superplasticizers and also water reducers
Lignosulfonates Hydroxylated carboxylic acids Carbohydrates (Also tend to retard set so accelerator is often added) See water reducer, Type A (accelerator is added)
Reduce water content (minimum 5%) and retard set Reduce water content (minimum 12%) Reduce water content (minimum 12%) and retard set
See superplasticizers
Lignosulfonates Polycarboxylates
* Superplasticizers are also referred to as high-range water reducers or plasticizers. These admixtures often meet both ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194) and ASTM C 1017 specifications.
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
Air-entraining admixtures are used to purposely introduce and stabilize microscopic air bubbles in concrete. Airentrainment will dramatically improve the durability of concrete exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing (Fig. 6-2). Entrained air greatly improves concretes resistance to surface scaling caused by chemical deicers (Fig. 6-3). Furthermore, the workability of fresh concrete is improved significantly, and segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated. Air-entrained concrete contains minute air bubbles that are distributed uniformly throughout the cement paste. Entrained air can be produced in concrete by use of an air-entraining cement, by introduction of an airentraining admixture, or by a combination of both methods. An air-entraining cement is a portland cement with an air-entraining addition interground with the clinker during manufacture. An air-entraining admixture, on the other hand, is added directly to the concrete materials either before or during mixing. The primary ingredients used in air-entraining admixtures are listed in Table 6-1. Specifications and methods of testing air-entraining admixtures are given in
107
ASTM C 260 and C 233 (AASHTO M 154 and T 157). Airentraining additions for use in the manufacture of airentraining cements must meet requirements of ASTM C 226. Applicable requirements for air-entraining cements are given in ASTM C 150 and AASHTO M 85. See Chapter 8, Air-Entrained Concrete, Klieger (1966), and Whiting and Nagi (1998) for more information.
WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a certain slump, reduce water-cement ratio, reduce cement content, or increase slump. Typical water reducers reduce the water content by approximately 5% to 10%. Adding a water-reducing admixture to concrete without reducing the water content can produce a mixture with a higher slump. The rate of slump loss, however, is not reduced and in most cases is increased (Fig. 6-4). Rapid slump loss results in reduced workability and less time to place concrete. An increase in strength is generally obtained with water-reducing admixtures as the water-cement ratio is
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Video
Fig. 6-3. Scaled concrete surface resulting from lack of air entrainment, use of deicers, and poor finishing and curing practices. (52742)
cracks in concrete. Using a water reducer to reduce the cement and water content of a concrete mixturewhile maintaining a constant water-cement ratiocan result in equal or reduced compressive strength, and can increase slump loss by a factor of two or more (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992). Water reducers decrease, increase, or have no effect on bleeding, depending on the chemical composition of the admixture. A reduction of bleeding can result in finishing difficulties on flat surfaces when rapid drying conditions are present. Water reducers can be modified to give varying degrees of retardation while others do not signifi-
100 Slump, mm
Fig. 6-2. Frost damage (crumbling) at joints of a pavement (top), frost induced cracking near joints (bottom), and enlarged view of cracks (inset). (61621, 67834, 67835)
75
50
25
reduced. For concretes of equal cement content, air content, and slump, the 28-day strength of a water-reduced concrete containing a water reducer can be 10% to 25% greater than concrete without the admixture. Despite reduction in water content, water-reducing admixtures may cause increases in drying shrinkage. Usually the effect of the water reducer on drying shrinkage is small compared to other more significant factors that cause shrinkage
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0 140
Fig. 6-4. Slump loss at 23C (73F) in concretes containing conventional water reducers (ASTM C 494 and AASHTO M 194 Type D) compared with a control mixture (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
Slump, in.
Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete cantly affect the setting time. ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194) Type A water reducers can have little effect on setting, while Type D admixtures provide water reduction with retardation, and Type E admixtures provide water reduction with accelerated setting. Type D water-reducing admixtures usually retard the setting time of concrete by one to three hours (Fig. 6-5). Some water-reducing admixtures may also entrain some air in concrete. Lignin-based admixtures can increase air contents by 1 to 2 percentage points. Concretes with water reducers generally have good air retention (Table 6-2). The effectiveness of water reducers on concrete is a function of their chemical composition, concrete temperature, cement composition and fineness, cement content, and the presence of other admixtures. The classifications and components of water reducers are listed in Table 6-1. See Whiting and Dziedzic (1992) for more information on the effects of water reducers on concrete properties.
Initial set
Cement 1 Cement 2
Retardation, hours
N M Admixture
Final set
Cement 1 Cement 2
Video
Retardation, hours
N M Admixture
Fig. 6-5. Retardation of set in cement-reduced mixtures relative to control mixture. Concretes L and H contain conventional water reducer, concretes N, M, B, and X contain high-range water reducer (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992). 109
Fig. 6-6. Low water to cement ratio concrete with low chloride permeabilityeasily made with high-range water reducersis ideal for bridge decks. (69924)
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60 9 8 Compressive strength, MPa 50 7 6 5 30 4 20
C N M X
High-range water reducers are generally more effective than regular water-reducing admixtures in producing workable concrete. A significant reduction of bleeding can result with large reductions of water content; this can result in finishing difficulties on flat surfaces when rapid drying conditions are present. Some of these admixtures can cause significant slump loss (Fig. 6-7). Significant retardation is also possible, but can aggravate plastic shrinkage cracking without proper protection and curing (Fig. 6-5). Drying shrinkage, chloride permeability, air retention (Table 6-2), and strength development of concretes with high-range water reducers are comparable to concretes without them when compared at constant water-cement ratios (reduced cement and water contents) (Fig. 6-8). Concretes with high-range water reducers can have larger entrained air voids and higher void-spacing factors than normal air-entrained concrete. This would generally indicate a reduced resistance to freezing and thawing; however, laboratory tests have shown that concretes with a moderate slump using high-range water reducers have
40
3 2 1 1000
Fig. 6-8. Compressive strength development in cementreduced concretes: control mixture (C) and concretes containing high-range water reducers (N, M, and X) (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 140
Slump, mm
Slump, in.
good freeze-thaw durability, even with slightly higher void-spacing factors. This may be the result of lower watercement ratios often associated with these concretes. When the same chemicals used for high-range water reducers are used to make flowing concrete, they are often called plasticizers or superplasticizers (see discussion below).
Fig. 6-7. Slump loss at 23C (73F) in mixtures containing high-range water reducers (N, M, B, and X) compared with control mixture (C) (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
* Represents air content measured after addition of admixture. Represents air content taken at point where slump falls below 25 mm (1 in.). Whiting and Dziedzic 1992.
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Fig. 6-10. Plasticized, flowing concrete is easily placed in thin sections such as this bonded overlay that is not much thicker than 112 diameters of a quarter. (69874)
(3-in.) slump concrete can easily produce a concrete with a 230-mm (9-in.) slump. Flowing concrete is defined by ASTM C 1017 as a concrete having a slump greater than 190 mm (712 in.), yet maintaining cohesive properties. ASTM C 1017 has provisions for two types of admixtures: Type 1plasticizing, and Type 2plasticizing and retarding. Plasticizers are generally more effective than regular or mid-range water-reducing admixtures in producing flowing concrete. The effect of certain plasticizers in increasing workability or making flowing concrete is short-lived, 30 to 60 minutes; this period is followed by a rapid loss in workability or slump loss (Fig. 6-11). High temperatures can also aggravate slump loss. Due to their propensity for slump loss, these admixtures are some-
250 TC TN TM TB TX
10
200 Slump, mm
150
100
free of excessive bleeding or segregation. Following are a few of the applications where flowing concrete is used: (1) thin-section placements (Fig. 6-10), (2) areas of closely spaced and congested reinforcing steel, (3) tremie pipe (underwater) placements, (4) pumped concrete to reduce pump pressure, thereby increasing lift and distance capacity, (5) areas where conventional consolidation methods are impractical or can not be used, and (6) for reducing handling costs. The addition of a plasticizer to a 75-mm
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50
0 140
Fig. 6-11. Slump loss at 32C (90F) in flowing concretes (TN, TM, TB, and TX) compared with control mixture (TC) (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
Slump, in.
Fig. 6-9. Flowable concrete with a high slump (top) is easily placed (middle), even in areas of heavy reinforcing steel congestion (bottom). (47343, 69900, 47344)
EB001 slump, low-water-content concrete (Whiting 1979, Gebler 1982, and Whiting and Dziedzic 1992). The effectiveness of the plasticizer is increased with an increasing amount of cement and fines in the concrete. It is also affected by the initial slump of the concrete. Plasticized flowing concrete can have larger entrained air voids and greater void-spacing factors than conventional concrete. Air loss can also be significant. Some research has indicated poor frost- and deicer-scaling resistance for some flowing concretes when exposed to a continuously moist environment without the benefit of a drying period (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992). However, field performance of flowing concretes with low water to portland cement ratios has been good in most frost environments.
40
6 5
Initial set
Cement 1 Cement 2
30
C FN FM FX
4 3 2 1 1000
Retardation, hours
20
Fig. 6-13. Compressive strength development in flowing concretes. C is the control mixture. Mixtures FN, FM, and FX contain plasticizers (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
N M Admixture Final set 15 B X
Retardation, hours
10
0 N M Admixture B X
M Admixture
Fig. 6-12. Retardation of set in flowing concrete with plasticizers (N, M, B, and X) relative to control mixture (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992). 112
Fig. 6-14. Bleeding of flowing concretes with plasticizers (N, M, B, and X) compared to control (C) (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
times added to the concrete mixer at the jobsite. They are available in liquid and powder form. Extended-slump-life plasticizers added at the batch plant help reduce slumploss problems. Setting time may be accelerated or retarded based on the admixtures chemistry, dosage rate, and interaction with other admixtures and cementing materials in the concrete mixture. Some plasticizers can retard final set by one to almost four hours (Fig. 6-12). Strength development of flowing concrete is comparable to normal concrete (Fig. 6-13). While it was previously noted that flowing concretes are essentially free of excessive bleeding, tests have shown that some plasticized concretes bleed more than control concretes of equal water-cement ratio (Fig. 6-14); but plasticized concretes bleed significantly less than control concretes of equally high slump and higher water content. High-slump, low-water-content, plasticized concrete has less drying shrinkage than a high-slump, high-watercontent conventional concrete; however this concrete has similar or higher drying shrinkage than conventional low-
Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete Table 6-1 lists the primary components and specifications for plasticizing (superplasticizer) admixtures. less than that obtained with a Type A water reducer. Type D admixtures are designated to provide both water reduction and retardation. In general, some reduction in strength at early ages (one to three days) accompanies the use of retarders. The effects of these materials on the other properties of concrete, such as shrinkage, may not be predictable. Therefore, acceptance tests of retarders should be made with actual job materials under anticipated job conditions. The classifications and components of retarders are listed in Table 6-1.
HYDRATION-CONTROL ADMIXTURES
Hydration controlling admixtures became available in the late 1980s. They consist of a two-part chemical system: (1) a stabilizer or retarder that essentially stops the hydration of cementing materials, and (2) an activator that reestablishes normal hydration and setting when added to the stabilized concrete. The stabilizer can suspend hydration for 72 hours and the activator is added to the mixture just before the concrete is used. These admixtures make it possible to reuse concrete returned in a ready-mix truck by suspending setting overnight. The admixture is also useful in maintaining concrete in a stabilized non-hardened state during long hauls. The concrete is reactivated when it arrives at the project. This admixture presently does not have a standard specification (Kinney 1989).
ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES
An accelerating admixture is used to accelerate the rate of hydration (setting) and strength development of concrete at an early age. The strength development of concrete can also be accelerated by other methods: (1) using Type III or Type HE high-early-strength cement, (2) lowering the water-cement ratio by adding 60 to 120 kg/m3 (100 to 200 lb/yd3) of additional cement to the concrete, (3) using a water reducer, or (4) curing at higher temperatures. Accelerators are designated as Type C admixtures under ASTM C 494 (AASHTO M 194). Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is the chemical most commonly used in accelerating admixtures, especially for nonreinforced concrete. It should conform to the requirements of ASTM D 98 (AASHTO M 144) and should be sampled and tested in accordance with ASTM D 345. The widespread use of calcium chloride as an accelerating admixtures has provided much data and experience on the effect of this chemical on the properties of concrete. Besides accelerating strength gain, calcium chloride causes an increase in drying shrinkage, potential reinforcement corrosion, discoloration (a darkening of concrete), and an increase in the potential for scaling. Calcium chloride is not an antifreeze agent. When used in allowable amounts, it will not reduce the freezing point of concrete by more than a few degrees. Attempts to protect
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125
No admixture, 23C (73F) No admixture, 32C (90F) Retarder, 32C (90F)
100 Slump, mm
75
50
25
Fig. 6-15. Slump loss at various temperatures for conventional concretes prepared with and without set-retarding admixture (Whiting and Dziedzic 1992).
Slump, in.
EB001 Table 6-3. Maximum Chloride-Ion Content for Corrosion Protection of Reinforcement*
Maximum water soluble chloride-ion (CI- ) in concrete, percent by mass of cement 0.06 0.15 1.00
concrete from freezing by this method are foolhardy. Instead, proven reliable precautions should be taken during cold weather (see Chapter 14, Cold-Weather Concreting). When used, calcium chloride should be added to the concrete mixture in solution form as part of the mixing water. If added to the concrete in dry flake form, all of the dry particles may not be completely dissolved during mixing. Undissolved lumps in the mix can cause popouts or dark spots in hardened concrete. The amount of calcium chloride added to concrete should be no more than is necessary to produce the desired results and in no case exceed 2% by mass of cementing material. When calculating the chloride content of commercially available calcium chloride, it can be assumed that: 1. Regular flake contains a minimum of 77% CaCl2 2. Concentrated flake, pellet, or granular forms contain a minimum of 94% CaCl2 An overdose can result in placement problems and can be detrimental to concrete. It may cause: rapid stiffening, a large increase in drying shrinkage, corrosion of reinforcement, and loss of strength at later ages (Abrams 1924 and Lackey 1992). Applications where calcium chloride should be used with caution: 1. Concrete subjected to steam curing 2. Concrete containing embedded dissimilar metals, especially if electrically connected to steel reinforcement 3. Concrete slabs supported on permanent galvanizedsteel forms 4. Colored concrete Calcium chloride or admixtures containing soluble chlorides should not be used in the following: 1. Construction of parking garages 2. Prestressed concrete because of possible steel corrosion hazards 3. Concrete containing embedded aluminum (for example, conduit) since serious corrosion of the aluminum can result, especially if the aluminum is in contact with embedded steel and the concrete is in a humid environment 4. Concrete containing aggregates that, under standard test conditions, have been shown to be potentially deleteriously reactive 5. Concrete exposed to soil or water containing sulfates 6. Floor slabs intended to receive dry-shake metallic finishes 7. Hot weather generally 8. Massive concrete placements The maximum chloride-ion content for corrosion protection of prestressed and reinforced concrete as recommended by the ACI 318 building code is presented in Table 6-3. Resistance to the corrosion of embedded steel is further improved with an increase in the depth of concrete cover
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Type of member Prestressed concrete Reinforced concrete exposed to chloride in service Reinforced concrete that will be dry or protected from moisture in service Other reinforced concrete construction
0.30
over reinforcing steel, and a lower water-cement ratio. Stark (1989) demonstrated that concretes made with 1% CaCl22H2O by mass of cement developed active steel corrosion when stored continuously in fog. When 2% CaCl22H2O was used, active corrosion was detected in concrete stored in a fog room at 100% relative humidity. Risk of corrosion was greatly reduced at lower relative humidities (50%). Gaynor (1998) demonstrates how to calculate the chloride content of fresh concrete and compare it with recommended limits. Several nonchloride, noncorrosive accelerators are available for use in concrete where chlorides are not recommended (Table 6-1). However, some nonchloride accelerators are not as effective as calcium chloride. Certain nonchloride accelerators are specially formulated for use in cold weather applications with ambient temperatures down to -7C (20F).
CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors are used in concrete for parking structures, marine structures, and bridges where chloride salts are present. The chlorides can cause corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete (Fig. 6-16). Ferrous oxide and ferric oxide form on the surface of reinforcing steel in concrete. Ferrous oxide, though stable in concretes alkaline environment, reacts with chlorides to form complexes that move away from the steel to form rust. The chloride ions continue to attack the steel until the passivating oxide layer is destroyed. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures chemically arrest the corrosion reaction. Commercially available corrosion inhibitors include: calcium nitrite, sodium nitrite, dimethyl ethanolamine, amines, phosphates, and ester amines. Anodic inhibitors, such as nitrites, block the corrosion reaction of the chloride-ions by chemically reinforcing and stabilizing the passive protective film on the steel; this ferric oxide film is created by the high pH environment in concrete. The
Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete age reducers. Drying shrinkage reductions of between 25% and 50% have been demonstrated in laboratory tests. These admixtures have negligible effects on slump and air loss, but can delay setting. They are generally compatible with other admixtures (Nmai, Tomita, Hondo and Buffenbarger 1998 and Shah, Weiss and Yang 1998).
Fig. 6-16. The damage to this concrete parking structure resulted from chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement. (50051)
Expansion, percent
nitrite-ions cause the ferric oxide to become more stable. In effect, the chloride-ions are prevented from penetrating the passive film and making contact with the steel. A certain amount of nitrite can stop corrosion up to some level of chloride-ion. Therefore, increased chloride levels require increased levels of nitrite to stop corrosion. Cathodic inhibitors react with the steel surface to interfere with the reduction of oxygen. The reduction of oxygen is the principal cathodic reaction in alkaline environments (Berke and Weil 1994).
0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 ASTM C 227 0.10 0.00
Li2CO3 dosage (% by mass of cement) None 0.25 0.50 1.00
SHRINKAGE-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures, introduced in the 1980s, have potential uses in bridge decks, critical floor slabs, and buildings where cracks and curling must be minimized for durability or aesthetic reasons (Fig. 6-17). Propylene glycol and polyoxyalkylene alkyl ether have been used as shrink-
12
18 24 Age, months
30
36
Fig. 6-18. Expansion of specimens made with lithium carbonate admixture (Stark 1992).
Fig. 6-17. Shrinkage cracks, such as shown on this bridge deck, can be reduced with the use of good concreting practices and shrinkage reducing admixtures. (69883)
EB001 concrete. One of the best methods of decreasing permeability in concrete is to increase the moist-curing period and reduce the water-cement ratio to less than 0.5. Most admixtures that reduce water-cement ratio consequently reduce permeability. Some supplementary cementing materials, especially silica fume, reduce permeability through the hydration and pozzolanic-reaction process. Other admixtures that act to block the capillaries in concrete have been shown to be effective in reducing concrete corrosion in chemically aggressive environments. Such admixtures, designed for use in high-cement content/low-water-cement ratio concretes, contain aliphatic fatty acid and an aqueous emulsion of polymeric and aromatic globules (Aldred 1988).
Fig. 6-19. Red and blue pigments were used to color this terrazzo floor. (69873)
PUMPING AIDS
Pumping aids are added to concrete mixtures to improve pumpability. Pumping aids cannot cure all unpumpable concrete problems; they are best used to make marginally pumpable concrete more pumpable. These admixtures increase viscosity or cohesion in concrete to reduce dewatering of the paste while under pressure from the pump. Some pumping aids may increase water demand, reduce compressive strength, cause air entrainment, or retard setting time. These side effects can be corrected by adjusting the mix proportions or adding another admixture to offset the side effect. A partial list of materials used in pumping aids is given in Table 6-1. Some admixtures that serve other primary purposes but also improve pumpability are airentraining agents, and some water-reducing and retarding admixtures.
Unmodified carbon black substantially reduces air content. Most carbon black for coloring concrete contains an admixture to offset this effect on air. Before a coloring admixture is used on a project, it should be tested for color fastness in sunlight and autoclaving, chemical stability in cement, and effects on concrete properties. Calcium chloride should not be used with pigments to avoid color distortions. Pigments should conform to ASTM C 979.
DAMPPROOFING ADMIXTURES
The passage of water through concrete can usually be traced to the existence of cracks or areas of incomplete consolidation. Sound, dense concrete made with a watercement ratio of less than 0.50 by mass will be watertight if it is properly placed and cured. Admixtures known as dampproofing agents include certain soaps, stearates, and petroleum products. They may, but generally do not, reduce the permeability of concretes that have low cement contents, high watercement ratios, or a deficiency of fines in the aggregate. Their use in well-proportioned mixes, may increase the mixing water required and actually result in increased rather than reduced permeability. Dampproofing admixtures are sometimes used to reduce the transmission of moisture through concrete that is in contact with water or damp earth. Many so-called dampproofers are not effective, especially when used in concretes that are in contact with water under pressure.
PERMEABILITY-REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Permeability-reducing admixtures reduce the rate at which water under pressure is transmitted through
Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete acceptable for patching and thin-bonded overlayment, particularly where feather-edged patches are desired. Bonding agents should not be confused with bonding admixtures. Admixtures are an ingredient in the concrete; bonding agents are applied to existing concrete surfaces immediately before the new concrete is placed. Bonding agents help glue the existing and the new materials together. Bonding agents are often used in restoration and repair work; they consist of portland cement or latexmodified portland cement grout or polymers such as epoxy resins (ASTM C 881 or AASHTO M 235) or latex (ASTM C 1059).
ANTIWASHOUT ADMIXTURES
Antiwashout admixtures increase the cohesiveness of concrete to a level that allows limited exposure to water with little loss of cement. This allows placement of concrete in water and under water without the use of tremies. The admixtures increase the viscosity of water in the mixture resulting in a mix with increased thixotropy and resistance to segregation. They usually consist of water soluble cellulose ether or acrylic polymers.
GROUTING ADMIXTURES
Portland cement grouts are used for a variety of purposes: to stabilize foundations, set machine bases, fill cracks and joints in concrete work, cement oil wells, fill cores of masonry walls, grout prestressing tendons and anchor bolts, and fill the voids in preplaced aggregate concrete. To alter the properties of grout for specific applications, various air-entraining admixtures, accelerators, retarders, and nonshrink admixtures are often used.
GAS-FORMING ADMIXTURES
Aluminum powder and other gas-forming materials are sometimes added to concrete and grout in very small quantities to cause a slight expansion of the mixture prior to hardening. This may be of benefit where the complete grouting of a confined space is essential, such as under machine bases or in post-tensioning ducts of prestressed concrete. These materials are also used in larger quantities to produce autoclaved cellular concretes. The amount of expansion that occurs is dependent upon the amount of gas-forming material used, the temperature of the fresh mixture, the alkali content of the cement, and other variables. Where the amount of expansion is critical, careful control of mixtures and temperatures must be exercised. Gas-forming agents will not overcome shrinkage after hardening caused by drying or carbonation.
AIR DETRAINERS
Air-detraining admixtures reduce the air content in concrete. They are used when the air content cannot be reduced by adjusting the mix proportions or by changing the dosage of the air-entraining agent and other admixtures. However, air-detrainers are rarely used and their effectiveness and dosage rate should be established on trial mixes prior to use on actual job mixes. Materials used in air-detraining agents are listed in Table 6-1.
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in plastic jugs or bags. Powdered admixtures, such as certain plasticizers, or a barrel of admixture may be stored at the project site. Dispenser tanks at concrete plants should be properly labeled for specific admixtures to avoid contamination and avoid dosing the wrong admixture. Most liquid chemical admixtures should not be allowed to freeze; therefore, they should be stored in heated environments. Consult the admixture manufacturer for proper storage temperatures. Powdered admixtures are usually less sensitive to temperature restrictions, but may be sensitive to moisture. Liquid chemical admixtures are usually dispensed individually in the batch water by volumetric means (Fig. 6-20). Liquid and powdered admixtures can be measured by mass, but powdered admixtures should not be measured by volume. Care should be taken to not combine certain admixtures prior to their dispensing into the batch as some combinations may neutralize the desired effect of the admixtures. Consult the admixture manufacturer concerning compatible admixture combinations or perform laboratory tests to document performance.
REFERENCES
AASHTO, Portland Cement Concrete Resistant to Excessive Expansion Caused by Alkali-Silica Reaction, Section 56X, Guide Specification For Highway Construction, http:/ /leadstates.tamu.edu/ASR/library/gspec.stm, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2001. Abrams, Duff A., Calcium Chloride as an Admixture in Concrete, Bulletin 13 (PCA LS013), Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, http:// www.portcement.org/pdf_files/LS013.pdf, 1924. ACI Committee 212, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, ACI 212.3R-91, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1991. ACI Committee 212, Guide for the Use of High-Range WaterReducing Admixtures (Superplasticizers) in Concrete, ACI 212.4R-93 (Reapproved 1998), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1998. ACI Committee 222, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, ACI 222R-96, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1996. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary, ACI 318-02, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2002. ACI E4, Chemical and Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete, ACI Education Bulletin No. E4-96, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1999, 16 pages. Aldred, James M., HPI Concrete, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, November 1988. Berke, N. S., and Weil, T. G., World Wide Review of Corrosion Inhibitors in Concrete, Advances in Concrete Technology, CANMET, Ottawa, 1994, pages 891 to 914.
Video
Fig. 6-20. Liquid admixture dispenser at a ready mix plant provides accurate volumetric measurement of admixtures. (44220)
Chou, Gee Kin, Cathodic Protection: An Emerging Solution to the Rebar Corrosion Problem, Concrete Construction, Addison, Illinois, June 1984. Gajda, John, Development of a Cement to Inhibit Alkali-Silica Reactivity, Research and Development Bulletin RD115, Portland Cement Association, 1996, 58 pages. Gaynor, Richard D., Calculating Chloride Percentages, Concrete Technology Today, PL983, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_files/PL983.pdf, 1998, pages 4 to 5. Gebler, S. H., The Effects of High-Range Water Reducers on the Properties of Freshly Mixed and Hardened Flowing Concrete, Research and Development Bulletin RD081, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_ files/RD081.pdf, 1982.
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Chapter 6 N Admixtures for Concrete Helmuth, Richard; Hills, Linda M.; Whiting, David A.; and Bhattacharja, Sankar, Abnormal Concrete Performance in the Presence of Admixtures, RP333, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_files/RP333.pdf, 1995. Hester, Weston T., Superplasticizers in Ready Mixed Concrete (A Practical Treatment for Everyday Operations), National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Publication No. 158, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1979. Kinney, F. D., Reuse of Returned Concrete by Hydration Control: Characterization of a New Concept, Superplasticizers and Other Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, SP119, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1989, pages 19 to 40. Klieger, Paul, Air-Entraining Admixtures, Research Department Bulletin RX199, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_files/RX199.pdf, 1966, 12 pages. Kosmatka, Steven H., Discoloration of ConcreteCauses and Remedies, Concrete Technology Today, PL861, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_ files/PL861.pdf, 1986. Lackey, Homer B., Factors Affecting Use of Calcium Chloride in Concrete, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, Winter 1992, pages 97 to 100. Nmai, Charles K.; Schlagbaum, Tony; and Violetta, Brad, History of Mid-Range Water-Reducing Admixtures, A Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, April 1998, pages 45 to 50. Nmai, Charles K.; Tomita, Rokuro; Hondo, Fumiaki; and Buffenbarger, Julie, Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, April 1998, pages 31 to 37. Ramachandran, V. S., Concrete Admixtures Handbook, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1995. Rixom, M. R., and Mailvaganam, N. P., Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, E. & F. N. Spon, New York, 1986. Shah, Surendra P.; Weiss, W. Jason; and Yang, Wei, Shrinkage CrackingCan it be Prevented?, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, April 1998, pages 51 to 55. Stark, David, Influence of Design and Materials on Corrosion Resistance of Steel in Concrete, Research and Development Bulletin RD098, Portland Cement Association, http://www. portcement.org/pdf_files/RD098.pdf, 1989, 44 pages. Stark, David C., Lithium Salt AdmixturesAn Alternative Method to Prevent Expansive Alkali-Silica Reactivity, RP307, Portland Cement Association, 1992, 10 pages. Tagnit-Hamou, Arezki, and Atcin, Pierre-Claude, Cement and Superplasticizer Compatibility, World Cement, Palladian Publications Limited, Farnham, Surrey, England, August 1993, pages 38 to 42. Tang, Fulvio J., and Bhattacharja, Sankar, Development of an Early Stiffening Test, RP346, Portland Cement Association, 1997, 36 pages. Thomas, Michael D. A., and Stokes, David B., Use of a Lithium-Bearing Admixture to Suppress Expansion in Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction, Transportation Research Record No. 1668, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1999, pages 54 to 59. Whiting, David, Effects of High-Range Water Reducers on Some Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concretes, Research and Development Bulletin RD061, Portland Cement Association, http://www.portcement.org/pdf_files/ RD061.pdf, 1979. Whiting, David A., Evaluation of Super-Water Reducers for Highway Applications, Research and Development Bulletin RD078, Portland Cement Association, http://www.port cement.org/pdf_files/RD078.pdf, 1981, 169 pages. Whiting, D., and Dziedzic, W., Effects of Conventional and High-Range Water Reducers on Concrete Properties, Research and Development Bulletin RD107, Portland Cement Association, 1992, 25 pages. Whiting, David A., and Nagi, Mohamad A., Manual on the Control of Air Content in Concrete, EB116, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association and Portland Cement Association, 1998, 42 pages.
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